TRANSLATING THE WRITTEN INTO THE VISUAL

An analysis of the illustrator’s role as conjunctional

author and translator of a written text

by

IMILE WEPENER

Student number: 120029

Major: Illustration

This research report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the Bachelor of Arts (Honours) degree in Visual Communication.

The Open Window Institute

February 2016

Study leader: Maaike Bakker

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................ iv
DEDICATION ................................................................................................... v
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the study ........................................................................... 1
1.2 Aims and objectives of the study ............................................................. 3
1.3 Research Question .................................................................................. 4
1.4 Theoretical framework ............................................................................. 4
1.5 Literature review ...................................................................................... 6
1.6 Research methodology ............................................................................ 7
1.7 Practical outcome .................................................................................... 8
1.8 Preliminary outline of chapters ................................................................ 9

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................. 10

2.1 Interpretation .......................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Post-structuralism ....................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Deconstruction ............................................................................ 11
2.2 Interpreting the written into the visual .................................................... 12
2.2.1 Visual translation ........................................................................ 13
2.2.2 The illustrator’s style ................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Intertextuality: the written and visual text .................................... 16
2.2.4 The author’s intent ...................................................................... 17
2.2.5 The reader ................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF ILLUSTRATIONS ........................................... 21

3.1 Little Red Riding Hood by The Brothers Grimm .................................... 21
3.1.1 W. Heath Anderson .................................................................... 22
3.1.2 Daniel Egnéus ............................................................................ 25

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3.2 The Iron Man by Ted Hughes ................................................................ 29
3.2.1 Andrew Davidson ....................................................................... 30
3.2.2 Laura Carlin ................................................................................ 31
3.3 Findings .................................................................................................. 34

CHAPTER 4: PRACTICAL EXPLORATION ................................................. 36

4.1 Die Boegbeeld by Crosbie Garstin ........................................................ 37
4.1.1 Children’s storybook ................................................................... 38
4.1.2 Accordion booklet ....................................................................... 39
4.2 Bad Blood by Arthur Rimbaud ............................................................... 41
4.2.1 Cards .......................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Sequential art booklet ................................................................. 42
4.3 Two Sisters of Persephone by Sylvia Plath ........................................... 43
4.3.1 Poster ......................................................................................... 44
4.3.2 Graphic Artist book ..................................................................... 45
4.4 The Tyger by William Blake ................................................................... 46
4.4.1 Anatomy book ............................................................................. 47
4.4.2 Stickers ....................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 51

SOURCES CONSULTED .............................................................................. 53

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Fig 1 W. Heath Robinson, Talking to the wolf, 1899 .............................. 23
Fig 2 W. Heath Robinson, Picking flowers, 1899 ................................... 24
Fig 3 Daniel Egnéus, Into the woods, 2011 ............................................ 26
Fig 4 Daniel Egnéus, Lost, 2011 ............................................................ 27
Fig 5 Daniel Egnéus, I’ll eat you up, 2011 .............................................. 28
Fig 6 Andrew Davidson, The Iron Man, 1985 ........................................ 30
Fig 7 Andrew Davidson, The Iron hand, 1985 ........................................ 31
Fig 8 Laura Carlin, The coming of the Iron Man, 2010 .......................... 32
Fig 9 Laura Carlin, The Iron Man, 2010 ................................................. 33
Fig 10 Laura Carlin, Collections, 2010 .................................................... 34
Fig 11 Imile Wepener, Ontmoeting, 2015 ................................................ 38
Fig 12 Imile Wepener, Davy Jones, 2015 ................................................ 40
Fig 13 Imile Wepener, Innocence, 2015 .................................................. 41
Fig 14 Imile Wepener, Desert, 2015 ........................................................ 43
Fig 15 Imile Wepener, Two Sisters of Persephone, 2015 ....................... 44
Fig 16 Imile Wepener, Light, 2016 ........................................................... 45
Fig 17 Imile Wepener, Dark, 2016 ........................................................... 46
Fig 18 Imile Wepener, The Tyger’s bones, 2016 ..................................... 47
Fig 19 Imile Wepener, The Tyger’s skin, 2016 ........................................ 48
Fig 20 Imile Wepener, The Majestic Tyger, 2016 .................................... 49

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DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP

With this declaration I wish to state that the research report submitted for the
Bachelor of the Arts (Honours) in Visual Communication at The Open
Window Institute is my own work. I further declare that a comprehensive list of
references in this research report contains all sources cited or quoted.

Imile Wepener

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DEDICATION

I wish to dedicate this research report to my family and friends who supported
me throughout this time of research.

v
ABSTRACT

Translating the written into the visual is an analysis of an illustrator’s role as

conjunctional author and translator of a written text, and how the visual text
has an influential impact on the reader’s understanding of the written text.

The research report explores the notions of interpretation of a written text by

the illustrator, and how his stylistic choice of visual translation of the written
text influences the reader’s understanding of the written text. The study
explores various theorists’ ideas regarding the notions of interpretation,
contextualised within a study of the poststructuralist mode of interpretation,
namely deconstruction. These concepts were further explored through a
comparison of two illustrated texts, each illustrated by two different artists to
see the difference of an impact a stylistic visual treatment of a written text can
have on the reader. A practical component was also formulated to explore the
notions of the illustrator’s interpretation and stylistic treatments of written
texts.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my study-

leader Ms Maaike Bakker for her guidance, support and commitment.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1 Background and motivation

This research sets out to explore the relationship between a written text1 and
the illustrator’s visual interpretation thereof, thus particularly focusing on the
influence that an accompanying illustration may have on a written text, in
which ideas are conveyed to the reader through the means of the written. This
research as such sets out to explore how an illustrator’s visual interpretation
and representation of written texts, or more specifically literary texts, can alter
the reader’s initial interpretation of the text when read in conjunction2 with one
another.

Within written texts, a dialogue is formed between the content and the
reader’s experience of the written text itself; this act of unfolding a text is as
important as the information being presented (Drucker 1995:3). It can be
argued that visual texts3 enhance the tension between the visual and written
information, as the interpretation of the visual text could possibly reshape the
reader’s understanding of the written text. As such, the illustrator can be
considered as a concurrent author4 altering the writer’s intention of the written
text through the re-interpretation (or representation) thereof. Thus, the
illustrator contributes a concurrent intertextual visual language that could
possibly enhance, alter, adapt and further inform the interpretation of the
written text.

1 In the context of this study, the word ‘text’ will refer to the written text and the visual text together,
being read and interpreted as one entity. Thus ‘written text’ refers to literature.

2 In the context of this study, ‘conjuction’ will refer to written text and visual content that is
simultaneously seen and interpreted by the reader.

3 In the context of this study, I employ the term ‘visual text’ to differentiate between the written and
visual content. It refers to an illustration that is created specifically to be presented in conjunction to a
written text.

4 The use of the word ‘author’ refers to not only to the writer of the written text, but also to the creator of
the visual text. Thus both the writer and illustrator qualify as authors of a text

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The focus of this research is thus on the visual text's role in communicating
information through an illustrator's commentary to the reader alongside the
concurrent written text. This study investigates how the visual text sets a tone
which mediates the written text, as the visual text has the power to influence
the reader’s perception or interpretation of the text.

Various ideas formed within post-structuralism are contextualised within this

study, as post-structuralists advocate the view that an endless amount of
interpretations exist to any given text (Seldon 1985:145). As such, no reader’s
interpretation of a written text is necessarily exactly what the writer intended it
to be. The reader’s own interpretation and personal reference system should
also be accounted for (Seldon 1985:145). The study therefore acknowledges
that each reader’s interpretation of the written text is thus essentially
subjective. The illustrator’s interpretation based on the written text can
therefore also qualify as subjective, yet the illustrations still aim to influence a
consensus of ‘agreeable’ interpretation between the reader and the text. The
illustrator therefore contributes his/her own personal interpretation to a text
whilst simultaneously advocating the author’s direct intentions of the written
text.

Susan Sontag (in O’Reilly 2014:6) describes illustration as a naïve and camp
form of fine art, and states that it is merely a theatrical explanation. Sontag (in
O’Reilly 2014:6) refers to the common misconception that all illustrations are
accompanying explanatory elements that merely mirror the text in a visual
manner. Sontag (in O’Reilly 2014:6) also insinuates that the visual text is
traditionally seen as an element that is secondary to the written text. This
study however argues that visual texts accompanying written texts have an
equal impact or influence on the reader’s interpretation of the written text. This
study furthermore argues that illustrations used alongside literary texts
become its own visual language and thereby introducing intertextuality as the
visual text is not necessarily secondary to the written text, and may be
regarded of equal importance in terms of the interpretation of the written
text.

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It can be argued that writers are generally seen as in-control of the reader's
interpretation as they are the originators of the work the reader is interpreting.
The writer is intensely aware of their choice of words, uses of vernacular or
dialect to enhance and convey the theme of their literature to the reader. Yet,
it must be kept in mind that even if the writer’s intentions are influenced and/or
altered by the illustrator’s visual interpretation, the reader’s interpretation
cannot always be controlled, which may result in the reader interpreting things
that may reach beyond the intentions of the illustrator and writer. Various uses
of words, slang and dialect in written texts; as well as colours, symbols and
compositions are used as semiotic codes to universally guide the viewer, and
may resonate differently with each reader, thus resulting in varying
interpretations and understandings with the same visual and written content
(Sontag in O’Reilly 2014:8). When exploring how a reader may interpret a
visual and written text, it is thus necessary to acknowledge the reader’s own
referential framework and to carefully consider how it may influence the
reader’s subjective interpretation.

This study thus enquires how the illustrator’s visual representation of a text
expressed through his/her own unique visual language and style can
influence and manipulate the reader’s perception of the written text. This
research is relevant to the field of Visual Communication, as it provides insight
into the relationship between the image and text, specifically highlighting the
role that the illustrator plays in the creative process of the production of
illustrated texts.

2 Aims and objectives of the study

The purpose of the study is to explore the conjunctional relationship between

written texts and visual texts, and to investigate how the visual text influences
the reading of the written text. This research therefore presents an exploration
of textual information within both written and visual texts, and seeks to
investigate how a visual text can influence the reader’s interpretation of the
text as a whole, wherein the written text and visual text mediate one
another.

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This research also provides insight into the role of the illustrator in the forming
of a visual text, by means of exploring his/her use of interpretation and visual
style. The research does however also consider the role of the reader and
takes his/her own referential framework and subjective interpretation of the
text into account.

Within the confines of the research, post-structuralist thought is applied,

focusing on the notion of interpretation within the context of the illustrator's
visual interpretation of a written text and the reader's understanding of the
mediated written and visual text. This research sets out to understand how
post-structuralism, focusing on the method of deconstruction, provides a way
of reading and interpreting that can affect the way in which readers
understand written and visual texts as a whole. For the purpose of this study, I
will apply this theory on to the visual and not only on the written texts.

3 Research Question

My main research question sets out to explore in what manner a visual text
influences the overall interpretation of the written text. Additional sub-
questions have emerged, investigating what role the illustrator’s stylistic
interpretation can play, as well as how the reader’s interpretation of the written
text (accompanied by a visual text) compares to the writer’s original intent with
the written text.

4 Theoretical framework

As the study focuses on the effect an illustrator's visual text can exercise on a
reader's reception of the written and visual text, the theoretical framework for
this study is based on writings surrounding post-structuralist thought. Post-
structuralism can be described as a philosophical school of thought that arose
in critical response to structuralism (Tompkins 1988:733). Post-structuralism
has its roots in linguistics, which analyses the way in which words are read,
interpreted and understood (Tompkins 1988:737). Post-structuralism’s
linguistic roots can therefore provide insight into how one reads the written

4
and visual text. Inherently implying that images can be ‘read’ and understood
in the same manner that written texts could. Post-structuralism challenges the
accepted manner of reading and criticism, thus going against any form of
governing structure or accepted form of interpretation (Veilbeyoglu 1999). As
such, Post-structuralism’s mode of literary criticism could assist in the
interpretation of visual texts, by understanding how the notion of interpretation
is achieved by both an illustrator and the reader. Post-structuralist literary
criticism argues that no text can have purely one meaning (Seldon 1985:145).
Each person’s interpretation of written and/or visual texts will diverge and
differ accordingly to their own personal reference system (Tompkins
1988:733). Thus any form of interpretation is an accepted one.

Jacques Derrida developed a mode of questioning which he referred to as

‘deconstruction’, to serve as a technique for uncovering the multiple
interpretations of texts (Veilbeyoglu 1999:2). According to Ellen Lupton and J
Abbott Miller (1999:3), deconstruction could simply be described as a mode of
questioning. Derrida introduced deconstruction in his book Of Grammatology
published in 1967, to initially expand on the uncovering of meaning within a
literary work, as its form and content communicate messages (Lupton & Miller
1999:3). Deconstruction argues that there is no single accepted interpretation
(Lupton & Miller 1999:3), thus it involves questioning various aspects of a text
to reach one’s own understanding or interpretation (Seldon 1985:169).
Derrida (in Deranty 2006:431), argues that true meaning is forever elusive
and incomplete in the sense that language can never perfectly convey what
the communicator means. This study thus intends to unpack this notion of
authorial intent, by comparing the writer’s original intent with the written text to
the interpretation of written and visual text by the reader.

When interpreting texts, four components become apparent (Tompkins

1988:733). These components as mentioned by Tompkins (1988:733),
include the subject (the reader); the framework of interpretation (the method);
the object (text and/or image); and the interpretation (when the reader applies
the framework to the object). These components of interpretation can assist in
the understanding of an interpretation of written texts or visual texts

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(Tompkins 1988:733). Post-structuralism offers a continuous act of
interpretation that it employs all these characteristics into a single continuous
act of interpretation (Tompkins 1988:733). This study of the interpretive
process links to the illustrator’s visual interpretation, which is then interpreted
again by the reader.

5 Literature Review

Literature on the history of illustrated texts is extremely dense, and goes into
immense historical detail on the importance of illustrated narratives. Thus for
purpose of this study, the emphasis is limited to more contemporary texts
referring specifically to the illustration discipline. These texts unpack themes
such as the role of the illustrator and his/her visual interpretation of the written
text.

Nannette Hoogslag’s article Think Editorial Illustration (2012), presents a

study that is merely focused on editorial illustration within the discipline, yet
the key ideas outlined in the article are still relevant to this study as editorial
illustration is also derived from an existing text, which operates in conjunction
with a visual text. Hoogslag (2012:7) principally discusses the key function of
an illustration (in this context a visual text), featured alongside of a written text
and states that illustration can be misunderstood as a purely aesthetic
principle, yet Hoogslag argues that the surface is not all purely aesthetic. The
visual text it is where the reader’s understanding of the entire text comes
together, providing the reader with a context to the theme through form and
style (Hoogslag 2012:9).

Paul Edwards and Carole Burns (2014:127) in their article The Space
Between: The Relationship between Image and Narrative in ‘Imagistic’ (2014),
describe illustration as “writing the visual”. This article expresses the idea of
the illustrator assuming the role of a conjunctional author, alongside of the
writer.

Concerning the role of an illustrator, the essay A Taxonomy of Relationships

6
Between Images and Text (2003) by E. Marsh and M. White states that when
an illustrator is interpreting a text, he/she becomes a researcher. The
illustrator has to look for meaningful segments presented in the text, to create
a visual summary that reveals the interpretative truth within the text, before
they are able to add their own authorial ‘voice’ (Marsh & White 2003:651). The
illustrator’s additional authorial ‘voice’ provides the communication of
additional ideas in conjunction with ideas found within the written text. This
notion of researching and communicating coincides with Hoogslag’s (ref?)
connection between an illustrator and translator.

Concerned with the notion of ‘style’, Sharon Bowes (2014), in her article The
Elements of Style (2014), investigates the role and importance of an
illustrator’s visual style, and further explains how an illustrator interprets
fragments of the written text and establishes new connections for the reader
by enriching the written content through introducing the accompaniment of an
illustrated stylistic interpretation to the text. The stylistic interpretation could be
attributed as a characteristic of the illustrator’s visual commentary on the
written text.

Lastly, Marc Bosward and Richard Levesley in their article Illustrated Worlds
(2014), motivate the role of the illustrator by stating that certain ideas intended
within the written text could not have been expressed unless it had been
interpreted within the visual text. Thus the illustrator’s interpretation and visual
style plays an important role in creating a visual text that could possibly
inherently alter, enhance and change the written text by changing the reader’s
contextual understanding.

6 Research Methodology

For the purpose of this study, a qualitative research methodology is applied.

The qualitative research methodology is applied as various texts relating to
the relationship and role of written and visual texts are referred to and
interpreted.

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The research aims to evaluate and consider the interconnected processes
relating to illustration and interpretation. Various illustrators’ works, or rather
examples of visual texts, that foreground these theoretical aspects relating to
the relationship between written and visual texts and the reader’s
interpretation thereof are thus discussed. Methods that various illustrators use
for interpreting a written text; such as illustrators that include personal things
from their everyday life within the visual text; will be analysed in order to
investigate how their illustrations influenced the written text.

7 Practical Outcome

In addition to the theoretical research, the study includes a practical outcome

that mediates and reflects the theoretical investigation. As part of the practical
outcome, the role of the illustrator’s stylistic treatment, manifested in his/her
visual interpretation of the written text is explored. For the practical
component of this study, a selection of poems including: Bad Blood (1873) by
Arthur Rimbaud; an Afrikaans translation of The Figurehead (1952) by
Crosbie Garstin; Two Sisters of Persephone (1956) by Sylvia Plath and The
Tyger (1794) by William Blake, are visually interpreted through the means of
illustration. Therefore the practical component mostly relies on the creation of
a series of visual texts, which serve to accompany the existing written texts.
Each of these illustrated visual texts is created in a unique illustration style in
order to show the influence of style within the visual text which ultimately
guides the interpretation of a written text.

Poetry is the focused source of written text. Poems have been critiqued and
written on extensively, thus the writers’ intent of the written text can be
identified and measured against the visual interpretation as well as reader’s
ultimate interpretation in conjunction with the visual text. According to Davis
Smalling (2013), poetry is a discourse practiced in symbols, and differs from
prose because prose explains while poetry merely suggests. Even the most
concrete statement within poems could be written as a suggestive notion
(Smalling 2013). Poetry can thus become a very abstract form of written text,
allowing enough room for imaginative visual interpretations, whilst also

8
providing enough contexts for the illustrator to respond to. Ultimately
illustrated visual texts are developed for four chosen poems, each featuring
two different visual interpretations showcasing the authorial role of the
illustrator and his visual text.

8 Preliminary Outline of Chapters

Chapter One provides an introduction to the research by providing a

background to the study and introducing its aims and objectives, as well the
theoretical framework employed to contextualise the research.

Chapter Two focuses on investigations into various theorists’ discourses that

explore the notion of texts and their visual counterparts, also contextualizing it
within the notion of post-structuralism and the interpretive method of
deconstruction.

Chapter Three presents an analysis and comparison of various works of

literature that have been illustrated.

Chapter Four presents a discussion of the practical output of the study,

discussing the output of visually interpreting poetry in various different stylistic
treatments.

Chapter Five aims to summarise the study and serves to provide a conclusion
regarding the relationship between the visual and written text, and the role of
the illustrator and his stylistic treatment of written text.

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 CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Within this chapter, the notion of interpretation will be contextualised under

the study of post-structuralist thought. When discussing the creation of a
conjunctional visual text for a literary work, interpretation becomes a crucial
factor in terms of engaging with the content. The role of the illustrator involves
interpretation from the written to the visual, similar to the role of an linguistic
interpreter, taking what has been written and adapting it to another language
that serves to explain to the reader.

2.1 Interpretation

Literature has the potential to provide a platform for the writer’s ideas to be
showcased (Olinyk 2009:163). Writing comprises of thoughts and ideas
originating from the writer’s mind, which ultimately enter the mind of the
reader via textual communication (Burns & Edwards 2014:128). When
developing a visual text to be presented in conjunction with the written text,
the illustrator’s role involves interpreting the written text in his/her own visual
language, also expressing his/her own additional ideas for the reader to then
reinterpret for himself or herself.

Post-structuralism has its roots in linguistics, which analyses the way in which
words are read, interpreted and understood (Tompkins 1988:737). Post-
structuralism’s linguistic roots can therefore provide insight into how one
reads a visual text, which inherently implies that images can be ‘read’ and
understood in the same manner as written texts. Language is made up of
words and those words refer to things, similarly to images (Tompkins
1988:734).

2.1.1 Post-structuralism

A theoretical approach towards ideas on artistic interpretation and a reader’s

interpretation from written and visual texts coincides with the ideas formed

10
within post-structuralist thought. Post-structuralism is described as a
philosophical school of thought that arose in critical response to structuralism
(Tompkins 1988:733). Post-structuralism challenges the accepted manner of
reading and criticism, thus going against any form of governing structure or
accepted form of interpretation (Veilbeyoglu 1999:2). As such, post-
structuralism’s mode of literary criticism could assist in the interpretation of
written and visual texts.

Structuralism started with ideas presented by Ferdinand De Saussure, who

described language as a way of understanding (Tompkins 1988:739). De
Saussure (in Tompkins 1988:734) also described language at its basis as a
structure or list of words, each equivalent to the thing that it names. De
Saussure (in Tompkins 1988:734) refers to a sign, in which the signified is the
concept and the signifier is the psychological image we create when
seeing/hearing the signified, thus all based on associations between words
and mental images. De Saussure thus inherently argues that each sign purely
has one meaning. Jacques Derrida (in Tompkins 1988:740) however argues
that pure intelligibility is elusive, and that that which is intelligible is merely
distinguishable from other counterparts within the framework, be it written or
visual.

Post-structuralism thus argues that no word, text or visual could have purely
one universal corresponding meaning (Seldon 1985:145). Each person’s
interpretation of written and/or visual texts will diverge and differ accordingly
to their own understanding based on their own reference system formed on
education and memories (Tompkins 1988:733). Thus any interpretation is an
accepted one.

2.1.2 Deconstruction

The idea of interpretation, within a linguitsic or visual context, is merely

described as a combination of conscious and subconscious modes of
questioning (Lupton & Miller 1999:3). Jacques Derrida (in Veilbeyoglu 1999:2)
developed a mode of questioning which he referred to as ‘deconstruction’,

11
which aims to serve as a technique for readers to uncover the multiple
interpretations of written texts. According to Lupton and Miller (1999:3),
deconstruction could simply be described as a mode of questioning. Derrida
introduced deconstruction in his book Of Grammatology (1967), to initially
expand on the uncovering of meaning within a literary work, as its form and
content communicate messages (Lupton & Miller 1999:3). Deconstruction
argues that there is no single accepted interpretation (Lupton & Miller 1999:3),
thus it encourages the reader to question various aspects of a text to arrive at
his/her own understanding or interpretation there of (Seldon 1985:169).
Derrida (in Deranty 2006:431) argues that true meaning is forever elusive and
incomplete in the sense that language can never perfectly convey what the
communicator means.

2.2 Interpreting the written into the visual

Primarily, the illustration (visual text) is employed to support the intent of the
author (the writer, publisher and illustrator) and simultaneously also serves as
a contemplative space for the reader as he/she forms his/her own
interpretation, further encouraging the reader to deeper explore the content of
both the written and the visual text (Hoogslag 2012:7). This communicative
and interpretative role of the illustrator could also be described as that of a
translator, as the illustrator takes on the role of translating the written text into
a visual accompaniment. The illustrated text could thus qualify as an
assembly of the writer and illustrator’s ideas (Olinyk 2009:169).

Since the invention of printing, visual texts have been placed alongside written
texts to explain, embellish or contextualise the written text (Drucker 1995:3).
Illustrations communicate with the written text in a way that is unique from all
other art forms (Wiesner 2012:vii), in a sense that the illustrations can prove
to be influential upon the reader’s understanding of the written text.

There seems to be this cultural assumption that all-important information is

contained within the written text and that the illustrations only serve as
decorative ideas, which are first and foremost grounded in the written text,

12
which the illustrator then translates into form and colour (The picture or the
story? 1981:59). The research of translating written texts into visual texts is a
process of having one discourse result out of another, forming together to
create one work (Olinyk 2009:163). The process of transmitting the written
text into the visual, presumes the coordination and correlation of two authors
(Olinyk 2009:164).

2.2.1. Visual translation

Individuals can understand and are able to distinguish between the meanings
of words by differentiation (Tompkins 1988:734). Thus, when looking at an
illustration, one may find meaning within images by decoding the illustrator’s
own visual language, as well as through identifying differences and similarities
between objects, characters and patterns. Hoogslag (2012:4) compares the
role of the illustrator to that of a translator, as the illustrator is capturing what
the text contains in addition to interpretative information into the illustration. If
the visual text would only mirror the written text, it would become redundant
(Hoogslag 2012:4). The visual text needs to translate the essence of the
written text in a manner that is truthful and at the same time exceeds beyond
what is written (Hoogslag 2012:6). The two texts work on different levels, but
yet become one entity working with different laws, the written text adhering to
the laws of linguistics, the visual text adhering to the laws of visual language
(Hoogslag 2012:7).

Book illustrations are examples of interspecific artistic translation, wherein an

illustrator has the ability to visually translate what has been written (Drucker
1995). When talking about the ways transferring one entity into another,
Umberto Eco (in Olinyk 2009:163) uses the term of transmutation. According
to Eco, transmutation implies alteration thus leading to changes and distortion
(Olinyk 2009:163). This can occur when the illustrator translates the written
into the visual, providing his or her understanding of the written text, thus
ultimately leading to a changed or distorted version of the original written text.
In most cases the illustrator’s focus remains on certain aspects of the original
written text, whereas others are omitted (Hoogslag 2012:9). Highlighting

13
certain aspects suggests a personal and subjective interpretation of a source
written text (Olinyk 2009:163), suggesting that the illustrator takes from the
written text only what appeals to him or her, ultimately influencing the reader.
Hoogslag (2012:10) addresses the double faceted functions of visual texts
and provides two principle functions. Primarily the illustration is employed to
sustain the intent of the authors (writer, publisher and illustrator), yet it also
serves as a contemplative space for the reader as he/she forms his own
interpretation, encouraging the reader to deeper explore the content of both
the written and visual text (Hoogslag 2012:7).

Before photography, when illustration was the primary visual medium, its role
was to help the reader realise, idealise and concretise an internal vision of the
content that was conveyed by words (Olinyk 2009:165). To this end,
illustrators visually mimicked a line or passage from the written text, resulting
in more literal representations (Heller 2014:11). Hoogslag (2012:8) notes the
importance of the visual text, and mentions that it is traditionally thought that
the written text drives the content as it is what the visual text stemmed from,
but the visual text is seen alongside of (or even before) the written text,
therefore the image could determine the success of the text’s entire
communication. Hoogslag (2012:9) explains that in order to translate, the
visual text needs to speak the same visual language as the reader,
understanding their codes and signs and is constrained by the visual literacy
of its audience.

The current role of illustration is much more interpretive, as it is not merely a

device used to explain or comment on the written text, but also serves to
reshape it by influencing the reader’s perception of the written text through the
illustrator adding his/her own stylistic treatment to it. Rather than showing
what has already been eloquently described in words, illustration presents
alternative perspectives to enhance the written text by adding dimension
(Heller 2014:11). An illustrator therefore qualifies as a co-author who
interprets the written textual information and transforms it into the visual text
(Olinyk 2009:166). The illustrator thus in a certain sense qualifies as both a
translator as well as a co-author, taking what he or she interprets from the

14
original written text and translating it into his or her own visual language that
in return adds to and shapes the interpretation of the written text (Heller
2014:11).

Illustration in conjunction to the written text opens up the presented context,

helps to shape it and creates an visual image for the reader (Olinyk
2009:165). The illustrator then chooses an appropriate stylistic manner in
which the textual information can to be further visually communicated to the
reader.

2.2.2 The illustrator's style

Each illustrator has a visual language with it’s own 'vocabulary' consisting of
marks and signs (Burns & Edwards 2014:129). Each illustrator has been
influenced by his or her own experiences, as well as by other works of art that
they have encountered. Illustrators tend to incorporate elements into their
illustrations that are intriguing to them, and which re-appear throughout their
body of work, such as a certain colour palette; themes or subject matter;
recurring characters and environments (Burns & Edwards 2014:129). Thus, a
visual translation of a written text can never be the same as another. Each
illustrator brings his/her own understanding (or interpretation) to the written
text, as well as elements of his/her visual expression or style. The visual text
possesses the same basis as another treatment, but each takes a different
form, within a new discourse, adding new meanings that are found and
established within this visual language (Olinyk 2009:168).

An illustrator is presented with a great deal of possibilities not only in terms of

realising his/her own artistic potential, but also with reference to the process
of visually translating a text and thereby investigating the written text in their
own unique visual language (Burns & Edwards 2014:129). An appropriate
stylistic method of visual storytelling has to be selected by the illustrator to
establish themes within his visual language through the manipulation of
design aspects to constitute the visual texts’ aesthetic (Bosward & Levesley
2013:93). The illustrator can employ style and semiology for meaning, as the

15
illustrator's style is based on a visual 'vocabulary' of icons and symbols that
allows for interpretation and communicates to the reader (Bosward &
Levesley 2013:93). An illustrator has to thoroughly engage with the written
text, and is thereby required to extract elements from the text to visually
interpret (Bosward & Levesley 2013:93). An illustrator may focus on certain
aspects of the text or might strategically decide to completely show the
opposite (Bosward & Levesley 2013:93). The visual text thus takes its visual
cues from the written source, visualising certain elements as well as referring
to the underlying ideas (Hoogslag 2012:98). As such, an illustrator creates
new imagery and forms new connections through making new associations
derived from the source, that ultimately influence the reader on a conscious
and subconscious level in terms of their understanding of the written text
(Olinyk 2009:170).

As a result, the more intricate the interplay between words and pictures, the
more intriguing the process of interpretation can become for the reader
(Olinyk 2009:167). The written and the visual texts are presented together, yet
there is also a form of dialogue and mediation that occurs as the illustrator
responds to the writer’s text. When pictures and words tell different stories or
when the written text consistently does not refer to what can be seen in the
visual text, the reader might be intrigued or influenced to understand the
narrative in a different manner (O’Sullivan in Olinyk 2009:165).

2.2.3 Intertextuality: the written and the visual text

Visual texts accompanying written texts have much more of a equal impact in
terms of their influence on the reader’s interpretation of the written text than is
traditionally granted to them (Hoogslag 2012:100). The visual text interprets
the content presented in a written text in a unique visual language comprising
of conscious semiotic and stylistic choices, suggesting that the visual text is
not necessarily secondary to the written text, but equally important in terms of
the interpretation of the written text (Hoogslag 2012:101).

Visual texts featured alongside written text are often misunderstood as a

16
secondary element, purely serving as aesthetic support. Together they form
an intertextual form of communication to the reader. Hooglsag (2012:8)
mentions that it is traditionally assumed that the written text drives the content
as it is what the visual text stemmed from, however the visual text is seen
alongside (or even before) the written text, therefore the image could
determine the reception of the written text’s entire communication. In order to
translate the content contained in the written text, the visual text needs to be
accessible to the reader, considering visual codes and signs that are
commonly understood, thus remaining constrained by the visual literacy of its
audience. Because of this visual dominance of the visual text over the written
text, it is the image that will probably first engage and direct the reader, thus
affecting the way in which the written text will be read and understood by the
reader. This presents a shape of meaning wherein the image could lead the
reader in terms the understanding of the written text (Hoogslag 2012:99). Yet,
the visual is suggestive and ambiguous in nature and demands interpretation
by the reader in conjunction with the written text (Hoogslag 2012:99).

The notion of interpretation, under the framework of post-structuralism and

deconstruction, provides a clearer understanding of artistic and reader
interpretation. The illustrator assumes the role of visual interpreter, taking
what was written in a linguistic form and translating it into a visual format. The
reader's process of interpretation, where he or she views the written and
visual texts in conjunction, deconstructs elements to gain a further
understanding of the texts. The visual texts do not necessarily need to fulfill
the culturally understood role of a secondary element within the reader's
deconstructive process, but together the written and visual text forms an
intertextual format that possesses an influential visual power over the reader.

2.2.4 The author's intent

According to de Saussure (in Tompkins 1988:739), language is pure

communication, yet the author’s intention cannot always be expressed to be
purely intelligible to everyone on the same level; this is also applicable to
visuals. The notion of the author’s intention is theoretically tied to the

17
interpretation we give to his/her work (Tanney 2008:229).

The connection between the author's intentions in writing or illustrating a work

of literature and the validity of interpretative statements about the text has
been debated. Anti-intentionalism implies the proposition that the textual
meaning is independent of the author’s control and is associated with the
literary principle that the poetry is impersonal, objective, and autonomous; that
it leads an afterlife of its own, totally cut off from the life of the author (Hirsch
1992:11). Intentionalists claim that a reader’s valid interpretation can only be
obtained through the application of authorial intentions and that the author's
intentions are significant and may even determine the true meaning of his or
her work (Mikkonen 2009:2).

In some cases the author's intentions are not accessible, as E. D. Hirsch

(1992:13) has admitted in his writings on intentionalism; the reader has no
direct access to the author's intentions if the author decides that it is not
important, thus the reader is forced to find his/her own meaning. All that the
reader can do is just decide for themselves what the most plausible
assumption or hypothesis of what the author meant with the written or visual
text, but if directly exposed to the author’s intention with his/her written or
visual work, it could apply an influence on the reader’s apprehension of the
work itself (Knapp & Michaels 1992:52). If the intention behind the work is not
known, the interpreter (reader) has freer reign in terms of interpretation as
they are not influenced or limited by what the author actually meant. If the
author’s explanation is confronted, the reader has the choice whether or not to
look deeper, yet it is still open to interpretation (The picture or the story?
1981:60).

One may also argue that a chosen illustrator’s interpretation directs the reader
to the preferred interpretation (Hoogslag 2012:98), yet an illustrator’s intention
may be to misguide the reader, intending his/her work to be ambiguous and
thus encouraging conflicting interpretations (Mikkonen 2009:10). This makes
the readers turn to the work itself and trust the internal evidence that it
presents (Mikkonen 2009:12). Thus by confronting the author’s intent, the

18
reader is withholding an opportunity to imaginatively interpret the written or
visual text for him or herself through deconstructing the work (Knapp &
Michaels 1992:55). If a visual text is merely mirroring the written, or
interpreted against the writer’s suggestions, it can become closed to the
readers as it does not provide the readers with the space to deconstruct it and
develop their own understanding of the text as a whole (Olinyk 2009:167).

Every individual has a different frame of reference formed out of experiences

and memories (Burns & Edwards 2014:129). A reader will never truthfully and
fully comprehend a writer’s communication, as memory is not a shared
experience. As visual and written texts are layered, they are made up of
intentions and are mostly the product of conscious thought and decisions, but
have to be subjectively and intuitively interpreted (Burns & Edwards
2014:129).

2.2.5 The reader

After an illustrator has transformed written textual material into a visual text
presented in conjunction with the written text, the reader in response forms
his/her interpretation of both written and visual elements together. Barthes (in
Hoogslag 2012:99) argues that understanding emerges through the co-
operation between the visual and written text.

The reader’s comprehension of the text supposes the establishment of

communication from its authors. Interpreting the written and visual text results
in the reader reflecting on the content, the reader’s reflections usually differ
from what was implied by the author as they are subjective to each individual
(Olinyk 2009:169). The cultural and social position of the reader should be
acknowledged as this generates meaning in response to the signs and
symbols in the written and visual texts (Bosward & Levesley 2013:95). The
reader derives understanding through interpreting the conjunctional dialogue
between what is written and what is visually shown (Bosward & Levesley
2013:95). Mikhail Bakhtin (in Olynik 2009:169) alludes to the term,
heteroglossia, located within linguistics, which implies the conjunctional

19
coexistence between two or more voices within a written text. In this case, the
reader interprets voices from both written and visual texts.

According to Hoogslag (2012:99) understanding originates from a conscious

analysis of both independent structures and the meaning between them, but
most importantly, it is also derived from a semi-conscious awareness of the
image that directs the interpretation. Thus an understanding of the notions of
artistic interpretation and reader interpretation is vital to the study. As such,
through the evaluation of the interpretive process contextualized within the
post-structuralist concept of deconstruction, a visual text can be seen and
interpreted as equally as a written text.

By the exploration of different theories regarding the interpretive process

such as the post structuralist method of deconstruction, I have linked both the
role of the illustrator and the reader’s influence to the interpretive process.
This serves to prove that the illustrator’s visual text could have an influence on
the reader’s interpretive process of the text.

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 CHAPTER THREE
ANALYSIS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Within this chapter, through the introduction of practical examples, I aim to

show how different stylistic treatments of visual texts developed for the same
written text can change how the reader interprets and engages with the
written content.

Through taking a written text and visually adapting it, an illustrator assumes
the role of a ‘visual translator’. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the
linguistic roots of post-structuralism provides insight into the reading of a
visual text, implying that images or rather visual texts, can be ‘read’ in the
same manner as written texts. Thus, when looking at an illustration, one may
find meaning within the illustration through decoding the illustrator’s own
visual style, as well as through identifying differences and similarities between
objects, characters and patterns (Burns & Edwards 2014:127). Within this
chapter, two well-known stories (written texts) that have been interpreted by
various illustrators are analysed. The selection of these storybooks is justified
upon the fact that each features an older visual interpretation as well as a
contemporary counterpart. The comparison of the two provided versions with
each other is demonstrated in order to arrive at two different visual
interpretations of the same written text. The two written texts are Little Red
Riding Hood (1690) by The Brothers Grimm and The Iron Man (1968) by Ted
Hughes.

3.1 Little Red Riding Hood by The Brothers Grimm

The idea that literature, especially folktales, are purely embellished warnings
and life lessons is embodied within the classic fairy tale of Little Red Riding
Hood, which serves as one of the artifacts to be discussed (Zipes 1993:7).
The folktale is based on the tale of a girl that is on her way to her sick
grandmother’s house, who encounters a talking wolf in the middle of the
woods, and is a tale that has been passed on from generation to generation

21
and which is well renowned within a Western context (Zipes 1993:7).

The basic elements of the tale were developed within oral storytelling tradition
during the late Middle Ages (Zipes 1993:18). Various tales were explicitly
intended for children, known as ‘warning tales’ (Zipes 1993:18). These tales
featured creatures such as ogres, cannibals, werewolves and wolves, all
portrayed as threats to children in the woods. According to folklorist Jack
Zipes (1993:19), the social function of such tales was to communicate to
children how dangerous it was for them to talk to strangers. Charles Perrault,
who also wrote fairy tales such as Sleeping Beauty, Bluebeard and Puss in
Boots, was the first to write down the folk tale around 1690 (Zipes 1993:25).
The tale was later translated and adapted by the Brothers Grimm in their
collection of fairy tales. In Perrault’s earlier versions of the tale, the little girl
outwits the wolf and escapes, symbolizing the child’s coming of age and
ability to tackle everyday problems (Zipes 1993:25). The Brothers Grimm later
somewhat changed the narrative and added other elements to the tale, such
as the girl being eaten whole by the wolf and a huntsman coming to her
rescue (Zipes 1993:25).

Illustrations have always been a crucial factor within children’s stories (Marsh
and White 2003), and from the first time this fairy tale was published it has
been accompanied by illustrations (Zipes 1993:25). As the tale entered
popular culture it has been adapted into various different styles of illustration
throughout its publishing history. I will be comparing two different versions of
visual texts developed for the tale by the illustrators W. Heath Robinson and
Daniel Egnéus.

3.1.1 W. Heath Robinson

W. Heath Robinson was regarded as one of the premiere artists from Britain’s
“Golden Age” of children’s literature illustration in the 1900's and his
illustrations inspired renowned authors such as C.S. Lewis, author of The
Chronicles of Narnia series (Vadeboncoeur 2000). With a background in
sketching for comics, newspapers and periodicals, Robinson developed a

22
style that marked him with a reputation as a good ‘line man’, implying that all
his images were devoid of color are merely consisted of linework
(Vadeboncoeur 2000). His illustrations create vivid contrasts and character
silhouettes reminiscent of intricate woodcuts (Vadeboncoeur 2000). Robinson
illustrated various fairytales, ultimately making him one of the most renowned
fairy tale illustrators, in the same line as Arthur Rackham and Edmund Dulac
(Vadeboncoeur 2000).

Figure 1 W. Heath Robinson, Talking to the wolf, 1899

(Talking to the wolf 1921)

Most illustrated interpretations of Little Red Riding Hood seem to follow the
same literally interpreted formula of the young girl with a red hood and basket,
talking to a large anthropomorphic wolf (Zipes 1993:7). Robinson was
historically marked as one of the first illustrators to show the title character in
a full hood and cape (Vadeboncoeur 2000), as opposed to previous
illustrators merely giving her a cap, as shown in figure 1 (The William Heath
Robinson Trust 2013). This is due to the fact that Charles Perrault’s original
title of the tale was Le Petit Chaperon Rouge and was translated into English

23
by The Brothers Grimm as Little Red Cap (Zipes 1993:22). The tale later
became culturally and universally known as Little Red Riding Hood (Zipes
1993:22).

Robinson’s visual text can be regarded as child-friendly, as the title character

is portrayed as a young girl, staying true to the tale’s origins (Zipes 1993:22).
The illustration (see figure 1) portrays her as a young innocent child fully
covered by her large cape, using her cape to obstruct the wolf’s view of her
basket. One can also observe that her facial expression and body language
indicate that she is untrusting of this wild animal. Robinson’s characters of
Little Red Riding Hood and the wolf are detailed and feature the usage of
pattern and texture (see figure 2).

Figure 2 W. Heath Robinson, Picking flowers, 1899

(Picking flowers 1899)

The character of the wolf is slowly introduced within the illustrations, showing
him as an approaching silhouetted figure that could be mistaken for a part of
the background (see Figure 2). Robinson’s visual text was also noted for the
fact that he did not portray the character of the wolf on his hind legs or
wearing human clothing as his contemporaries were doing with in their visual

24
treatment of the tale. Robinson made the conscious decision not to humanize
the wolf, rather portraying the wolf as a wild animal, thereby making the
character of the wolf more of a threat to the title character (Vadeboncoeur
2000).

Robinson’s visual text does not include the use of color, possibly the result of
printing restrictions of the time (Vadeboncoeur 2000). Instead of color he
creates vivid contrasts between the characters and environments (see Figure
1 and Figure 2).

Robinson frames the characters and environments in a very flat and direct
manner, not allowing for any sort of movement or distortion. His environments
are combinations of empty white spaces and dark silhouetted shapes, making
the reader focus on the detailed characters. This could also be used to show
the white space as a safe space for the title character, whereas the woods are
shown as a completely silhouetted and dark environment, indicating that the
forest is full of unknown dangers wherein the title character will not be safe
(Vadeboncoeur 2000).

3.1.2 Daniel Egnéus

The world that the illustrator creates can be seen as a quite unique and
personal space, containing memories of the past, personal experiences and
happenings. The world of illustrator Daniel Egnéus can be observed bearing
the marks of his life and imagination altogether (Carpenter 2011). Egnéus
creates complex illustrations that are filled strange characters, intricate
objects and whimsical backgrounds (Carpenter 2011) (see Figure 3).

In late 2010, Egnéus was commissioned to illustrate the classic fairy tale Little
Red Riding Hood by the Brothers Grimm (Carpenter 2011). The book is

25
described as more of a hybrid between an artist book5 and a graphic novel6,
as it is visually a work of art, as well as having a strong sense of narrative
from page to page (Skidmore 2013). Egnéus' visual translation stays true to
the Brothers Grimm’s gothic retelling of the folktale by using all the
characteristics and elements from the original tale, yet his drawings and
paintings lend an ethereal and romantic touch to the narrative as they make
reference to elements from real-life and conjure them within a fantastical
narrative, making the book more appropriate for an adult audience (Carpenter
2011).

Figure 3 Daniel Egnéus, Into the woods, 2011

(Into the woods 2011)

According to the Egnéus, a lot of time was spent conducting research on how
other illustrators approached the iconic fairy tale, especially the styles of older
illustration masters such as Arthur Rackham and Edmund Dulac were
carefully considered (Carpenter 2011).

5An artist book can be described as a book created by an artist, that is regarded as an
artwork in and of itself

6 A graphic novel can be described as a form of sequential art that is predominantly driven by
the visuals.

26
Egnéus (in Skidmore 2013) refers to his own method of illustration as “daily
overtime’’. He (Egnéus in Skidmore 2013) describes this as the notion that
everyday life and art is one inseparable whole, implying that parts of his
everyday life show up in his sketchbook, ultimately ending up in his final
illustrations. Egnéus (in Carpenter 2011) states that he strolled through the
streets and cemeteries of Milan and Venice and used some of the beautiful
classic Roman columns and ruins, dating back to 200 B.C. as inspiration.
Egnéus (in Carpenter 2011) mentions that the reader should not inherently
notice these elements, as they are merely there to create suspense in the
background.

Egnéus researched items of clothing and ornaments to incorporate within the

illustrations, such as the legendary red hood (Skidmore 2013). In this
fashionable reinterpretation of the story, Egnéus decided to make the
characters and settings more elegant and pompous. Egnéus achieved this by
dressing them in extremely elaborate and dramatic clothing and by having
them live in enormous castles, as opposed to the characters as poor medieval
peasants, as is usually shown (Carpenter 2011).

Figure 4 Daniel Egnéus, Lost, 2011

(Lost 2011)

27
Egnéus decided not to portray the title character as a small child, but rather as
a young woman, as seen in figure 3 and figure 4. According to Egnéus, the
tale's title character is intentionally shown as a virginal character, giving the
tale a sexual undertone qualifying the wolf as a sexual threat (Carpenter
2011). Egnéus attempts to foreground the emotional state of the main
character, highlighting her vulnerability and sexuality through the use of
framing and composition, by placing her within compositions where there is an
intense emphasis upon her, resulting in an isolated vulnerable state (add a
Figure here). Little Red Riding Hood is always placed as isolated within a
dense setting and appears to be glowing from within as the illustrator created
small splashes of dots and applied it only to her character, which
ultimately adds an ethereal quality to her (see Figure 4) (Carpenter 2011).

Figure 5 Daniel Egnéus, I’ll eat you up, 2011

(I’ll eat you up 2011)

Egnéus describes his stylistic interpretation of the classic written text as an

coming-of-age story about a young woman facing the dangers of everyday
life, physically embodied within the character of the wolf (Carpenter 2011).
As opposed to the Robertson’s visual interpretation, Egnéus decided to

28
portray the character of the wolf as a completely humanized anthropomorphic
character. He is shown as having a human-body with elegant clothing, yet still
features the head of a wolf (see Figure 5). This could allow the reader to view
him as a mentally equal character to the girl, as he is not shown as a
completely wild animal, yet his head is still that of a wolf. Egnéus’ illustrations
within the visual text allow for a more dramatic interpretation, as his
compositions consistently portray movement throughout, such as the wolf
pouncing out of the grandmother’s bed (see Figure 5).

Reviewing the differences between the two discussed visual interpretations of

Little Red Riding Hood, Egnéus’ visual text possesses more of an abstract
dreamlike atmosphere and is seemingly aimed at a more mature audience,
allowing for the reader to interpret the written text in a increasingly mature
context from what it is originally known. Robinson’s interpretation features a
classic feel, reminiscent of illustrations that are usually paired with folktales
such as this. It is a more literal interpretation of the written narrative allowing
for the viewer to view the story as The Brothers Grimm seemingly intended
it.

3.2 The Iron Man by Ted Hughes

Ted Hughes’ science fiction novel The Iron Man was first published in 1968,
and describes the unexpected arrival of a giant iron man of unknown origin
who steals The Guardian 2014). The novel is described as a modern fairy tale
as the novel was written at the height of the Cold War, showing the story as a
parable of peace, a warning against warfare, and a reminder of the
vulnerability within humanity that unites us beneath the surface (Popova
2015). The novel's description has historical echoes of the time known as the
'Space Age', as it also shows the contradicting universal enthusiasm and
skepticism of space exploration (Popova 2015). The first edition of the novel
was originally accompanied by illustrations by George W. Adamson, and was
also later illustrated by Andrew Davidson, Dirk Zimmer and most recently
Laura Carlin (The Guardian 2014).

29
3.2.1 Andrew Davidson

Illustrator Andrew Davidson illustrated the novel in 1985. His illustrations are
the most frequently associated with the novel, as they were also used as the
visual stylistic reference for the novel’s film adaptation in 1999 (The Guardian
2014). Author Hughes and illustrator Davidson won the Kurt Maschler Award
for The Iron Man in 1985. The British award recognises the "work of
imagination for children, in which text and illustration are integrated so that
each enhances and balances the other” (Andrew Davidson 2015).

Figure 6 Andrew Davidson, The Iron Man, 1985, Etching

(The Iron Man 1985)

Davidson’s stylistic interpretation of the novel was known for its realistically
dramatic detailed etched illustrations, giving the fictional novel a sense of
realism, as shown in Figure 6 (Andrew Davidson 2015). Davidson’s stylistic
interpretation highlighted the novel’s scary and dramatic qualities through
creating movement within his compositions by showing figures in action. He
also used extreme levels of contrast to enhance or obscure certain elements,
providing the novel with a scary and serious undertone, resulting in the reader
experiencing an intense anticipated reaction to the narrative (see Figure 7).

30
This stylistic approach might influence the reader to view the story from the
perspective of the humans, viewing the character of the iron man as a strange
foreign and intrusive subject.

Figure 7 Andrew Davidson, The Iron hand, 1985, Etching

(The Iron hand)

3.2.2 Laura Carlin

In 2010, the London-based illustrator Laura Carlin was commissioned

by Walker Books to illustrate a special edition of The Iron Man, imbuing the
classic with new life (Popova 2015). Within the illustrations themselves, Carlin
uses a more contemporary abstracted style to contrast the serious tone of the
written narrative. Carlin’s stylistic interpretation displays a graphic quality due
to her use of bold colours. The colours also play a symbolic role within
Carlin’s visual text of The Iron Man, as he is depicted as changing colours
throughout the procession of the novel, showing that he as a character is
evolving throughout the narrative. Carlin’s illustrations further seem to give the
Iron Man a sense of character within the visual text, as opposed to the written
text that merely describes him as a stranger or an object. The iron man is not
portrayed as a large iron robotic figure, as in the previous interpretation.

31
Instead, he is shown as a large humanoid figure not pertaining any robotic
characteristics as portrayed within the written text (as seen in figure 8). This
gives the character a more humanised quality, thus the reader is able to be
more compassionate towards the character.

Figure 8 Laura Carlin. The coming of the Iron Man, 2010

(The coming of The Iron Man 2010)

Carlin’s use of raw traditional methods and materials of illustrating and mark
making by use of crayon and collage, plays contrastingly well alongside
Hughes’ serious themes within his written text. The mediums provide a further
sense of playfulness to the novel, as it is a young boy that narrates the written
text.

Carlin explores different approaches to composition from page to page within

her layout of The Iron Man. Carlin utilises white space as a conceptual
element within the compositions portraying the human world, contrasting that
with the large bold silhouetted shape of the Iron Man (as seen in figure 8).
The title character of the Iron Man is also framed in a unique manner, in

32
comparison to Davidson’s visual interpretation of the novel. In Carlin’s
illustrations, the Iron Man appears as a bold and graphic figure, as thin and
substantial as a sheet of steel, showing how simultaneously dangerous and
innocent he can be within the narrative of the novel itself.

Figure 9 Laura Carlin. The Iron Man, 2010

(The Iron Man 2010)

The illustrations present the reader with a contrasting view of the written
narrative, by focusing on how the Iron Man views the strange new human
world, rather than how the he is viewed by the human as is narrated in the
written text by the young boy (see figure 9). This could lead to the reader
identifying with the main character immediately upon him being introduced as
the protagonist within the narrative, as opposed to the written text, which
initially portrays him as an unknown malevolent destructive figure. The human
characters are also never closely focused upon within the illustrations; they
are shown as tiny figures on each layout.

The humans can be described a tiny community whose technological

achievements and conflicts with the Iron Man are acted out, yet this is not the
central struggle explored within the visual text, as instead Carlin chooses to
rather focus on the Iron Man’s conflict with understanding and coming to

33
terms with this new world he finds himself in (see Figure 10).

Figure 10 Laura Carlin. Collections, 2010

(Collections 2010)

The manner in which a narrative is told visually has become apparent within
my analysis of the two visual interpretations of The Iron Man. Davidson’s
dramatic and literal interpretation of The Iron Man (year of his book) makes
the reader view the narrative as is set out in the written text. The character of
the Iron Man is shown as a mysterious and destructive figure as we see the
narrative from the human’s point of view. Carlin’s interpretation frames the
narrative from a completely different angle than it is in the written text. By
visually shifting the point of view of the narrative, Carlin enables the reader to
see the Iron man as a fully-fledged character, and not a mysterious figure.
Carlin’s further use of playful mediums and compositions imbues the story
with a more child-friendly quality as we can see the tale from the young boy’s
point of understanding of the situations within the narrative.

3.3 Findings

By reviewing and comparing different visual texts derived from the same
written text, it has become apparent that the visual text can have an immense

34
impact on the reader’s general understanding and perception of the presented
narrative (written text). By interpreting elements from the written text and
using methods such as: the framing of the characters and environments; the
point of view from which the narrative is portrayed; the use of colour
symbolism and the use of composition it is clear that the use of visuals can
have an impact on how the written text is perceived by the reader.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR
PRACTICAL EXPLORATION

Within this chapter the practical component of my study is explored. As the

illustrator becomes the mediator of the reader’s first impression of the text,
he/she takes on the role of a translator with the purpose of guiding the viewer
through the written text by means of visual clues within the visual text
whereby the written text unfolds to the reader (quote). By drawing connections
between visual elements inherent in the visual text and the content presented
in the original written text, the illustrated visual text can serve as an interesting
space for the exploration of style, mediums and techniques.

4. Poetry

To complement the research component of my study, the practical component

is based on developing a series of visual interpretations of a selection of
written texts. Within the confines of my research, illustration-based visual texts
are developed for a series of poems.

Poetry was chosen as the focus for literary works, as information on the
authorial intent and critical analysis of published poems are easily accessible.
The authorial intent of each selected poem was considered alongside of the
creation of the visual aspect by either challenging, contradicting or submitting
to the authorial intent.

As part of the practical component, each poem features two separate visual
texts to prove the extent that the illustrator’s visual style’s impacts on the
reader’s understanding of the written text, as each treatment differs in terms
of style, concept and presentation. Each of the visual texts contains a different
visual illustration style and is created in a different format to demonstrate how
elements such as style, layout, and format might influence the reader’s
interpretive process and can exert influence over how meaning is
communicated within these elements.

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The four chosen poems are: Bad Blood by Arthur Rimbaud; Die Boegbeeld by
Crosbie Garstin; Two Sisters of Persephone by Sylvia Plath and The Tyger by
William Blake.

4.1. Die Boegbeeld by Crosbie Garstin

This poem was originally titled The Figure-Head, a salt sea yarn by Crosbie
Garstin in 1922, published in The Ballad of the Royal Ann collection and
translated into Afrikaans by Magda van Biljon in 1995 (Tovey 2012). The
poem presents a narrative of a “boegbeeld” (translated from Afrikaans, a
figurehead), who was originally carved as a saintly sculpture to be placed
within a church. The figurehead, however, was painted as a soldier and sold
to a ship, and as the ship sailed a mermaid spotted him. Wanting the figure for
herself, she asked her father Davy Jones to sink the ship with a storm
(Garstin 1926:v).

Davy Jones is from legendary sailor lore, known as a location when referring
to Davy Jones' Locker. It is merely a metaphorical device to describe the
bottom of the sea. Within the context of the poem, the writer appropriated the
metaphor as a mythological sea king and father to the mermaid character
(The Way Of The Pirate 2016). The figurehead was ultimately forced to live
with the mermaid under the sea, although he still thinks of himself as a saint,
thus not giving in to his forced new life or to the mermaid's seductions
(Garstin 1926:v).

Garstin originally intended this specific poem to evoke a feeling of longing

(Tovey 2012). Concerning the authorial intent, Garstin described the narrative
within the poem as “…a metaphor for holding on to your true identity, no
matter what elements may seduce you…” (Tovey 2012). Within a conceptual
sense, one can presume the figure is denied his true heritage as a saintly
sculpture and forced to become a soldier by means of physically changing his
appearance (Tovey 2012). The mermaid could be viewed as a seductive
figure, a metaphor for lust and desire. The author shows how the figurehead

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clings to his morals and identity, believing himself to be a saint (Tovey
2012).

4.1.1 Children’s Storybook

Due to the poem’s strong descriptive and narrative quality, for the first
illustrated interpretation the format of a children’s storybook was chosen. The
poem’s structure lends itself to every paragraph forming a scene within the
narrative, thus each paragraph has it’s own illustrated counterpart. Within this
format the reader can engage with each paragraph of the written poem and
connecting visual text coherently.

Figure 11 Imile Wepener, Ontmoeting, 2015. Gouache on Fabriano,

250mm x 300mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Ontmoeting 2015)

The style of the children’s book adaptation of Die Boegbeeld features a more
traditional approach to contemporary illustration to portray a more playful
environment for the narrative. Six gouache paintings were made to cohere
with the six paragraphs, along with two panoramas portraying the separate
land and underwater environments and three smaller illustrations portraying
smaller objects such as a skull, the mermaid’s face and a bucket of paint.

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Within the visual text, colour symbolism was used within the illustration to
assign various elements of the narrative to a colour. The mermaid is always
shown as blue to further elaborate that she is part of the ocean. The
figurehead is depicted in bright orange, as many vintage soldier uniforms
include warmer colours, such as red (see figure 11).

Various symbols and visual cues were further used within the visual text that
were not mentioned within the original written text, such as the figurehead’s
hands always being in the pose of praying showing that he still thinks of
himself as saintly, and the mermaid’s hair becoming a wave-like shape
forming the storm that sinks the figurehead’s ship showing that she is
responsible. Neither of the other characters nor the figurehead’s ship is ever
shown within the visual text to portray how focused the narrative is on the two
main characters. The ocean becomes a character of it’s own within the written
narrative, thus it was decided to never fully show the ocean surface in a direct
manner. The ocean is instead ambiguously suggested by the stars reflecting
on the surface of the water, forming a non-visible line between the sky and the
ocean, making the narrative appear as if it is occurring in outer space. The
moon is used as an abstract metaphorical shape as it is always shown behind
the figure’s head appearing as a halo referring the idea within the written text
that he still thinks of himself as a saintly figure (see figure 11).

4.1.2 Accordion booklet

The second illustrative interpretation developed for Die Boegbeeld (1922), is

presented in a format of a long accordion booklet. The poem’s main theme of
identity and heritage through the metaphor of the dissatisfied figurehead
complements the illustrated format that will lead in a cycle, as the last
illustration will directly follow to the first illustration.

Various elements of the written narrative were directly incorporated within the
visual text, such as the flying fish that follow the mermaid as pets. The
detailed description of the mermaid’s clothes within the written narrative is

39
ignored within this visual interpretation, rather showing her as a naked figure.
This serves to present how pure of a creature she is as opposed to the
figurehead who was literally covered in paint to become something else. The
figurehead’s paint starts out as orange but as he encounters the mermaid he
becomes bluer as the frames develop, symbolizing that he is changing.

Figure 12 Imile Wepener, Davy Jones, 2015. Digital artwork,

150mm x 900mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Davy Jones 2015)

The lines of the ocean waves become a metaphorical notion for development
of the narrative, as the lines start out gently and become more rapid as the
narrative continues (see figure 12). The lines of the ocean further become an
entity on it’s own as it is used by the mermaid as a form of transportation, as
well as by Davy Jones to sink the figurehead’s ship.

The final accordion booklet is screen-printed in two colours. Screen-printing is

the chosen medium, as when two colors overlap within screen-printing a new
color develops, this symbolizes how the mermaid and the figurehead’s paths
overlapped within the written narrative.

Die Boegbeeld’s two separate visual interpretations will have different

influences on the reader. The storybook interpretation contextualizes the

40
themes of the poem within a children’s book, focusing the reader’s
understanding on the characters within the storybook. The accordion booklet
asks the viewer follow the flow of narrative, as the lines of the ocean literally
move the narrative along.

4.2 Bad Blood by Arthur Rimbaud

Arthur Rimbaud originally wrote this poem in French for his collection of
poems titled Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell), in 1873 (Poetry
foundation 2015). This notably existential poem describes the narrator's
ancestry and its supposed effect on his morality and future happiness (Kline
2002). The poem refers to the narrator’s peasant upbringing and his French
heritage. According to the poet, it also makes reference to conflicts and
retributions that evoked the Paris Commune of 1871 and the revolutionary
spirit lingering when he first arrived in the city (Poetry foundation 2015).

4.2.1 Cards

Figure 13 Imile Wepener, Innocence, 2015. Digital artwork,

300mm x 210mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Innocence 2015)

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The first illustrated interpretation (visual text) features an added parallel
narrative that is not directly present in the written text, to help visually explore
abstract elements featured throughout the poem. The self-initiated parallel
narrative presented in the visual text features a chimpanzee that is forced to
live as a human, instead longing for a new life as a wild animal within the
jungle. The visual text is presented in the format of a series of cards, in order
to highlight the notion that each line of the poem could potentially allude to a
different or independent meaning to a reader, yet still forms part of a whole
poem with an overarching theme.

The content of these illustrated postcards show the chimpanzee questioning

and imagining what he would have to do or give up in order to reach this ideal
life as well as alluding how this new life as a wild creature would be (see
Figure 13). This emphasises the concept of striving for something better,
described as the Utopian ideal that could never be accomplished. The final
postcard immediately shows the chimpanzee where he finds himself within his
ideal context, as a free and wild creature, leaving the reader to question
whether or not he actually did leave the human world or if he is merely still
daydreaming about his own utopia.

4.2.2 Sequential art booklet

For the second visual interpretation I chose to visually elaborate the

metaphorical notions presented within the poem. Creating imagery visually
linking to the words used within the poem, such as the use of blood and
placing the narrative within a desert, both being directly mentioned within the
written text. A comic or sequential art approach, featuring frames to suggest a
narrative, was chosen to show the change in identity evolution of a non-
specific humanoid character travelling through spaces changing as he or she
goes along various environments seemingly unsatisfied (see figure 14).
The employment of a sequential style booklet is merely to enhance a
dichotomous view for the reader. The use of unconventional sequential art
frames could further promotes the metaphorical content of the poem albeit
within a more literal interpretation of the written text.

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 Figure 14 Imile Wepener, Desert, 2015. Digital artwork,
300mm x 210mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Desert 2015)

The first visual interpretation in the form of the cards invite the viewer to focus
on each card’s visual and written text and their role within the larger
narrative. The sequential approach invites the reader to explore the visual
text upon a more philosophical and existential manner as was intended with
the original written text.

4.3 Two Sisters of Persephone by Sylvia Plath

American poet Sylvia Plath wrote Two Sisters of Persephone in 1956 (Poetry
Foundation 2015). The poem’s content and structure involves the description
of two girls who are seemingly opposite in nature. The first sister is described
as independent, yet looked down on by society, whilst the second sister is
dependent on others and loved by everyone (Elite Sills 2013). The poet
describes the two sisters as metaphorically depicting dualities or dual
personalities existing within one individual (Poetry Foundation 2015). The title

43
refers to the Greek goddess Persephone, who is the Queen of the
Underworld, and certain details of the poem relate to her myth, which is a
symbol of the revolving cycle of life and paths chosen (Poetry Foundation
2015). Since the poem revolves around the idea of two contrasting
personalities following different paths, the title is able to relate to the deeper
conceptual descriptions within the poem (Elite Skills 2013). Plath places
constant emphasis on the two dualities, such as light and darkness, and
fertility and infertility to compare the two sides of the individual. The uses of
several antitheses successfully compare and contrast the lives of these two
sides of one individual (Elite Skills 2013).

4.3.1 Poster

For the first illustrated visual text, the conceptual treatment foregrounds
imagery of two girls within a house. The girls become physical embodiments
presenting the two different dualities and the house becomes a metaphorical
representation of the individual that they both reside in (see figure 15)

Figure 15 Imile Wepener, Two Sisters of Persephone, 2015. Digital artwork,

594mm x 420mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Two Sisters of Persephone 2015)

44
The girls are shown as giants within the house in uncomfortable poses, linking
to the conceptual theme of the written text, portraying various identities within
one structure. The stylistic choice for this illustration involves a more
surrealistic and abstract use of style, as the poem is an extremely realistic
description, which allows for a unique artistic visual interpretation for the
illustrator. The girls almost merge into the house, making the barrier between
human and object indistinguishable, as they are all part of one individual or
rather entity (see figure 15).

4.3.2 Graphic artist book

For the second interpretive work of Two Girls Of Persephone, presents a

more abstract approach was chosen. Two abstracted illustrations were
created to signify the two separate entities as described within the written
text.

Figure 16 Imile Wepener, Light, 2016. Digital artwork,

300mm x 140mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Light 2016)

The visual text takes some of the described elements within the poem
abstracting them to become something else to the reader, yet forming a

45
shape that signifies a humanized figure (see figures 16 and 17). The elements
were chosen due to their role within the poem's descriptive narrative.

Figure 17 Imile Wepener, Dark, 2016. Digital artwork,

300mm x 140mm. Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(Dark 2016)

Shapes are laser cut out from the two compositions to allow elements from
the other composition to show through to the viewer becoming a part of the
top layer composition. This enhances the notion that elements from the one
‘entity’ will influence the other.

The first interpretation asks the reader to discover the labyrinthine structure of
the two girls within the house, opposing the written text in which the
characteristics of the girls are directly listed. The second interpretation
distinctly portrays the two separate discussed girls as abstracted objects,
whilst showing that they become one figure with the use of the laser cut out
elements, linking the two abstracted girls together.

4.4 The Tyger by William Blake

English poet William Blake wrote The Tyger in 1794 for his Songs of

46
Experience collection. The poem is a contrasting sister poem to Blake’s The
Lamb (1789) from his Songs of Innocence collection (1789), which also
showcases a reflection of similar ideas from different perspectives (Poetry
Foundation 2015). Whilst The Lamb focuses on innocence, The Tyger (1794)
showcases the duality between beauty and ferocity. Blake (in Poetry
Foundation 2015) questions how the creator of the innocent lamb also created
the ferocious tiger Blake further questions the mechanics of this beautiful yet
ferocious animal. Blake believed humanity struggles with the concept of the
contrary nature of things, and thus to see the ‘truth;’ one must see the
contraries such as innocence and viciousness (source). According to Blake,
“…savagery is merely another facet of every creature…” (Poetry Foundation
2015).

4.4.1 Anatomy book

The first illustrated counterpart for The Tyger focuses on the idea of
questioning the inner workings of the creature, resulting in the poem being
interpreted as an anatomy book.

Figure 18 Imile Wepener, The Tyger’s bones, 2016. Digital artwork, 210mm x 140mm
Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(The Tyger’s Bones 2016)

47
 Figure 19 Imile Wepener, The Tyger’s skin, 2016. Digital artwork, 210mm x 140mm
Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(The Tyger’s Skin 2016)

The anatomy book shows the different inner workings and aspects of the
creature such as an anatomy textbook, as the narrator mentions them within
the written text. Some of the themes of the different compositions include the
structural; mechanical; astrological and flesh and bone counterparts that form
the body of the animal (see figures 18 and 19)

4.4.2 Stickers

For the second visual interpretation of The Tyger, a more contemporary

approach was chosen. Due to the fact that the poem speaks of the literal
incarnation of a tiger, the conscious choice was to not merely visually interpret
the animal again. The visual text instead shows it as an appropriation of an
urban lifestyle, primarily described as a 'gangsta' characteristic. This was
chosen due to the linking themes of both the tiger and the 'gangsta' being
intriguing elements for study and questioning, while at the same time both can
be dangerous yet majestic. The visual style reads as simplistic and humorous
vector illustrations with bold shapes and colors. The reader's interpretation will
thus take on a more comical take on the written text as the illustrations are

48
appropriated within less literal and contemporary sense. The illustrations are
presented in the form of sticker sheets, to inform the more informal theme
portrayed within the visual texts (see Figure 20 ).

Figure 20 Imile Wepener, The Majestic Tyger, 2016. Digital artwork, 210mm x 110mm
Artwork in possession of artist, Johannesburg.
(The Majestic Tyger 2016)

The anatomy book interpretation links up with the written text’s concept of
analysing the mechanics of the tyger. The anatomy book shows the viewer
separate elements of the tyger that are all distinctly important physical and
spiritual facets of the tyger. The second visual text aims to interpret the written
text in a surprising and non-literal manner by comparing conceptual ideas of
the tyger and a “gangsta”. This aims to provide the reader with a comical

49
experience within the visual text, resulting in a comical understanding of the
serious discussions within the written text.

50
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION

The research paper has explored the role the visual text has upon the
reader’s understanding of the written text. This has been achieved through a
study which focused on various texts and theoretical applications relating to
the relationship between written texts and visual texts as well as methods of
interpretation contextualized within theories of post-structuralist thought, such
as the interpretive method of deconstruction. This resulted in a theoretical
framework that was developed from the most important concepts. This
theoretical framework was then explored through the act of analysing
examples of different visual variants of the same written text, in order to
formulate an understanding of the influence of the visual text on the reader’s
interpretation.

Through conducting the research, the important role interpretation plays when
exploring the impact the visual text has on reader’s understanding of the
written text became apparent. The illustrator’s role as a visual translator in the
sense of artistic interpretation of a written text and the notion of the reader’s
interpretation of both the written and visual texts together has formed the
basis of the study. The illustrator’s visual interpretation results in the reader
visually reading the illustrator’s unique visual translation of the written text.
The illustrator employs a visual language that is decoded by the reader, and
influences the manner in which the reader understands the written text. This
assists the illustrator in the creative production of visual narratives derived
from the written content in the visual text.

Post-structuralist theoretical research provided unique insight as to how

images can be interpreted or read equally as a written text, emphasising the
power of illustration to the reader. Post-structuralism stood out as a unique
way of investigating the notion of interpretation, not just in the interpretative
methods of written texts, but also as a way of interpreting visual texts, which
can serve as an appropriate starting point for an exploration of the role that
illustrations play in understanding the literary written narrative within written

51
texts and visual narrative structure within illustration.

The study has shown the intertextual relationship between written and visual
texts, and that the visual text can indeed have an influence on the reader’s
understanding of the written text.
In conclusion, perhaps the most characteristic purpose served by art, visual
or written, is that of stimulating the reader’s imagination and that they should
ultimately decide for themselves what it means.

52
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