Unit- 3

Impact of Climate Change

Ecosystem- Terrestrial and Aquatic
 An Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where
the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment.
• The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English
botanist, in 1935.
• In the 18th century, Baron von Humboldt provided an outline of latitudinal
zonality and high-altitude zonality of the plant and animal world in relation
to climate (Berghaus 1845).
• All organisms are dependent on the environment to carry out their natural
life processes and to meet their physical requirements (food, energy, water,
oxygen, shelter etc.).
 Definition- Ecosystem
• According to Tansley the ecosystem is comprised of two major parts viz. biome
(the whole complex of plants and animals of a particular spatial unit) and habitat
(physical environment) and thus ‘all parts of such an ecosystem-organic and
inorganic, biome and habitat-may be regarded as interacting factors which in, in a
mature ecosystem, are in appropriate equilibrium, it is through their interactions
that the whole system is maintained.
• Acc. to Lindeman (1942) the term ecosystem applies to ‘any system composed of
physical-chemical-biological processes, within a space-time-unit of any
magnitude’.
• In E.P. Odum’s (1971) ‘living organism and their non-living (abiotic) environment
are inseparably interrelated and interact upon each other.
• According to A. N. Strahler and A.H.Strahler (1976), ‘the total assemblage of components interacting with group of organisms is
known as ecological system or more simply, an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic
network of biological, chemical and physical interactions between
themselves and with the nonliving components. Such interactions
are crucial for sustaining the system and allowing it to respond to
changing conditions.

• An ecosystem is also defined as a functional and structural unit of

Ecology. This implies that each ecosystem has a definite structure
and components, and that each component part of the system has
a definite role to play in the functioning of the ecosystem
• Ecosystems have inputs of matter and energy, used to build biological structure (the biomass), to produce and
to maintain necessary internal energy levels.

• An ecosystem tends to achieve a balance of the various processes and activities within it’.
• the sum of all natural organisms and substances within an area, and it can be viewed as a basic example of an
open system in physical geography’ (C.C. Park, 1980).
Features
• Ecosystem of any given space-time unit represents the sum of all living organisms and physical environment.
• It is composed of three basic components viz. energy, biotic (biome) and abiotic (habitat) components.
• It occupies certain well defined area on the earth-spaceship (spatial dimension). It is viewed in terms of time-unit
(temporal dimension).
• It is an open system which is characterised by continuous input and output of matter and energy.
• It tends to be in relatively stable equilibrium unless there is disturbance in one or more controlling factors (limiting
factors).
• It is a functional unit wherein the biotic components (plants, animals including man and micro-organisms) and
abiotic (physical environment) components (including energy
component) are intimately related to each other through a series of large-scale cyclic mechanisms
• Ecosystems are natural resource systems
• It is structured and well organized system .
 Components of an Ecosystem
• The components of the ecosystem are categorized into abiotic or non-living and biotic or living
components. Both the components of the ecosystem and environment are the same.
• Abiotic Components
• Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts which act as major limiting factors.
• Light
• The spectral quality of solar radiation is important for life.
• The UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many organisms.
• Rainfall
• Majority of biochemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
• Temperature
• A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures (they are called eurythermal).
• A vast majority of them are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (stenothermal).
• Atmosphere
• 21% oxygen helps in the survival of many organisms; 78% nitrogen prevents spontaneous
combustion and 0.038% carbon dioxide helps primary producers in the synthesis of carbohydrates.
Types of Ecosystem
 Natural Ecosystem
• These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference by man.
• A classification based on their habitat can further be made:
• Terrestrial ecosystems: forest, grassland and desert.
• Aquatic ecosystems: freshwater ecosystem, viz. pond, lake, river and marine ecosystems, viz. ocean, sea or
estuary. Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water.
• These can be further divided into two types, namely:
• Freshwater Ecosystem
• Marine Ecosystem
• Freshwater Ecosystem
• The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands.
• These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
• Marine Ecosystem:
• The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans.
• These have a larger salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
• Artificial Ecosystem:
• These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes, e.g., croplands, artificial
lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.
• Organic compounds
• Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc. are essential for energy transfer in
the living world.
• Inorganic compound
• Carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates, and ions
of various metals are essential for organisms to survive.
Biosphere
• (1) Abiotic components (Nonliving): The abiotic component can be
grouped into following categories:-
• (a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind,
humidity etc.
• (b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
• (2) Biotic components:The living organisms including plants, animals
and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an
ecosystem form the biotic components.
Biotic component or Living components of ecosystem
• Producers (autotrophs, i.e. self feeders) can make the organic nutrients they need, using
simple inorganic compounds in their environment: for instance, the green plants on land and
the small algae in aquatic ecosystems produce their food by the process of photosynthesis.
• Consumers (heterotrophs, i.e. other feeders) are those organisms, which directly or
indirectly depend on food provided by producers. Consumers, depending on their food habits,
can be further classified into four types.
• 1. Herbivores (primary consumers) e.g. deer, rabbits, cattle, etc., are plant eaters and they
feed directly on producers. In a food chain, they are referred to as the primary consumers.
• 2. Carnivores (secondary consumers) are meat eaters and they feed on herbivores. They are
thus known as secondary consumers. They are animal eaters, e.g. lions, tigers.
• 3. Omnivores (tertiary consumers) eat both plants and animals, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches
and humans.
• 4. Decomposers (quarternary consumers) digest the complex organic molecules in dead
organic matter (detritus) into simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the soluble nutrients
as their food. Some examples are bacteria, fungi, and mites. What is important to note is that
each ecosystem will have certain representative organisms playing each of the above
mentioned roles
• Macro Consumers- Primary, secondary, tertiary
(Phagotrophs)which eat living prey
Herbivore - plant eater
Carnivore - meat eater
Omnivore - mixed plant/animal diet
• Micro Consumers (Saprotrophs) which decompose
Thus decomposers like any other consumer, uses
organic matter as a source of energy as well as a source
of nutrients.
 Organisms that help in breakdown
• DETRITIVORES
• Decomposers: A large proportion of the primary producer
trophic level is not consumed in the grazing food web.
• As biotic material dies and are also joined by fecal wastes
from higher trophic level it is referred as detritus.
• Also include other organisms that cause
breakdown(scavengers and detritus feeders)
• Scavengers like vultures help breakdown large pieces of
organic matter.
• Detritus feeders such as earthworms, eat on partially
decomposing organic matter.
• Chemical decomposers such as fungi and bacteria break
down dead material on molecular scale
 Functions of ecosystem
• Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform
certain functions. These are:
• Functions of Ecosystem:
• (i)Productivity,
• (ii) Decomposition,
• (iii) Physical (energy flow),
• (iv) Biological (food chains, food web, ecological
succession),and
• (v) Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes
Ecosystem functions important for

Regulatory
functions

Habitat functions Ecosystem

functions
Information
important functions

Production
functions
 Importance of functions of the ecosystem
• 1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems
and renders stability.
• 2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
• 3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
• 4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
• 5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components that involves the exchange of energy.
 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ECOSYSTEM

Changes in Species Changes in the

and Populations Changes in Altered or
Timing of Ecosystem
Natural Events Reduced
Interactions Ecosystem
and Cycles
As temperatures Services
have warmed in
the United States,
some land animals Plankton are Climate
have moved to the an important change is Increases in
(typically cooler)
food source for increasing the wildfires,
north by an flooding, pests,
average of 3.8 young fish, but spread
miles per they tend to of invasive and diseases
decade. Some react more species in can limit the
marine species
quickly to some areas. ability of an
have also shifted ecosystem to
north by more than changes in
17 miles per temperature provide this
decade. than the fish important
service.
Terrestrial Ecosystems- Forest
• A. THE HOT, WET EQUATORIAL CLIMATE
• Natural Environment
• The Equatorial Region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year.
• There is no dry season during the year.
• Annual range of temperature is low.
• Seasonal contrasts are minimum.
• The combination of high temperature and high humidity makes the climate unfavourable for
sustained human effort.
• The region has red and yellow soils of low fertility as they get leached by heavy rainfall. In low
lying areas such soils get waterlogged.
• The natural vegetation consists of tropical evergreen forests containing a variety of species.
Tall hardwood trees form a continuous cover at a high level.
• There are smaller trees forming a second layer.
• The ground is roofed with ferns and herbaceous plants which can tolerate shade. Because the
trees have large canopies, they cut out most of the sunlight hence the undergrowth is not
dense.
• The Equatorial Rainforest of the Amazon basin is called Selva(s) .
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate the temperature of the equatorial
region.
• This region, because of its hot, humid and highly enervating climate with poor
soils for agriculture, supports little human numbers. The population density is
often less than 10 persons per square km.
• The Equatorial Rainforest is called the Lungs of the Planet .
• Because the Rainforest environment is so rich in biodiversity, it is said that every
cubic metre of the soil here contains at least one species that is still un-named!!
• The Europeans established many large plantations in Java, Sumatra, West Africa
and Central America. The most outstanding of them being Rubber, Cocoa and Oil
Palm. The other crops suited to this climate are coconuts, sugarcane, coffee, tea,
spices, cinchona, bananas and pineapples
• TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
• Tropical rainforests can be characterized in two words: hot and wet.
Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18°C during all months of the
year.
• Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm and can exceed 1,000
cm although it typically lies between 175 cm and 200 cm.
• This high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to
leaching of soluble nutrients
• Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally
due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity.
• Habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism
and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as
important drivers of speciation.
• However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of
the major causes of species extinction.
• Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural
clearance throughout the 20th century, and the area covered by rainforests
around the world is rapidly shrinking.
• Although deforestation meets some human needs, it also has profound,
sometimes devastating, consequences, including social conflict, extinction
of plants and animals, and climate change challenges that aren’t just local,
but global.
Impacts of Deforestation

E
Biodiversity Soil Impacts Social Economic Political Impact on
Impacts Impact Impact Impact individual
level
7 percent unable to needs of Economic
of the support indigenous Politically
loss and Unstable Lifestyle
earth’s dry crops peoples decrease
land conditions and food
the GDP arise habits
IPCC- 6th Assessment Report, 2022
• Terrestrial ecosystems currently remove more carbon from the
atmosphere, 2.5–4.3 Gt yr-1, than they emit (+1.6 ± 0.7 Gt y-1), and
so are currently a net sink of -1.9 ± 1.1 Gt y-1.
• Intact tropical rainforests, Arctic permafrost, peatlands and other
healthy high-carbon ecosystems provide a vital global ecosystem
service of preventing the release of stored carbon
TROPICAL EASTERN MARGIN (MONSOON
CLIMATE)
• Natural Environment
• This region includes eastern margins of continents between 100N to 300N and 100S to
300S.
• Parts of this region such as India, South East Asia, East Africa and Northern Australia
experience a typical monsoonal climate having seasonal reversal of winds.
• In these areas, Trade winds prevail in winter and Monsoon winds blowing from the
opposite direction prevail during summer.
• Other areas such as Eastern Brazil and Central America and Natal Coast of South Africa
experience trade winds throughout the year.
• Rainfall is generally moderate except in coastal regions and mountainous tracts. Rainfall
is generally limited to the summer season.
• Laterite soils occur in the region except in river valleys where alluvial soils are found.
Natural vegetation consists of Tropical deciduous forest which is less dense than
Equatorial forests.
• The natural vegetation is Tropical Deciduous forests. These forest yield valuable timber
and are prized for their durable hardwood. Amongst these Teak is the best known.
• A wide range of lowland tropical cash crops are cultivated in these regions. Most
important is cane sugar, however others like Jute, Manila hemp (abaca), Indigo and
Cotton hold regional importance
• The tropical monsoon region is characterized by the most intensive forms of Agriculture .
• Rice is the most characteristics crop of the monsoon land and its total average far
exceeds that of any other crop.
• Shifting Cultivation – the most primitive form of farming is widely practised among the
indigenous people of the monsoon climatic region of the world.
• Shifting cultivation is known by different names in the different parts of the world.
• It is known as ladang in Malaysia, taungya in Myanmar, tamrai in Thailand, caingin in
Philippines, humah in Java, chena in Sri Lanka and milpa in Africa and Central America.
• The monsoon forest are more open and less luxuriant than the
equatorial rainforest and the level of biodiversity is only next to the
equatorial rain forest .
• The dry monsoon forests resembles the steppe vegetation.
• There are three distinct seasons of rainy, cool-dry, and hot-dry in the
monsoon region.
• The role of monsoons in India is vital in its economy so, it is often said
that “Indian Economy is a gamble on the Monsoon”.
THE TROPICAL GRASSLAND (SAVANNA TYPE)
• Natural Environment This region lies in the interior of continents in the tropical belt.
Therefore, the region has moderate rainfall and experiences greater annual range of
temperature.
• Rainfall mainly occurs in the short summer season with a long dry season.
• Coarse tall grass which grows to a height of about three metres is the typical vegetation.
• The tropical grassland has been known as “the big game country” as carnivorous animals
like lion, leopard and tiger abound in this region.
• These animals feed on the deer, zebra and other herbivores.
• In order to protect wild life, national parks have been established as sanctuaries. These
national parks in East Africa attract many tourists.
• The tropical grassland regions occur extensively in Africa as a belt around the Equatorial
region.
• Other areas are parts of Brazilian plateau and Orinoco basin in South America and Northern
Australia.
• Savanna climate is confined within tropics and is best developed in Sudan
where the dry and wet seasons are most distinct.
• In true Savanna lands, the grass is tall and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet
high. The Elephant grass may attain a height of is 15 feet !!
• As rainfall diminishes towards the deserts, the Savanna merges into thorny
scrub.
• In Australia, this scrubland is particularly well represented by a number of
species: mallee, mulga, spinfex grass and other bushes.
• Savanna is known as “Big Game Country” and thousands of animals are
trapped or killed each year by people from all over the world. In many
parts national parks have been set up to control the killing of animals
• • The Savanna is said to be the natural cattle country but it seems
necessary to introduce temperate cattle in this region if cattle rearing
is to be successful. This region holds great promise for future so cattle
breeding and disease control must be carried out on scientific basis.
• Savanna woodland has an open, park like appearance, consisting of
trees spaced widely apart, permitting development of a dense lower
layer, which usually consists of grasses.
• In Africa, the fine dust particles carried from Sahara Desert to the Savanna
in the South help in replenishing the primary minerals in the soil of
Savanna .
• Fire is a frequent occurrence in the Savanna woodland during dry season.
The trees of the Savanna are of species that are particularly resistant to
fire. Infact, it is widely believed that periodic burning of the Savanna
grasses is responsible for the maintenance of the grassland against the
invasion forest.
• Prospects for exploiting the Savanna environment for increased food
production rests today on concerted application of technique and
methodology for Sustainable Agriculture with special emphasis on Dryland
Farming.
THE DESERTS (TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE)
• Natural Environment
• Tropical deserts are located in the Trade wind belt on the western margins
of continents.
• Annual precipitation is generally less than 25 cm in most of the region.
• Clear skies favour the free passage of insolation during the daytime and
outgoing radiation from the earth during the night. Therefore, the diurnal
range of temperature is quite high.
• Soils are sandy with saline deposits on the surface caused by evaporation.
Thorny scrub and bushes which’ are drought resistant occur in patches
here and there. In the oases, date-palm and other trees may be grown and
small areas may also be cultivated.
• Mid-Latitude deserts are located in Asia and North America's interior
plateaus and basins.
• They are surrounded by high mountain regions. Tibet and Gobi are
typical examples.
• The region receives scanty rainfall as the interior location surrounded
by high mountains prevents the inflow of moist air.
• Interior location also results in greater extremes of temperature
between summer and winter.
• Light snowfall occurs in winter.
• Human Response
• The Bushmen of Kalahari desert in South Africa and the Aborigines
of Australia practice food gathering and hunting.
• The Bedouins of Sahara and Arabia are nomadic herdsmen rearing
camels, horses, sheep and goats.
• They live in tents and migrate from place to place in search of
pastures for their animals.
• In the river valleys passing through desert regions and in scattered
oases, agriculture has been developed. There are permanent rural
settlements and towns in the Nile Valley and deltas.
• Modern irrigation methods have ensured adequate water supply.
• The Indus Valley in Pakistan and the Imperial Valley in California are
other examples of large tracts of settled agriculture
• Small mining settlements are found in some of the deserts.
• The drilling of vast resources’ of petroleum in the recent decades has
resulted in rapid economic development in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran
and Iraq.
• Mid-latitude deserts are inhabited by pastoral nomads who migrate
in search of pastures.
• Most parts of Tibet and the Gobi deserts have low population
densities.
• In the lowlands of Central Asia, agricultural development has taken
place due to irrigation from Amu Darya, Syr Darya, and other rivers.
Mining and industrial development has also taken place in this region.
• In North America, mid-latitude desert conditions prevail in the
basins surrounded by mountain ranges of Rocky mountain system.
• These regions are generally uninhabited except for isolated
settlements in irrigated agriculture and mining areas.
• The Patagonia plateau in Argentina lying east of the Andes is also an
example of mid-latitude desert.
• It is largely stony and rocky desert.
• This region is inhabited by pastoral nomads.
DESERTIFICATION
• Desertification is not the natural expansion of existing deserts but the
degradation of land in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas.
• It is a gradual process of soil productivity loss and the thinning out of the
vegetative cover because of human activities and climatic variations such
as prolonged droughts and floods.
• What is alarming is that though the land’s topsoil, if mistreated, can be
blown and washed away in a few seasons, it takes centuries to build up.
• Among human causal factors are overcultivation, overgrazing,
deforestation, and poor irrigation practices.
• Such overexploitation is generally caused by economic and social pressure,
ignorance, war, and drought.
• Climate change further
increases risk by altering
pathogen and host
animal
• (1) geographic ranges
and habitats;
• (2) survival, growth and
development;
• (3) reproduction and
replication;
• (4) transmission and
exposure
• (5) behaviour; and
• (6) access to
immunologically naïve
animals and people who
lack resistance to
infection.
Is desertification a global problem?
• Desertification is a worldwide problem that directly affects 250 million people
and a third of the earth’s land surface, or over 4 billion hectares.
• In addition, the livelihoods of some one billion people who depend on land for
most of their needs and usually the world’s poorest in over one hundred
countries are threatened.
• Though desertification affects Africa the most, where two-thirds of the
continent is desert or drylands, it is not a problem confined to drylands in Africa.
• Over 30 percent of the land in the United States is affected by desertification.
One quarter of Latin America and the Caribbean is deserts and drylands.
• In Spain, one fifth of the land is at risk of turning into deserts. The growing
severity of the threat in the Northern Hemisphere is also illustrated by severe
droughts in the United States and water scarcity in southern Europe.
• Worldwide, some 70 percent of the 5.2 billion hectares of drylands used for
agriculture are already degraded and threatened by desertification.
What are the causes of desertification?
• Desertification comes mainly from variations in climate and from human activities, but
many other causes can interact to create conditions likely to lead to desertification.
• These include the movement of refugees during periods of conflict, inappropriate land
use or environmental management, specific socio-economic and political factors
• Climatic variations
• High temperatures lasting for months create droughts that prevent the vegetation from
growing.
• Human activities
• Human activities leading to desertification are mainly related to agriculture:
• Overgrazing removes the vegetation cover that protects it from erosion
• Overcultivation exhausts the soil. Deforestation destroys the trees that bind the land to
the soil. Wood is the principal source of domestic energy for lighting and cooking in many
arid areas
• Poor irrigation practices raise salinity, and sometimes dry the rivers
that feed large lakes:
• the Aral Sea and Lake Chad have shrunk dramatically in this way.
• The intensification of human activities brings an increased
greenhouse effect, causing global warming.
• Drylands are likely to be especially vulnerable to rises in temperature
during the 21st Century.
• “Poverty and desertification: the vicious circle”
The impacts of desertification
• Environmental impacts: Because of the vegetation loss, desertification makes
areas more flood-prone. It also causes the salt level in soil to rise, results in
deteriorating quality of water, and silting of rivers, streams and reservoirs.
• Economic impacts: Desertification has huge economic consequences – the World
Bank estimates that at the global level, the annual income foregone in the areas
affected by desertification amounts to US$ 42 billion each year, while the
annual cost of fighting land degradation would cost only US$ 2.4 billion a year.
• Poverty and mass migration: Land degradation brings hunger and poverty.
People living in areas threatened by desertification are forced to move elsewhere
to find other means of livelihood.
• Usually they migrate towards urban areas or go abroad. Mass migration is a
major consequence of desertification.
• From 1997 to 2020, some 60 million people are expected to move from the
desertified areas in Sub-Saharan Africa towards Northern Africa and Europe.
Milestones: The response of the international
community to desertification
• 1977–United Nations Desertification Conference, Nairobi: A response of the
international community to the most severe droughts in sub-Saharan Africa
during the last 1960’s and early 1970’s: over 200,000 people and millions of
animals died. A first Plan of Action to Combat Desertification emerged.
• 1992 – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de
Janeiro Agenda 21 called on the UN General Assembly to set up an inter-
governmental committee to prepare for a legally binding instrument that
addresses the problem of desertification.
• 1994–United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): June 17
becomes the World Day to Combat Desertification.
• 2002–World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg: Governments
call on the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to designate land degradation as a
focal area of the GEF as a means to enhance the provision and mobilization of
financial resources for the effective implementation of the UNCCD.
THE WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN
(MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE)
• Natural Environment
• This region lies poleward of the Tropical deserts on the western margins
of continents.
• The region experiences warm dry summers and cool moist winters.
• Winter rainfall is caused by the passage of cyclones in the Westerly wind
belt which lies over this area.
• In summer, Trade winds prevail over the area and as they blow from land to
sea, there is no rainfall.
• The annual rainfall is moderate in amount and the dry season is long.
Natural vegetation consists of short evergreen trees and evergreen bushes
and scrub. Olive trees are typical of this region.
• Human Response
• The typical area is the coastal region around the Mediterranean sea in
Southern Europe, South-western Asia and North Africa.
• Other areas are the coastal lowlands in California, Central Chile in South
America, Cape coasts in South Africa and the South-west coast of
Australia.
• While the coastal plains are cultivated with wheat, barley and other crops,
the adjoining hill slopes are covered with fruit trees.
• Though crops are cultivated mainly for local consumption, a variety of
citrus and other fruits are processed and exported in large quantities.
Large-scale production of grapes has led to the production of different
varieties of wine.
• The original woodlands have degenerated to scrub vegetation, special
names have been given to them to distinguish their location in
different parts of the Mediterranean lands.
• They are called Maquis in France, Macchia in Italy, Chapparal is
California and Mallee scrub in Australia.
THE TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
• This region lies in the interior of continents and therefore, receives low
rainfall.
• Interior location is also responsible for high annual range of temperature
between warm summer and cold winter.
• Rainfall occurs as a result of convectional ascent of air during summer.
The natural vegetation is predominantly short grasses.
• The grasslands are known by different local names. They include the
Steppes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the Prairies of North
America, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa and the
Downs of Australia.
• Owing to low rainfall and cold winter, trees are generally absent. The
region has fertile black soils which are rich in organic matter.
• Human Response
• The native Indians of North America who inhabited this region were nomadic
hunters.
• In Central Asia, nomadic herding of animals is the main occupation of tribal
people.
• Such nomadic way of life prevails only in isolated areas.
• In the United States and Russia, extensive mechanized agriculture has
developed.
• Extensive level plains, large size of farms and shortage of farm labour have led to
use of machinery for all types of work on the farms.
• Wheat is the most widespread crop cultivated in these grasslands.
• United States of America, Canada. Argentina and Australia are major exporters
of wheat. Maize is also cultivated in warmer parts of the region.
• Pastoral industry has also developed on a commercial scale in these
grasslands.
• Cattle are reared in warmer and wetter regions, while sheep thrive in
colder and drier parts.
• Machines are used for slaughtering of animals, packing of meat, milking of
dairy cows, processing of milk and shearing of sheep.
• Large scale export of meat and dairy products from Australia, New Zealand
and Argentina has become possible by the use of refrigerated holds in
ships.
• These grasslands supply the food needs of the world with exports of
wheat, beef, mutton and dairy products.
BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA)
• The boreal forest biome, also called as temperate coniferous forest
biome or taiga biome, represents the taiga or the Siberian type of
climate and includes the areas of sub-arctic regions of North America
(extending from Alaska of the U.S.A. across Canada to the Hudson
Bay in the east) and Eurasia (from the Scandinavian Peninsula across
the Russian Siberia to the Bering Sea).
• Climate
• The taiga or the Siberian climate of the boreal forest or the temperate
coniferous forest biome is . characterized by continental climate
marked by bitterly cold winter of long duration and cool brief summer
season.
• Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional periods between
summer and cold seasons.
• The 10°C isotherm of the warmest month forms the northern
boundary of this biome.
• The temperatures of winter months are always below freezing point.
The temperatures of the coldest and the warmest months (Moscow)
are 12 °C and 20°C respectively and thus the annual range of
temperature becomes 32°C
The main characteristic features of the taiga or the
Siberian climate of the temperate coniferous forest
• Bitterly cold long winter season (temperature is below zero degrees
centigrade for at least 6 months).
• Heavy snowfall during the winter season.
• Formation of permafrost (permanently frozen) ground because of freezing
of ground moisture due to very low temperatures, as referred to above.
• Cool summer of short duration, with precipitation in liquid form, rainfall,
and melting of snow cover.
• Growing vegetation period ranging from 50 days a year (along the northern
boundary) to 100 days a year (along the southern boundary).
• High range of variability in the spatial distribution of annual precipitation
Vegetation Community
• The coniferous trees are the most dominant taiga or boreal forest biome
member.
• The coniferous trees are well adapted to the extreme environmental
conditions of the Siberian type of climate of this biome.
• These trees form the dense cover of forests, the richest sources of
softwood in the world.
• These trees are used for various purposes e.g. for building construction,
furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other branches of chemical
industry.
• There are four major genera of evergreen coniferous trees e.g. (i) pine
(Pinus-white pine, red pine, Scots pine, jack pine, lodgepole pine); (ii) fir
(Abies-doughlas fir, balsam fir etc.), (iii) spruce (Picea), and (iv) larch (Larix)
• Animal Community
• On the basis of functions and feeding habits the animals of the taiga
biome/ecosystem are divided into two major categories viz. (i) sap-
sucking species (those animals which suck liquid saps from the
branches and stems of trees, such as aphids), and
• (ii) grazing and burrowing species (those animals which graze
grasses and eat new stalks of trees).
• The feeding mechanisms of these animals have adversely affected
the vegetation communities in a variety of ways
Human Interactions
• The temperate coniferous forest biome provides the world's largest
amount of soft wood; therefore, man has encroached upon taiga forests
for their commercial requirements.
• The secondary succession of temperate deciduous forests has developed in
those areas which have been transformed by man through clearance of the
original stands of temperate evergreen coniferous forests.
• The clearance of forests for agricultural purposes has not proved successful
because the spodosols developed beneath the forest cover are not fertile
and, therefore, cannot yield good crops without heavy doses of chemical
fertilizers.
• Similarly, the podzol soils of the Siberian taiga are also not much suited to
agricultural crops because of their poor qualities.
TUNDRA BIOME
• Location and Extent
• Tundra is a Finnish word which means barren land.
• Thus tundra region having least vegetation and polar or arctic climate is
found in North America and Eurasia between the southern limit of the
permanent ice caps in the north and the northern limit of the temperate
coniferous forests of taiga climate in the south.
• Thus tundra biome includes parts of Alaska, extreme northern parts of
Canada, the coastal strip of Greenland, and the arctic seaboard regions of
European Russia and northern Siberia.
• Besides, tundra biome has also developed over arctic islands. Vegetations
rapidly change to the north of tree line because of the increasing severity
of climate.
Climate
• The tundra or the polar climate is characterized by general absence of
insolation and sunlight very low temperature throughout the year.
• This severe climatic condition does not favour much vegetative growth and
hence most of the Tundra remains a barren land.
• There is total lack of trees. The ground surface is covered with snow at
least for 7 to 8 months each year.
• Temperature is generally below freezing point. The region is swept by
speedy cold powdery storms known as blizzards.
• Growing season is less than SO days in a year. The ground is permanently
frozen (permafrost).
• Even soil is also perennially frozen. Mean annual precipitation, mostly in
the form of snowfall, is below 400 mm.
• Winters are long and very severe whereas summers are short, moderately
cool but pleasant.
• Animal Community
• The animals of the arctic tundra biome are grouped into two
categories, viz. (i) resident animals and (ii) migrant animals.
• Most of the animals leave Arctic Tundra and migrate southward
during winter season to escape severe cold because only those
animals stay at home during severe winter season which have such
typical body structures which enable them to withstand the severity
of cold.
• Thus the resident animals of relatively larger size have thick and
dense insulating coat of fur or feathers around their bodies
Resident animals
• Some resident animals of the Arctic tundra biome change their colour
during different seasons of the year.
• For example, ptarmigan (a kind of bird) changes the colour of its
feathers thrice a year. The arctic foxes and stoats, prominent
predator animals having fur coats, are brown in colour during the
summer season but become white in colour during the winter
season.
Migratory animals
• The second category of animals of the arctic tundra biome consists of
migratory animals which start migrating at the beginning of the
winter season to warmer areas in the south and return back to their
native places during the coming spring season.
• The animals move away from their native places during every winter
season because they are not equipped with suitable devices which
may enable them to protect themselves from the severity of cold as is
the case with the resident animals as referred to above. The birds,
such as waterfowl, ducks, swans, geese etc., are the first to leave their
native places with the arrival of autumn and are also first to come
back to their original places in the spring or early summer.
Ecological Productivity
• Primary productivity in tundra biome is exceedingly low because of
• (i) minimum sunlight and insolation,
• (ii) absence or scarcity of nutrients (such as nitrogen and
phosphorous) in the soils,
• (iii) poorly developed soils,
• (iv) scarcity of moisture in the soils,
• (v) permanently frozen ground (permafrost),
• (vi) very short growing period (about 50 days)
Human Interactions
• Man is closely associated with the biota of the tundra biome because
even his very existence depends upon animals of both terrestrial and
aquatic habitats.
• About 50 years ago the Eskimos of Greenland, northern Canada and
Alaska; Lapps of northern Finland and Scandinavia; Samoyeds of
Siberia; Yakuts of Leena basin and Koryaks and Chuckchi of north-
eastern Asia spent complete nomadic life depending on their food
derived from fish, seals, walruses, polar bears and other animals and
on other-commodities derived from caribou (the relative of Eurasian
raindeer is called caribou in North American Tundra), raindeer and
various fur animals.
• Eskimos have established permanent settlements and have formed villages
in the coastal areas of tundra regions and have domesticated caribou and
fur animals.
• Many of Eskimo children have got modern education in the schools. They
have adapte to new technologies.
• The Inuits (Eskimos) of Canada and Alaska, the Lapps of Scandinavia, the
Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia used to lead a nomadic life.
• They live in igloos in winter and tents in summer.
• Hunting and fishing were their main occupations.
• They also traded in fur and other animal products.
• External contacts have changed the lives of the nomads. Many of them live
in permanent wooden houses having all modern amenities.
• They use boats and modern equipment for fishing, Reindeer farms have
been established in Russia. Glass houses have been set up for cultivation of
vegetables to meet the needs of local population.
• Mining of oil and gold in Alaska, iron ore in Labrador, nickel in Siberia has
resulted in the establishment of mining settlements provided with
adequate transport facilities by land, sea and air.
• Antarctic is the greatest single stretch of ice-cap where the layers of
permanent ice are as thick as 1800 metres!! Contributed by this thickness,
it has the highest mean elevation of 1846 metres which is twice as high as
the 2nd ranking Asia with only 923 metres.
• Ice cold winds called Blizzards in Canada, reaching velocities over 200
km/hr are common in polar areas and Antarctica happens to be the
windiest of all continents !
CRYOSPHERE
• Polar Ice
• A polar ice cap is a high latitude region of a planet or natural satellite that
is covered in ice.
• The Earth’s polar ice caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000
years.
• Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy
absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the sun.
• Additionally, in geologic time scales, the ice caps may grow or shrink due
to climate variation .
• What is sea ice?
• Sea ice is frozen ocean water. It forms, grows, and melts in the ocean.
• In contrast, icebergs, glaciers, and ice shelves float in the ocean but
originate on land. For most of the year, sea ice is typically covered with
snow
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
• Main Characteristic Features
• Marine biomes account for about two third of the total areas of all
the biomes of the globe as sea water covers about 71 percent of the
total geographical area of the world.
• (i) The marine biomes provide a wide range of habitats for the
marine plants and animals as the marine organisms can live in the
shallow seawater, deep sea water and even at the deepest bottoms;
they can live in coldest water near the polar zones but the terrestrial
organisms cannot live beyond certain height and near the poles
except a few species of penguins and other animals
• (ii) The sea water is characterized by more or less uniformity in the
distribution of temperature and therefore marine organisms have not
to adapt to extreme temperature conditions.
• Various forms of sea movements such as sea waves, tidal waves,
oceanic currents, upwelling and subsidence (vertical movements of
waters) and horizontal movement ot surface water help in even
horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature.
• (iii) Sea water contains all the nutrients in solution form which are
easily taken by sea organisms (plants)
• (iv) The life-form and food chains and food webs in the marine biome
depend-on the availability of sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen
etc.
• All of these elements are mostly confined to the upper zone of sea
water and therefore most plant life is also confined to 200 m-thick
zone of upper sea water because sunlight decreases with increasing
depths
• (v) Since sunlight becomes totally absent at greater depths in the seas
and the oceans and hence photosynthesis is not possible at greater
depths, consequently the organisms depend on detritus (marine
sediments) and are called deterivores.
• (vi) Sea water provides maximum mobility to the marine organisms.
Nutrients are circulated more quickly and efficiently and marine
organisms are more rapidly dispersed than terrestrial organisms.
• (vii) Sinking of cold water from the water surface transports
oxygenated waters to the sea bottoms which makes animal life
possible even in the deep oceanic trenches whereas animal life is not
possible beyond a critical limit over high mountains because of the
lack of oxygen at much higher altitude.
Types of Marine Ecosystem
• Based on salient environmental conditions of the marine
environment, marine biomes are classified into two types e.g. (i)
pelagic biome, and (ii) benthic biome.
• (1) Pelagic biome
• (a) photic or upper pelagic biome
• (b) aphotic pelagic biome
• (i) mesopelagic zone
• (ii) bathypelagic zone
• (iii) abyssal pelagic zone
• 2) Benthic biome
• (a) littoral zone biome (between high and low tide water)
• (b) sub-littoral zone biome
• (c) deep sea benthic zone biome (from 200 m to more than 6000 m
depth)
• (i) archibenthal zone (between 200-1000 m depth)
• (ii) abyssal benthic zone (between 1000-6000 m depth)
• (iii) hadal zone (between 6000-7000 m depth)
 Based on temperature and nutrients of oceanic
water marine biomes are classified into the
following types
• 1. Warm water continental shelves biome (surface temperature over 20°C,
it represents photic zone and richest biome in terms of large variety of
organisms living in the warm waters of continental shelves)
• 2. Cold water continental shelves biome (surface temperature usually less
than 20°C )
• 3. Oceanic biome with upwelling nutrients (sufficient nutrients are brought
by upwelling of water)
• 4. Cold open sea biome (less number and variety of sea organisms due to
poor supply of nutrients)
• 5. Warm open sea biome (upper 200 m is fully illuminated throughout the
year but there is general lack of nutrients and hence less population of
marine organisms)
MARINE BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
• Marine organisms including both plants and animals are divided into 3
categories on the basis of their habitats.
• (1) Planktons are floating and drifting plants and animals of the euphotic
zone of the seas and the oceans. Planktons are further divided into two
subcategories viz.
• (i) phytoplanktons (plant planktons) and
• (ii) zooplanktons (animal planktons).
• (2) Nektons include large, strong and powerful floating and swimming
marine animals mainly fishes. These marine animals move in all the zones
of the oceanic environments.
• (3) Benthos include those marine plants (nonphotosynthetic or non-
phototrophs) and animals which live at the bottoms of the seas and the
oceans.
FOOD CHAINS IN MARINE BIOME
• The food chains and food webs of the marine biome are highly
complex because of no effective barriers in the oceans and seas
which can restrict marine animals to certain fixed localities.
• It may be rather convenient to discuss the feeding relationships
among the marine organisms of the upper zone of the seas and the
oceans or the upper pelagic biome.
• The phytoplanktons are the primary producers in the photic zone
(upto the depth of 200 m from the sea surface) and these form the
base of trophic structure of marine food chain because these green
plants (mainly algae and diatoms) manufacture food through the
process of photosynthesis with the help of sunlght.
• Zooplanktons are the heterotrophic primary consumer animals and
form trophic level two of the food chain because these feed on
phytoplanktons and form animal protein in their bodies.
• Phytoplanktons manufacture food through the process of
photosynthesis because of the availability of sunlight during the day-
time, but the grazing of these phytoplanktons by the herbivorous
zooplanktons during day-time is minimal because of the fact that
most of the grazer herbivores live below the photic zone during
daytime.
• As ocean water warms, invasive fish species, such as the tropical lionfish,
are expected to move north along the Atlantic coast, threatening native
species.
• This can also hurt humans, as lionfish are venomous and can sting
people.
• Climate change can also affect food webs. A food web is the whole set of
feeding relationships among different organisms in an ecosystem. At the
bottom of a food web are organisms like plants and plankton.
• Other animals, higher in the web, rely on them as food sources. Climate
impacts on any part of a food web can affect the whole system, and even
other ecosystems altogether.
• From the example above, if young fish cannot find enough food in the
estuaries, their predators in the ocean could feel the effects as well.
Agriculture and food security
• Agriculture is the single biggest land use covering more than one-
third of the world’s land surface.
• Much of the best land is already under cultivation and much of what
is left is too high, steep, shallow, dry, or cold for food production.
• The amount and quality of land available for food production is
under pressure from the decisions and demands made by consumers,
producers, and governments
• Over 70 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture.
Agriculture is an important sector of the Indian economy as it
contributes about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to
over 60% of the population.
• Indian agriculture has registered impressive growth over the last few
decades.
• The food grain production has increased from 51 million tonnes (MT)
in 1950-51 to 250MT during 2011-12 highest ever since
independence.
Significant due to various reasons such as
• 1. Agriculture plays a vital role in generating employment
• 2. Agriculture makes provision for food for the ever increasing
population
• 3. Contribution to capital formation
• 4. Supply of raw material to agro-based industries
• 5. Market for industrial products
• Unfortunately, the global food production system facing an alarming
situation due to increasing food demand from a rapidly growing
population, increased hunger and malnutrition, the impact of climate
change, and food waste.
• These challenges affect the food availability, accessibility, and
affordability to a majority of vulnerable segments of the human
population and raise the finger on the world’s capacity to meet its
present and future food demands
• The last two decades witnessed record harvests, new technological
improvement, income enhancement, and diet diversification with
interconnected and globalized economies (IPCC, 2019).
The most significant pressures on land
resources used for food production include:
• 1. Poor management practices resulting in suboptimal yields, due mainly to resource use
inefficiencies associated with irrigation, fertilizers, livestock, crop selection, etc.
• 2. Food demand and waste which is increasing rapidly with population growth, increased
incomes, and globalization.
• 3. Changes in diet further drives agricultural expansion as consumers increasingly
demand food that is land-intensive, particularly processed foods and meat.
• 4. Competing land uses reduce the area available for food production, including for
biodiversity and ecosystem services, urbanization, infrastructure, tourism, and energy as
well as biofuels6 and other non-food crops.
• 5. Land grabbing and virtual natural resource trading undermine food and nutritional
security as well as smallholder tenure and resource rights in poor and vulnerable
communities.
• 6. Climate change, which is expected to reduce crop yields in many countries resulting in
greater food insecurity.
Food Security
• Loss of rural livelihoods and income
• Loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, and livelihoods
• Loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems, and
livelihoods
• Food insecurity and breakdown of food systems
Food Security
• The food security defined as “when all people at all times have
access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and
active life” (WHO).
• Food security, as defined by the United Nations’ Committee on
World Food Security, means that all people, at all times, have
physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and
nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs
for an active and healthy life (Grebmer et al. 2020).
Key factors determining food security
• 1. The food prices: Situation is very conflicting in agriculture. Over the past five
years, twenty-six countries reported food price inflation of 5% while it has more
than doubled in seven other countries.
• 2. Food nutrition: Although food security generally concerned with focused on
total calorie intake but today, they encompass the “triple burden” of
malnutrition, hunger (deficiencies in energy intake in diet), about 800 million
people are hungry and another two billion people suffer from life-threatening
diseases related to undernutrition and contamination from pesticides.
• 3. Food Storage capacity: The world loses an astounding quantity of food every
year. Around 1.4 billion hectares of agricultural land (which is 28% of the world’s
total agricultural area) used to produce food that is lost or wasted. In other
words, an area with the size of the US, India, and Egypt combinely used to grow
food that is never eaten (Corrado et al.,2019, FAO 2011a , Food Wastage 2021).
• 4. Impact of climate change on food security: According to the report
released on March 2020 by the United Nations on World Water
Development, the world’s food production system severely affected by
climate change that leads to food insecurity because of small shifts in
seasonality and irrigation water availability.
• According to Shagun (2020) combination of climate change and vulnerable
agricultural system is the ‘perfect storm’ that threatens farmers’
livelihoods and food security.
• 5. Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: Sustainable Agriculture can
help to reduce poverty, increase incomes and improve food security for 80
% population of the world’s poor, who live in rural areas and work mainly in
agriculture farms (World Bank, 2021).
RISKS: CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON FOOD
SECURITY
• Climate change generates considerable uncertainty about future
water availability in many regions. It will affect precipitation, runoff
and snow/ice melt, with effects on hydrological systems, water
quality and water temperature, as well as on groundwater recharge.
• FAO's recent analysis of 78 post-disaster needs assessments in 48
developing countries spanning the 2003–2013 period shows that 25
percent of all economic losses and damages inflicted by medium-
and large-scale climate hazards such as droughts, floods and storms
in developing countries affect the agriculture sectors.
• The projected impacts of climate change on major crop yields are now
well documented, based on two decades of research. Globally, negative
impacts are more commonly found than positive ones
• A recent multi-model study using IPCC’s highest scenario of warming found
a mean effect on yields of four crop groups (coarse grains, oil seeds, wheat
and rice, accounting for about 70 percent of global crop harvested area) of
minus 17 percent globally by 2050 relative to a scenario with unchanging
climate.
• Climate change affects livestock production in multiple ways- In various
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, 20 to 60 percent losses in animal numbers
were recorded during serious drought events in the past decades.
• Climate change affects food security in all its dimensions: access,
availability, utilization and stability
• Net effects of climate change on food security depend on vulnerabilities of
affected systems
• - The populations at greatest risk are those that are dependent on
agriculture and natural resources, with livelihoods that are highly exposed
to climate change impacts, and who have very limited capacity to
respond.
• In regions with high levels of food insecurity and inequality, increased
frequency of droughts will particularly affect poorer households and may
disproportionately affect women, given their vulnerability and restricted
access to resources.
Mobilize social protection to increase resilience of
livelihoods in the face of climate change
• Social protection programmes- “safety ropes”,
• Disaster risk reduction and disaster risk management (DRR/DRM) strategies
to address the risks of extreme events
• Build resilience of agricultural systems
• - Increasing the efficiency of scarce resource use in productive systems,
• -Adaptation measures for crops
• A range of adaptation options is available for livestock production at
different scales: animals, feeding/housing system, production system and
institutions.
• Healthy, diversified forest ecosystems are more resilient: they are better
able to cope with stress, recover from damage and adapt autonomously to
change.
• Fishing and fish-farming practices and management
• Increasing the diversity within production systems
• Adaptation action can be conducted at the landscape level, for instance,
watershed protection and management, fire management, erosion control,
coastal zone management, and pest and disease control.
• Invest in resilient agricultural development
• - Investments in agriculture, and especially in smallholder agriculture, are key to
eradicating poverty.
• - Rural and R&D investments needed to eradicate hunger could, to take into
account climate change effects, be reoriented or complemented by additional
investments and appropriate measures
• - Investments of farmers, fishers and forest dwellers need to be supported by
increased capacity to take collective action, including for investments, and by
strengthening the evidence base.
• Managing genetic resources is another key means of adaptation. This requires
large collective investments to preserve, characterize and valorize genetic
resources, and also to revise the goals of breeding programmes.
• For the world’s poor, adapting to climate change and ensuring food
security go hand in hand.
• A paradigm shift towards more resilient, productive, and sustainable
agriculture and food systems is required.
• The world needs to act now.
• To eliminate hunger and malnutrition.
• To enable the agriculture sectors to adapt to climate change.
• To mitigate climate change in order to keep it at levels where it is still
possible to ensure and safeguard everyone’s food security and nutrition.
• In that effort, agriculture has also a role to play, keeping in mind that food
security is the priority