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UNIT II
AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Syllabus: Definition, Composition of soils, Types of soils, soils for plant growth, difference between sandy
and clayey soils, macro nutrients for plant growth, micro nutrients for plant growth, different types of
agriculture, Impact of agriculture on environment, Impact of agriculture on people, causes for soil erosion,
management of soil erosion.

Soil is a biologically active porous medium that is present on the uppermost layer on the uppermost
layer of the Earth’s crust formed by weathering processes under various influences.
 Soil acts as a substratum for life on Earth that serves as a reservoir of water and nutrients, a medium for
the breakdown of organic materials, and as a participant of various biogeochemical cycles.
 The soil in any particular area evolves through a series of weathering processes that are influenced by
biological, topographical, climatic, and geological factors.
 As studies on agriculture and geology have increased, the soil is now considered a complex, dynamic,
biogeochemical system that is vital to the life cycles of various land vegetation and soil-inhabiting
organisms.
 Soil is one of the most important elements of an ecosystem as it contains both biotic and
biotic components.

Composition of soils

 Soil is composed of various factors like air, water,

minerals, and different living and non-living organic
compounds.
 The entire composition of soil can be classified as
biotic and abiotic components; the abiotic
component includes the non-living things of soil
while the biotic component includes the living
organisms.
 In general, the abiotic component of the soil
accounts for about 40-45% of the soil volume
followed by air and water that occupy 25% each
with 5% covered by living things.
 The exact composition of the soil, however, might vary from place to place with the existing rocks of the
area and the climate.
 Other factors like the quantity of vegetation, soil compaction, and water retention capacity also influence
the composition of the soil of a particular area.
 The inorganic part of the soil is composed of rocks that are slowly broken down into smaller particles that
might vary in size.
 The organic component of soil is called the humus, which is made up of living organisms like insects or
microorganisms (dead or alive) and dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay.

Types of soils
Soil, in general, is classified into four different types depending on its composition and the size of particles.
The four types of soil are:
A. Sandy Soil
 Sandy soil is a type of soil that contains a higher proportion of sand and less clay.
 Sandy soil is light, dry, and warm that tends to be more acidic than other types of soil.
 Because the size of the sand particle is larger than other particles, they have low water retention capacity
and fewer nutrients.
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 The lack of enough moisture and nutrients makes the soil less suitable for crop production.
 However, the soil can be made suitable by adding organic matter to increase water and nutrient content.
B. Clay Soil
 Clay soil is a type of soil that is comparatively heavy as it has higher water retention capacity and a higher
concentration of nutrients.
 The soil is made up of over 25% clay particles that are smaller in size and thus hold a large amount of
water.
 Clay soil drains water slowly and thus takes longer to warm up in the summer without drying out.
 However, because it is a heavy and dense type of soil, it doesn’t provide space for plant roots to flourish.
C. Silt Soil
 Silt soil is a light soil with a higher fertility rate with soil particles that are large than clay but smaller than
sand.
 The soil is smooth and of fine quality that holds water better than the sandy soil.
 The soil can also be easily transported by moving currents, and it is found near water bodies.
 Silt soil is considered the best type of soil for agricultural practices as it has sufficient nutrients and
enough moisture for plant growth.
D. Loam Soil
 Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay soil that combines the properties of all three types of soil to
make it more fertile.
 The soil has enough pores as well as water retention capacity to promote crop production.
 The level of calcium and pH of loam soil is also of the appropriate amount due to the presence of
inorganic matter.

Functions of soil
 Soil is the medium for plant growth as it provides an anchor for plant roots and acts as a water holding
tank for necessary moisture.
 The degradation of plant and animal matter, i.e. the release and the binding of nutrients and trace elements,
is one of the most important functions of soil organisms.
 Soil absorbs the water during rainfall and snowfall, which creates a pool of available water for plants and
soil organisms.
 The absorbed water also moves downward through the soil profile towards the water bodies, thus acting as
a regulator for water supplies.
 Soil is an essential part of biogeochemical cycles, where it allows the cycling of different organic and
inorganic compounds from the atmosphere to the soil and back.
 Soil is a habitat for soil organisms as it provides necessary nutrients and water to living beings.
 Soil acts as the base for building homes, roads, and buildings, acting as a landscape or engineering
medium.
 Soil provides the raw material for different purposes like clay for ceramic production.

Difference between Sandy soil and Clay soil

No. Sandy soil Clayey soil

1. Sandy soil have high proportion of large or Clayey soil have high proportion of small or fine
big particles. particles.

2. Sandy soil is light in weight. Clayey soil is heavy in weight.

3. Particles of sandy soil are loosely packed or Particles of clayey soil are tightly arranged or
arranged. packed.
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4. Sandy soil is not really rich in humus. Clayey soil is rich or high in humus.

5. Water retention ability is very low in sandy Good amount of water is held by the clayey soil.
soil.

6. Sandy soil is a not fertile soil. Clayey soil is a fertile soil.

7. Sandy soil has larger particles and less Clayey soil has small particles and more water
water retention capacity. retention capacity.

8. Sandy soil do not have ability to hold Clayey soil have ability to hold nutrients and are
nutrients and are dry in nature. moist in nature.

Macro nutrients for plant growth

Plants consume primary macronutrients in large quantities, while their intake of secondary
macronutrients is lower. Each of these nutrients has a distinct function, necessary for nourishing the plant. A
shortage in any of them leads to deficiencies, with different adverse effects on the plant’s general state,
depending upon which nutrient is missing and to what degree.
Of the 60 chemical elements that comprise plants, 16 of them are essential. Of those 16, some are
extracted from the air in the form of CO2 or water. These are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. If for now we
set aside leaf fertilization and the three above-mentioned elements, the remaining 13 are extracted from the
soil. These are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients, all of which are essential for crops.

Primary Macronutrients
Macronutrients are essential for plant growth and a good overall state of the plant. The primary
macronutrients are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K).
N. Nitrogen
Nitrogen is essential for plant development, since it plays a fundamental role in energy metabolism
and protein synthesis. Nitrogen is absorbed by the plant in the form of a nitrate. This macronutrient is
directly related to plant growth. It is indispensable for photosynthesis activity and chlorophyll formation.
Nitrogen is involved, above all, in the aerial zone, the part of the plant that a person sees. It
promotes cellular multiplication. A nitrogen deficiency results in a loss of vigor and color. Growth becomes
slow and leaves fall off, starting at the bottom of the plant.
P. Phosphorus
Phosphorus is involved in root growth, which it stimulates. In the aerial zone it favors flowering.
Although phosphorus is also necessary during the plant’s growth period, it is much more involved in the
flowering stage. Phosphorus is involved in transporting and storing energy. It improves the plant’s general
state and increases the plant’s ability to withstand adverse climatological conditions.
K. Potassium
Potassium is involved in the regulation of water and the transport of the plant’s reserve substances. It
increases photosynthesis capacity, strengthens cell tissue, and activates the absorption of nitrates. Potassium
stimulates flowering and the synthesis of carbohydrates and enzymes. This, in turn, provides an increase in
the plant’s ability to withstand unfavorable environments such as low temperatures, and prevents withering.

Secondary macronutrients
Secondary macronutrients are also essential, even though they are consumed in smaller quantities
than N, P, K, that is, primary macronutrients. The secondary macronutrients are Calcium (Ca) Magnesium
(Mg) and Sulfur (S).
Ca. Calcium
Calcium attaches to the walls of plant tissues, stabilizing the cell wall and favoring cell wall formation.
Calcium is also involved in cell growth and development. It improves plant vigor, activating the formation
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of roots and their growth. Calcium contributes to mineral retention in the soil and to the transportation of
such minerals.
Mg. Magnesium
Magnesium constitutes the core of the chlorophyll molecule and is therefore essential for
photosynthesis. This makes it an indispensable element for plant development. Magnesium promotes the
absorption and transportation of phosphorus. It contributes to the storage of sugars within the plant.
S. Sulfur
Sulfur participates in the formation of chlorophyll. It is necessary for performing photosynthesis and
intervenes in protein synthesis and tissue formation. Sulfur is fundamental in the metabolizing of nitrogen,
since it improves nitrogen efficiency. Sulfur also improves plant defenses in general.

Micro nutrients
Micronutrients are just as important as macronutrients, but the amount required is very small.
Boron
Boron (B) exists primarily in soil solutions as the BO₃⁻³ anion – the form commonly taken up by
plants. One of the most important micronutrients affecting membrane stability, B supports the structural and
functional integrity of plant cell membranes. Boron-deficiency symptoms first appear at the growing points,
and certain soil types are more prone to boron deficiencies.
Copper
Copper (Cu) activates enzymes and catalyzes reactions in several plant-growth processes. The
presence of copper is closely linked to Vitamin A production, and it helps ensure successful protein
synthesis.
Iron
Iron (Fe) is essential for crop growth and food production. Plants take up Fe as the ferrous (Fe²⁺)
cation. Iron is a component of many enzymes associated with energy transfer, nitrogen reduction and
fixation, and lignin formation.
Manganese
Manganese (Mn) functions primarily as part of enzyme systems in plants. It activates several
important metabolic reactions and plays a direct role in photosynthesis. Manganese accelerates germination
and maturity while increasing the availability of phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca).
Molybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) is a trace element found in the soil, and is required for the synthesis and activity
of the enzyme nitrate reductase. Molybdenum is vital for the process of symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation by
Rhizobia bacteria in legume root modules. Considering molybdenum’s importance in optimizing plant
growth, it's fortunate that Mo deficiencies are relatively rare in most agricultural cropping areas.
Zinc
Zinc (Zn) is taken up by plants as the divalent Zn⁺² cation. It was one of the first micronutrients
recognized as essential for plants and the one most commonly limiting yields. Although Zn is required only
in small amounts, high yields are impossible without it.
Chlorine
Plants take up chlorine (Cl) as the chloride (Cl-) anion. It’s active in energy reactions in the plant.
Most Cl- in soils comes from salt trapped in parent materials, marine aerosols and volcanic emissions.
Classified as a micronutrient, Cl- is required by all plants in small quantities.
Nickel
Nickel (Ni) was added to the list of essential plant nutrients late in the 20th century. Nickel is
important in plant N metabolism because it is a component of the urease enzyme. Without the presence of
Ni, urea conversion is impossible. It is required in very small amounts, with the critical level appearing to be
about 1.1 ppm.
Crop response to micronut rients
Plants differ in their requirements for certain micronutrients. The table at right shows the estimate of
the relative response of selected crops to micronutrients. The ratings of low, medium and high are used to
indicate the relative degree of responsiveness.
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Changes caused by Agriculture:

Some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago man took agriculture by cultivation plants of his own choice. Man used
the practice of Slash and burn cultivation or shifting cultivation, which is still practicing in many tribal
areas. The type of agriculture practicing in present days are calling as modern agriculture it is very different
from the traditional ones and their outputs in terms of yield as well as their impacts on the environment
show lots of differences.

Effects of Agriculture:

a. Traditional Agriculture and its Impacts: It usually involves a small plot, simple tools, naturally
available water, organic fertilizer and a mix of crops. It is more near to natural conditions and usually it
results in low production. It is still in practice by about half the global population.
The main impacts of this type of agriculture are as follows:
i. Deforestation: the slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and frequent
shifting result in loss of forest cover.
ii. Soil erosion: Clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby resulting in
loss of top fertile layer of soil.
iii. Depletion of nutrients: During slash and burn, the organic matter in the soil is destroyed and the
crops take up most of the nutrients within a short period, thus making the soil nutrient poor, which makes
the cultivators, shift to another area.

b. Modern Agriculture and its Impacts: It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety,
high-tech equipments and lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water.
The food production has increased tremendously, evidenced by “green revolution”. However, it also gave
rise to several problems as discussed.

i. Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV): The uses if HYVs encourage monoculture i.e.
the same genotype is grown over vast areas. Increase of an attack by some pathogen, there is total damage to
the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions.

ii. Fertilizer related problems:

1. Micronutrient imbalance: Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture have
nitrogen phosphorus and potassium (N, P, and K) which are essential macronutrients other 19 nutrients
plants need at micro level. Excessive use of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance.
2. Nitrate pollution: Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil
and ultimately contaminate the ground water and when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/l, they become the
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cause of a serious health hazard called “Blue Baby Syndrome” or methaeno globinemia. This disease
affects the infants to the maximum extent causing even death.
3. Eutrophication: A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed
off and reach the water bodies adds plant nutrients. It leads to over growth of algae. That situation known as
Eutrophication ( eu= more, trophic = nutrition). These algal species grow very fast by rapidly using up the
nutrients. The algal species quickly complete their life cycle and die there by adding a lot of dead organic
matter. Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and very soon, it leads to decreasing of
dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic animals or fish and ultimately anaerobic conditions (lack of
oxygen) are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can survive.

iii. Pesticide related problems: the first generation pesticides include chemicals like sulphur, arsenic,
lead or mercury to kill the pests. DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichlioethane) whose insecticides properties
were discovers by Paul Mueller in 1939 belongs to the second-generation pesticide. After 1940, a large
number of synthetic pesticides came into use. These pesticides have gone a long way in protecting our
crops but they have a number of side effects.
Those are
a. Increasing resistance in pests and producing new pests: Some individuals of the pest
species usually survive even after pesticide spray. The survivors give rise to highly resistant generations.
b. Death of non-target organisms: Many insecticides are poisons that not only kill the target
species but also several non-target species that are useful to us.
Example: earth warms, snakes, numerous microorganisms
c. Biological magnification: Many of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and keep on
accumulating in the food chain, this process called biological magnification. Since human beings occupy a
high tropic level in the food chain, they get the pesticides in a bio-magnified form, which is very harmful.

iv. Water Logging: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually
leads to water logging. Inadequate drainage, dam construction causes excess water to accumulate
underground and gradually forms a continuous column with the water table. Under water- logged
conditions, pore-spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and the soil – air gets decreases. The water
table rises while the roots of plants do not get sufficient air for respiration. Mechanical strength of the soil
decreases, the crop plants get lodged and crop yield falls.
Control measures: 1. Preventing excessive irrigation 2. Sub-surface drainage technology 3.
Biodrainage with trees like Eucalyptus.
These are some of the remedial measures to prevent water- logging.

v. Salinity problem: The process of accumulation of salts is called salinity of the soil. Saline soils
are characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts like sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, calcium
chloride, magnesium chloride etc.
A major cause of salinity of soil is excessive irrigation with canal water or ground water which
unlike rainwater often contains dissolved salts. Under dry climates, the water evaporates leaving behind salts
in the upper soil profile.
The most common methods for getting rid of salts are to 1. Flush them out by applying more good
quality water to such soils. 2. Laying underground network of perforated drainage pipes for flushing out the
salts slowly.

Impact of agriculture on people

Large-scale, conventional farming focuses on intensive single crop production,
mechanization, and depends on fossil fuels, pesticides, antibiotics, and synthetic fertilizers.
While this system yields high production levels.
It also contributes to climate change, pollutes air and water, and depletes soil fertility.
The policies and practices underlying this system contribute to the epidemic of obesity and diet-
related disease.
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Agricultural practices have significant health implications. Common practices and production inputs,
used to maximize yields, negatively impact human health and environmental conditions.
 Farm workers and owners face a myriad of health risks, including chronic and acute exposure to
pesticides, high risk of injury, and limited access to health care.
 Routine antibiotic use in animal agriculture contributes to antibiotic resistance, diminishing the
effectiveness of these drugs for human use.
 Agricultural contaminants, including pesticides, nitrates, and phosphorus, impact ground and surface
water quality, affecting both urban and rural communities.
 Synthetic fertilizers deplete soil health and require intensive use of fossil fuels to produce.
 Emissions and pollution resulting from all stages of agriculture, from production (pesticide drift and
methane) to distribution (carbon dioxide) affect air quality and contribute to climate change.
While rural communities and farm owners and workers face the most immediate risks from these
practices, the overall impact is far-reaching. Air and water pollution from agriculture affects communities
over vast areas (rural and urban), and the impacts of antimicrobial resistance and climate change transcend
geography.

Soil Erosion
In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams
or far away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture and deforestation.
Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a continuous
loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Cause of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:
Rainfall and Flooding:
Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are caused by
rainfall:
 Rill erosion
 Gully erosion
 Sheet erosion
 Splash erosion
The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers. Regions
with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing water during floods also
erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.
Agriculture:
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the
ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops are grown
during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is eroded during winters.
Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine soil particles
are eroded by wind.
Grazing:
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves
churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it more prone to
erosion.
Logging and Mining:
A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil firmly. The
canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil from erosion, is
also lost during logging.
Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.
Construction:
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands are
cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.
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Rivers and Streams:

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion activity.
Heavy Winds:
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the wind
to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:
Loss of Arable Land:
Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients
required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads to low crop
productivity.
Clogging of Waterways:
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals. This
pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.
The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.
Air Pollution:
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such as
pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid and
semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.
Desertification:
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to loss of biodiversity,
degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.
Destruction of Infrastructure:
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency. Thus, it
affects infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION

The process if soil formation is so slow that soil consider as a non-renewable resource. Therefore, control
of land degradation is very important and achieved by taking the following measures:

i) Afforestation and Reforestation

Afforestation means growing where there were no forests before, may be due to lack of seed trees or
adverse factors.
Reforestation means replanting forests at places where they were destroyed by overgrazing, excessive
felling, fires etc.

ii) Better Agricultural Practices

a) Terracing: A large sloping drainage area is divides into a number of small distinctly separate flat
fields called terraces. These slow down the speed of run-off water (therefore, control soil erosion), hold the
water longer on the land so that more of it is soaked into the land and this results in higher crop yields.
b) Contour farming: It involves planting crops in rows across the gently sloped land. Each row acts
as a small dam to hold soil and slow water runoff.
c) Alley Cropping: it involves planting crops in strips are alleys between rows of trees or shrubs that
provides fruits and fuel wood.
d) Regular Cultivation: Fields should not leave bare and there should be regular cultivation of the
fields with a vegetation cover so that erosion is checked and maximum water infiltrates in to the soil due to
minimum run-off of water.
e) Crop Rotation: This involves sowing of different crops in the same field in a regular sequence for
a number of years.
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iii) Planting Wind Breaks and Shelter Belts

To check the velocity of wind, two or more rows of tall trees are plant at right angles to the direction of the
prevailing winds. These windbreakers check the movement of wind and, therefore, check soil erosion.
All these are effective measures to check the of desertification and land degradation.

Protect the soil

 While constructing your house, don’t uproot the trees as far as possible.
 Grow different types of ornamental pants, herbs and trees in your garden. Grow grass in the open area
which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
 Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden or flower-pots.
 Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the soil.
Better use sprinkling irrigation.
 Use green manure and much in the garden and kitchen-garden which will protect the soil.
 If you own agricultural fields, do not over-irrigate your fields without proper drainage to
prevent water-logging and Salination.
 Use mixed cropping so that some specific soil nutrients are not depleted.

Promote sustainable agriculture

 Do not waste food. Eat as much as you can.
 Reduce the use of pesticides.
 Fertilize your crop primarily with organic fertilizers.
 Use drip irrigation to water the crops.
 Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and preservation.
Control pests by a combination of cultivation and biological control methods

Assignment questions
1. What type of soil quality parameters to be studied to assess the impact of project activity
on soil environments?
2. (a) Enumerate the diseases and other problems caused by soil pollution.
(b) How do you control soil pollution?
3. Explain about different Types of soils
4. What are the impacts of agriculture on environment
5. Write a note on Impact of agriculture on people
6. What are the causes for soil erosion
7. How to control soil erosion