m2

xcom = d
m1 + m2
9.1 The Centre-of-Mass 9.1
9.1 The
9.1
The Centre-of-Mass
The Center
Center of Mass
of Mass
! For two particles, for an arbitrary choice of origin:
m1 x1 + m2 x2 For
€ xcom = ! For
l !
nnparticles,
For nparticles,
particles,
wewe wecan
cancangeneralize
generalize the
generalize
the equation,
the where
equation,
equation, where
where
m1 + m2 MM = m
= m + m
+ m + +. .
. . +
. m
+ m
M = m11+1 m2 2+2 . . . + mn:n n: :

l The centre-of-mass is in the same location regardless of the m xm1+x1m+2 m x2 +…+

x22+…+ mn m
xnn xn
coordinate system used xcomxcom
= =1 1
€ MM
It is a property of the particles, not the coordinates 1
1 ∑m x
n n
l
= = ∑m i xi i i
MM i=1 i=1

InIn
In
!l ! three
three
three dimensions,
dimensions,
dimensions, we
we we find
find
find the
the
the centre
of of mass
centre-of-mass
centre mass along
along
along each
each
each
axis
axis
axis separately:
separately:
separately:
€
€
1 1n ∑ n
1= 1n ∑ n
1= 1n ∑ n
xcomxcom
= = ∑m m
x
i i ,
i x i ,y y
com =
com ∑ m ym
i i ,i yi ,z z
com =
com ∑ m mz
i zi i i
MMi=1 i=1 MM i=1 i=1 MM i=1 i=1

€€
Example
9.1
9.1 The
9.1 The Centre-of-Mass
Center of
Center of Mass
Mass
Show
Example that the com of a two-particle system lies along a s
More
More concisely, write in
concisely, we can write in terms
terms of
of vectors:
vectors:
l
!
!
line between the two particles a fractional distance m2/(m
Show that the com of a two-particle system lies along a straight
!
rcom
1 nn !
= ∑ miirii
from object 1.
line between the two particles a fractional distance m /(m +m )
com 2 1 2
M i=1i=1 from object 1.
! !
d rcom 1 n d rii 1 nn ! m1
v!com
n
= com = ∑ m = ∑ miivii !
com
dt M i=1
ii
dt M i=1 r1
i=1 i=1
€ ! !
! d vcom 1 nn ! rcom,1
acom
com
= com = ∑ miiaii
dt M i=1i=1 €
€
! ! !
x
! We found that: Fext = M acom implying that the total
l
! ext com o € rcom
external
implying force the
actstotal
as ifexternal
all the mass force ofactstheasobject wasmass
if all the at it’sof
€ that
centre-of-mass.
the object was at it’s centre of mass.
!
!
l Therefore, "⃗!"#
€ if F ext =
=0,0,vcom is constant.
&⃗$%& is constant. €
!
r2
m2

€
9-2 Newton's Second Law for a System of Particles

Examples: Using the centre of mass motion equation: Problem

o Billiard collision: forces are only internal, Fext = 0 so a = 0.

Two skaters, one of mass 65 kg and the other of mass 40 kg,
o Baseball bat: a = -g, so com follows gravitational trajectory. stand 10 m apart on a frictionless ice surface. They pull
o Exploding rocket: explosion forces are internal, so only the themselves along a rope until they meet. What is the position
gravitational force acts on the system, and the com follows a where they meet?
gravitational trajectory as long as air resistance can be
ignored for the fragments.

9.1 The Centre-of-Mass

9.1 The Center of Mass
Problem
l For solid bodies, we take the limit of an infinite sum of
! For solid bodies, we take the limit of an infinite sum of

A person of mass 50 kg stands at the one end of a boat of infinitely small

infinitely particles
small →→
particles integration!
integration!
mass 30 kg and length 5 m. Assume there is no friction '
l We limit
! We ourselves
limit to objects
ourselves of uniform
to objects density,
of uniform ! =ρ = M .
density,
between the boat and the water, and that the boat is pointed V(
towards shore. l !Therefore the mass dm in a volume element dV is
Therefore the mass #$ in a volume element #% is #$ ==!ρ#%
dm dV.

If the person walks a distance dP along the boat, how far does ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 !
the boat move from shore? rcom = ∫ r dm = ∫ r dV = ∫ r dx
€dy dz
M V V €
Show that you get the expected result when dP = 5 m.
! Note that this is a three-dimensional integral for each
l Note that this is a three-dimensional
! integral for each
€component of r .
component of '⃗$%& com

! You can bypass one or more of these 3 integrals if the object

l You can bypass one or more of these 3 integrals if the object has
has symmetry.
symmetry.
€
 ! 1 !
9-1
9-1 The
The Centre-of-Mass:
Center of Mass: rcom = ∫ r dx dy dz 9-3Linear
9-3 Linear Momentum
Momentum
Momentum
V
Thelinear
The
! l
! momentum
linearmomentum
momentum is
isis defined
defined
defined as:
as:as:
l! The centre
The centre of mass lies at a point of symmetry
symmetry
(if there
(if there is one) !! !!
p p= =mm
vv
l! ItIt lies € line or plane of symmetry (if there
lies on the there is
is one)
one)
The
! l
! momentum:
Themomentum:
l! ItIt need
need not be on the object (consider a doughnut)
doughnut) " "§Points
Points
in in
thethe
the same
same
same directionasas
direction
direction thethe
as the velocity
velocity
velocity
€€
" "§Can
Can only
only be
bebe changed
changed
changed by
byby aa net
a netnet external
external
external force
force
force
Q2
Q2 Q1
Q1

l
! !
We
We cantherefore
Wecan
can therefore
therefore write
write
write Newton's
Newton's
Newton's second
second law
second law
lawas:as:
as:
! ! dp!dp!
F F= =
Q3
Q3 Q4
Q4 dtdt
Answer: (a
Answer: (a)) at
at the
the origin
origin (b)
(b) in
in Q4,
Q4, along
along diagonal
diagonal yy =
= -x
-x (c)
(c) along
along the
the -y
-y axis
axis
Force
Forceis isthe time-rate
the
the ofof
time-rate
time-rate change
of ofof
change
change momentum.
of momentum.
momentum.
(d) at
(d) at the
the origin
origin (e)
(e) in
in Q3,
Q3, along
along diagonal
diagonal yy =
= xx (f)
(f) at
at the
the origin
origin
€€
See the
See the text
text for
for more
more examples.
examples.

9-4 Collision and Impulse

ForFora system
a systemof of
n particles,
n particles, thethe
total
total momentum
momentum
For a system of !n particles,n
! n the total momentum
! Collision: Two (or more) objects exert strong forces on each other
P=∑ !i=1 pi n=!i=1
∑ minvi over a finite (short) time interval Δt = tf – ti.
!
P = ∑ pi = ∑ mi vi
i=1 1 n !&
# i=1
= M % ∑ minvi ( Stages of a collision
$ #i=11 ' ! &
! =MM% ∑m v (
! $ M i=1 i i '
∴P = M v
! com ! before (t < ti): particles approach with
∴ P = M vcom initial momenta
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
€ !
Furthermore, ! dP ! during (ti < t < tf): particles exert equal
€€ Fext =! but opposite forces on each other
dP
Fextdt=
!€ dt
! ! dP !! ! after (t > tf): particles leave with different
If Fext =! 0, then
! dt dP ! = 0, so P is !constant. momenta
If Fext = 0, then
€ dt = 0, so P is constant.
!
Corollary: If the component
€
! of Fext in!⃗ some direction is 0, then The momentum of each particle has changed,
Corollary:
Corollary: If If the
of the component of " !"# in some direction
is is
0, 0,
the component P incomponent
!that direction of Fis in some direction
ext constant. then but the momentum of the system has not!
then the component
the component of Pof ( indirection
in that that direction is constant.
is constant.
€
€
€ €
 ! In aIncollision,
l ! In a acollision, thethe momentum
In a collision,
! collision, the momentum
the momentum
momentum ofofaof aparticle
particle of acan
a particle can change:
particle
can change:can change:
change:
! In a collision, the momentum of a particle can change:
!
! ! dp" (t) ! p" (t) "
dpp" (t)
(t)F(t) l! Given"⃗*+,
Given Favg and duration
duration ∆+
Δt:
F (t)F=(t) =F!d(t) where
where
= where
d F(t) is
where isthe
F(t) the force
force
F(t)
isF(t)
the isononthe
the
force the
force particle.
onparticle.
theon the particle.
particle.
particle.
dtF (t)
dt = dt where is the force on the
t " t dt ! ! tf ! !
f f" tt ff t " "t " "tt ff "" " "" " """ " "" "
f f
" Δp = J ≡ ∫ F (t)dt = Favg Δt
∴ ∫∴ F (t)dt ∴=∫ ∫F"d=(t)dt
∫ F (t)dt p∫(t)
dp==(t)p∫(t=dfp"p)(t)
− pf =)(t−ip")p(t=(tf ip) −f=p−
(t "p(tpfii)−≡=pΔp"i p≡f −Δ p" i ≡ Δ p" ti
t i t i
∴ ∫
ti tF (t)dt
t
i i
= ∫
ti d p (t) = p (t f ) − p (t i ) = p f − p i ≡ Δ p €
ti ti
We! define
l ! We
Wedefinethethe
!define
We impulse
impulse
the impulse
define )⃗acting
the Jimpulseacting
J acting on aon
a particle
Jonacting on aduring
particle during
a particle a collision:
during
particle a
during a We
l! Weare areintegrating:
integrating:we weonly
onlyneed
! We define the impulse J acting on a particle during a
collision: collision:!
collision: ! !! t f ! toneed
know to know
the areathe area
under under
the the
force
collision:J ≡ J!∫ F≡(t)dt
t t f f
€
€ € € ∫ FJ!(t)dt
≡ t∫f F! (t)dt curve
force curve
€ t J ≡ t∫i F (t)dt
t i i
!
This means that thethe
applied
ti
l! ,⃗J isis aa vector
vectorininthe
thedirection
directionofof
! This
l ! This means
means
! This that
that
means the theimpulse
applied
applied
that impulse
impulse
applied isimpulse
isequal
equal tois
is equaltothe
thechange
to the
change
equal to thein
change in
inchange in !
! This means that the applied impulse is equal to the change in ∆Δ-⃗p, the same direction
direction as the
as the
momentum
momentum
momentum ofofthe
momentum object
ofthe object
the during
object
of the during
during
object the
thecollision:
collision:
the
during collision:
the collision: !
€momentum
€
!of the
€∴ J ∴ =
! ! object
Δ p !!! during
!
the collision: averageforce
average ⃗
force"*+,
Favg
€ J = Δ
∴ pJ = Δ !
p
∴ J = Δp €
•• The
Thecollision
collisionconcept
concept isis most
most useful
useful ifif Δt
Δt is
is short,
short, so that
! This equation
l ! This
This This can
equation
! equation
canbeberewritten
can
equation berewritten
rewritten
can component-by-component,
component-by-component,
component-by-component,
be rewritten component-by-component, like € the objects hardly move during the collision phase
the objects hardly move during the collision
! This equation can be rewritten component-by-component,
like other
other
like vector
vector
other
like
€ equations.
equations.
vector
other equations.
vector equations. €
like€other€ €vector equations.

Example Problem
A ball of mass 0.10 kg is released from 2.0 m above a floor, A ball of mass 300 g with a speed of v = 6.0 m/s strikes a wall
and rebounds to a height of 1.5 m. at an angle θ = 30°, and then rebounds with the same speed
(a) What is the impulse of the floor on the ball? and angle, as shown. The ball is in contact with the wall
(b) How much mechanical energy is lost from the system due for 10 ms.
to the collision? (a) What is the impulse of the wall on the ball?
(c) From this deduce the speed of the ball immediately before (b) What is the average force on the ball?
and immediately after striking the floor.