ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Hardness of water
The property of water which prevents lather formation with soap solution is
called hardness of water. It is due to the presence of dissolved salts of Ca, Mg
and some other heavy metals. On the basis of hardness, water is of two types;
1. Soft water
2. Hard water
Soft water
Water which can form ready and permanent lather with soap solution is called
soft water.
Hard water
Water which cannot form ready and permanent lather with soap solution is
called hard water. Soap is sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acid which
when treated with hard water produces insoluble Ca-Soap and Mg-Soap (white
scum ).

Hardness is of two types.

1. Temporary (Carbonate) hardness
2. Permanent (Non-carbonate) hardness
Temporary (Carbonate) hardness
Hardness which will remain for a shorter period and can be easily removed by
boiling is called temporary (Carbonate) hardness. It is due to the presence of
bicarbonates of Ca & Mg. On boiling, soluble bicarbonate changes to insoluble
carbonates and hydroxides.

Removal of temporary hardness

1. Boiling
On boiling, soluble bicarbonate changes to insoluble carbonates and hydroxides.
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
 Mg(HCO3)2 → Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
2. Clark‘s process
In this method, calculated quantity of lime is added to convert it as insoluble
carbonate.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → MgCO3 +CaCO3 + H2O
Permanent (Non-carbonate) hardness
Hardness due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe, etc. are
called permanent hardness.
Removal of Permanent (Non-carbonate) hardness
1. Lime soda process
2. Zeolite process
3. Ion exchange process

Disadvantages of Hard water

1. Scale and Sludge formation in boilers
Boilers are used for the production of high temperature steam and are integral
parts of most of the industries, thermal and nuclear power stations. During to the
continuous evaporation of water in boilers, the concentrations of dissolved salts,
if present, increase progressively. Finally , the concentrations attain saturation
and at this point, the salts are driven out of water as precipitates, which stick on
the inner walls of the boiler. If these precipitates are in the form of loose and
slimy deposits, they are called sludge and if the precipitates are hard and
adhering coating on the inner walls of the boiler, they are called scales. Scale and
Sludge formation leads to decrease of heat transfer efficiency which results in
wastage of fuel. It also affects the boiler safety and may lead to explosion of
boiler.
2. Priming and Foaming in boilers
When a boiler produces steam rapidly, some particles of liquid water will also be
carried along with the steam. This wet steam formation is called priming.
Foaming is the process of formation of small, but persistent foam or bubbles at
the surface of water in boilers, which do not break easily. Foaming is caused by
the presence of oils, alkalis etc.in boiler feed water. Priming and foaming leads
to deposition of dissolved salts on the turbine blades and super heater which
reduces their efficiency.
3. It causes boiler corrosion
4. Hard water is not good for dyeing cloth.
5. It tastes bitter, but it provides useful calcium ions for the healthy growth of bones
and teeth. Hardness level between 60 to 100 ppm is recommended for drinking
water.
6. It produces stains in bathroom fittings.
7. It causes the wastage of soap in laundry.

Degree of hardness
Hardness is expressed in terms of degree of hardness. Degree of hardness is
expressed in terms of CaCO3 equivalent hardness. The concentration of
hardness producing ions and non-hardness producing ions are expressed in
terms of equivalent amount of CaCO3 and is called CaCO3 equivalent hardness.
The choice of CaCO3 in particular due to,
1. Molecular weight is 100.
2. Equivalent weight is 50.
3. It is the most insoluble precipitate in most of the water treatment processes.

Where HPS is hardness producing substance.

The same formula can be modified by replacing the equivalent weight by
molecular weight.

Let X be the mass of HPS, then

Units of hardness
The important units of hardness are
1. Parts per million (ppm)
2. Milligram per litre (mg/L)
3. Degree French (°F)
4. Degree Clark (°Cl)
5. Equivalents per million (epm)
Parts per million (ppm)
It is the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per million parts
of water.
𝟏
𝟏𝐩𝐩𝐦 = or 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐩𝐩𝐦 = 1
𝟏𝟎𝟔

Milligram per litre(mg/L)

It is the number of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per litre of
water.
𝟏
𝟏𝐦𝐠/𝐋 = = 𝟏 𝒑𝒑𝒎 or 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐦𝐠/𝐋 = 1
𝟏𝟎𝟔

Degree French (oF)

It is the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per 105 parts of
water.
𝟏
𝟏°𝐅 = or 𝟏𝟎𝟓 °𝐅 = 1
𝟏𝟎𝟓

Degree Clark (oCl)

It is the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per 70000 parts
of water.
𝟏
𝟏°𝐂𝐥 = or 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 °𝐂𝐥 = 1
𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Equivalents per million (epm)

It is the number of equivalents of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per
million parts of water.
 𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝐞𝐩𝐦 = or𝟔 𝐞𝐩𝐦 = 1
𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟓𝟎

Inter conversion of various units of hardness:

Water softening methods

The process by which hard water can be converted as soft water is called water
softening process. One of the very important types of water softening process is
called ion exchange process.
Ion exchange process
Ion exchange process is a chemical process where an ion from a solution is
exchanged for a similarly charged ion attached to an immobile solid particle
(naturally occurring inorganic zeolites or synthetically produced organic resins).
In the case of water softening by ion exchange method, it can be said that the
process in which the dissolved ions present in water are completely removed by
the help of some complex organic compounds (ion exchange resins) is known as
ion exchange method.
Principle
In this method ion exchange resins are used for the removal ions from the water.
Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers
with a microporous structure. The functional groups attached to the chains are
responsible for the ion exchanging properties. These resins act as ion
exchangers and remove all minerals from the hard water. Since they remove all
the cations and anions from hard water and make it completely free from ions, it
is also called deionization/demineralization.
 Ion exchange resins are of two types; Cation exchange resins and anion
exchange resins.
1) Cation Exchange Resins: The cation exchange resins are mainly
carboxylated or sulphonated styrene-divinylbenzene co-polymers. These
resins possess acidic groups such as –COOH or –SO3H groups and may be
represented as R-H+. The structure of cation exchange resin containing
–SO3H groups can be represented as shown in figure. These types of
resins exchange only the cations present in hard water with H+ ions.
2) Anion Exchange Resins: The anion exchange resins are mainly styrene-
divinyl benzene or amine formaldehyde copolymers containing amino or
quaternary ammonium groups. They possess basic groups such as OH - or
NH2 group and may be represented as R-OH. The structure of an anion
exchange resin may be represented as shown in figure. They after treatment
with dilute NaOH solutions become capable of exchanging their OH- ions
with anions present in hard water.

OR
 Procedure
The arrangement of the apparatus is in such a manner than it consists of two
chambers. One containing cation exchange resin and the other anion
exchange resin.

Hard water is first allowed to pass through the column containing cation
exchange resin. The cations present in hard water (Ca2+, Mg2+, etc.) get
exchanged with H+ ions of the resin as shown by the following reactions;

The water coming out of the first chamber thus contains free H + ions and is
acidic in nature. It is now passed through the column containing anion exchange
resin. Anion exchange resin exchanges the anions (Cl-, SO 42-, etc.) with OH–
ions of the resin as follows;

The H+ ions and OH− ions liberated from cation and anion exchange resin
columns respectively, combine to form water.
Thus, the water coming out of the exchanger will be free from all cations and
anions that were present in hard water. Hence, it is generally known as
deionised or demineralised water.
Regeneration of Resins
As the continuous use of the process of demineralization makes the resins
exhausted (exchange sites are block), therefore for further use, resins must be
regenerated.
The exhausted cation exchange resin can be regenerated by passing a dilute HCl
or sulphuric acid solution through the column. It again makes the site of ion
exchange active.

This column is washed with de ionized water to remove the Cl- and SO42- etc.
The exhausted anion exchange resin can be regenerated by passing a dilute
NaOH solution through it. The regenerated resins are ready for reuse.

The chamber is also washed with de-ionized water to remove Na+ ions. Thus,
regenerated ion exchanger can be used again.
Advantages
 By this process it is possible to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
 The water obtained by this process will have very low hardness (nearly 2
ppm)
 The resins can be regenerated and reused.
 There is no scale or sludge is formation.
 There will not be priming and forming.
Disadvantages
 The resins used in the process are quite costly, Hence, the process
becomes expensive.
 The resins need to be regenerated again and again, thus making the
process inconvenient and complex.
 If the water contains turbidity, it will decrease the efficiency of the
process.
Desalination
Water containing high concentration of dissolved salt with a brackish taste is
called brackish water. For example, sea water.
The process of removal of dissolved salts such as NaCl, KCl, MgCl 2, etc. from
water is known as desalination. The common method used for desalination of
brackish water is reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis
Principle
The spontaneous process, which involves the flow of the solvent from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane is
called osmosis. In this process, only solvent can flow and not the solute, which
develops pressure, known as osmotic pressure. But, when applying a greater
pressure than the osmotic pressure on side of more concentrated solution
reverses this process, which is called reverse osmosis. The flow of solvent under
pressure from more concentrated solution to solvent or less concentrated
solution through semi-permeable membrane is called the reverse osmosis.
Procedure

The desalination of saline water is carried-out in a reverse osmosis cell, which is

shown diagrammatically in figure. Saline water is added to the cell through the
water inlets. The chamber is separated from other chamber having some fresh
water by a semi-permeable membrane made of very thin films of cellulose
acetate. More recently, superior membrane made of poly methacrylate and
polyamide polymers have been introduced. A pressure of 15- 40 kg/cm2 is
applied to the sea water gently. The solvent or water starts flowing from saline
water to side of fresh water through semi-permeable membrane. Hence, the
reverse osmosis takes place. Fresh water obtained is taken out through an outlet.
Advantages
 This process is economical and convenient.
 It can be used at room temperature.
 The process can remove ionic as well as non-ionic dissolved salts easily.
 It is also effective in removing colloidal impurities present in the water.
 It is suitable for converting sea water into drinking water.
Disadvantages
 High usage of electricity

Removal of microorganisms (Disinfection methods)

The process of removing disease causing (pathogenic) microorganisms from
water are called disinfection. The chemicals used for this purpose is called
disinfectants. Common methods of disinfection include use of ozone, chlorine,
or UV light.
Types of disinfection methods
a) Chlorination
Chlorine is added to water either in the gaseous form or concentrated solution.
When chlorine is added to water, it dissolves to form hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). It reduces the alkalinity of water. HOCl being
highly unstable readily decomposes into HCl and nascent oxygen [O]. The
nascent oxygen oxidizes the microorganisms present in water by destroying
their enzymes.
 Factors affecting efficiency of chlorine
 Time of contact: - The rate of killing of microorganism is maximum at
the beginnings.
 Temperature: - As temperature increase death rate also increase.
 pH of water:- At lower pH, only a small contact period is required to kill
a major percentage of organisms.
Advantages
 It is economical and effective
 Storage is easy
 Can be used at low and high temperature
 Salty impurities are not introduced to water.
Disadvantages
 Chlorine, when added in excess, produces an unpleasant taste and odour.
 Less effective at higher pH values (more effective below pH = 6.5).
Break point chlorination
Break point of chlorination is defined as the addition of sufficient amount of
chlorine to kill all the microorganisms and to destroy them completely by the
oxidation of reducing matter, organic matter, and free ammonia and leave
behind free residual chlorine to continue the further disinfection.
If we plot residual chlorine against applied chlorine, we get a curve. The dip in
the curve shows the break point.
Stage I: - Oxidation of reducing compounds
Stage II: - Formation of chloro-organic compounds and chloramines
Stage III: - Destruction of chloro-organic and chloramines
Stage IV: - Free residual chlorine
Break point of chlorination indicates that the point at which residual chlorine
begin to appear.
Advantages
b) It completely oxidizes the organic compounds, ammonia and other reducing
compounds.
c) It removes colour, odour and taste from water.
d) It destroys all the disease- producing bacteria and other microorganisms.
e) It prevents the growth of any weeds in water.
Dechlorination
The amount of free chlorine required for continuing further disinfection is 0.1-
0.2 ppm. If over chlorination occurs, it‘ll produce unpleasant taste and odour in
water. This excess chlorine can be removed by passing the water through
molecular sieve or by stirring it with activated carbon followed by filtration.
Excess chlorine can also be removed by adding dechlorinating agents like SO2,
Na2SO3, sodium thiosulphate, etc.
The process of removal of excess chlorine from water is called dechlorination.

b) Using Ozone
Ozone is a powerful disinfectant agent which is used in gaseous form and
readily absorbed by water. Ozone is produced by passing silent electric
discharge through cold and dry oxygen. Ozone thus produced is highly unstable
and breakdown liberating nascent oxygen.

O3 → O2 + [O]
It is a powerful oxidizing agent and kills the bacteria and oxidize the organic
matter present in water.
Advantages
 Simultaneous removal of colour, odour, taste without leaving any residual
in water.
  Complete sterilization.
 Its excess does not cause any harm to water as nascent oxygen is unstable
and can be easily converted as molecular oxygen.

Disadvantages
 Expensive.
 Applicable only for small quantity of water.
 Microbial growth may again start in the treated water as it contains no
residuals.

c) Using UV radiation
When electric current is passed through a mercury vapour lamp enclosed in
quartz container, it produces ultraviolet radiations (200- 400 nm). These
radiations are absorbed by the microorganisms present in water which initiates
photochemical reactions at their DNA bases. Thus, the microorganisms are
destroyed by UV radiation.
The effectiveness of this method depends on the intensity of radiation and
extend of irradiation.
Advantages
 There will not be any unpleasant taste or smell in water as no chemicals
are used.
 Quick process
 All the pathogenic organisms are killed.
 Complete sterilization.
 It is mainly employed in swimming pools as disinfection using chemicals
may cause harmful effects to the skin of the people swimming.
Disadvantages
 Equipment is costly.
 Technical skill is required for this method.
 Applicable only for small quantity of water
Dissolved oxygen
It is the amount of free, dissolved oxygen present in a sample of water. Oxygen
enters in to water through air or aeration of water by wind. It can also be due to
photosynthesis of aquatic plants.

DO levels fluctuate seasonally and over a 24 hour period. They vary with water
temperature and altitude. Pure water at 30oC can hold only 7.8 ppm dissolved
oxygen at saturated condition. At 20oC, it can hold up to 9.2 ppm. This is according
to Henry‘s law which states that dissolution of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to absolute temperature. That is
solubility of oxygen decreases with rise in temperature and increases with pressure.
Cold water holds more dissolved oxygen than warm water. Water holds less
dissolved oxygen at higher altitude due to lowering of atmospheric pressure.
DO can be measured using titration or by dissolved oxygen meter.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD can be defined as the amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria for
oxidation of all biologically oxidisable matter present in 1L of sewage water for a
period of five days at 20 oC.
BOD is proportional to the amount of organic waste in water. As BOD increases,
DO decreases. So, BOD is an indication of the extent of pollution.

Significance of BOD
1. Larger the concentration of organic matter, greater will be the BOD.
2. BOD helps for finding the degree of pollution.
3. To check the quality of water.
4. Larger the BOD, greater will be the pollution. Thus, it also helps for pollution
study.
5. The demand for oxygen is proportional to the amount of organic waste to be
degraded aerobically.
6. When BOD is high, CO become low.
 Disadvantages
 The results are obtained only after 5 days.
 BOD gives only the case of biodegradable organic matter.
 The process depends only on the activity of microbes, which can‘treliable
completely.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
COD is defined as the amount of oxygen present in ppm, needed for the
chemical oxidation of all oxidisable impurities present in the sewage water
using an oxidising agent like K2Cr2O7.
Dichromate is strong oxidizing agent than oxygen. Hence oxidations of all
biologically oxidisable and biologically inert matters in the sample take place.
So, COD value will be higher than BOD value. COD test needs only three
hours, while BOD needs five days.

Significance of COD
1. COD values are greater than BOD values.
2. Pollution measuring factor.
3. Time period – 3 hrs
4. COD values not effected by toxins
5. Proposing standards for discharging domestic or Industrial effluents.

Advantages
 Analysis in lesser time
 Oxidation of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter occurs.
Disadvantages
 The quantity of biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter can‘t be
distinguished.
Sewage water treatment
Sewage water has to be properly treated before sending it into running streams.
Presence of biologically oxidisable matter (carbohydrates, proteins, etc.) in
water increases the BOD of the water. The sewage treatment is carried out to
reduce BOD of water. If high BOD water is sent to running streams, due to lack
of dissolved oxygen aquatic life get extinct. Sewage treatment is carried out
using an artificial process. The various steps involved are,
1. Primary treatment
2. Secondary treatment
3. Tertiary treatment

1. Primary treatment
Primary treatment of sewage water is done by mainly two processes. They are:
a) Screening
In this process, large solids and inorganic matter which are suspended in the
sewage are removed. Sewage is passed in upward direction through bar and
mesh screens to remove suspended and coarse solids.
b) Sedimentation
Continuous flow type sedimentation tanks are employed for this purpose. Most
of the suspended solids are removed by this process. Sometimes, chemical
coagulant is added to sewage before sedimentation. Coagulant forms gelatinous
precipitate, which can entrap small sized organic matter making them settle
down easily. Aluminium sulphate, alum, etc. are the commonly used coagulants.
Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3(Gelatinous precipitate) + 3 H2SO4
2. Secondary treatment (Biological process)
Secondary treatment involves the biological decomposition of organic matters
percent in sewage water. It can be done by two methods; Trickling filter method
and UASB process.
a) Trickling filter method (Aerobic oxidation method)
It is a type of biological treatment carried out using a special type of filter
called trickling filter. Trickling filter is rectangular in shape with 2m depth. It
is filled with crushed rocks, broken bricks, etc. on that microbial growth
 occurs and fitted with rotating distributor. The microorganisms react with the
inert packing material, and a gelatinous film is formed (contains
microorganisms) on the surface of filtering medium. Sewage trickles through
the filter with the help of rotating distributor. Then it moves down through the
filtering medium. During this movement, microorganisms start consuming
organic matter in the sewage. A more or less clear effluent is collected through
the under-drainage system.

During aerobic oxidation, the carbon is converted into carbon dioxide while
nitrogen is converted into nitrates and nitrites.

Advantages
 Highly effective
 BOD is reduced by 60-80%
 Low maintenance cost
Disadvantages
 The equipments are costly and thus capital investment is high
 Efficiency decreases when load increases.

b) Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) process

This is an anaerobic methane producing process. A blanket of granular sludge is
suspended in the UASB reactor. It is a rectangular tank made of concrete. In this
process, the effluent is fed from the bottom of the reactor so that it moves
upward through a sludge blanket. Sludge blanket is composed of biological
granules containing large number of bacteria. The suspended sludge filters and
treats the waste water. The anaerobic microorganism living in the sludge
breakdown the organic matter producing gases like methane. The rising gas
bubbles mix the sludge and waste water. The gases with biological granules
move towards the upper region of the reactor, where the gases only set free and
the granules come back to the sludge blanket. Gases are collected at the gas
collector dome at the top of the reactor. The upflow velocities are 0.6-0.9
m/hour.

Advantages
 High BOD reduction
 Low sludge production
 No need of aeration system
 Little CO2 emission.
Disadvantages
 Needs skilled operations
 Long startup time
 Constant power supply
 Difficult to set up

3. Tertiary treatment
This is the advanced phase of sewage treatment. By this process, nitrogen and
phosphorous content in the effluent get reduced. Three important processes
employed for this purpose are:
a) Precipitation
In this process, effluent from the secondary process is treated with CaO so
that calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) will be precipitated.
 b) Nitrogen stripping
In this process, ammonia gas is removed by passing the effluent through a
series of baffle plates.
c) Chlorination
Disinfection of effluent is done by treating it with chlorine.
Chlorine is added to water either in the gaseous form or concentrated solution.
When chlorine is added to water, it dissolves to form hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). HOCl being highly unstable readily
decomposes into HCl and nascent oxygen [O]. The nascent oxygen oxidizes
the microorganisms present in water by destroying their enzymes.

Flow diagram of sewage (waste water) treatment

E-Waste

Electronic waste (or e-waste) describes discarded electrical or electronic

devices. It is also commonly known as waste electrical and electronic
equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life (EOL) electronics. Used electronics
which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through
material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal
processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human
health effects and environmental pollution. The growing consumption of
electronic goods due to the Digital Revolution and innovations in science and
technology, such as bitcoin, has led to a global e-waste problem and hazard.
The rapid exponential increase of e-waste is due to frequent new model
releases and unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic equipment
(EEE), short innovation cycles and low recycling rates, and a drop in the
average life span of computers.

Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful

materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame
retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to
the health of workers and their communities.

Methods of disposal
There are a few different ways to dispose of e-waste that have historically
been employed; each come with their own set of environmental issues.

Landfilling
This refers to the practice of essentially digging a massive hole in the
ground, filling it with waste and then covering it back up with soil. While the
pits are lined with clay or plastic with a leachate basin to prevent toxic waste
from leeching into the surrounding environment, some substances such as
cadmium, lead, and mercury inevitably finds their way into the soil and
groundwater, causing contamination.

Acid Bath
Soaking electronic circuits in powerful sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid
solutions separates metals from the electronic pathways. The metals can then
be recycled and used in the manufacture of new products. However, the
highly hazardous acid waste needs to be very carefully disposed of to prevent
it from finding its way into local water sources – essentially trading one
waste disposal problem for another.

Incineration
A very crude e-waste disposal method that involves burning the waste in an
extremely high temperature incinerator. This has the twin benefit of
significantly reducing the waste volume and generating energy that can be
repurposed for other applications. Unfortunately, the process of burning the
components which make up electronic waste also produces vast quantities of
toxic gasses – including cadmium and mercury – which are released into the
atmosphere.

Recycling
Many items of e-waste can be dismantled and their component parts
repurposed into new products. E-waste recycling techniques can recover
precious metals from circuit boards and be melted down to make new
devices or used for other products such as jewellery.

Reuse
By far, the most environmentally friendly e-waste disposal technique is for,
where possible, devices to be reused. Many charities will gladly accept old
electronic devices that can then be refurbished and redistributed to people in
more disadvantaged communities.

Recovery

Resource recovery is the activity of separating materials from waste that can
be recycled into new products or used as an energy alternative to fossil fuels
and is actioned with the goal of diverting as much waste from landfill as
possible. It‘s a part of an important goal being adopted worldwide which is to
secure a waste-free and more sustainable future.

When complete avoidance and reduction of waste are not possible, resource
recovery is most important. This not only involves the effective recovery of
materials for recycling (processing waste materials to make the same or
different products) but also, their re-use (without further processing).

During the recovery process, the waste is processed by machine and hand
sorting to extract all recoverable materials for re-use and recycling. Materials
are separated and processed for re-use – soil is screened, masonry is crushed,
timbers and vegetation are mulched, while metals, glass, plastics, and
cardboard are sent for recycling. Whether it‘s gravel for a rural road, mulch
for landscaping in a city park, or a new glass bottle for soft drink, the bulk of
the waste stream is re-purposed while the remaining residue of non-
recyclable material is taken to certified landfill sites.

Chemistry of climate change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the sun‘s activity or large volcanic
eruptions. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of
climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and
gas.Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a
blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun‘s heat and raising
temperatures.

The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate change include carbon
dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal
for heating a building, for example. Clearing land and cutting down forests can
also release carbon dioxide. Agriculture, oil and gas operations are major sources
of methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land
use are among the main sectors causing greenhouse gases.
Many people think climate change mainly means warmer temperatures. But
temperature rise is only the beginning of the story. Because the Earth is a
system, where everything is connected, changes in one area can influence
changes in all others.

The consequences of climate change now include, among others, intense

droughts, water scarcity, severe fires, rising sea levels, flooding, melting polar
ice, catastrophic storms and declining biodiversity.

Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and

certain synthetic chemicals, trap some of the Earth's outgoing energy, thus
retaining heat in the atmosphere. This heat trapping causes changes in the
radiative balance of the Earth—the balance between energy received from
the sun and emitted from Earth—that alter climate and weather patterns at
global and regional scales.

Multiple lines of evidence confirm that human activities are the primary
cause of the global warming since the start of the 20 th century.Natural
factors, such as variations in the sun's output, volcanic activity, the Earth's
orbit, the carbon cycle, and others, also affect Earth's radiative balance.
However, beginning in the late 1700s, the net global effect of human
activities has been a continual increase in greenhouse gas concentrations.

This change in concentrations causes warming and is affecting various

aspects of climate, including surface air and ocean temperatures,
precipitation, and sea levels. Human health, agriculture, water resources,
forests, wildlife, and coastal areas are all vulnerable to climate change.

Many greenhouse gases are extremely long-lived in the atmosphere, with

some remaining airborne for tens to hundreds of years after being released.
These long-lived greenhouse gases become globally mixed in the
atmosphere and their concentrations reflect past and recent contributions
from emissions sources worldwide. Others, like tropospheric ozone, have a
r Some greenhouse gases are emitted exclusively from human activities
(e.g., synthetic halocarbons). Others occur naturally but are found at
elevated levels due to human inputs (e.g., carbon dioxide). Anthropogenic
sources result from energy-related activities (e.g., combustion of fossil
fuels in the electric utility and transportation sectors), agriculture, land-use
change, waste management and treatment activities, and various industrial
 processes. Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and various synthetic chemicals.

 Carbon dioxide is widely reported as the most important anthropogenic

greenhouse gas because it currently accounts for the greatest portion of the
warming associated with human activities. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally
as part of the global carbon cycle, but human activities have increased
atmospheric loadings through combustion of fossil fuels and other
emissions sources. Natural sinks that remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere (e.g., oceans, plants) help regulate carbon dioxide
concentrations, but human activities can disturb these processes (e.g.,
deforestation) or enhance them.
 Methane comes from many sources, including human activities such as
coal mining, natural gas production and distribution, waste decomposition
in landfills, and digestive processes in livestock and agriculture. Natural
sources of methane include wetlands and termite mounds.
 Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as
well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
 Various synthetic chemicals, such as hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and other synthetic gases, are
released as a result of commercial, industrial, or household uses.
 Many other gases are known to trap heat in the atmosphere. Examples
include water vapor, which occurs naturally as part of the global water
cycle, and ozone, which occurs naturally in the stratosphere and is found in
the troposphere largely due to human activities.

Each greenhouse gas has a different ability to absorb heat in the

atmosphere, due to differences in the amount and type of energy that it
absorbs, and a different ―lifetime,‖ or time that it remains in the
atmosphere.

Ozone layer Depletion

Ozone Layer Depletion refers to the thinning the Ozone layer in the
Earth‘s Stratosphere.The ozone layer is the layer present in the Stratosphere.
It absorbs the harmful ultraviolet rays that come from the sun. Moreover, it
causes harmful radiation that has a high concentration of ozone (O3) which
is harmful to living beings on the earth.

The ozone layer is basically present in the lower stratosphere that is near
about 20 to 35 kilometers above the earth. Moreover, the thickness of the
ozone layer may differ depending upon the seasonal and geographical
changes.

The ozone layer is important for the earth because it protects the earth from
the harmful ultraviolet radiation. This radiation comes from the sun and is
harmful to the earth‘s surface.

According to the studies done by the scientists the cause of the ozone layer
depletion is human activity. All the activities are done by human beings.
Through which the chemicals are made that contain chlorine or bromine.
These are basically called ODS that stands for Ozone-Depleting Substance.

The ozone layer depletion was observed by the researchers in the early
1970s. Furthermore, the ozone-depleting substances are said to be Eco-
friendly and they are very popular for the last some decades and are still in
use. These ozone depletion substances float and then reach the stratosphere.
Therefore, the formation of chlorine and bromine takes place and these
chemicals cause the depletion of the ozone layer at a very high speed.

They are capable of breaking down the molecules of the ozone layer. One
chlorine molecule has a capacity to breakdown thousands of molecules
present in the ozone layer, therefore, it results in the depletion of the ozone
layer.

The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include

chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and
methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting substances that contain
bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.

Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is

only when the chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not
react with ozone.

Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and
import of ozone-depleting substances and minimise their concentration in
the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the earth.
Sustainable Development
The concept of sustainable development has received much recognition
after the Stockholm declaration in the year 1972.

Sustainable development is the development which meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.

The three pillars of sustainable development are environment, society and

economy as shown in Fig.3.
Sustainable development should have the following features
1. Satisfying human needs
2. Favouring a good quality of life through decent standards of living
3. Sharing resources between rich and poor
4. Acting with concern for future generations
5. Looking at the ‗cradle-to-grave‘ impact when consuming
6. Minimizing resource use, waste and pollution

Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global

objectives established by the United Nations in 2015 to be achieved by
2030. The goals are intended to provide a blueprint for peace and
prosperity for people and the planet.

The 17 SDGs are integrated—they recognize that action in one area will
affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance social,
economic and environmental sustainability.

Countries have committed to prioritize progress for those who're furthest

behind. The SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, AIDS, and
discrimination against women and girls.

GOAL 1: No Poverty

End poverty in all its forms everywhere (eradicate extreme poverty

currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day.)

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages

GOAL 4: Quality Education

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong

learning opportunities for all
GOAL 5: Gender Equality

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation

for all

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for

all

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and

productive employment and decent work for all

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialization and foster innovation

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

Reduce inequality within and among countries

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and

sustainable

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

GOAL 13: Climate Action

Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

GOAL 14: Life Below Water

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development
GOAL 15: Life on Land

Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,

sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt biodiversity loss

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,

provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global

partnership for sustainable development.