AIR-CONDTIONING

Course no. ME40107

Dr. Sourav Mitra

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1
 Basics of conduction heat transfer
• Conduction heat transfer takes place whenever a
temperature gradient exists in a stationary
medium
• On a microscopic level, conduction heat transfer is:
1. due to the elastic impact of molecules in fluids,
and
2. due to lattice vibration and free electron Qx
migration in solids
• The basic law of conduction heat transfer is called
as Fourier’s law of heat conduction, and is given y
by: z
 ∂T
Qx = − k . A. x
∂x

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑥𝑥 = rate of heat transfer by conduction in x-direction, W

(∂T/ ∂ x) = the temperature gradient in x-direction, K/m
A = the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, m2, and
k = thermal conductivity, W/m.K
Thermal conductivity valued for various
materials at 300 K
 General Heat conduction equation
• Assuming constant thermal properties, the general heat conduction
equation for Cartesian coordinate system is obtained by applying 1st law
of thermodynamics along with Fourier’s law of heat conduction. It is
given by:

1 ∂T  ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  T=T(x,y,z,τ)
=  ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2  y
α ∂t   z

In the above equation, α is thermal diffusivity, given by:

k
α=
ρc p

Thermal diffusivity is an indication of the rate at which heat is

conducted to the rate at which it is stored
Typical thermal diffusivity values of materials at 25oC
Material Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
Copper 113.7 x 10−6
Gold 32.3 x 10−6
SS 316 3.4 x 10−6
Clay 1.0 x 10−6
Concrete 0.69 x 10−6
Common brick 0.45 x 10−6
Pyrex glass 0.24 x 10−6
Water (at 101 kPa) 0.14 x 10−6
Air (101 kPa) 21.5 x 10−6
 1-D steady heat conduction equation
• Cartesian coordinate system:

The boundary conditions are:

At x = 0, T = T1 & at x = L, T = T2

• The solution is:

• The heat conduction rate from Fourier’s equation is:

 Example 1
• A 250 mm thick brick wall is subjected to an incident solar
radiation of 800 W/m2 on outer surface. Measurements show that
the inner and outer surface temperatures at any given moment are
25oC and 45oC, respectively. If the outer surface of the wall loses
250 W/m2 to surroundings (due to convection), find whether the
entire wall is under steady state or unsteady state. Thermal
conductivity of brick is = 0.72 W/m.K.

• Ans.: Unsteady state (qin = 550 W/m2 & qcond = 57.6 W/m2)
 Example 2
Suppose the temperature profile (in °C) inside a wooden wall is given
by T(x)=10x2+20x+30. Where x is the distance (in “m”) from the inner
surface of this wall. Thickness of the wall is 500 mm and heat
transfer occurs only in x-direction.

Determine if this temperature profile is consistent with steady state

assumption?

• NO as the temp profile is not linear. For

steady state the temperature profile
should be of T = Ax+B form.
 Convection Heat Transfer
• Convection heat transfer takes place between a surface and a
moving fluid, when they are at different temperatures
• Strictly speaking, convection is not a basic mode of heat transfer
as the heat transfer consists of 2 mechanisms operating
simultaneously. These are:
1. Energy transfer due to conduction through a stationary fluid
layer adjacent to the surface (no-slip condition)
2. Superimposed upon this conductive mode is energy transfer by
the bulk motion or advection of fluid particles,
• The bulk motion of fluid particles could be due to:
• a pump or fan (forced convection), or
• buoyancy, caused by density gradients (natural convection)
Velocity profile over a blunt nose
 Convection Heat Transfer Equations
• The basic convection equation, sometimes called as Newton’s
law of cooling is given by:
Qc = hc A(Ts − T∞ )
T∞
T = T(x,y)

y Ts
x

• In the above equation,

• hc = Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K),
• A = Area of the surface in contact with the flowing fluid, m2,
• Ts = Temperature of the surface, K
• T∞ = Free-stream fluid temperature or bulk fluid temperature, K
 Convection Heat Transfer Equations
 ∂T 
Qc =
− kf A   = hc A(Ts − T∞ )
By definition;  ∂y y = 0 T∞
T = T(x,y)

 ∂T 
− kf  
 ∂y  y = 0 y Ts
or, hc = x
(Ts − T∞ )

Where kf = Thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K

• The temperature gradient near the wall depends on the rate at which
the fluid near the wall can transport energy into the mainstream
• Thus the temperature gradient depends on the velocity field
• Hence to find the convective heat transfer rate, one has to know both
the velocity and temperature variations in the fluid
• This requires solution of conservation of mass, momentum and energy
equations
 Convection Heat Transfer Equations
• The convective heat transfer coefficient, hc depends on:
1. Type of fluid flow
1. External or Internal  ∂T 
− kf  
2. Laminar or turbulent  ∂y  y = 0
3. Forced or Natural convection or, hc =
(Ts − T∞ )
4. Geometry of the solid surface
2. Properties of the fluid
3. Geometry of the surface & surface roughness etc.
• Calculation of convective heat transfer coefficients based on analytical
methods is possible only for very simple cases
• For most of the practical situations, convective heat transfer coefficients
have been obtained by a combination of computer simulations and
experimental methods
• For generalization, equations for heat transfer coefficients are normally
given in terms of several non-dimensional numbers
 Fluid Mechanics: Flow regime
Laminar & Turbulent flows:
Reynolds experiment (1883)

It is observed that for a circular pipe, the flow remains laminar, when
 Fluid Mechanics: Flow regime
Reynolds number and Hydraulic diameter:

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Reynolds number for any flow channel/ducts is defined as:

Where Dh is the hydraulic diameter for flow through ducts

A = Cross sectional area of the duct (normal to flow)

Pw = wetted perimeter
 Fluid Mechanics: Flow regime
Laminar & Turbulent flows:
Turbulent flow is unsteady and
hence we use time-averaging to
represent the velocity at any given
location

For turbulent flows the velocity profile at

any cross section inside the pipe/duct
fairly uniform when compared to Laminar
flow
Important non-dimensional numbers
in convection heat transfer
Nomenclature:
cp = specific heat, J/kg.K
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
hc = Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
k = Thermal conductivity, W/m.K
L = Characteristic length, m
Ts = Surface temperature, K
T∞ = Fluid temperature, K
V = Velocity, m/s
β = Coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/K
µ= Dynamic viscosity, kg.m/s
1 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 ν= Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
𝛽𝛽 =
𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃 α= Thermal diffusivity, m2/s
ρ= Density, kg/m3
1
For ideal gas only: 𝛽𝛽 =
𝑇𝑇
 Correlations – Forced convection
1. Fully developed laminar flow inside tubes (Re <2300):
=Q hc A (Ts − Tm ) Nu =  hc D  = 3.66 for constant wall temperature
D
 k 
Tm is mean fluid
temperature  hc D 
Nu D =   = 4.364 for constant wall heat flux
 k 

Fully developed turbulent flow inside tubes (Re > 10,000):

h D
Nu D =  c  = 0.023 Re D Pr 0.3or 0.4
0.8

 k 

2. Turbulent flow over horizontal, flat plate (Rex > 5 X 105):

=Q hc A (Ts − T∞ )  hc ,avg L 
Nu L ,avg =  (
 = Pr1/ 3 0.037 Re L 0.8 − 850 )
 k 
 Correlations – Natural convection
Free convection over vertical flat plates:
=Q hc A (Ts − T∞ )

 hc L 
=
NuL =  c (Gr=
L Pr) n
cRa L
n
L
 k 
where c and n are
0.59 and ¼ for laminar flow (104 < GrL.Pr < 109) and
0.10 and ⅓ for turbulent flow (109 < GrL.Pr < 1013)

Free convection over horizontal flat plates:

=NuL c=
(GrL Pr) n cRaL n

where c and n are L

0.54 and ¼ for laminar flow (104 < RaL < 107) and
0.15 and ⅓ for turbulent flow (107 < RaL < 109)
 Correlations – Natural convection
Free convection inside enclosures (side heated and cooled):
For square and tall enclosures
L H
NuL = 0.364 RaH 1/4 For L/H ≤ 1
H
L
For shallow enclosures
2
1 H 
NuL = 1 +  Ra H  For L/H > 1 H
362880  L 
L

Free convection inside enclosures (bottom heated and top cooled):

NuH = 0.069 RaH 1/3 Pr 0.074

H
Cellular flow patterns are formed for RaH>1708
 Example 3
Estimate heat transfer rate from a human body to the surrounding air due
to natural convection using the data given below:
• Height of the body, H = 1.8 m, mass, m = 60 kg
• Room Temperature = 30oC, Body Temperature = 33oC
• Properties at mean temperature of 31.5oC
• Density = 1.2 kg/m3, µair = 0.00001864 Pa.s, cp = 1000 J/kg.K, kair = 0.02
W/m.K
33oC
g β air ρ air (Tbody − Tair ) H 3 NuH =
hconv H 30oC
RaH =
µairα air kair

• The natural convection heat transfer coeff. (hconv)can be obtained using

the following equation:
NuH = 0.1( RaH )
1/3

• The human body can be considered as a cylinder with the heat transfer
area given by:
Area for heat transfer = 0.202(mass)0.425(Height)0.725

Ans.: 9 W
 Example 4
• Estimate heat transfer rate from a human body to the surrounding
air which is set in motion by a ceiling fan such that the air velocity
(V) around the human body is 0.45 m/s. The heat transfer
coefficient between the human body and surrounding air (in
W/m2.K) is given by the equation:
hc = 8.3V0.6
• Height of the body, H = 1.8 m, mass, m = 60 kg
• Room Temperature = 30oC, Body Temperature = 33oC
• The human body can be considered as a cylinder with the body
area given by:
AD = 0.202m0.425H0.725

30o 33o
C C
Ans.: 27.18 W
Equations for convective heat transfer
for human body

ASHRAE Fundamental, 2017

 Example 5
A concrete wall (k = 2.5 W/m.K) of area 1m2 and thickness 100 mm is
exposed to ambient air at 5°C flowing over it at v = 0.5 m/s. The wall
inner surface temperature is maintained at 25°C. The convective heat
transfer coeff. due to air on its outer surface is given by hc = 8.3×V0.6.
Estimate the wall’s outer surface temperature at steady state. (Neglect
radiation)

Ans: 21.4°C
 Example 6
• Consider a 250 mm thick concrete wall (k = 2.3
W/m.K) of Length L = 3000 mm and height
H = 4500 mm (see Fig). The inside surface is
transferring heat due to natural convection
whereas the outside surface is exposed to
wind speed of velocity V=10 m/s. The
correlations for convective heat transfer
coefficients for inner wall and outer wall
can be obtained using following correlations:
• Inner wall: hi =0.8 (Tw,i - Ti)1/3 W/m2.K
• 40.9°C
• Outer wall: ho = (2V+5) W/m2.K
• 364 W
Where V represents the wind speed, Tw,i represents the inner wall surface
temperature = 38°C*. The inside and outside air temperatures are Ti = 24°C and To = 42°C
respectively. Assuming steady state, determine:
a. Outer wall surface temperatures (°C)
b. Net heat transfer (W) across the wall

* (check if the given data of inner wall surface temp = 38C satisfies steady state heat
transfer ?)
Typical heat transfer coefficient values
Radiation heat transfer
Radiation wavelengths

28
 Radiation properties
• From energy balance for total radiation, q:

• Similar equation can be written for energy

carried at each wavelength, λ, i.e., qλ

q = Incident radiation
• By definition, for a black body, (W/m2)
α = Absorptivity
τ = Transmittivity
ρ = Reflectivity
Basic Radiation Heat Transfer Equations
Planck’s equation:
The monochromatic emissive power (energy radiated between wave
lengths λ and λ + dλ per unit area per unit time) of a “black body” is
given by,
(
Ebλ W / m .µm = 5
2
) c1
λ exp ( c2 / λ T ) −1

c1 = 2πhc 2 = 3.742 ×108 W .µm 4 / m 2

hc
c=
2 = 1 . 439 × 10 4
μm.K
kB
Where, Ebλ = Monochromatic emissive power, W/m2.µm
T = Absolute temperature, K
λ = wavelength, µm
kB = Boltzmann constant
Planck’s Equation

( )
Ebλ W / m .µm = 5
2 c1
λ exp ( c2 / λ T ) −1
Basic Radiation Heat Transfer Equations
Stefan-Boltzmann Equation:
• The total radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time per
unit area or the emissive power of a black body, Eb is given by,
∞ ∞
 
(
= ∫=
Eb W/m 2
)
Ebλ d λ ∫  5
λ ( c
c1
/ λT ) −
=  d λ σ T 4

0 
0
exp 2 1

Where, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2.K4

Wien’s displacement law:

• The wavelength at which the monochromatic emissive power of a
black body at a given temperature T, reaches a maximum is given by,

 ∂Ebλ 
  =0 ⇒ λmaxT = 2897.8 μm.K
 ∂λ T
Basic Radiation Heat Transfer Equations
• Emissivity, ε: The ratio of radiation emitted by a real body (E) to
that of a blackbody (Eb)
• Emissivity at a particular wavelength (monochromatic emissivity,
ελ,T) or for all wavelengths (total emissivity, εT)

• A gray body is a hypothetical body for which ε is independent

of the wavelength, i.e.,

• Thus, for a gray body:

 Basic Radiation Heat Transfer Equations
• A gray body is a hypothetical body for which the emissivity ε is
independent of the wavelength and is < 1. For a gray body total
emissive power is given by:

• Emissive power of a body depends only on its surface properties

and its temperature,
• Radiation absorbed not only depends on the surface properties
and its temperature, but also on the surface properties and
temperatures of all the surrounding surfaces with which it
exchanges radiation
 Kirchoff’s Law
• Kirchoff’s law relates the monochromatic emissivity of a surface
(εT,λ) with monochromatic, directional absorptance (αT,λ) for the
surface in steady state with surroundings:
ε λ ,T = α λ ,T
• For a gray (emissivity independent of wavelength) body,
Kirchoff’s law becomes:

Note: Most of the common building materials are non-gray and

also the wavelengths of incident radiation is different from the
wavelengths at which they emit radiation
 Radiation exchange between surfaces
• For radiation exchanges to occur between surfaces,
1. The surfaces should be at different temperatures, and
2. They must be able to “see or view” each other
• How much of each other’s area the surfaces are able to see is indicated
by a “view factor” also called as “shape factor”
• View factor depends only the orientation of the surfaces, and is not a
surface property
• The view factor between 2 surfaces, ‘i’ & ‘j’ is indicated by Fij & Fji
• Fij is defined as “the fraction of radiation emitted by i, that is viewed or
intercepted by j”
• For a single surface (i = j), if it can see itself, then Fii > 0, otherwise Fii = 0
• View factor relations for different orientations can be obtained from
coordinate geometry
 Radiation heat transfer coefficient
• Considering view factor, the radiation heat exchange between any two
black bodies 1 & 2 is given by:
Net Heat gained by 2 due to 1: (
Q1→2 A1 F12σ T14 −=
= T2 4 )
A2 F21σ T14 − T2 4 ( )
• The above equation can also be written as:

=Q1→2
( T1 − T2 )
= hr A1 (T1 − T2 ) hr : linearized radiation heat transfer coeff.
Rrad
1 1
=
where R =
rad
( )
hr A1 A1 F12σ T12 + T2 2 (T1 + T2 )

• The above equation is only valid if both the surfaces have ε = 1

• The above equation changes for real surfaces having different emissivity :

(
Q1→2 FA ,ε σ T14 − T2 4
= ) FA ,ε : surface property factor
View Factors for some simple cases
View factors (black body)– some simple
cases
 Example 7
Estimate the heat transfer rate per unit area of a vertical wall at 40°C due
to a concrete pavement at 50°C. Assume both pavement and vertical wall to
behave as “black bodies”. Height of the wall is 30 feet and pavement is 3
feet wide. Assume the depth of the wall/pavement to be very large.

Wall, wj

Pavement, wi

• Solution: Fij = 0.475

Qij/Aj = AiFij σ (Ti4−Tj4)/Aj
Qij/Aj = 0.475 x (3 x L) x 5.678 x 10−8 (323.154− 313.154)/(30 x L) = 3.6 W/m2
 Radiation exchange – Gray surfaces
1. Radiation heat transfer between 2, infinite, parallel plates:
Q1-2

1 2
2. Radiation heat transfer between one body enclosed by other:

Q1-2

1
If A2 >> A1, then, 2
 Example 8
The surfaces 1 and 2 of a double pane, glass window are at temperatures
of 42oC and 24oC, respectively. Find the heat transfer rates per unit area of
the window for the cases of:
• A) Both the surfaces are black
• B) Surface 1 is black and surface 2 is gray with an emissivity of 0.5
• C) Surface 1 is black and surface 2 is gray with an emissivity of 0.05
• D) Both surfaces are gray with emissivity values of 0.05

Q1-2

Ans.: A) 117.4 W/m2 (ε1 = ε2 =1)

B) 58.7 W/m2 (ε1 = 1, ε2 =0.5)
C) 5.87 W/m2 (ε1 = 1, ε2 =0.05)
1 2
D) 3.01 W/m2 (ε1 = ε2 = 0.05)
 Example 9
An engineer has to decide between two opaque materials for
constructing the walls of a building. Spectral reflectivity (ρλ) of the
two materials are as shown in Fig. a). The spectral irradiation (Iλ) on
the surface is given in Fig. b). Determine which material should the
engineer choose in order to minimise building heating when exposed
to the irradiation?

ρλ

Fig. a) Fig. b)
Ans.: Material A: 7.5 kW/m2, Material B: 6.25 kW/m2
Multimode heat transfer across a building
wall & U-Value
Q1-2

Heat transfer across building wall

 R R   R R 
(T -T )
Q1-2 = 1 2 = UA(T1 -T2 ) R total =  conv,2 rad,2  + ( R w,3 +R w,2 +R w,1 ) +  conv,1 rad,1 
R  R 
R total  conv,2 +R rad,2   conv,1 +R rad,1 

Where U is the overall heat R2

RW R1
transfer coefficient and A is
Q1-2
the area
L 1 1
Rcond = Rconv = Rrad =
KA hc A hr A R total = ( R 2 ) + ( R w ) + ( R1 )
 Example 10
• A 250 mm thick concrete wall (k = 1 W/m.K) is sandwiched between 2 layers of
plaster of thickness 15 mm (k = 15 W/m.K). The convective and radiative heat
transfer coefficients for inner wall surface and outer wall surface are:
• Inner wall: hc = 8 W/m2.K & hr = 5 W/m2.K
• Outer wall: hc = 25 W/m2.K & hr = 10 W/m2.K
If the indoor and outdoor effective temperatures with which the convective and
radiative heat transfer happen are 24oC and 42oC, respectively, find:
A) heat transfer rate across the wall per m2 area
B) Inner wall surface and outer wall surface temperatures

Ans. A) 50.5 W/m2, B) tinner wall = 27.9oC & touterwall = 40. 6oC
 Building Heat Transfer
&
Cooling Load calculation
Heat Transfer through Building Elements
Building elements

Internal walls, ceiling etc External walls, roof etc

Opaque elements Transparent elements

Shaded Unshaded Shaded Unshaded

Heavy Light
48
Solar Radiation – Spectral Distribution

49
 Air mass

The air mass represents the proportion of atmosphere that the light must pass through
before striking the Earth relative to its overhead path length
Y 1
=
AM ≈
X cos θ

According to Beer – Lambert’s law, larger the air mass, larger will be the depletion
50
Sun – Earth Position during equinox (March 21 & September 22)

51
Sun – Earth Position during Summer and Winter solstice (June 21
& December 21)

52
Earth’s position during summer solstice (June 21)

Sun rays striking earth a) Summer; b) Winter 53

 Solar Constant (Io)
• This is the flux of solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun’s rays beyond the
atmosphere at the mean earth-sun distance
• Currently accepted value of solar constant is 1367 W/m2
• Varies from a maximum of 1418 W/m2 on January 3 to a minimum value of 1325
W/m2 on July 4
  n 
= I o I SC 1 + 0.034 cos  2π 
  365  

54
 Solar Geometry
For a given surface orientation, the solar incidence angle depends on:

1. Geographical location of the surface

2. Time of the day, and

3. Day of the year

• The above three parameters are defined in terms of latitude (l),

hour angle (h) and declination (d or δ), respectively

• All the above are defined in terms of suitable angles

55
56
 Geographical location of the surface
• Location is specified in terms of
latitude angle

• This is defined as the angle

between the line joining the
centre of the earth with the point
in question and its projection on
the equatorial plane

• Latitude varies from 0o at equator

to 90o at north pole and -90o at
south pole
57
 Day of the year
• The day of the year is indicated in terms of
declination angle, d or δ
• It is defined as the angle between the line
joining the centre of earth and centre of sun
and its projection on equatorial plane
• It is also defined as the latitude of the
location at which the sun is directly
overhead at solar noon on a particular day
• It varies from −23.45o to +23.45o in a
periodic manner
 360


• It is=
given by: δ 23.45 sin

 ( 284 + n )
 365 

Where n is the day of the year (n = 1 for January 1 and so on)

58
 Solstice Equinox

Declination: Declination:
+23.45° (June 21) 0° (March 21)
-23.45° (Dec 21) 0° (Sept 22) 59
 Declination
 360


=δ 23.45 sin 

( 284 + n )
 365 

Can the sun be overhead at a location beyond the tropics ?

60
 Time of the day
• The time used in solar radiation
calculations is the solar time

• The solar time of the day is specified in

terms of the hour angle, h

• Hour angle is defined as the angle

between the projection of the line
joining the centre of earth and the point
in question and the projection of the line
joining the centre of earth and centre of
sun on equatorial plane

• Hour angle is 0o at solar noon and varies

by 15o per hour over a 24 hour period

61
 Local Solar Time (LST)

mins

LStT = Local Standard Time (clock time in hrs)

Corrective equation for :
EOT = Equation of time, in minutes
a. the earth’s tilt on its axis
LON = Local longitude b. the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit around the Sun

LSM = Local Standard Meridien

EoT (min) = 9.87 sin ( 2 B ) − 7.53 cos ( B ) − 1.5 sin ( B )

 360 
B= ( n − 81)   ; B is in degrees, n is the day of the year (counted from January 1st
)
 365 

15 × ( LST (in hrs) − 12 hrs ) in degrees

Hour Angle, h =

Hour Angle, h = 0 is SOLAR NOON

62
 Example 1
• Find the local solar time and solar angle at Kharagpur (latitude = 22.35o,
longitude = 87.23oE) on 9 October, when the local standard clock time is
12 noon. Use the following data:
• Local Standard Meridian (LSM) = 82.5oE

EoT (min) = 9.87 sin ( 2 B ) − 7.53 cos ( B ) − 1.5 sin ( B )

 360 
B= ( n − 81)  st
 ; B is in degrees, n is the day of the year (counted from January 1 )
 365 

• EOT = 13.5 min, 4*(LON-LSM) = 18.9 min

• Total correction = 32 min
Ans. LST = 12 hrs 32 min = 12.53 hrs
Solar angle h = (12.53-12)*15 = 8 degrees
63
 Total Incident Solar Radiation
=I I DNI cos (θ ) + I Diff + I R
where I = Total Incident Solar Radiation on a surface, W/m2
IDNI = Direct normal irradiance, W/m2
IDiff = Diffused irradiance on a surface, W/m2
IR = Radiation due to Short wave reflection from other surfaces, W/m2
θ = Solar incidence angle (angle between the sun rays and normal to
the surface)

The various solar radiation components are given in ISHRAE database available online at:

https://energyplus.net/weather-region/asia_wmo_region_2/IND/
64
Annual changes in Sun’s position in Sky

Annual changes in the sun’s position in the sky (Northern Hemisphere)

65
 Derived solar angles
• The derived solar angles required for the calculation of solar radiation
falling on a horizontal surface are:

1. Altitude angle, α

2. Zenith angle, θz and

3. Solar azimuth angle, γs

• All the above angles are functions of the basic solar angles, i.e.,
latitude, hour angle and declination

• Applying solar geometry relations, equations for the derived angles

can be obtained in terms of the basic angles
66
 Derived solar angles
Zenith Angle, θ=
Z 90 
−α

Solar azimuth angle:

cos δ .sin h
sin γ s =
cos α

Solar azimuth angle is −ve for

forenoon and +ve for afternoon

Altitude angle:

=sin α cos l .cos h .cos δ + sin l .sin δ

67
 Derived solar angles
Solar azimuth angle:

 cos δ .sin h 
γ s = sin−1  
 cos α 

 tan δ 
only valid if cos h >  
 tan l 

If above condition is not met,

it means that the sun is behind
the E-W line (N side)

 tan δ  −180 + γ s for h<0 

if cos h <   γs =  
 tan l  180 − γ s for h>0 
68
 Derived solar angles
• On any given day and at a given location, the altitude angle is
maximum at solar noon (h = 0)
sin α max = cos ( l − δ )
cos l .cos δ + sin l .sin δ =

α max = 90 − ( l − δ )

• The altitude angle, α = 0o at sunrise and sunset

• Hence, the hour angle, ho at sunrise and sunset is given by
cos ho = ( − tan l .tan δ )
• Hence, the total sunshine hours is given by:
2 cos −1 ( − tan l .tan δ )
sunshine time (hrs) =
15
69
 Example 2
• Find the time (Indian Standard Time) at which sun rises and the total
sunshine hours on October 20th (n = 293) at Kharagpur (latitude = 22.35o,
longitude = 87.23o). Use the following data:
• Local Standard Meridian (LSM) = 82.5o

 360


=δ 23.45 sin 

( 284 + n )
 365 

• Hour angle, ho at sunrise and sunset: =

ho cos −1 ( − tan l .tan δ )

• Total sunshine hours: 2cos −1 ( − tan l .tan δ )

15

Ans.: Sunrises at 5hrs 44 minutes (IST), Sunshine hours = 11.43 h

70
 Example 3
• Find the altitude angle and solar azimuth angle at 3 PM solar time on
October 20th at Kharagpur (latitude = 22.35o, longitude = 87.23o).

sin α cos l .cos h .cos δ + sin l .sin δ

Solar azimuth angle:
cos δ .sin h
sin γ s =
cos α

Ans.: Altitude angle = 34.5o, Solar azimuth angle = 57.22o

71
 Example 4
• Find the day on which sun is directly overhead at Kharagpur
(latitude = 22.35o, longitude = 87.23o).

α max = 90 − ( l − δ )

 360


=δ 23.5 sin 

( 284 + n )
 365 

Ans.: n = 154 (3rd June)

72
 Solar Angle of incidence
Tilt Angle = β
Angle of inclined surface with the
horizontal plane

Surface Azimuth Angle = γ

Angle between the horizontal
projection of normal to the inclined
surface and the South

Solar angle of incidence = θ

Angle between the Sun’s rays and
normal to the inclined surface

=cos θ sin l .sin δ .cos β − cos l .sin δ .sin β .cos γ

+ cos l .cos δ .cos h .cos β
+ sin l .cos δ .cos h .sin β .cos γ
+ cos δ .sin h .sin β .sin γ 73
 Solar Angle of incidence
Tilt Angle = 0°
For a horizontal plane the previous equation simplifies to:

cos θ = sin l .sin δ + cos l .cos δ .cos h ⇒θ= ( 90 − α ) = θZ

Tilt Angle = 90°

For a vertical plane the previous equation simplifies to:

cos θ = − cos l .sin δ .cos γ + sin l .cos δ .cos h .cos γ + cos δ .sin h .sin γ

cos δ .sin h
Solar azimuth angle: sin γ s =
cos α

Wall is in shade when

“Wall Solar Azimuth Angle” (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 - 𝛾𝛾) < − 90o or > +90o
74
 Example 5
• Find the solar angle of incidence on a horizontal roof at 5 PM solar time
on October 20th (n = 293) at Kharagpur (latitude = 22.35o, longitude =
87.23o).

 360


=δ 23.5 sin 

( 284 + n )
 365 
Altitude angle:

=sin α cos l .cos h .cos δ + sin l .sin δ

π
θ=Z −α
2

Ans.: 80.8o
75
 Example 6
• Find the wall solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 - 𝛾𝛾) and angle of incidence (θ)
on a south facing, vertical wall located at Kharagpur (latitude =
22.35o, longitude = 87.23o), at 3 PM solar time on a) June 21
(n=172) and b) December 21 (n = 355)

Ans.: a) June 21: (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 - 𝛾𝛾) = 100.6o & θ = 97o (wall is in shade)
b) Dec 21: (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 - 𝛾𝛾) = 46.5o & θ = 52o (wall receives radiation )

76
Weather & Solar database for India
https://energyplus.net/weather-region/asia_wmo_region_2/IND
Diffused Radiation on any tilted surface
Diffused solar radiation from the sky. Idiff
IDiff = IDHI .FWS

FWS is the view factor between the surface and the sky given by:

FWS =
(1 + cos β )
2

Where β is the tilt angle

For a horizontal surface FWS is 1.0
and for a vertical surface FWS is 0.5

78
Ground Reflection on any tilted surface
(Albedo effect)
Radiation reflected from the ground is given by:
IR = ρG .IGHI .FWG IGHI = IDNI cos (θ z ) + IDHI

FWG is the view factor between the surface and the ground:

FWG =
(1 − cos β )
2
For a horizontal surface FWG is 0
Where β is the tilt angle
and for a vertical surface FWG is 0.5
Maximum ground reflectivity values (ρG):

79
Total Incident Solar Radiation on any tilted
surface
I tot I DNI cos (θ ) + I Diff + I R
=
I=
tot I DNI cos (θ ) + I DHI FWS + I GHI ρG FWG
Notation Physical significance
Itot = Total Incident Solar Radiation on any surface at any time t, W/m2
IDNI = Direct normal irradiance, W/m2
IDHI = Diffused horizontal irradiance, W/m2
IGHI = Global horizontal irradiance, W/m2
θ = Solar incidence angle for the tilted surface (angle between the
sun rays and normal to the surface)
FWS = view factor for the tilted surface with the sky
𝜌𝜌𝐺𝐺 = ground reflectivity
FWG = view factor for the tilted surface with the ground
80
Heat Transfer through Walls

81
Heat Transfer through Building Elements
Building elements

Internal walls, ceiling etc External walls, roof etc

Opaque elements Transparent elements

Shaded Unshaded Shaded Unshaded

Heavy Light
82
ASHRAE Model for external walls, roofs
1. Opaque, unshaded, light, elements:

=Q t UA (Tsol − air ,t − Ti ) 

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

A = Area, m2

Tsol-air,t = sol-air temperature at t hours, oC

Ti = conditioned space temperature, oC

83
 Sol-air temperature
 α I tot ,t − ∆R 
Tsol − air ,t =  + To ,t
 ho 

Tsol-air,t = sol-air temperature at “t” hours, oC

To,t = external air temperature at “t” hours, oC
α = Solar absorptivity of the surface
Itot,t = Total solar insolation on the surface at “t” hours, W/m2
∆R = Net long wave radiation from the surface, W/m2
ho = external convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

84
Heat Transfer through Building Elements
Building elements

Internal walls, ceiling etc External walls, roof etc

Opaque elements Transparent elements

Shaded Unshaded Shaded Unshaded

Heavy Light
85
 For external walls, roofs etc.
2. Opaque, unshaded, heavy, elements:

Q t UA (Tsol − air ,m − Ti ) + λ (Tsol − air ,t −φ − Tsol − air ,m )  We get back the

expression for light
1
24 elements by substituting
Tsol − air ,m = ∫
24 0
Tsol − air ,t dt λ = 1 and φ=0

Qt = Heat transfer rate to the conditioned space at t, W

Tsol-air,m = mean sol-air temperature for the day, oC
Tsol-air,t−φ = sol-air temperature at (t−φ) hours, oC
Ti = conditioned space temperature at t hours, oC
λ= Decrement factor
φ = Time lag, hours
86
 Time lag (φ)

1800-2400 kg/m3

1200-1800 kg/m3
Material Density
(kg/m3)
Red brick ~ 1650
<1200 kg/m3
Fly Ash brick ~ 1800
Concrete ~ 2400
Plywood ~ 600

Based on material density and wall thickness

87
Decrement factor (λ)

88
Comparing thin and thick walls

89
Heat Transfer through Building Elements
Building elements

Internal walls, ceiling etc External walls, roof etc

Opaque elements Transparent elements

Shaded Unshaded Shaded Unshaded

Heavy Light
90
 For external walls, roofs etc.
3. Opaque, shaded elements (heavy/light):

To be treated similar to the unshaded case by removing the DNI

component of solar radiation.
by: I tot I DHI FWS + I GHI ρG FWG
Therefore the total solar radiation is given =

=Q t UA (Tsol − air ,m − Ti ) + λ (Tsol − air ,t −φ − Tsol − air ,m ) 

24
1
Tsol − air ,m = ∫
24 0
Tsol − air ,t dt

We get back the expression for light

elements by substituting λ = 1 and φ=0

91
Heat Transfer through Building Elements
Building elements

Internal walls, ceiling etc External walls, roof etc

Opaque elements Transparent elements

Shaded Unshaded Shaded Unshaded

Heavy Light
92
 For internal walls, ceilings etc.
Q t UA(To − Ti )
=

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

A = Area, m2

To = external space temperature, oC

Ti = conditioned space temperature, oC

93
Example 1: Sol-air temperature calculation
Calculate the sol-air temperature for an “unshaded” horizontal roof
(β=0) at 12 noon and 12 midnight using the data given below:
At 12 Noon:
θz = 52°, DNI = 700 W/m2, DHI = 250 W/m2, Ground reflectivity = 0.1
To = 30.5°C
At 12 Midnight:
To = 24.1°C
Absorptivity of roof for solar radiation, α = 0.9
Longwave radiation, ∆R = 50 W/m2
External heat transfer coefficient, ho = 15 W/m2.K

Ans: Tsol-air,noon = 68.0oC; Tsol-air,night = 20.8oC

94
Example 2: Sol-air temperature calculation
Calculate the sol-air temperature for a “shaded” horizontal roof at 12
noon and 12 midnight using the data given below:
At 12 Noon:
θz = 52°, DNI = 700 W/m2, DHI = 250 W/m2, Ground reflectivity = 0.1
To = 30.5°C
At 12 Midnight:
To = 24.1°C
Absorptivity of roof for solar radiation, α = 0.9
Longwave radiation, ∆R = 50 W/m2
External heat transfer coefficient, ho = 15 W/m2.K

Ans: Tsol-air,noon = 42.2oC; Tsol-air,night = 20.8oC

95
Example 3: Sol-air temperature calculation
Calculate the sol-air temperature for an “unshaded” vertical wall (β=90°)
facing SE at 12 noon and 12 midnight using the data given below:
At 12 Noon:
θz = 52°, DNI = 700 W/m2, DHI = 250 W/m2, Ground reflectivity = 0.1, θ = 44.7°
To = 30.5°C
At 12 Midnight:
To = 24.1°C
Absorptivity of roof for solar radiation, α = 0.9
Longwave radiation, ∆R = 50 W/m2
External heat transfer coefficient, ho = 15 W/m2.K

Ans: Tsol-air,noon = 77.35oC; Tsol-air,night = 20.8oC

96
Example 4: Sol-air temperature calculation
Calculate the sol-air temperature on an hourly basis for an “unshaded” and
“shaded” horizontal roof (β=0) using the data given below:
Absorptivity of roof: α=0.8, long wave radiation heat flux: ΔR=50 W/m2, outdoor heat
transfer coeff., ho = 10 W/m2.K.
Local Clock Solar Radiation Solar Incidence Outdoor
Time DNI DHI angle DBT
Itot,t (W/m2) Itot,t (W/m2) Tsol,air,t Tsol,air,t
(hr) (W/m2) (W/m2) θ (°) To (°C) Unshaded Shaded Unshaded Shaded
0:00 to 00:59 - - - 24.3 0 0 19.3 19.3
1:00 to 1:59 - - - 23.4 0 0 18.4 18.4
2:00 to 2:59 - - - 22.5 0 0 17.5 17.5
3:00 to 3:59 - - - 21.6 0 0 16.6 16.6
4:00 to 4:59 - - - 21.5 0 0 16.5 16.5
5:00 to 5:59 4 2 75.52 22.2 3.0 2.0 17.4 17.4
6:00 to 6:59 472 56 76.52 23.9 166.0 56.0 32.2 23.4
7:00 to 7:59 825 64 63.66 26.1 430.0 64.0 55.5 26.2
8:00 to 8:59 944 75 50.77 28.6 672.0 75.0 77.4 29.6
9:00 to 9:59 925 107 38.29 30.7 833.0 107.0 92.3 34.3
10:00 to 10:59 873 148 27.12 32.4 925.0 148.0 101.4 39.2
11:00 to 11:59 771 209 20.32 33.5 932.0 209.0 103.1 45.2
12:00 to 12:59 693 241 21.22 34.2 887.0 241.0 100.2 48.5
13:00 to 13:59 693 217 30.03 34.7 817.0 217.0 95.1 47.1
14:00 to 14:59 471 254 42.00 34.9 604.0 254.0 78.2 50.2
15:00 to 15:59 403 192 54.68 34.7 425.0 192.0 63.7 45.1
16:00 to 16:59 260 128 67.86 34.0 226.0 128.0 47.1 39.2
17:00 to 17:59 29 35 80.07 32.5 40.0 35.0 30.7 30.3
18:00 to 18:59 - - - 30.6 0 0 25.6 25.6
19:00 to 19:59 - - - 28.6 0 0 23.6 23.6
20:00 to 20:59 - - - 27 0 0 22.0 22.0
21:00 to 21:59 - - - 25.9 0 0 20.9 20.9
22:00 to 22:59 - - - 25.4 0 0 20.4 20.4
23:00 to 23:59 - - - 25.0 0 0 20.0 20.0
97
 Example 5: Heat transfer calculation
For the roof described in Example 4, calculate the heat transfer rate per
unit area from the horizontal roof (shaded and unshaded) to the
conditioned space maintained at 25oC between 12:00 to 12:59 hours
and 00:00 to 00:59 hours (local clock time) using the additional data
given below.
• Assume the roof to be made of light weight material.
• Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 3 W/m2.K

Ans: a) Unshaded: q12:00-12:59 = 225.6 W/m2; q00:00-00:59 = −17.1 W/m2

b) Shaded: q12:00-12:59 = 40.5 W/m2; q00:00-00:59 = −17.1 W/m2

98
 Example 6: Heat transfer through heavy
wall
Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area for the “unshaded” horizontal
roof in example 4 to the conditioned space maintained at 25oC between 12:00
to 12:59 hours and 19:00 to 19:59 hours (local clock time) using the data given
below:
• Assume heavy material for the roof.
• Decrement factor, λ = 0.21 (300 mm thick brick)
• Time lag, φ = 9 hours (300 mm thick brick)
• Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 3 W/m2.K

Ans: q12:00-12:59 = 45.6 W/m2 , q19:00-19:59 = 98.9 W/m2

99
Total cooling Load calculation
 Total Cooling Load
Total sensible load on the cooling coil, Qsensible is given by:
Qsensible = Qbuilding surfaces + Qinfiltration,s + Qinternal,s

Total latent load on the cooling coil, Qlatent is given by:

Qlatent = Qinfiltration,l + Qinternal,l

Total load on the cooling coil, Qtotal (in kW) is given by:
Qtotal = Qsensible + Qlatent

Qsensible
Room Sensible Heat Factor is given by: RSHF =
Qtotal

Required Cooling capacity in TR = Qtotal /3.517

Power consumed in kW = Qtotal /COP
 Cooling load due to infiltration
Sensible heat transfer due to infiltration (Qinf,sensible)

Q inf=
, sensible m inf ( ho − hi ) sensible

ho , sensible : sensible enthalpy of outdoor air

hi , sensible : sensible enthalpy of indoor conditioned air

Latent heat transfer due to infiltration (Qinf,latent)

Q=
inf ,latent m inf ( ho − hi )latent
ho , sensible : latent enthalpy of outdoor air
hi , sensible : latent enthalpy of indoor conditioned air

Use psychrometry chart for evaluating the above values

Cooling load due to infiltration
Air infiltration in single storeyed buildings:
Quality of construction a b c
Tight 0.15 0.010 0.007
Average 0.20 0.015 0.014
Loose 0.25 0.020 0.022

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖

V: wind velocity (m/s)

To: outdoor temperature
Ti: indoor temperature

ACH × Volume room × ρair

m
 inf = kg/s
3600
 Ventilation requirement
Air changes per hour (recommended values)
Type of building/room ACH
Auditoriums 8-15
Barber shops 6-10
Classrooms 6-20
Computer rooms 15-20
Restaurants 10-12
Hospital rooms 4-6
Kitchens 15-60
Residence 1-2
Workshops 6-10
Warehouse 2-3

If no data available then one can take a conservative value of 7.5 lps/per person
 Internal Loads
Cooling load due to “OCCUPANTS”

CLF for occupants depend on

1) Sensible load due to occupants, Qocc,s
the time of entry and no. of
Qocc,sensible = No. of occupants x SHF x THG x CLFocc hours spent in the room

2) Latent load due to occupants, Ql,occ

Qocc,latent = No. of occupants x (1-SHF) x THG
where, THG is total heat gain per occupant (W)
SHF = Sensible Heat Factor
 Internal Loads

Cooling load due to “Electronic Equipments”

CLF for equipment depend on
Qsensible = (Powerequipment) x CLFequip the time of them being turned
ON and no. of hours they were
turned ON.
 Example 7: Infiltration cooling load
Calculate the sensible cooling load (W) and latent cooling load (W)
due to infiltration of 30°C and 60% RH air into the conditioned
space at 25°C and 50% RH. The infiltration rate is 0.5 ACH and the
room volume is 75 m3.

Ans: Sensible load = 0.5 × 75 × 1.2 × (56 − 51) × 1000 =

63 W
3600

0.5 × 75 × 1.2
Latent load =
3600
( )
× 72 − 56 × 1000 =
175 W

107
 Example 8: Internal Cooling Load
Calculate the sensible cooling load (W) and latent cooling load (W)
due to 2 occupants inside a room. Both the occupants are seated.
Assume CLF = 1.0

Ans:
Sensible load = 2 × 100 × 0.6 =
120 W

Sensible load = 2 × 100 × 0.4 =

80 W

108
 Example 9: Total Cooling Load
Consider a room of Length = 4 m, Breadth = 4 m and Height =3 m. This
room has an external roof with Tsol,air = 70°C and U=2 W/m2.K whereas
the 2 side walls which are external having Tsol,air = 40°C and U=3 W/m2.K.
This room is occupied by 2 persons who are sleeping. The infiltration
rate is 0.5 ACH. The interior space is maintained at 27°C and 50% RH and
the outdoor is at 33°C and 70% RH. Neglect heat transfer through
internal walls and floor. Assume “light” elements for roof and wall.
a) Determine the total cooling load (W) on this room at this moment.
b) Determine the room sensible heat factor.

Ans:
 0.5 ×1.2 × 48 × ( 62 − 56 ) 
Sensible load =  2 × ( 4 × 4 ) × ( 70 − 27 )  +  2 × 3 × ( 4 × 3) × ( 40 − 27 )  +  ×1000  + [ 2 × 70 × 0.75] = 2465 W
     3600    
Roof 2 side walls    2 Occupants
Infiltration

 0.5 × 1.2 × 48 × ( 88 − 62 ) 
latent load =  ×1000  + [ 2 × 70 × 0.25] =
243 W
 3600 

2465
=
RSHF = 0.91
2465 + 243
109
Example 10: Cooling/Heating requirement
Consider a room of Length = 4 m, Breadth = 4 m and Height =3 m. This
room has an external roof with Tsol,air = 55°C and U = 2 W/m2.K whereas
the 4 side walls are external having Tsol,air = 15°C and U = 3 W/m2.K.
Neglect heat transfer through the floor. Also neglect the cooling load due
to occupants and infiltration. Assume “light” elements for roof and wall.
If the interior space has to be maintained at 25°C, should the AC provide
cooling or heating at this instant ?

Ans: Heating

110