4 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION

The branch of science which is dedicated to the understanding of nature and natural
phenomena is known as Physics. When we observe these natural phenomena, we need
to understand the laws of nature which govern them. Such understanding requires that
these laws are expressed quantitatively and qualitatively. For that one has to
appreciate the importance of physical quantities. The quantities which can be
measured directly or indirectly in terms of which laws of Physics can be expressed
are called physical quantities. The relationships among the quantities involved and
the measurements of these quantities form the very foundation of Physics.
Measurement means how many times a standard or known quantity is an unknown
quantity. This known quantity with which we compare a quantity being measured, is
known as unit. In this lesson, we shall learn about measurement techniques and the
systems of units. We shall also learn about the fundamental and derived physical
quantities, their measurement techniques, expression up to correct number of
significant figures and their dimensions. We shall also discuss about types of errors in
measurement.

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 Appreciate the importance of a common internationally accepted system of units
 Devise ways to measure very long distances using indirect methods
 Comprehend various techniques of measurement of mass and time
 Distinguish accuracy from precision in a measurement
 List the errors of various types in a measure and calculate the error
 Record and express a given measure according to required significant figures
 Express a physical quantity in terms of its dimensions

4.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

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Before we talk about the process of measurement, the very first question that arises is,
“why do we need to measure?” As we know, Physics expresses the relation between
natural phenomena in terms of physical quantities involved. How accurate these
relationships are, depends on how accurately we have measured the physical
quantities. Thus, exact measure is a vital requisite in physics.
A system of measurement involves a standard amount of a physical quantity which is
used to measure a quantity of same kind. This standard amount of quantity is called
unit of physical quantity. The numerical value of the magnitude of that physical
quantity is equal to how many times the standard quantity is that measured value.
The Systeme Internationale d’ Unites (SI) was adopted as a preferred language for
study of science and technology across the world as a measurement means in 1960 at
the prestigious international General Conference of Weights and Measures.
It is based upon seven basic or fundamental units and two supplementary units as
given below:
TABLE 4.1: BASIC QUANTITIES
S.NO. PHYSICAL UNIT SYMBOL FOR
QUANTITY UNIT
1 Length metre m
2 Time second s
3 Mass kilogram kg
4 Electric current ampere A
5 Temperature kelvin K
6 Quantity of matter mole mol
7 Luminous intensity candela cd
SUPPLEMENTARY
QUANTITY
8 Plane angle radian rad
9 Solid angle steradian sr
Let us learn more about basic and supplementary units:
Metre (m):
A metre is the SI unit of length. A length of one metre is defined as the path length
covered by light in 1/299,792,458th of a second.
Second (s):

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It is equal to the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to

transition between two hyperfine levels of ground state of cesium-133 atom.

Figure 4.1 Cesium atomic clock

Kilogram (kg):
The mass of a body is expressed in kilogram. One kilogram is the mass of platinum -
iridium alloy cylinder having equal height and diameter and preserved at IBWM at
Sevres near Paris. (see figure 3.2)
Figure 4.2: prototype of mass of one kilogram

Kelvin (K):
The SI unit of temperature is kelvin. One kelvin is the fraction of 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Ampere (A):
The constant current, which, if maintained between two parallel straight conductors of
infinite length and negligible cross section, separated by a distance of one metre in
vacuum, produces a force of 2 x 10-7 N per unit length between them is called one
ampere.
Mole (mol):
One mole is that amount of a substance which contains as many elementary identities
(atoms, molecules or ions) as the atoms of 0.012 kg of carbon-12 isotope.
Candela(cd):

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The SI unit of luminous intensity is candela. One candela is the amount of light
emitted in a particular direction by a source with a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per
steradian and a monochromatic emission frequency of 540 x 1012 hertz.
The supplementary units, radian and steradian are defined in the following manner:
Radian Steradian
The plane angle at the centre of a circle The solid angle that the surface of a
that is subtended by an arc whose length sphere with a surface area equal to the
is equal to the circle's radius. area of a square with sides equal to the
radius of the sphere subtends at its centre.

Plane angle = arc/radius Solid angle = surface area/radius2

The SI system and other systems of units such as cgs (based on centimetre, gram and
second) and mks system (based on metre, kilogram and second) are metric systems of
units. The multiples and sub-multiples of their basic units are related to the practical
units by powers of 10, which makes it convenient to use them. Thus they are
extensively used as measurement systems in practical scenario. Many ancient systems
such as fps (foot pound second) are not used practically as they are not based on
metric system.
Table 4.2 gives a list of prefixes for powers of ten, used with SI units.
TABLE 4.2: PREFIXES USED FOR POWERS OF TEN WITH SI UNITS
SUB- PREFIXES SYMBOL MULTIPLES PREFIXES SYMBOL
MULTIPLES
10-1 deci d 101 deca da
10-2 centi c 102 hecto h
10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
10-6 micro µ 106 mega M
10-9 nano n 109 giga G
10-12 pico p 1012 tera T
10-15 femto f 1015 peta P
10-18 atto a 1018 exa E
For example, a distance of 1000 m is expressed as 1 km. A length of 100 cm is equal
to 1 m.

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It has been noticed that sometimes students use incorrect symbols for various units.
Following is a list of simple rules that should be followed while writing SI units in
symbolic form:
1. Always use small letters as units or symbols for units, unless the unit is a
scientist’s name. Note that the symbol for unit of force is ‘N’ not ‘n’. But symbol of a
unit such as ‘second’ is ‘s’ not ‘S’.
2. The full name of scientist, if used as unit, starts with a small letter always. But the
first letter of its symbol is a capital letter. For example, the unit of pressure is written
as ‘pascal’ or ‘Pa’. It is never written as ‘Pascal’ or ‘pa’ or ‘PA’.
3. Never put a full stop after writing a unit unless it is the end of a sentence.
4. Never write the plural of a unit or its symbol. For example, you can travel a
distance of 10 km, but not 10 kms.

EXTRA INFORMATION
In addition to SI units, some practical units are also used for various physical
quantities.
 For measuring small lengths, such as atomic distances, a unit called angstrom is
used.
1 angstrom = 1 Ao = 10-10 m
 For measuring very large distances, such as celestial distances, the following
units are used:
1 light year = 1 ly = 9.46 x 1015 m
(Distance travelled by light in one year)
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m
(mean distance of earth from sun)
1 parallactic second = 1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m
(Distance at which one arc of length 1 AU subtends an angle of 1 second of arc)

The choice of units for any practical use depends on following factors:
A) The unit should neither be too large nor too small.
B) It should be internationally accepted.
C) It should be easily reproducible.
D) It should not change with time.

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4.3 MEASUREMENT OF LONG DISTANCE

The distance of separation of two points in space is known as length. The range of
measurement of length varies from very small distances such as nuclear lengths (of
the order of 10-15 m) to very large distances such as size of the universe. For
measurement of small lengths, direct methods are used. These involve the use of
devices such as metre scale, Vernier Callipers, screw gauge etc. However, there is no
direct method or measuring device to measure very large distances. Thus the scientists
have to rely upon indirect methods for taking these measurements. In this section we
shall discuss some methods of measuring large distances using the following indirect
methods:
1. Triangulation method for height of object having small height
2. Parallax method
Triangulation method for height of object having small height
The triangulation method is based on the trigonometric ratios. A device called sextant
is used to measure the angle of elevation of the tip of the object with the horizontal.
Consider a distant object AB, say a tree or a tall building of unknown height ‘h’. You
are required to find the height of AB from a point C at distance ‘d’ from its base.
Using the sextant, the angle of elevation of point A from C is found to be ‘x’.
Figure 4.4: Triangulation method for height of a short object

Using the trigonometric ratios, tan x = AB/BC = h/d

Thus, height of object, h = d tan x
Parallax method
The parallax method can be used to measure vast distances, as the separation of a
planet or star from the earth. A change in an object's location with regard to the
background when viewed from two separate positions is known as a parallax. Hold a
pencil vertically in front of your face with your arm extended to examine parallax.
Watch the pencil with only your left eye at first, then just your right. In relation to the

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background, the pencil's position looks to have been altered. It's called parallax. The
parallactic angle is the angle formed by two positions of view at the same object. Its
basis rests upon the separation between two sites of observation.
If a star is located at a distance less than 100 light years, then we can use parallax
method to measure its distance.
Consider a far off object located at point O in space. The object is observed from two
distant points A and B on earth, such that A and B are separated by a distance s. let
distance of object from A and B be S. Select a distant object O’ as a background
object with respect to which the position of O is detected.

Figure 4.4
The two angles with the background object can be measured at the two points A and
B. As s<< S, we approximate the length of arc AB as s.
Now, θ = arc/radius = s/S
This indicates, S = s/θ
To calculate the distance to an object that is far away, such a distant star we apply the
inverse square approach, a spectroscopic technique. The inverse square law of
intensity is the foundation of this approach. The law states that the square of the
distance from the light source has an inverse relationship with the intensity of
illumination at any given point. If all brightness of all stars is considered to be the

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same, then we can compare the intensity of faint image (I1) of a far away star taken on
a photographic plate with the intensity of bright image (I2) of a nearby star.
If distances of these two stars are r1 and r2,
then from inverse square law of intensity,
I1/I2 = r22/r12
If we know the distance of nearby star then we can easily calculate the distance of far
away star.
Example 1: Convert an angle of a) 1o (one degree) b)1’ (one arc min) and 1” (one
arc sec) into radians.
We know, that 360o = 2 ϖ radian
a) 1o = 2 ϖ / 360 = ϖ/180 radian = 1.745 x 10-2 radian
b) 1o = 60’= 1.745 x 10-2 radian
Thus, 1’ = 1.745 x 10-2 /60 = 2.91 x 10-4 radian
c) 1’ = 60’’ = 2.91 x 10-4 radian
Thus, 1’’ = 2.91 x 10-4 radian/60 = 4.85 x 10-6 radian
Example 2: 1920” is the measured value of the angular diameter of sun. The sun
is located 1.4 x 1011 m far from the earth. Based on this fact, can you estimate the
linear diameter of sun? Draw a diagram to explain your answer.

Figure 4.5
As given in question,
Distance s of sun from earth = 1.4 x 1011 m
Angular diameter, x = 1920” = 1920 x 4.85 x 10-6 radian
Linear diameter of sun, d = s.x = 1.4 x 1011 m x 1920 x 4.85 x 10-6 = 1.4 x 109 m
Example 3: Radius of earth is 6.38 x 106 m, from which the moon is observed at
the diametrically opposite ends. The subtended angle at the moon is 1o54’.
Calculate the distance of moon from earth.
Radius of earth, r = 6.38 x 106 m

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Diameter of earth = 2r = 1.276 x 107 m

Angle subtended at moon, x = 1o54’ = 1.745 x 10-2 + 54 x 2.91 x 10-4
= 3.32 x 10-2 rad
Distance of moon from earth = s = d/x = 1.276 x 107/3.32 x 10-2 = 3.84 x 108 m
Example 4: A distant star is at 5 ly from earth. What is this distance in par sec?
If the star is observed from two locations 3 x 1011 m apart, find the parallax
shown by this star. Given 1 par sec = 3.08 x 1016 m; 1 ly = 9.46 x 1015 m.
One light year = 9.46 x 1015 m
5 light year = 5 x 9.46 x 1015 m = 4.73 x 1016 m
3.08 x 1016 m = 1 par sec
4.73 x 1016 m = 4.73 x 1016 /3.08 x 1016 par sec = 1.54 par sec
Parallax shown by star = distance between locations/distance of star
= 3 x 1011/4.73 x 1016 = 6.34 x 10-6 radian

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.1

1. Fill in the blanks

(a) The smallest and practically used unit of time is ____________.
(b) The largest and practically used unit of mass is ___________.
(c) 1 CSL = ____________ times sun’s mass
(d) 1 nautical mile = ______________ m
(e) 1 mile = _________ m
(f) 1 acre = _________ m2.
(g) The SI unit of luminous intensity = __________.
2. The density of water is 1 g/cc. Express this value in terms of SI unit of density.
3. A car is moving with a speed of 54 km/h. Express its speed in m/s.
4. At a given basis, which star will show greater parallax-nearer star or farther star?
5. Why is it not possible to use parallax method to measure distance of stars farther
than 100 ly from us?

4.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS

The matter contained in a body which can’t be zero ever, is known as mass. It is not
affected by any physical factors such as presence of any other object in its vicinity,
change in location of the body to any other planet etc. There are two types of masses

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of a body - inertial mass and gravitational mass. The measure of inertia of a body is
known as inertial mass. A body having more mass will possess larger inertia. On the
other hand, gravitational mass is used to measure the gravitational pull of earth on the
body. This means gravitational mass is a measure of force acting on the body due to
the gravity.
We measure mass kilogram, the SI unit.
In practical applications we come across masses which really over a wide range. It
could be as small as negligible mass of an electron (~10-30 kg) to as large as mass of
the whole universe (~1055 kg). In daily life we measure mass of a body using a
common balance.
To measure inertial mass, we use a device called inertial balance. It consists of a
long strip of metal which is clamped to a table at one end and holds a pan at the other.
The mass which is to be measured, is kept on the pan. The strip vibrates horizontally.
The inertia of strip comes into play. The vibration period will vary proportionally to
the square root of mass of the body.
This means, T α√m
Let us take a known standard mass m1 with time period of vibration T1 and an
unknown mass m2 with time period of vibration T2. we can find out T1 and T2
experimentally.
Thus, unknown mass is calculated as m2 = m1. T22/T12

Figure 4.6: Inertial balance

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Figure 4.7: Physical balance

To measure gravitational mass, a physical balance is used. It is based on the

principle of moments. Despite the forces acting, the object is balanced, which means
that the sum of clockwise moments on it is equal to the sum of anti-clockwise
moments.
See figure 4.7. The object whose mass is to be measured is kept in the left pan and the
standard mass is kept in right pan. The weights in the right pan are adjusted till the
beam becomes horizontal. Thus the gravitational force acting on the unknown mass
becomes equal to the gravitational force acting on the standard weight.
A spring balance is also used to measure the gravitational mass of the body. When a
body is suspended through the spring balance, the spring gets elongated due to the
weight. The elongation in the spring is dependent on the gravitational force which is
proportional to the gravitational mass. The calibration of scale attached to the spring
gives the value of gravitational mass of the body.

Figure 4.8: Spring balance

However for measuring very large masses such as planets, stars etc, we use
gravitational method of measuring mass. For measurement of very small masses such
as those of atomic or subatomic particles we use a mass spectrograph. It is based on

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the fact that the radius of path followed by a charged particle travelling through
uniform electric and magnetic fields is proportional to mass of the particle itself.
Measuring large masses
To measure mass of a planet or a heavenly body, we use two laws- a) Newton’s law
of gravitation and b) Kepler’s law of periods.
Consider a planet or satellite having mass m revolves around a heavenly body, say sun
in a nearly circular orbit of radius r. Let mass of this body be M.
Now, orbital velocity of the planet is taken as v.
Centripetal force, F = mv2/r
Orbital velocity, v = circumference/period of revolution = 2 ϖ r/T
Thus, F = 4 ϖ2rm/T2
From the statement of Kepler’s law of periods, T2α r3
Or T2 = k r3 where k is the constant of proportionality.
Also, from law of gravitation, we have F = GMm/r2
Hence, GMm/r2 = 4 ϖ2rm/T2
M = 4 ϖ2r3/GT2
This is the mass of a large body. For instance, if we were to measure the mass of earth,
we take the following constants:
Distance between earth and moon = r = 3.84 x 108 m
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
Time period of revolution of moon around earth, T = 27.3 days = 27.3 x 86,400 s
Mass of earth, ME = 4 ϖ2r3/GT2
= 4 x 3.142 x (3.84 x 108)3/6.67 x 10-11 x (27.3 x 86,400)2
= 6.02 x 1024 kg
Measuring small masses
When we deal with very small masses, such as those of sub-atomic particles, the
kilogram is no longer suitable. Then, we need to use a special unit called unified
atomic mass unit (amu or simply u). A mass of 1 amu is defined as 1/12th of the mass
of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.
1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
A mass spectrograph is a device used to measure such small masses. The radius of
trajectory followed by a charged particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic
field is proportional to the mass of the particle.

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4.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME

We measure time with the help of a clock. To measure time with high degree of
accuracy, we use cesium atomic clock. Ordinary clocks and watches are based on
vibrations of small quartz crystal, which are not as accurate as cesium clocks. The
cesium atomic clock at Delhi’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL) is used to
maintain IST (Indian Standard Time). It should be noted that the cesium atomic
clocks are highly efficient and uncertainty in time realisation with them is 10-15 s. This
means that in one year, these clocks will gain or lose about 2 µs.

4.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS

Anything we measure should be accurate as well as precise. We often use these terms
interchangeably. However, the two are different from each other. We shall distinguish
between the two terms.
Accuracy of a measure refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of
the physical quantity. When errors are less, measures are more accurate.
Precision of a measurement refers to resolution or the limit of a measurement. It
shows how close a set of repeated measurements are to one another but not the true
value, influenced by the random errors of those measurements. It is determined by the
least count of device.
To understand the above definitions, consider an example. Let a certain length have
true measure 3.816 cm. Two students measure this length separately. The first student
measures this length as 3.8 cm. The other student uses a different device having
greater resolution. The measure comes out to be 3.74 cm. Notice that the first measure
is closer to true value. Thus it is more accurate. But the second measure has higher
resolution. Thus it is less accurate but more precise. We thus see that these measures
are not exactly correct. They are slightly different from the true value. It means there
is some error in every measurement.
Physics requires an exact measure of all physical quantities, so that the results of all
experiments in science and technology are reliable. However, every measure always
has a component of uncertainty in it. This uncertainty is termed as error. Such error
arises due to various factors such as faulty apparatus, effect of physical factors in
experimental environment, wrong technique of measurement etc.
Error is equal to the difference between the true value and the measured value.
Error = true value – measured value

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It gives us the limits within which the actual value of a measure may lie.There are two
main types of errors:
A) Systematic errors
B) Random errors
(i)Systematic errors:
Systematic errors are errors that only go in one direction, either in a positive direction
or a negative direction. These are further divided into different sorts.
Instrumental errors
These errors are caused by faulty design of measuring device. Sometimes the scale of
the device is imperfectly calibrated or there is zero error in the scale. The edges of a
metre scale could be worn off. The vernier scale's zero mark may not match the main
scale's zero in vernier callipers. Even in thermometer, the temperature graduations on
the scale could be incorrectly calibrated.
Incorrect Experimental Technique
An incorrect experimental technique could lead to either higher or lower value of
measure. Physical factors, such as wind, humidity, temperature, effect of buoyancy of
air etc during the experiment could also affect the measurement in either positive or
negative direction.
Personal errors
Sometimes, in an experiment, the experimenter is biased towards a measurement.
Observations could be taken with carelessness, without following proper precautions.
The setting of an apparatus on uneven surface or inappropriate environment could
lead to personal errors in a measure.
Personal errors also arise due to ‘parallax’ while taking measurement. This happens
due to apparent shifting of pointer or needle on the scale because of wrong eye
position during measurement.
To minimise systematic errors, we could improve experimental techniques by using
better instruments, avoiding experimental bias and following correct experimental
techniques. Zero errors should be corrected in the measurement. Effect of physical
factors in the surroundings should be minimised as much as possible.
(ii) Random errors:
The errors which happen irregularly and have no fixed direction and sign, are known
as random errors. These can be reduced by taking many repeated measurements and
calculating their mean. The mean value is taken as true value of the measure. This is

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because, these errors occur due to chance variations, such as attentiveness of

experimenter or sudden changes in experimental environment. Multiple readings
eliminate these errors.
(iii) Least Count Errors
Least count is the smallest difference in two measures that can be detected by a
measuring device. It is the smallest reading that can be taken by a device. For
example, the ruler in your geometry box has a least count of 1 mm. A vernier callipers
has the least count as 0.05 cm or 0.01cm. A device which has a least count of 0.01 cm,
for example, will give an error of positive or negative 0.005 cm.
If we use instruments having higher precision and work with better experimental
techniques, we can eliminate this error.
4.6.1 Error Calculation: Absolute Error, Relative Error And
Percentage Error
If intended to minimise random errors, we need to take a large number of measures or
readings and hence calculate their mean. Suppose the values obtained in several
measurements are a1 , a2 , a3 ...., an.
Mean value, amean = (a1 +a2 +a3 +...+an ) / n
It’s high time we define the types of errors and calculate them.
Absolute error: The difference between mean value (true value) and measured value
is called absolute error.
Relative error: The arithmetic mean of positive magnitudes of absolute errors in an
experiment is called mean absolute error. Relative error is the ratio of mean absolute
error to the true value of measure. It is indicative of the accuracy of a measure.
Percentage error: The relative error when expressed as a percentage, is equal to
percentage error.
Consider ā to be the mean value of a set of measures.
Then absolute errors of individual measures are:
∆a1 = ā - a1
∆a2 = ā - a2
∆a3 = ā - a3
∆an = ā - an
The mean absolute error ∆ā = |∆a1| + |∆a2| + |∆a3| + …….+|∆an|
n

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Relative error, δa = ∆ā /ā
Percentage error = δa x 100% = (∆ā /ā) x 100%
Example 5: Different measurements of time period of an oscillating pendulum are
recorded as 2.53 s, 2.46 s, 2.32 s, 2.62 s and 2.79 s in an experiment. Calculate the
mean value of the measurement. Also find out the absolute error, relative error and
percentage error in the measurement.
Solution: Arithmetic mean, amean = (a1 +a2 +a3 +...+an ) / n
= (2.53 s + 2.46 s + 2.32 s + 2.62 s + 2.79 s)/5 = 12.72/5
= 2.54 s
Absolute errors, ∆a1 = ā - a1 = 2.54 - 2.53 = 0.01 s
∆a2 = ā - a2 = 2.54 - 2.46 = 0.08 s
∆a3 = ā - a3 = 2.54 - 2.32 = 0.22 s
∆a4 = ā - a4 = 2.54 - 2.62 = -0.08 s
∆a5 = ā - a5 = 2.54 - 2.79 = -0.25 s
The mean absolute error ∆ā = |∆a1| + |∆a2| + |∆a3| + …….+|∆an|
n
= 0.64/5 = 0.13 s
Relative error, δa = ∆ā /ā = 0.13/2.54 = 0.05
Percentage error = δa x 100% = (∆ā /ā) x 100% = 5%
Note: The resultant measure is expressed as T = (2.54 + 0.13) s or (2.54 + 5%) s

Example 6: Two clocks are tested for accuracy at 12:00:00 noon time. The
readings of the clocks are recorded as:
Days Clock 1 Clock 2
Monday 12:00:04 11:15:03
Tuesday 12:01:05 11:14:59
Wednesday 11:59:49 11:15:00
Thursday 12:01:54 11:15:03
Friday 11:59:25 11:14:58
Saturday 12:01:30 11:15:12
Sunday 12:01:29 11:14:51
If you need precise time interval measurements, which of these two will you use
and why?

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Solution: As we can see, the time measured by clock 1 is more accurate as it is closer
to true value than clock 2. So clock 2 has zero error in it which needs to be rectified.
In clock 1, the readings of time vary from 11:59:25 s to 12:01:54 s; i.e. a time interval
of 149 s. In clock 2, the readings vary over a time interval of 21 s only. Thus, clock 2
is more precise as the readings are closer to each other. Hence, for a more precise set
of observations, we will prefer clock 2.

4.7 ERROR ANALYSIS

So far we learnt how to calculate errors in individual measures. However, we
calculate quantities which require different measurements. So we need to find out the
net error in the final result. This is done by combining the errors obtained in
individual measurements.
We know that to calculate a quantity from different measures we need to perform
mathematical operations on those measures and combine them. Similarly, we perform
mathematical operations on errors too in order to combine them. To calculate
maximum permissible error, we follow a set of rules:
A) When two quantities are added or subtracted: Let two physical quantities A and B
have absolute errors ∆A and ∆B respectively.
They are measured as A ± ∆A and B ± ∆B.
If C = sum of A and B = A + B, then error ∆Z in the sum is given as,
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)
= (A+ B) ± (∆A + ∆B)
Thus, ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B
It means, when two quantities are added or subtracted, the maximum error is equal to
the sum of absolute errors in individual quantities.
B) When two quantities are multiplied or divided: Let two physical quantities A and B
have absolute errors ∆A and ∆B respectively.
They are measured as A ± ∆A and B ± ∆B.
Let Z = AB
Z ±∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)
= AB ± B ∆A ± A ∆B ± ∆A ∆B
Now dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB, we get
1±(∆Z/Z) = 1 ± (∆A/A) ± (∆B/B) ± (∆A/A)(∆B/B)

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As (∆A/A) (∆B/B) is a small quantity, we can neglect it. Thus,

(∆Z/Z) = (∆A/A) ± (∆B/B)
The same result holds true for Z = A/B also.
It means, when two quantities are multiplied or divided, the maximum relative error is
equal to the sum of fractional/relative errors in individual quantities.
Example 7: The radius of a sphere is 5.3 ± 0.1 cm. Calculate the percentage error
in its volume.
Solution: Volume of sphere = (4/3) ϖ r3
=> Relative error in volume = δV/V = 3 δr/r = 3 x 0.1 / 5.3
=> Percentage error in volume = (3 x 0.1 / 5.3) x 100 = 5.7%
Example 8: Find the percentage error in Z, if Z = A1/3B4/CD2/3.
Solution: Percentage error in Z = [(1/3)δA/A + 4δB/B + δC/C + (2/3)δD/D] X 100%
Example 9:The length and time period of a simple pendulum have errors of 1%
and 2% respectively. Find the percentage error in the value of ‘g’.
Solution: In case of a simple pendulum, T = 2ϖ√(L/g)
This means, g = 4ϖ2L/T2
Percentage error in g = [(δL/L) x100 + 2(δT/T) x100] = 1% + 2 x 2% = 5%
Example 10: A thermometer measures temperatures of two bodies as T1 = 200C ±
0.5 0C and T2 = 500C ± 0.5 0C. Calculate the temperature difference and the error.
Solution: Temperature difference = T2 - T1
= (50oC ± 0.5 0C) - (200C ± 0.5 0C)
= 30oC ±10C
Example 11: If radius of a wire is 0.25 ± 0.01 cm, resistance is 22 ± 1 ohm, length
of wire is 65 ± 0.01 cm, find the percentage error in its specific resistance.
Solution: Specific resistance, ρ = Rϖr2/l
Percentage error in ρ = δR/R x 100% + 2 δr/r x 100% + δl/l x 100%
= (1/22) x 100% + 2 x (0.01/0.25) x 100% + (0.01/65) x 100%
= 4.5% + 8% + 0.02% = 12.52%
Example 12: The percentage errors in the values of mass and speed are 1% and
3% respectively. What will be the maximum error in the kinetic energy estimate?
Solution: Kinetic energy = (1/2) mv2
Error in kinetic energy = error in mass + 2 x error in speed
= 1% + 2 x 3% = 7%

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.2

1. The unit of absolute error and relative error is same as that of the quantity being
measured. (True/false)
2. Least count errors can occur both with random errors and systematic errors.
(True/false)
3. Ca we have an instrument which is precise but not accurate? Can we have an
instrument which is accurate but not precise? Explain.
4. Distinguish between accuracy and precision.
5. Two students, A and B take three readings to measure the mass of a given block
whose true mass is 0.630 g, in an experiment to find the density of a substance. Their
observations are tabulated below. Check whose data is more precise and whose data is
more accurate.
Name of First reading Second reading Third reading Average value
student of mass
A 0.616 g 0.615 g 0.614 g 0.615 g
B 0.634 g 6.620 g 0.620 g 0.627 g
6. The refractive indices of diamond measured in an experiment are 2.45, 2.56, 2.34,
2.44, 2.58 and 2.42 respectively. Calculate the mean value of the measurement. Also
find out the absolute error, mean absolute error, relative error and percentage error in
the measurement.
7. If Z = A6 B1/4 /C2 D3/2, find the relative error in Z.

4.8 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Every measurement contains inaccuracy, as we have seen. As a result, we report a
quantity's measure in the number of digits that may be relied upon, i.e., those that
reflect an instrument's accuracy. It implies that a measurement's outcome should
incorporate both the first uncertain digit and all other reliable digits.
We define a measure's significant figures as the digits that can be known with
certainty plus one more uncertain digit. For instance, if a rod's length is measured at
25.67 cm, the trustworthy or certain numbers are 2, 5, and 6, while the uncertain digit
is 7. This indicates that there are four significant figures in the measured length of the
rod.

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While reporting the result of a measurement, we need to round off the measure to the
required number of significant figures. Otherwise it becomes ambiguous and
misleading. So we follow the following rules to determine the number of significant
figures in a measurement:
 All digits other than zero are significant. For instance, the number 1.877 includes
four significant digits.
 Every zero in between non-zero digits has value. 48.0005, for instance, has six
significant digits.
 Unless they are the result of a measurement, any zeroes at the end of a number
without a decimal point are not important. Three important figures make up the
number 96400, whereas five significant figures make up 96400 s.
 The decimal point is followed by all significant zeros. Therefore, 12.30 contains
four important figures because they are positioned to show the instrument's
accuracy.
 Zeroes before the first non-zero digit, whether to the left and right of the decimal
point, are not relevant. The three significant figures are, thus, 0.754 cm, 0.0754
cm, and 0.000754 cm.
 If the system of units is changed, then the number of significant figures remains
the same. Thus, 1.605 cm, 0.01605 m, 16.05 mm or 16050 µm, all have four
significant figures.
To remove any confusion over number of significant figures due to the presence of
terminal zeroes, we express a measure in scientific notation always. The number is
expressed as a x 10b, where ‘a’ is any number between 1 and 10 with a decimal point
placed after the first digit and ‘b’ is a positive or negative exponent. For example, the
speed of 45870 m/s is expressed in scientific notation as 4.5870 x 104 m/s.
Rounding off: To express a measurement's result in its proper significant figures, it is
rounded off. This offers us a rough notion of the measure's value. The guidelines for
rounding off a measurement are as follows:
 In cases where the dropped digit is less than 5, the preceding digit is left alone; in
cases where it is larger than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1.
 If the digit to be dropped is 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1 if it is odd or
kept unaltered if it is uneven.
Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures:

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If an arithmetic operation involves measured quantities, then the result cannot be

more accurate than those values. It is important that the precision of final result is
consistent with precision of measured quantities. Following rules are followed while
doing arithmetic operations with significant figures:
 The final result of any addition or subtraction should have the same number of
decimal places as number with minimum number of decimal places.
 The result of calculation must reflect the uncertainties in measured quantities. It
should not have more significant figures than original values. Thus the result of
multiplication or division should be rounded off to the number of digits as there in
the value with least number of significant figures.
Example 13: State the number of significant figures in the following: a) 5.000 m
b) 34000 c) 0.0750 cm
Solution: a) 4 b) 2 c) 3
Example 14: Calculate the sum and express your answer to correct number of
significant figures: 3.46, 5.927, 16.48, and 14.390
Solution: a) Sum of four quantities = 3.46 + 5.927 + 16.48 + 14.390 = 40.257
The minimum number of significant figures is 3. Thus, we round off the result
to 2 decimal places.
40.257 is rounded off to 40.26
Example 15: Simplify and express the result up to correct significant figures:
(6.54 x 9.87 x 10-3 x 106) / 0.5963
Solution :( 6.54 x 9.87 x 10-3 x 106) / 0.5963 = 108.2503 x 103
= 108250.3
This result is expressed in scientific notation and rounded off to three
significant figures.
Thus, 108250.3 = 1.082503 x 105
On rounding off, we get 1.08 x 105
Example 16: The side of a cube is 4.205 cm. Find its total surface area and
volume up to correct significant figures.
Solution: Given side of cube = 4.205 cm
Total surface area = 6 x side2 = 6 x (4.205)2 = 106.09215 cm2
This result is expressed in scientific notation and rounded off to four significant
figures.

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Thus, 106.09215 cm2 = 1.0609215 x 102 cm2 = 1.061 x 102 cm2

Volume of cube = side3 = (4.205)3 = 74.352915125 cm3
This result is expressed in scientific notation and rounded off to four significant
figures.
Thus, 74.352915125 cm3 = 7.4352915125 x 101 cm3 = 7.435 x 101 cm3

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.3

1. 6.54 g of something has volume of 1.7 cm3. Find its density and express it in
correct significant figures.
2. A solid sphere has measured radius equal to 11.24 cm. Calculate its surface area to
correct significant figures.
3. The mean time period of oscillations of a simple pendulum calculated in an
experiment is 2.825 s. If mean absolute error is 0.11 s, express the period of
oscillation up to correct significant figures. Give reasons too.
4. Select the most precise and preferred device for length measurement:
A) vernier callipers with 20 divisions on sliding/vernier scale
B) screw gauge of pitch 0.1 cm with 100 divisions on the circular scale
C) instrument capable of measuring wavelength of visible light.

4.9 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

We have learnt that there are seven fundamental quantities. Rest of the quantities can
be derived from these quantities. The seven fundamental quantities are termed as
dimensions. The seven dimensions are stated as:
Dimensions of mass: [M]
Dimensions of length: [L]
Dimensions of time: [T]
Dimensions of electric current: [A]
Dimensions of temperature: [K]
Dimensions of amount of substance: [mol]
Dimensions of luminous intensity: [cd]

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The dimensions of a physical quantity are defined as powers to which the

fundamental quantity will be raised to represent the quantity completely. We always
put square brackets around the dimensions of a quantity.
For example, area = length2
Dimensions of area = [L2]
In dimensional representation, the magnitudes are not important. Quantities such as
velocity, speed, change in velocity, instantaneous speed, average velocity etc are all
considered equivalent in dimensional forms.

4.10 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL

EQUATIONS
All the derived quantities also have their dimensions which are obtained from those of
fundamental quantities in the form of expressions called their dimensional formulae.
The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is obtained by finding its relation with
other quantities, given the known quantities of M, L and T.
For example, momentum = mass x velocity
Dimensions of momentum = dimensions of mass x dimensions of (displacement/time)
= [M][L][T-1] = [MLT-1]
The dimensional formulae of some physical quantities are tabulated below:
TABLE 4.3 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
S.NO. PHYSICAL RELATION WITH DIMENSION SI UNIT
QUANTITY OTHER AL
QUANTITIES FORMULAE
1 Area Length x breadth [M0L2T0] m2
2 Volume Length x breadth x [M0L3T0] m3
height
3 Density Mass/volume [ML-3T0] kg/m3
4 Speed Distance/time [M0LT-1] m/s
5 Acceleration Velocity change/time [M0LT-2] m/s2
6 Force Mass x acceleration [MLT-2] kgm/s2 or
N
7 Work/energy Force x displacement [ML2T-2] Nm or J
8 Power Work done/time [ML2T-3] J/s or

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 MODULE II: MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY 24

watt
9 Pressure Thrust/area [ML-1T-2] pascal
10 Torque Force x distance [ML2T-2] Nm
11 Impulse Force x time [MLT-3] Ns
12 Gravitational constant Force x [M-1L3T-2] Nm2/kg2
distance2/mass2
13 Stress Force/area [ML-1T-2] N/m2
14 Strain Change in [M0L0T0] No unit
dimension/actual
dimension
15 Surface tension Force/length [ML0T-2] N/m
16 Coefficient of Stress/strain [ML-1T-2] N/m2
elasticity
17 Coefficient of Force x distance/area x [ML-1T-1] Pa s
viscosity velocity
18 Angle Arc/radius [M0L0T0] rad
19 Angular velocity Angle/time [M0L0T-1] Rad/s
20 Angular acceleration Angular velocity/time [M0L0T-2] Rad/s2
21 Moment of inertia Mass x distance2 [ML2T0] kg m2
22 Angular momentum Mass x velocity x [ML2T-1] kg m2/s
radius
23 Time period Time [M0L0T1] s
24 Amplitude Displacement [M0LT0] m
25 Frequency 1/time period [M0L0T-1] s-1
26 Planck’s constant Energy/frequency [ML2T-1] Js
27 Velocity gradient Velocity/distance [M0L0T-1] s-1
28 Pressure gradient Pressure/distance [ML2T-2] Pa / m
29 Relative density Density/density of [M0L0T0] No unit
water
30 Force constant Force/displacement [ML0T-2] N/m
31 Specific heat Heat energy/mass x [M0L2T-2K-1] J/kgK
temperature change
32 Latent heat Heat energy/mass [M0L2T-2] J/kg

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33 Thermal conductivity Heat x distance/(area x [MLT-3K-1] J/msK

temperature x time)
34 Entropy Heat/temperature [ML2T-2K-1] J/K
35 Universal gas PV/nT [ML2T-2K- J/mol K
1
constant mol-1]
36 Mechanical W/H Dimensionless -
equivalent of heat
37 Solar constant Energy/area x time [ML0T-3] J/m2s
38 Boltzmann’s constant Energy/temperature [ML2T-2K-1] J/K
39 Stefan’s constant Energy/(area x time x [ML0T-3K-4] J/m2sK-4
temperature2
40 Electric charge Current x time [M0L0AT] coulomb
41 Electrical potential Work/charge [ML2T-3A-1] volt
42 Resistance Potential [ML2T-3A-2] ohm
difference/current
43 Capacitance Charge/potential [M-1L-2T4A2] farad
difference
44 Inductance EMF x time/current [ML2T-2A-2] henry
45 Permittivity of free Charge2/force x [M-1L-3T4A2] C2A2N-
space distance2 m-2
1

46 Electric dipole Charge x distance [LTA] Cm

moment
47 Resistivity Resistance x [ML3T-3A-2] Ohm-
area/length metre
48 Electric field intensity Force/charge [MLT-3A-1] NC-1
49 Dielectric constant ε0/ε Dimensionless -
50 Magnetic field Force/charge x [ML0T-2A-1] tesla
velocity x sinθ
51 Magnetic flux BA [ML2T-2A-1] weber
52 Permeability of free 4ϖr x force/I1I2 l [MLT-2A-2] -
space
53 Magnetic moment Current x area [M0L2T0A] Am2
54 Pole strength Magnetic [M0LT0A] Am

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moment/magnetic
length

An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is

called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity. These represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities. Some dimensional
equations are given below:
Volume: [V] = [M0L3T0 ]
Speed: [v] = [M0LT–1]
Force: [F] = [MLT–2]
Density: [ρ] = [ML–3T0]
As we can see, the dimensional equation can be obtained from the equation
representing the relations between the physical quantities.

4.11 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS USES

In this section, we will understand how dimensional analysis of quantities is an
important method of studying various phenomena. There are many uses of
dimensional analysis- deducing relationship between different physical quantities and
checking the accuracy and dimensional consistency of mathematical expressions.
These uses are based on the fact that just like magnitudes of physical quantities, their
units are also multiplied, divided or cancelled just like algebraic symbols. The same
action is possible with dimensions too. Also, the physical quantities on both sides of a
mathematical equation should have the same dimensions.
We shall now study each of these processes in detail.
Checking correctness of a physical relation
We can add or subtract only those physical quantities which have the same
dimensions. This is known as principle of homogeneity of dimensions. This helps us
to check the correctness of a physical relation. For that we simply check whether in an
equation, all the terms which are arithmetically treated have the same dimensions or
not. If dimensions are not same, then the equation is incorrect. Thus, dimensions help
us to check the consistency of a given relation. However, it cannot help to obtain the
exact relation always, as there are dimensionless quantities or constants often creeping
into equations. These could be trigonometric functions, numericals, angles,
exponential functions, logarithms etc. Thus, dimensional analysis is used as just a tool

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to test the consistency of units in an equation. One advantage that it has is, that we can
express the quantities in a relations in any unit system, without converting them to a
common unit system.

Conversion of a unit system to another

We understand by now, that no matter in which system of units a physical quantity
has been expressed, its magnitude remains the same. Let a quantity Q be expressed in
two different units x and y as mx and ny respectively, where m and n are numerical
values corresponding to respective unit system.
Thus, quantity, Q = mx = ny
Let the size of fundamental units of mass, length and time in each system be M1, L1,T1
and M2,L2,T2 respectively.
The dimensional formula of each unit can thus be written as:
x = [M1a L1bT1c]
y = [M2aL2bT2c]
Q = mx = ny
Or m[M1a L1bT1c] = n[M2aL2bT2c]
Or n = m [M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b[T1/T2]c
For example, to convert 1 dyne into newton, we have y = dyne, x = newton; m = 1
Dimensional formula of force is [MLT-2]
mx = ny
Dimensional formula of 1newton = [M2/M1]a [L2/L1]b[T2/T1]c dyne
= 1 x [1000/1][100/1][1/1]-2 dyne
= 105 dyne
Deriving relationship between different quantities
With knowledge of parameters on which a physical quantity depends, and with use of
principle of homogeneity, we can deduce a relation between physical quantities. For
example, consider that we have to derive an expression for time period of a simple
pendulum, which depends upon pendulum length (L) and acceleration due to gravity
(g).
Let us consider T α Lagb
=> T = K Lagb whereK is a constant
=> [M0L0T1] = K [L]a[LT-2]b
=> [M0L0T1] = K [L]a+b[T]-2b

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Comparing the exponents, a + b = 0 and -2b = 1

This gives b = -1/2 and a = 1/2
Hence, T = K L1/2g-1/2
T = K√(L/g)
Experimentally, it has been found that K = 2ϖ
Thus, T = 2ϖ√(L/g)
Example 17: If time period of an oscillating drop of radius ‘r’, density ‘ρ’ and
surface tension ‘T’ is given by t = K√(ρr3/T), use dimensional analysis to check
its correctness.
Ans:The given relation is t =K√(ρr3/T)
Writing in dimensional form, LHS: [T]; RHS: {[ML-3][L3]/[MT-2]}1/2 = [T]
Thus, dimensions on LHS = dimensions on RHS
The relation is dimensionally correct.
Example 18: The speed ‘v’ of surface waves on water depends upon the three
factors: wavelength ‘λ’, density of water ‘ρ’ and acceleration due to gravity ‘g’.
Derive the relation between these quantities using dimensions.
Ans: Let the relation be v = k λaρbgc
Dimensions on LHS = [LT-1]
Dimensions on RHS = [L]a[ML-3]b[LT-2]c
= [M]b[L]a-3b+c[T]-2c
Comparing exponents of dimensions on both sides, b = 0; a-3b+c = 1; -2c = -1
This gives, c = 1/2, b = 0, a = 1/2
Thus, the relation is: v = k √(λg)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.4

1. Deduce the dimensional formulae of the following quantities:

(a) Viscosity Coefficient
(b) Young’s modulus
(c) Universal gravitational constant
(d) Surface tension
(e) Boltzmann’s constant
(f) Coefficient of thermal conductivity
(g) Mechanical equivalent of heat

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2. E, m, l and G represent for a system, its energy, mass, angular momentum and
gravitational constant respectively and P = El2m-5G-2, prove that P is dimensionless.
3. The value of Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67 x 10-8Js-1m-2K-4) is __________in cgs
system.
4. Verify the dimensional accuracy of the following relationships.
(a) E = mc2
(b) τ = Iα
(c) ½ mv2 = mgh
(d) de-Broglie wavelength, λ = h/mv
(e) Velocity of sound = √(pressure/density of medium)
5. In Vander Wall’s equation for gases, i.e. (P + a/V2) (V - b) = RT, what will be the
dimensions of a and b? Also find their SI units.
6. Match the given quantity with its dimensional formula:
(a) Magnetic flux (i) [ML2T-1]
(b) Magnetic induction (ii) [ML2T-2A-1]
(c) Electric potential (iii) [ML3T-3A-1]
(d) Angular momentum (iv) [ML2A]
(e) Specific resistance (v) [MT-2A-1]

RECAPITULATION POINTS
 Physics is a study of natural phenomena which requires measurement of certain
physical quantities.
 There are seven fundamental quantities- length, mass, time, temperature, electric
current, luminous intensity and amount of substance. Plane angle and solid angle
are two supplementary quantities.
 Standardized units are used to define the physical quantities. Base units are the
units of fundamental quantities, and derived units are the units of derived
quantities.
 The International system of units, called the SI system, consists of internationally
accepted metric system of units, which is used uniformly worldwide. It is a
rational and coherent system. Other systems of units, also used in Physics are cgs
system, fps system and mks system.

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 The power of ten that most closely approximates a physical quantity's magnitude
is referred to as that quantity's order of magnitude. It provides a concise
description of the physical quantity's size.
 Various physical quantities can be calculated using direct and indirect methods.
 When the measured quantities are expressed, we must take into account the
accuracy of measure and precision of instrument, along with errors of
measurements.
 The accuracy describes how closely a measured value resembles its actual value.
The resolution or limit to which a given amount is measured is referred to as
precision.
 When a physical quantity is computed, the units of derived quantities are treated
as algebraic symbols and the required unit of calculated value is obtained.
 The term "error of measurement" refers to the discrepancy between the measured
value and the true value.
 Errors can be random or systematic. By taking a lot of measurements and figuring
out their arithmetic means, random errors are removed. By correctly calibrating
measuring devices and enhancing measuring method, systematic errors can be
removed. An error reveals the bounds in which the correct value is contained.
 The significant numbers in a measure are determined by adding the number of
digits in a measured quantity that are known with certainty to one uncertain digit.
Every measure must keep the correct amount of significant figures. For this, the
measured quantity is rounded off using the relevant rounding procedures to the
appropriate number of significant numbers.
 Dimensions of a derived quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units
of mass, length, and time are elevated to express the derived quantity. The
dimensional analysis is used to derive a relationship between several physical
quantities, assess the accuracy of a given relationship, and translate a physical
quantity from one system of units to another.
 Dimensional analysis has several drawbacks, including the inability to account for
constant or dimensionless quantities that might appear in a relationship, failure to
work when a given quantity depends on more than three other quantities, and
inability to explain quantities expressed as the sum or difference of two or more
expressions.

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TERMINAL EXERCISE
QI. Choose the correct answer
1. The number 0.097000 has ____ significant figures.
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 2
2. The volume of a cube having side of length 1.7 x 10-2 m is
a) 4.9 x 10-6 cm3 b) 4.91 x 10-6 cm3 c) 5.0 x 10-6 cm3 d) 4.913 x 10-6
cm3
3. A body has mass 2.118 g and volume 1.25 cm3.Its density up to correct significant
figures is
(a) 1.7 g cm–3 (b) 1.69 g cm–3 (c) 1.6944 g cm–3 (d) 1.695 g cm–3
(d) Elastic modulus and pressure
4. Which of the following is a dimensionally correct relation?
(a) T2 = 4ϖ2r2 (b) T2 = 4ϖ2r3/G (c) T2 = 4ϖ2r3/GM (d) KE = ma
5. Two quantities A and B are measured and expressed as
B = (5.0 ± 0.5) m s–1
A = (0.20 ± 0.01) s
The value of A B will be
(a) (1.0 ± 0.1) m (b) (1.0 ± 0.08) m (c) (1.0 ± 0.25) m (d) (1.0 ± 0.15) m
Q II. Fill in the blanks
1. The parallax method is used for measuring the distances of the stars which are
_____________ light years away.
2. The power of _______ on a physical quantity that yields a value closest to the
__________value is known as the order of magnitude.
3. The most accurate clock developed for time measurement is ______ clock.
4. The ____________ of a measurement tells us the resolution of the measuring
instrument.
5. The maximum absolute error in sum or difference of two quantities is _________
of ________________ errors in the measurement.
Q III. True / False
1. An angle has no unit and no dimensions.
2. Given the fundamental quantities as time (T), momentum (P) and area (A). The
dimensional formula of energy hence becomes [PA1/2T-1].
3. The relative error in length measured as 4.00 mm is 0.0025.

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4. When relative error in a measure is less, it is more accurate.

5. If 20 divisions on Vernier scale coincide with 16 small divisions on main scale in a
Vernier Callipers, then its least count is 0.2 cm.

Q IV. Very short answer type questions

1. What do you understand by the term physical unit?
2. Define a) a micron b) a nanometre.
3. What is meant by absolute error?
4. Light coming from a quasar (farthest detected celestial object) takes 3.5 billion
years to reach the earth. Find the distance of quasar from earth, if speed of light in
vacuum is 3 x 105 m/s.
5. Two cesium clocks running undisturbed for 100 years, differ in time by 0.03 s. Find
the accuracy of a standard cesium clock in measuring a time interval of 1 s.
A) Short answer type questions
1. Briefly explain the triangulation method of measuring height of a distant tree.
2. Two resistors of 400 + 2 ohm and 100 + 4 ohm are connected in series. Work out
their equivalent resistance.
3. Define least count error. How will you find the least count of a screw gauge? Can
you increase its accuracy by raising the divisions present on circular scale? Explain.
4. A physical quantity P is related to four observations x, y, z and w as P = x3y2/√zw.
The percentage errors in the measurement of x, y, z and w are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%
respectively. What is the percentage error in the measurement of P?
5. Given speed of light c, universal gravitational constant G and Planck’s constant h
are new fundamental units. Obtain hence, the dimensions of mass, length and time.
Long answer type questions
1. To estimate the distance of a nearby building, a person spots a very distant object O
visible in line with the building from a point A on earth. Then he shifts to point B
which is 100 m away from A and again looks at the distant object O and top of the
building. The line of sight of building top appears to shift by 40o. Calculate the
distance of tip of the building from his position A.
2. A simple pendulum has length 40.0 cm, for 1 mm accuracy. Its time period is to be
measured. The time period for 100 oscillations is 80 s when measured with a stop
watch of resolution 1 s. Find the accuracy if g is estimated.

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3. How will you account for the parallax method to find the distance of a celestial
object from earth?
4. What are significant figures? Why should a measure be expressed in correct
significant figures? State some rules for determining number of significant figures in
a measure.
5. What are errors? How do they creep in a measurement? Discuss the types of errors
in a measurement.

ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.1

1. a) shake
b) Chandrashekhar limit (CSL)
c) 1.4
d) 4047
e) 1609
f) 1852
h) candela
2. 1 g/cc = 1000 kg/m3
3. 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s. Thus, 54 km/h = 15 m/s
4. Nearer star
5. The parallax angle of far off stars will be very small and could not be measured.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.2
1. False, as relative error has no unit.
2. True
3. Yes we can have an instrument which is precise but not accurate. Such an
instrument has a zero error. But we cannot have an instrument which is not precise but
accurate.
4. Accuracy of a measurement expresses the closeness of a measured value with the
true value. On the other hand, a measurement is said to be precise if the observed
values are close to each other. Precision depends upon the measuring instrument. The
measured value may thus be precise even if it is not accurate (very close to true value).

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 MODULE II: MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY 34

5. The readings of A are more precise as compared to those of B because they are
close to each other. The readings of B are more accurate as the average mass is closer
to the true value than that measured by A.
6. Mean value = (2.45 + 2.56 + 2.34 + 2.44 + 2.58 + 2.42)/6 = 2.46
Other values can be calculated in a similar manner as done in Example 5.
7. Relative error in Z = 6 δA/A + 1/4 δB/B + 2 δC/C + 3/2 δD/D
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.3
1. Mass = 6.54 g; volume = 1.7 cm3
=> Density = mass/volume = 6.54/1.7 = 3.84705882352 g/cm3 = 3.8 g/cm3
2. Radius = 11.24 cm;
Surface area = 4 ϖr2 = 4 x 22/7 x (11.24)2 = 1588.2441142857 = 1.588 cm2
3. Absolute error = 0.11 s (2 significant figures); which means period of oscillation
has to be rounded off to two significant figures = 2.8 s
4. The most precise device has the minimum least count. So we need to find the least
count of each device given:
 Least count of vernier callipers
= 1 MSD - 1 VSD
= 1 - 19/20 = 1/20 MSD
= 1/20 x 0.1 cm = 0.005 cm
 Least count of screw gauge = pitch/circular scale divisions
= 0.01 mm = 0.0001 cm
 Least count = 600 nm = 0.00006 cm
Thus the third device is the most precise.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.4
1. a) coefficient of viscosity = force /(area x velocity gradient)
=>ƞ = [MLT-2]/([L2][LT-1][L-1] = [MT-1]
b) Young’s modulus = longitudinal stress/longitudinal strain = (F/A)/(∆l/l)
=> [Y] = [ML-1T-2]
c) Universal gravitational constant = force x distance2/mass1 x mass2 => [G] = [MLT-
2
][L2]/[M]2 = [M-1L3T-2]
d) Surface tension = force/length => [T] = [MLT-2]/([L] = [MT-2]
e) Boltzmann’s constant = heat/temperature => [k] = [ML2T-2]/[K] = [ML2T-2K-1]
f) Mechanical equivalent of heat = work/heat: both work and heat have same
dimensions. Thus, this quantity is dimensionless.

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 MODULE II: MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY 35

g) Coefficient of thermal conductivity = heat x distance / (area x time x temperature

difference) => [ĸ] = [ML2T-2][L]/[L2][T][K] = [MLT-3K-1]
2. [P] = [ML2T-2][L2]/[M5][M-1L3T-2] = 1
3. 1 J = 107 erg and 1 m = 100 cm =>σ = 5.67 x 10-5ergs-1cm-2K-4
4. Try yourself by substituting dimensions of quantities on LHS and RHS.
5. We can add or subtract only dimensionally consistent quantities. Thus,
[P] = [a/V2] and [V] = [b]
[a] = [P][V2] = [ML-1T-2][L3]2 = [ML5T-2] and [b] = [L3]
Unit of a = kgm5/s2 and unit of b = m3
6. a) (iv)
b) (v)
c) (ii)
d) (i)
e) (iii)

SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY MATERIAL

https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/exemplarproblem/classXI/physics/keep302.pdf
 https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?keph1=0-8
 Mechanics by DS Mathur
 Resnick & Halliday, Physics, Part I, rev. ed. (New York, London, and Sydney:
John Wiley & Sons, 1966), pp. v-vi, and Resnick & Halliday, Physics for
Students of Science and Engineering, Part II, 2nd ed. (New York and London:
John Wiley & Sons, 1962), pp. xi-xv.
VIDEO LINKS
 https://youtu.be/HQdy2Z-GmdY
 https://youtu.be/DgMdre5q0tc

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT