C H A P T E R

2
Diagnostic techniques

2.1
Introduction
2.1.1
Logic
Diagnosticsorfaultfndingisafundamentalpartofanautomotivetechnician’s
work.Thesubjectofdiagnosticsdoesnotrelatetoindividualareasofthe
vehicle.Ifyourknowledgeofavehiclesystemisatasuitablelevel,then
youwillusethesamelogicalprocessfordiagnosingthefault,whateverthe
system.

2.1.2
Information
Informationanddatarelatingtovehiclesareavailableforcarryingout
manyformsofdiagnostic work.Thedatamaycomeasabook,online
oronCD/DVD.Thisinformationisvitalandwillensurethatyoufndthe
fault–particularlyifyouhavedevelopedthediagnosticskillstogowithit.
Faultfndingchartsandspecifcexamplesarepresented in laterchapters.
Thegeneraltypeofinformation availableisasfollows:
engine
● diagnostics,testingandtuning;
servicing,
● repairsandtimes;
fuelandignitionsystems;
●

auto
● electricsdata;
component
● location;
bodyrepairs,trackingandtyres.
●

2.1.3
Wheretostop?
Thisisoneofthemostdiffcult skillstolearn.Itisalsooneofthemost
important.Thesecretistwofold:
know
● yourownlimitations–itisnotpossibletobegoodateverything;
leave
● systemsalonewhereyoucouldcausemoredamageoreveninjury–
forexample,airbagcircuits.
Oftenwiththebestofintentions,apersonnewtodiagnosticswillnotonly
failtofndthefaultbutalsointroducemorefaultsintothesysteminthe Keyfact
process.Iwouldsuggestyoulearnyourownstrengthsandweaknesses;you Know your own limitations.
maybeconfdentandgoodatdealingwithmechanicalsystemproblemsbut
lesssowhenelectronicsisinvolved.Ofcourseyoumaybejusttheopposite
ofthis.

Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis.

©2012TomDenton.PublishedbyRoutledge.Allrightsreserved.
10 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Rememberthatdiagnosticskillisintwoparts–theknowledgeofthesystemand
theabilitytoapplydiagnostics.Ifyoudonotyetfullyunderstandasystem,leave
italoneuntilyoudo.

2.2
Diagnosticprocess
2.2.1
Six-stageprocess
Akeychecklist–thesixstagesoffaultdiagnosis–isgivenin Table2.1and
Figure2.1showsthisasafowchart.
Hereisaverysimpleexampletoillustratethediagnosticprocess.Thereported
faultisexcessiveuseofengineoil.
1
Question thecustomertofndouthowmuchoilisbeingused(isit
excessive?).
2
Examine thevehicleforoilleaksandbluesmokefromtheexhaust.Arethere
anyservicebulletins?

Table2.1Stagesofdiagnostics
1. Verify: Is there actually a problem, can you conf
rm the symptoms
2. Collect: Get further information about the problem, by obser
vation and research
3. Evaluate: Stop and think about the evidence
4. Test: Carry out further tests in a logical sequence
5. Rectify: Fix the problem
6. Check: Make sure all systems now work correctly

1. Verify
• Check the fault is
as described

6. Check 2. Collect
• Make sure other • Get more
systems still work information

5. Rectify 3. Evaluate
• Fix the fault, • Stop and think
replace the part logically

4. Test
• Measure and
compare

Figure 2.1 Six-stage diagnostic process

 Diagnostic techniques 2 11

If3leaksarefoundtheenginecouldstillbeburningoilbutleakswouldbea
likelycause. Keyfact
A4compressiontest,iftheresultswereacceptable,wouldindicatealeaktobe The six-stage diagnostic process is
themostlikelyfault.Cleandowntheengineandrunforawhile.Theleakwill recommended but there are others
that are similar – the important thing
showupbetter.
is to follow any ‘process’ logically:
5
Change agasketorseal,etc. 1. Verify
6 throughaninspectionofthevehiclesystemsparticularlyassociatedwith
Run 2. Collect
theengine.Double-checkthatthefaulthasbeenrectifedandthatyouhave 3. Evaluate
notcausedanyfurther problems. 4. Test
Thesix-stagediagnosticprocesswillbeusedextensivelytoillustratehowa 5. Rectify
logical processcanbeappliedtoanysituation. 6. Check.

2.2.2
Theartofdiagnostics
Theknowledgeneededforaccuratediagnosticsisintwoparts:
1
understanding ofthesysteminwhichthepr oblemexists;
2
having theabilitytoapplyalogicaldiagnosticroutine.
Theknowledgerequirementanduseofdiagnosticskillscanbeillustratedwitha
verysimpleexample:
Afterconnectingahosepipeandturningonthetap,nowatercomes outof
theend.Yourknowledgeofthissystemtellsyou thatwatershouldcomeout Safetyfrst
providingthetapison,becausethepressurefromatappusheswaterthrough Don’t point any pipes at your eyes.
thepipe,andsoon.Thisiswhereyourdiagnosticskillsbecomeessential.The
followingstagesarenowrequired:
1 rmthatnowateriscomingoutbylookingdowntheendofthepipe.
Conf
2
Check ifwatercomesoutoftheothertaps,ordiditcomeoutofthistap
beforeyouconnectedthehose?
3
Consider whatthisinformationtellsyou;forexample,iftheansweris‘Yes’the
hosemustbeblockedorkinked.
4 thelengthofthepipelookingforakink.
Walk
5
Straighten outthehose.
6
Check thatwaternowcomesoutandthatnootherproblemshavebeen
created.
MuchsimplifedIaccept,buttheprocedureyouhavejustfollowedmadethe
hoseworkanditis alsoguaranteedtof ndafaultinanysystem.Itiseasytosee
howitworksinconnectionwithahosepipeandI’msureanybodycouldhave
foundthatfault(wellmost peopleanyway).
Thehigherskillistobeabletoapplythesamelogicalroutinetomorecomplex
situations.Theroutine( Table2.1 )isalsorepresentedby Figure2.1 .Theloopwill
continueuntilthefaultislocated.
Iwillnowexplaineachofthesestepsfurtherinrelationtoamorerealistic
automotiveworkshopsituation–notthatgettingthehosetoworkisnot
important!Oftenelectricalfaultsareconsideredtobethemostdiffcultto
diagnose–butthisisnottrue.Iwilluseavehiclecoolingsystemfaultasan
examplehere,butelectricalsystemswillbecoveredindetailinlaterchapters.
Rememberthatthediagnosticprocedurecanbeappliedtoanyproblem–
mechanical,electricalorevenmedical.
12 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

However,letusassumethatthereportedfaultwiththevehicleisoverheating.As
isquitecommoninmanyworkshopsituationsthat’salltheinformationwehave
tostartwith.Nowworkthroughthesixstages:
Stage
● 1–Takeaquicklooktocheckforobviousproblemssuchasleaks,
brokendrivebeltsorlackofcoolant.Runthevehicleandconfrmthatthefault
exists.Itcouldbethetemperaturegauge,forexample.
Stage2–Isthedriveravailabletogivemoreinformation?Forexample,does
●

theengineoverheatallthetimeorjustwhenworkinghard?Checkrecords,if
available,ofpreviousworkdonetothevehicle.
Stage
● 3–Considerwhatyounowknow.Doesthisallowyoutonarrowdown
whatthecauseofthefaultcouldbe?Forexample,ifthevehicleoverheatsall
thetimeandithadrecentlyhadanewcylinderheadgasketftted,wouldyou
besuspiciousaboutthis?Donotlettwoandtwomakefve,butdoletitact
asapointer.Rememberthatinthescienceoflogicaldiagnostics,twoandtwo
alwaysmakesfour.However,untilyouknowthisforcertainthenplaythebest
oddstonarrowdownthefault.
Stage
● 4–Thefurthertestscarriedoutwouldnowbedirectedbyyourthinkingat
stage3.Youdonotyetknowifthefaultisaleakingheadgasket,thethermostat
stuckclosedorsomeotherproblem.Playingtheodds,acoolingsystem
pressuretestwouldprobablybethenexttest.Ifthepressureincreaseswhenthe
engineisrunning,thenitislikelytobeaheadgasketorsimilarproblem.Ifno
pressureincreaseisnoted,thenmoveontothenexttestandsoon.Aftereach
testgobacktostage3andevaluatewhatyouknow,notwhatyoudon’tknow.
Stage
● 5–Letusassumetheproblemwasathermostatstuckclosed–replace
itandtopupthecoolant,etc.
Stage
● 6–Checkthatthesystemisnowworking.Alsocheckthatyouhavenot
causedanyfurtherproblemssuchasleaksorloosewires.
Thisexampleissimplifedalittle,butlikethehosepipeproblemitisthe
sequencethatmatters,particularlythe‘stopandthink’atstage3.Itisoften
possibletogodirectlytothecauseofthefaultatthisstage,providingthatyou
haveanadequateknowledgeofhowthesystemworks.

2.2.3
Concern,cause,correction
ThethreeCs,asconcern,cause,correctionaresometimesdescribed,isanother
reminderthatfollowingaprocessforautomotiverepairsanddiagnosticsis
essential.
Itisinawayasimplifedversionofoursix-stageprocessasshownin Table2.2.

Table2.2Repairanddiagnosticprocesses
Six-stageprocess CCC
Verify Concern
Collect
Evaluate Cause
Test
Rectify
Correction
Check
 Diagnostic techniques 2 13

Table2.3isafurtherexamplewhereextrasuggestionshavebeenadded
asareminderofhowimportantitistocollectfurtherinformation.Itisalso Keyfact
recommendedthatthisinformationandprocessisincludedonthejobsheetso Most customer complaints are
thecustomeriskeptinformed.Mostcustomercomplaintscome aboutbecause as a result of poor work or poor
ofpoorworkorpoorcommunication–thismaybe acceptableinsomepoor communication.
qualityestablishmentsbutnotinanythatyouandI areinvolvedin–be
professionalandyouwillbetreatedlikeone(lectureover,sorry).
So,whiletheconcern,cause,correctionsequenceisquitesimple,itisvery
effectiveasameansofcommunicationaswellasadiagnosisandrepair
process.Anexamplejobcard/jobsheetisavailablefordownloadfromwww.
automotive-technology.co.ukthatincludesthethreeCs.Itisidealasatraining
aid aswellasforrealuse.

2.2.4
Rootcauseanalysis
Thephrase‘rootcause analysis’(RCA)isusedtodescribearangeofproblem-
solvingmethodsaimedatidentifyingtherootcausesofproblemsorevents.
Ihaveincludedthisshortsectionbecauseithelpstoreinforcetheimportanceof
keepinganopenmindwhendiagnosingfaults,andagain,stressestheneedto

Table2.3CCCprocess
Processoutline Examplesituation Notes
Customer Concern: Battery seems to be discharged and will This should set you thinking that the cause is
sometimes not start the car
. It seems to be probably a faulty battery, a charging system
worse when the headlights are used fault, a parasitic discharge or a starter motor
problem (the symptoms would suggest a
charging fault is most likely but keep an open
mind)
Vehicle service Car is ve
f years old, has done 95 000 miles Battery probably ok and drive belt adjustment
history information: but has a good service history. A new batter
y likely to be correct (still suspicious of a charging
was ftted one year ago and the cam belt was fault)
replaced two years ago
Related technical New camshaft drive belt should betted
f every Not connected but it would be good to
service bulletins: 50 000 miles recommend that the belt was changed at this
time
Diagnostic Battery voltage and discharge test – ok 14 V is the expected charging voltage on most
procedures Drive belt tension – ok (but a bit worn) systems
performed: Alternator charging voltage – 13
V
Checked charging circuit for volt drop – ok
Cause: Alternator not producing correct voltage An auto electrician may be able to repair the
alternator but for warranty reasons a new or
reconditioned one is often best (particularly at
this mileage)
Correction: Reconditioned alternator and new drive belt Note how by thinking about this process we
f tted and checked – charging now ok atV14 had almost diagnosed the problem before
doing any tests, also note that following this
process will make us conf dent that we have
carried out the correct repair
, frst time. The
customer will appreciate this – and will come
back again
14 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

workinalogicalandstructuredway.Therootcauseofaproblemisnotalways
Defnition obvious;anexamplewillhelptoillustratethis:
RCA: Root cause analysis. Letusassumethesymptomwasthatonerearlightonacardidnotwork.Using
thesix-stageprocess,aconnectorblockwasreplacedasithadanopencircuit
fault.Thelightnowworksokbutwhatwasmissedwasthatasmallleakfrom
therearscreenwasherpipedrippedontheconnectorwhenthewasherwas
operated.Thiswastherootcause.
ThepracticeofRCAisbased,quiterightly,onthebeliefthatproblemsare
bestsolvedbyattemptingtoaddress,correctoreliminatetherootcauses,as
opposedtojustaddressingthefaultscausingobservablesymptoms.Bydealing
withrootcauses,itismorelikelythatproblemswillnotreoccur.RCAisbest
consideredtobeaniterativeprocessbecausecompletepreventionofrecurrence
byonecorrectiveactionisnotalwaysrealistic.
Rootcausesofaproblemcanbeinmanydifferentpartsofaprocess.Thisis
sometimesrepresentedbya‘fshbone’diagram.Twoexamplesarepresentedas
Figures2.2
and 2.3.Theseshowhowanyonecauseonanyonebranch(orrib)
canresultinaproblemattheendofamorecomplexprocess.
RCAisusuallyusedasareactivemethodofidentifyingcauses,revealing
problemsandsolvingthemanditisdoneafteraneventhasoccurred.However,

Cost Culture Context People

Cause 1

Cause 3
Cause 2

Problem

Process Policy Platform Proximity

Figure 2.2 Fishbone diagram showing possible root causes of a problem in software development

Performance Skills and

Motivation
feedback knowledge

Effect

Job Environment Organisational

expectations and tools support

Figure 2.3 Fishbone diagram that could be used to look at diagnostic processes
 Diagnostic techniques 2 15

RCAcanbeausefulproactivetechniquebecause,insomesituations,itcanbe
usedtoforecastorpredictprobableevents.
RCAisnotasingledefnedmethodology.Thereareanumberofdifferentwaysof
doingtheanalysis.However, severalverybroadly defnedmethodscanbeidentifed:
Safety-based
● RCAdescendsfromthefeldsofaccidentanalysisand
occupationalsafetyandhealth.
Production-based
● RCAhasitsoriginsinthefeldofqualitycontrolfor
industrialmanufacturing.
Process-based
● RCAissimilartoproduction-basedRCA,buthasbeen
expandedtoincludebusinessprocesses.
Failure-based
● RCAcomesfromthepracticeoffailureanalysisusedin
engineeringandmaintenance.
Thefollowinglistisamuchsimplifedrepresentationofafailure-basedRCA
process. Note that the key steps are numbers 3 and 4. This is because they
directthecorrectiveactionatthetruerootcauseoftheproblem.
1 nethe problem.
Def Keyfact
2
Gather dataandevidence.
RCA directs the corrective action at
3
Identify thecausesandrootcauses. the true root cause of the problem.
4
Identify correctiveaction(s).
5 Implement the root cause correction(s).
6
Ensure effectiveness( Figure2.4).
Asanobservantreader,youwill alsonotethatthesestepsareverysimilartoour
six-stagefaultfndingprocess.

2.2.5
Summary
Ihaveintroducedthesix-stageprocessofdiagnostics,notsothatitshould
Keyfact
alwaysbeusedasachecklistbuttoillustratehowimportantitistofollowa
Six-stage process:
1. Verify
2. Collect
3. Evaluate
4. Test
5. Rectify
Monitor Identify 6. Check.
the the
system problem

Take
Define the
corrective
problem
action

Identify Understand Defnition

the root the
cause ‘Logic is the beginning of wisdom
problem
not the end’. (Spock toaleris,
V Star
Trek II).

Figure 2.4 RCA process

16 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

process.Muchmoredetailwillbegivenlater,inparticularaboutstages3and4.
Thepurposeofthissetprocessistoensurethat‘we’workinaset,logicalway.

2.3
Diagnosticsonpaper
2.3.1
Introduction
Thissectionisagainawayofchanginghowyouapproachproblemsona
Keyfact vehicle.Thekeymessageisthatifyoustopandthinkbefore‘pullingthevehicle
Stop and think before pulling the topieces’,itwilloftensaveagreatdealoftime.Inotherwords,someofthe
vehicle to pieces. diagnosticworkcanbedone‘onpaper’beforewestartonthevehicle.To
illustratethis,thenextsectionlistssymptomsforthreeseparatefaultsonacar
andforeachofthesesymptoms,threepossiblefaults.

2.3.2
Examples
Allthefaultsarepossibleinthefollowingexample,butineachcaseseewhich
youthinkisthe‘mostlikely’option( Table2.4).
ThemostlikelyfaultforexampleAisnumber3.Itispossiblethatallthelights
haveblownbutunlikely.Itcouldnotbetheauxiliaryrelaybecausethiswould
affectothersystems.
ForexampleB,thebestanswerwouldbenumber2.Itispossiblethatthepump
pressureislowbutthiswouldbemorelikelytoaffectoperationunderother
conditions.Aloosewireontheenginespeedsensorcouldcausetheengineto
stallbutitwouldalmostcertainlycausemisfreunderotherconditions.
ThesymptomsinexampleCwouldsuggestanswer1.Theshortcircuit
suggestedasanswer3wouldbemorelikelytocauselightsandotherstostay
onratherthannotwork,equallythechanceofashortbetweenthesetwocircuits
isremoteifnotimpossible.Ifthelightingfusiblelinkwereblownthennoneofthe
lightswouldoperate.
Thetechniquesuggestedhererelatestostages1–3ofthe‘thesixstagesoffault
diagnosis’process.Byapplyingalittlethoughtbeforeeventakingascrewdriver
tothecar,alotoftimecanbesaved.Iftheproblemssuggestedintheprevious
tablewererealwewouldatleastnowbeabletostartlookingintherightareafor
thefault.

Table2.4Examplefaults
Symptoms Possiblefaults
A: The brake/stoplights are reported as not operating. On 1. Two bulbs and 12 LEDs blown
checking it is conf
rmed that neither of the two bulbs or the row 2. Auxiliary systems relay open circuit
of high-mounted LEDs are operating as the pedal is pressed. All3. Brake light switch not closing
other systems work correctly
B: An engine tted
f with full management system tends to stall 1. Fuel pump output pressure low
when running slowly
. It runs well under all other conditions and 2. Idle control valve sticking
the reported symptom is found to be intermittent 3. Engine speed sensor wire loose
C: The off side dip beam headlight not operating. This is 1. Two bulbs blown
conf rmed on examination and also noted that the off side tail 2. Main lighting fusible link blown
lights do not work 3. Short circuit between off side tail and dip beam lights
 Diagnostic techniques 2 17

2.3.3
Howlongisapieceofstring? Defnition
YesIknow,twicethedistancefromthemiddletooneend.WhatIamreallygetting Order of magnitude:
atherethoughistheissueaboutwhatisavalidreadingormeasurementand ●
A degree in a continuum of size or
whatisnot–whencomparedtodata.Forexample,ifthe‘datasource’saysthe quantity;
resistanceofthecomponentshould bebetween60and90 Ω,whatdoyoudo ●
A number assigned to the ratio of two
whenthemeasuredvalueis55Ω?IfthemeasuredvaluewasΩ0or1000 Ωthen quantities;
theansweriseasy–thecomponentisfaulty.However,whenthevalueisveryclose ●
Two quantities are of the same order
of magnitude if one is less than
Ω)itisverylikelythatthecomponentis
youhavetomakeadecision.Inthiscase(55 10 times as large as the other;
serviceable. ●
The number of magnitudes that the
Thedecisionoverthistypeofissueisdiffcultandmust,inmanycases,be quantities differ is specif
ed to within a
basedonexperience.Asageneralguide,however,Iwouldsuggestthatifthe power of 10.
readingisintheright‘orderofmagnitude’,thenthecomponenthasagood
chanceofbeingOK.BythisImeanthatifthevaluefallswithinthecorrectrange
of1s,10s,100sor1000s,etc,thenitisprobablygood.
DonoticethatIhaveensuredthatwordsorphrasessuchas‘probably’,‘good
chance’and‘very likely’havebeenusedhere.ThisisnotjusttomakesureIhave
agetoutclause;itis alsotoillustratethatdiagnosticworkcaninvolve‘playing
thebestodds’–aslongasthisiswithinalogicalprocess.

2.4
Mechanicaldiagnostictechniques
2.4.1
Checktheobviousfrst
Startallhands-ondiagnosticroutineswith‘handandeyechecks’.Inother Keyfact
words,lookoverthevehicleforobviousfaults.Forexample,ifautomatic
All diagnostic routines should include
transmissionfuidisleakingon tothefoorthenputthisrightbeforecarryingout ‘hand and eye checks’.
complicatedstalltests.Herearesomefurthersuggestionsthatwillatsomepoint
saveyoualotoftime.
If●theengineisblowingbluesmokeoutoftheexhaust–considertheworthof
tracingthecauseofatappingnoiseintheengine.
When
● an engine will not start – check that there is fuel in the tank
(
Figure 2.5).

2.4.2
Noise,vibrationandharshness Defnition
Noise,vibrationandharshness(NVH)concernshavebecomemoreimportant NVH: Noise, vibration and harshness.
asdrivershavebecomemoresensitivetotheseissues.Drivershavehigher
expectationsofcomfortlevels.NVHissuesaremorenoticeableduetoreduced
enginenoiseandbetterinsulationingeneral.Themainareasofthevehiclethat
produceNVHare:
tyres;
●

engine
● accessories;
suspension;
● Keyfact
driveline.
●
The fve most common sources of
non-axle noise are exhaust, tyres,
ItisnecessarytoisolatetheNVHintoitsspecifcarea(s)toallowmoredetailed roof racks, trim and mouldings, and
diagnosis.Aroadtest,asoutlinedlater,isoftenthebestmethod. transmission.
Thefvemostcommonsourcesofnon-axlenoiseareexhaust,tyres,roof
racks,trimandmouldings,andtransmission.Ensurethatnoneofthefollowing
18 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Figure 2.5 Mechanical systems

conditionsisthecauseofthenoisebeforeproceedingwithadrivelinestripdown
anddiagnosis.
1 certainconditions,thepitchoftheexhaustmaysoundlikegearnoiseor
In
underotherconditionslikeawheelbearingrumble.
2
Tyres canproduceahigh-pitchedtreadwhineorroar,similartogearnoise.
Thisisparticularlythecasefornon-standardtyres.
3 andmouldingscancausewhistlingorwhiningnoises.
Trim
4
Clunk mayoccurwhenthethrottleisappliedorreleasedduetobacklash
somewhereinthedriveline.
5
Bearing rumblesoundslikemarblesbeingtumbled.

2.4.3
Noiseconditions
Noiseisverydiffculttodescribe.However,thefollowingareusefultermsandare
accompaniedbysuggestionsastowhentheyaremostlikelytooccur.
Gear
● noiseistypicallyahowlingorwhiningduetogeardamageorincorrect
bearingpreload.Itcanoccuratvariousspeedsanddrivingconditionsoritcan
becontinuous.
‘Chuckle’
● isarattlingnoisethatsoundslikeastickheldagainstthespokesof
aspinningbicyclewheel.Itusuallyoccurswhiledecelerating.
Knock
● isverysimilartochucklethoughitmaybelouderandoccurson
acceleration or deceleration.
Checkandruleouttyres,exhaustandtrimitemsbeforeanydisassemblyto
diagnoseandcorrectgearnoise.
 Diagnostic techniques 2 19

2.4.4
Vibrationconditions
Clicking,poppingorgrindingnoisesmaybenoticeableatlowspeedsandbe
causedbythefollowing:
inner
● orouterCVjointsworn(oftenduetolackoflubrication,socheckforsplit
gaiters);
loose
● driveshaft;
another
● componentcontactingadriveshaft;
damagedorincorrectlyinstalledwheelbearing,brakeorsuspension
●

component.
Thefollowingmaycausevibrationatnormalroadspeeds:
out-of-balance
● wheels;
out-of-roundtyres.
●

Thefollowingmaycauseshudderorvibrationduringacceleration:
damaged
● powertrain/drivetrainmounts;
excessively
● wornordamagedout-boardorin-boardCVjoints.
Thecauseofnoisecanoftenbetracedbyfrstlookingforleaks.Adrybearingor
jointwillproducesignifcantnoise.
1
InspecttheCVjointgaiters(boots)forcracks,tearsorsplits.
2
Inspecttheunderbodyforanyindicationofgreasesplatternearthefront
wheelhalfshaftjointboots.
3
Inspectthein-boardCVjointstubshaftbearinghousingsealforleakageatthe
bearinghousing.
4
Check thetorqueonthefrontaxlewheelhubretainer.

2.4.5
Roadtest
Avehiclewillproduceacertainamountofnoise.Somenoiseisacceptableand
maybeaudibleatcertainspeedsorundervariousdrivingconditionssuchason
anewroad.
Carryoutathoroughvisualinspectionofthevehiclebeforecarryingouttheroad
test.Keepinmindanythingthatisunusual.Akeypointistonotrepairoradjust
anythinguntiltheroadtestiscarriedout.Ofcoursethisdoesnotapplyifthe
conditioncouldbedangerousorthevehiclewillnotstart.
Establisharoutethatwillbeusedforalldiagnosticroadtests.Thisallowsyou
togettoknowwhatisnormalandwhatisnot.Theroadsselectedshouldhave Keyfact
sectionsthatarereasonablysmooth,levelandfreeofundulationsaswellas Establish a standard route that will
lesserqualitysectionsneededtodiagnosefaultsthatonlyoccurunderparticular be used for all diagnostic road tests
so you know what to expect.
conditions.Aroadthatallowsdriving overarangeofspeedsisbest.Gravel,dirt
orbumpy roadsare unsuitablebecauseoftheadditionalnoisetheyproduce.
Ifacustomer’sconcernisanoiseorvibrationonaparticularroadandonly
onaparticularroad,thesourceoftheconcernmaybetheroadsurface.Test
thevehicleonthesametypeofroad.Makeavisualinspectionaspartofthe
preliminarydiagnosisroutinepriortotheroadtest;noteanythingthatdoesnot
lookright.Forexample,
1 pressures,butdonotadjustthemyet;
tyre
2
leaking fuids;
3
loose nutsandbolts;
20 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

4
bright spotswherecomponentsmayberubbingagainsteachother;
5
check theluggagecompartmentforunusualloads.
Roadtestthevehicleanddefnetheconditionbyreproducingitseveraltimes
duringtheroadtest.Duringtheroadtestrecreatethefollowingconditions:
1
Normal drivingspeedsof20–80
km/h(15–50 mph)withlightacceleration–a
moaningnoisemaybeheardandpossiblyavibrationisfeltinthefrontfoor
pan.Itmaygetworseatacertainenginespeedorload.
2
Acceleration/deceleration withslowaccelerationanddeceleration–ashakeis
sometimesnoticedthroughthesteeringwheelseats,frontfoorpan,frontdoor
trimpanels,etc.
3 speed–avibrationmaybefeltinthefrontfoorpanorseatswithno
High
visibleshake,butwithanaccompanyingsoundorrumble,buzz,hum,drone
orboomingnoise.Coastwiththeclutchpedaldownorgearleverinneutral
andengineidling.Ifvibrationisstillevident,itmayberelatedtowheels,tyres,
frontbrakediscs,wheelhubsorwheelbearings.
4
Engine rpmsensitive–avibrationmaybefeltwhenevertheenginereachesa
particularspeed.Itmaydisappearinneutralcoasts.Operatingtheengineat
theproblemspeedwhilethevehicleisstationarycanduplicatethevibration.It
canbecausedbyanycomponent,fromtheaccessorydrivebelttotheclutch
ortorqueconverter,whichturnsatenginespeedwhenthevehicleisstopped.
5
Noise andvibrationwhileturning–clicking,poppingorgrindingnoisesmay
beduetothefollowing:damagedCVjoint;loosefrontwheelhalfshaftjoint
bootclamps;anothercomponentcontactingthehalfshaft;worn,damagedor
incorrectlyinstalledwheelbearing;damagedpowertrain/drivetrainmounts.
Afteraroadtest,itisoftenusefultodoasimilartestonahoistorlift.When
carryingouta‘shakeandvibration’diagnosisor‘engineaccessoryvibration’
diagnosisonalift,observethefollowingprecautions:
If●onlyonedrivewheelisallowedtorotate,speedmustbelimitedtokm/h
55
(35
mph)indicatedonthespeedometer.Thisisbecausetheactualwheel
speedwillbetwicethatindicatedonthespeedometer.
The
● suspensionshouldnotbeallowedtohangfree.IfaCVjointwererunata
highangle,extravibrationaswellasdamagetothesealsandjointscouldoccur.
Supportthefrontsuspensionlowerarmasfarout-boardaspossible.Thiswill
ensurethatthevehicleisatitscorrectrideheight.Theprocedureisoutlinedby
thefollowingsteps:
1
Raise andsupportthevehicle.
2
Explore thespeedrangeofinterestusingtheroadtestchecksaspreviously
discussed.
3
Carry outacoastdown(overrun)inneutral.Ifthevehicleisfreeofvibration
whenoperatingatasteadyindicatedspeedandbehavesverydifferentlyin
driveandcoast,atransmissionconcernislikely.
Atestontheliftmayproducedifferentvibrationsandnoisesthanaroadtest
becauseoftheeffectofthelift.Itisnotunusualtofndavibrationontheliftthatwas
notnoticedduringtheroadtest.Iftheconditionfoundontheroadcanbeduplicated
onthelift,carryingoutexperimentsontheliftmaysaveagreatdealoftime.

2.4.6
Enginenoises
Howdoyoutellaconstanttappingfromarattle?Worsestill,howdoyoudescribe
anoiseinabook?I’lldomybest.Trythefollowingtableasanon-defnitive guide
tothesourceorcauseofengineorengineancillarynoises( Table2.5).
 Diagnostic techniques 2 21

Table2.5Noisediagnostics
Noisedescription Possiblesource
Tap Valve clearances out of adjustment, cam followers or cam lobes worn
Rattle A loose component, broken piston ring or component
Light knock Small-end bearings worn, cam or cam follower
Deep knock or thud Big-end bearings worn
Rumble Main bearings worn
Slap Worn pistons or bores
Vibration Loose or out-of-balance components
Clatter Broken rocker shaft or broken piston rings
Hiss Leak from inlet or exhaust manifolds or connections
Roar Air intake noise, airlter
f missing, exhaust blowing or a seized viscous fan drive
Clunk Loose fywheel, worm thrust bearings or a loose front pulley/damper
Whine Power steering pump or alternator bearing
Shriek Dry bearing in an ancillar
y component
Squeal Slipping drive belt

Table2.6Enginenoises
Sourcesof Possiblecause Requiredaction
enginenoise
Misf ring/backf ring Fuel in tank has wrong octane/cetane number, Determine which type of fuel was last put in
or is wrong type of fuel the tank
Ignition system faulty Check the ignition system
Engine temperature too high Check the engine cooling system
Carbon deposits in the combustion chamber Remove the carbon deposits by using fuel
start to glow and cause misf
ring additives and driving the vehicle carefully
Timing incorrect, which causes misf
ring in the Check the timing
intake/exhaust system
Valve train faulty Valve clearance too large due to faulty bucket Adjust valve clearance if possible and
tappets or incorrect adjustment of valve renew faulty bucket tappets – check cam
clearance condition
Valve timing incorrectly adjusted valves and Check the valve timing and adjust if necessar
y
pistons are touching Check timing belt and check pistons and valves
Timing belt broken or damaged for damage – renew any faulty parts
Engine components Pistons Disassemble the engine and check components
faulty Piston rings
Cylinder head gasket
Big-end and/or main bearing journals
Ancillary components Engine components or ancillar
y components Check that all components are secure, tighten/
loose or broken adjust as required. Renew if broken

2.4.7
Sourcesofenginenoise
Theabovetableis afurtherguidetoenginenoise.Possiblecausesarelisted
togetherwiththenecessaryrepairorfurtherdiagnosisactionasappropriate
(
Table 2.6).
22 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

2.5
Electricaldiagnostictechniques
2.5.1
Checktheobviousfrst
Startallhands-ondiagnosticroutineswith‘handandeyechecks’.Inother
words,lookoverthevehicleforobviousfaults.Forexample,ifthebattery
terminalsarelooseorcorrodedthenputthisrightbeforecarryingout
complicatedvoltagereadings.Herearesomefurthersuggestionsthatwillat
somepointsaveyoualotoftime.

Keyfact A● misfremaybecausedbyaloosepluglead–itiseasiertolookforthisthan
interprettheignitionwaveformsonascope.
Start all hands-on diagnostic routines
with ‘hand and eye checks’. IftheABSwarninglightstayson–looktoseeifthewheelspeedsensor(s)are
●

coveredinmudoroil( Figure2.6).

2.5.2
Testlightsandanaloguemeters–warning
Safetyfrst Atestlampisidealfortracingfaultsinsayalightingcircuitbecauseitwillcause
A test lamp will cause a current to acurrenttofow,whichtestsouthigh-resistanceconnections.However,itisthis
f ow, which can damage delicate samepropertythatwilldamagedelicateelectroniccircuits–sodon’tuseitfor
electronic circuits.
anycircuitthatcontainsanelectroniccontrolunit(ECU).
Evenananaloguevoltmetercancauseenoughcurrenttofowtoatbestgiveyou
afalsereadingandatworstdamageanECU–sodonotuseit.
Adigitalmultimeterisidealforallformsoftesting,mosthaveaninternal
Keyfact resistanceinexcessofMΩ,
10 whichmeansthatthecurrenttheydrawis
A digital multimeter is ideal for all almostinsignifcant.AnLEDtestlamporalogicprobeisalsoacceptable.
forms of electrical testing.

Figure 2.6 Electrical system

 Diagnostic techniques 2 23

2.5.3
Genericelectricaltestingprocedure
Thefollowingprocedureisverygenericbutwithlittleadaptationcanbeapplied
toanyelectricalsystem.Refertomanufacturer’srecommendationsifinany
doubt.Theprocessofcheckinganysystemcircuitisrepresentedby Figure2.7.

Start

Hand and eye checks (loose wires,

loose switches and other obvious faults) –
all connections clean and tight.
Check battery

Check motor (including linkages) or

actuator or bulb(s) – visual check

Fuse continuity – (do not trust your eyes)

check voltage at both sides with a
meter or a test lamp

Voltage supplies at the Check item with

No Yes separate fused supply
device/motor/actuator/
bulb(s) are correct? if possible before
condemning

If used does the relay

No click (this means the relay has Yes
operated it not necessarily
making contact)?

Supply to switch – Supplies to relay (e.g.,

battery volts terminal 30) – battery volts

Supply out of the switch Feed out of the relay (e.g.,

and to the relay – terminal 87) – battery volts)
battery volts

Voltage supply to the light

within 0.5 V of the battery
Relay earth connection –
note also that the relay may
have a supply and that the
control switch may make the Earth circuit (continuity or
earth connection voltage) – 0 Ω or 0 V

End

Figure 2.7 Generic electrical diagnostics chart

24 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

2.5.4
Voltdroptesting
Voltdropisatermusedtodescribethedifferencebetweentwopointsina
circuit.Inthiswaywecantalkaboutavoltagedropacrossabattery(normally
about12.6V)orthevoltagedropacrossaclosedswitch(ideally
Vbut
0 maybe
0.1or0.2
V).
Thefrstsecrettovoltdroptestingistorememberabasicruleaboutaseries
electricalcircuit:
‘Thesumofallvoltdropsaroundacircuitalwaysadduptothesupply’.
Keyfact
Thesecondsecretistoensurethecircuitisswitchedonandoperating–orat
The sum of all volt drops around a leastthecircuitshouldbe‘tryingtooperate’.
circuit always add up to the supply
.
In Figure2.8thismeansthat,ifthecircuitisoperatingcorrectly,
V 1V 2V 3V s.Whenelectricaltestingtherefore,andifthebatteryvoltage
ismeasuredassayV, atV
12areadingoflessthanV12 2wouldindicateavolt
dropbetweentheterminalsofV 1and/orV 3.Likewisethecorrectoperationofthe
switch,thatis,itclosesandmakesagoodconnection,wouldbeconfrmedbya
verylowreadingonV 1.
Whatisoftendescribedasa‘badearth’(whenwhatismeantisahighresistance
toearth)couldequallybedeterminedbythereadingonV 3.Tofurthernarrowthe
causeofavoltdropdown,simplymeasureacrossasmallerarea.Thevoltmeter
V 4,forexample,wouldonlyassesstheconditionoftheswitchcontacts.

2.5.5
Testingforshortcircuitstoearth
Thisfaultwillnormallyblowafuse–orburnoutthewiringcompletely.Totrace
ashortcircuitisverydifferenttolookingforahigh-resistanceconnectionoran
opencircuit.Thevoltdroptestingabovewilltraceanopencircuitorahigh-
resistanceconnection.
Mypreferredmethodoftracingashort,afterlookingfortheobvioussignsof
trappedwires,istoconnectabulbortestlampacrosstheblownfuseand
switchonthecircuit.Thebulbwilllightbecauseononesideitisconnectedto
thesupplyforthefuseandontheothersideitisconnectedtoearthviatheshort
circuitfault.
Nowdisconnectsmallsectionsofthecircuitoneatatimeuntilthetestlamp
goesout.Thiswillindicatetheparticularcircuitsectionthathasshortedout.

V1 V2

V3

V4

VS

Figure 2.8 Volt drop testing

 Diagnostic techniques 2 25

2.5.6
Onandoffloadtests
Onloadmeansthatacircuitisdrawingacurrent;offloadmeansitisnot.One
examplewherethismaybeanissueiswhentestingastartercircuit.Battery
voltagemaybeV12(well12.6
V) offload,butmaybeaslowas
Vwhen
9 onload
(crankingacold engineperhaps).
Asecondexampleisthesupplyvoltagetothepositiveterminalofanignitioncoil
viaahigh-resistanceconnection(corrodedswitchterminalforexample).With
theignitiononandthevehiclenotrunning,thereadingwillalmostcertainlybe
batteryvoltagebecausetheignitionECUswitchesofftheprimarycircuitand
novoltdropwillshowup.However,ifthecircuitwereswitchedon(withafused
jumperleadifnecessary)alower readingwouldresultshowingupthefault.

2.5.7
Blackboxtechnique
Thetechniqueoutlinedhereisknownas‘blackboxfaultfnding’.Thisisan
excellenttechniqueandcanbeappliedtomanyvehiclesystemsfromengine
managementandABStocruisecontrolandinstrumentation.
AsmostsystemsnowrevolvearoundanECU,theECUisconsideredtobea
‘blackbox’;inotherwords,weknowwhatitshoulddobuttheexactdetailsof Keyfact
howitdoesitareless important. Most vehicle systems involve an ECU.
Figure2.9showsablockdiagramthatcouldbeusedtorepresentanynumberof
automobileelectricalorelectronicsystems.Inrealitythearrowsfromthe‘inputs’
totheECUand fromtheECUtothe‘outputs’arewires.TreatingtheECUasa
‘blackbox’allowsustoignoreitscomplexity.Thetheoryisthatifallthesensors
andassociatedwiringtothe‘blackbox’areOK,alltheoutputactuatorsandtheir
wiringareOKandthesupply/earth(ground)connectionsareOK,thenthefault
mustbethe‘blackbox’.MostECUsareveryreliablehoweveranditisfarmore
likelythatthefaultwillbefoundintheinputsoroutputs.
Normalfaultfndingortestingtechniquescanbeappliedtothesensorsand
actuators.Forexample,ifanABSsystemusesfourinductive-typewheelspeed
sensors,thenaneasytestistomeasuretheirresistance.Evenifthecorrect
valuewerenotknown,itwouldbeveryunlikelyforallfourtobewrongatthe
sametimesoacomparisoncan bemade.Ifthesameresistancereadingis
obtainedontheendofthesensorwiresattheECU thenalmostallofthe‘inputs’
havebeentestedwithjustafewohmmeterreadings.

Input 1

2 Output 1

3 ECU 2

4 3

Figure 2.9 System block diagram

26 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Thesametechniquewilloftenworkwith‘outputs’.Iftheresistanceofallthe
Keyfact operatingwindingsinsayahydraulicmodulatorwerethesame,thenitwouldbe
If the resistance of all similar items reasonabletoassumethefgurewascorrect.
connected to an ECU is the same,
then it is reasonable to assume the Sometimes,however,itisalmostanadvantagenottoknowthemanufacturer’s
f gure is almost certainly correct. recommendedreadings.Ifthe‘book’saysthevalueshouldbebetween800
and900
Ω,whatdoyoudowhenyourohmmeterreads905 Ω?Answersona
postcardplease…(orsee Section2.3.3).
Finally,don’tforgetthatnomatterhowcomplextheelectronicsinanECU,they
willnotworkwithoutagoodpowersupplyandanearth.

2.5.8
SensortoECUmethod
Thistechniqueissimplebutveryuseful. Figure2.10showsaresistancetest
beingcarriedoutonacomponent.Ω 1isadirectmeasureofitsresistance,
whereasΩ 2includestheconditionofthecircuit.Ifthesecondreadingisthe
sameasthefrstthenthecircuitmustbeingoodorder.
Warning:Thecircuitsupplymustalwaysbeoffwhencarryingoutohmmeter
tests.

2.5.9
Flightrecordertests
Itissaidthatthebestplacetositinanaeroplaneisontheblackboxfight
recorder.Personally,Iwouldprefertobein‘frstclass’!Also–apartfromthe
blackboxusuallybeingpaintedbrightorangesoitcanbefoundafteracrash–
myreasonformentioningitistoconsiderhowthefightrecorderprinciplecanbe
appliedtoautomotivediagnostics.
Mostdigitaloscilloscopeshavefightrecordfacilities.Thismeansthattheywill
Keyfact savethesignalfromanyprobeconnectioninmemoryforlaterplayback.The
timedurationwillvarydependingontheavailablememoryandthesamplespeed
Most digital oscilloscopes haveight
f
record facilities. butthisisaveryusefulfeature.
Asanexample,consideranenginewithanintermittentmisfrethatonlyoccurs
underload.Ifaconnectionismadetothesuspectedcomponent(coilHToutput

Wires disconnected
from ECU

Component
such as a
sensor

Ω2

Ω1 ECU

With wires
disconnected

Figure 2.10 Ohmmeter testing

 Diagnostic techniques 2 27

forexample),andthevehicleroadtested,thewaveformsproducedcanbe
examinedafterwards.
Manyengine(andothersystem)ECUshavebuilt-infightrecordersintheform
ofself-diagnosticcircuits.Ifawirebreaksloosecausingamisfrebutthen
reconnects,thefaultycircuitwillbe‘remembered’bytheECU.

2.5.10
Faultfndingbyluck–orisitlogic?
Actually,whatthissectionconsidersisthebeneftofplayingtheoddswhich,
whilesometimesyougetlucky,isstillalogicalprocess.
Iffourelectricwindowsstoppedworkingatthesametime,itwouldbevery
unlikelythatallfourmotorshadburntout.Ontheotherhandifjustoneelectric
windowstoppedworking,thenitmaybereasonabletosuspectthemotor.Itis
thistypeofreasoningthatisnecessaryduringfaultfnding.However,bewarned
thatitistheoreticallypossibleforfourmotorstoapparentlyburnoutallatthe
sametime.
Usingthis‘playingtheodds’techniquecansavetimewhentracingafaultina
vehiclesystem. Forexample,ifbothstoplightsdonotworkandeverythingelse
onthevehiclewasOK,Iwouldsuspecttheswitch(stages1–3ofthesix-stage
process).Atthisstagethough,thefaultcouldbeanywhere–eventwoorthree
blownbulbs.Nonethelessaquicktestat theswitchwithavoltmeterwouldprove
thepoint.Now,let’sassumetheswitchisOKanditproducesanoutputwhen
thebrakepedalispusheddown.Testingthelengthofwirefromthefronttothe
backofthevehiclefurtherillustrateshow‘luck’ comesintoplay.
Figure2.11representsthemainsupplywirefromthebrakeswitchtothepoint
wherethewire‘divides’toeachindividualstoplight(theoddssaythefault
mustbeinthiswire).Forthepurposeofthisillustrationwewillassumethe
opencircuitisjustbeforepoint‘I’.Theprocedurecontinuesinoneofthetwo
followingways:
One
Guess
● thatthefaultisinthefrsthalfandtestatpointF.
Wewerewrong.Guessthatthefaultisinthefrsthalfofthesecondhalfand
●

testatpointI.
We
● wereright.CheckatHandwehavethefault…Inonly3tests
Two
Test
● fromAtoKinalogicalsequenceoftests.

A B C D E F G H I J

K
Brake
light switch
Open circuit
fault Brake
lights

Figure 2.11 Faultf nding by playing the odds – sometimes you get lucky
28 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

We
● wouldfndthefault…In9tests
Youmaychoosewhichmethodyouprefer.

2.5.11
Colourcodesandterminalnumbers
Itisusefultobecomefamiliarwithafewkeywirecoloursandterminal
numberswhendiagnosingelectricalfaults.Asseemstobethecaseforany
standardisationanumberofcolourcodesystemsareinoperation.
A system used by a number of manufacturers is based broadly on the
information in Table 2.7. After some practice with the use of colour codes
the job of the technician is made a lot easier when faultfnding an electrical
circuit.
Asystemnowinusealmostuniversallyistheterminaldesignationsystem
inaccordancewithDIN72552.Thissystemistoenableeasyandcorrect
connectionstobemadeonthevehicle,particularlyinafter-salesrepairs.Note
thatthedesignationsarenottoidentifyindividualwiresbutaretodefnethe
terminalsofadevice.Listedbelowaresomeofthemostpopularnumbers
(
Table 2.8).
Fordmotorcompany,andmanyothers,nowusesacircuitnumberingandwire
identifcationsystem.ThisisinuseworldwideandisknownasFunction-System-
Connection(FSC).Thesystemwasdevelopedtoassistinvehicledevelopment

Table2.7ColourcodesinuseinEuropeandelsewhere
Colour Symbol Destination/Use
Red Rt Main battery feed
White/Black Ws/Sw Headlight switch to dip switch
White Ws Headlight main beam
Yellow Ge Headlight dip beam
Grey Gr Sidelight main feed
Grey/Black Gr/Sw Left-hand sidelights
Grey/Red Gr/Rt Right-hand sidelights
Black/Yellow Sw/Ge Fuel injection
Black/Green Sw/Gn Ignition controlled supply
Black/White/Green Sw/Ws/Gn Indicator switch
Black/White Sw/Ws Left-side indicators
Black/Green Sw/Gn Right-side indicators
Light Green LGn Coil negative
Brown Br Earth
Brown/White Br/Ws Earth connections
Pink/White KW Ballast resistor wire
Black Sw Reverse
Black/Red Sw/Rt Stop lights
Green/Black Gn/Sw Rear fog light
 Diagnostic techniques 2 29

andproductionprocesses.However,itisalsoveryusefultohelpthetechnician
withfaultfnding. ManyofthefunctioncodesarebasedontheDINsystem.Note
thatearthwiresarenowblack.
Thesystemworksasfollows:31S-AC3A||1.5BK/RD
Function:
31 ground/earth
S additionallyswitchedcircuit
System:
AC headlamplevelling
Keyfact
Connection:
Further reference should always be
3 switchconnection made to manufacturer’s information
A branch for specifc details.
Size:
2
1.5 1.5
mm

Table2.8DINTerminalnumbers(examples)
1 Ignition coil negative
4 Ignition coil high tension
15 Switched positive (ignition switch output)
30 Input from battery positive
31 Earth connection
49 Input to asher
f unit
49a Output from asher
f unit
50 Starter control (solenoid terminal)
53 Wiper motor input
54 Stop lamps
55 Fog lamps
56 Headlamps
56a Main beam
56b Dip beam
58L Left-hand sidelights
58R Right-hand sidelights
61 Charge warning light
85 Relay winding out
86 Relay winding input
87 Relay contact input (change over relay)
87a Relay contact output (break)
87b Relay contact output (make)
L Left side indicators
R Right side indicators
C Indicator warning light (vehicle)
30 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Table2.9Colourcodestable
Code Colour
BK Black
BN Brown
BU Blue
GN Green
GY Grey
LG Light Green
OG Orange
PK Pink
RD Red
SR Silver
VT Violet
WH White
YE Yellow

Table2.10Fordsystemcodes
Letter Mainsystem Examples
D Distribution systems DE  earth
A Actuated systems AK  wiper/washer
B Basic systems BA  charging BB  starting
C Control systems CE  power steering
G Gauge systems GA  level/pressure/temperature
H Heated systems HC  heated seats
L Lighting systems LE  headlights
M Miscellaneous systems MA  air bags
P Powertrain control systems PA  engine control
W Indicator systems (‘indications’ not WC  bulb failure
turn signals)
X Temporary for future features XS  could mean too much?

Colour:
BK Black(determinedbyfunction31)
RD Redstripe( Tables2.9 and 2.10
)
Itshouldbenotedthatthecolourcodesandterminaldesignationsgiveninthis
sectionareforillustrationonly.

2.5.12
Backprobingconnectors
Ifyouaretestingforasupply,forexample,atanECU,thenusetheprobesof
yourdigitalmeterwithcare.Connecttothebackoftheterminals,asthiswillnot
 Diagnostic techniques 2 31

Figure 2.12 Test the voltage by back probing a connector with care

damagetheconnectingsurfacesaslongasyoudonotapplyexcessiveforce.
Sometimesapinclampedinthetestlead’scrocodile/alligatorclipisidealfor
connecting‘through’theinsulationofawirewithouthavingtodisconnectit.
Figure2.12showsthistechnique.

2.6
Faultcodes
2.6.1
Fastandslow
Mostmodernvehiclemanagementsystemscarryoutself-diagnosticcheckson
thesensorsandactuatorsthatconnecttothevehicleECU(s).Afaultinoneof
thecomponentsoritsassociatedcircuitcausesacodetobestoredintheECU
memory.Thesecodesmaybedescribedasfastorslow.SomeECUsproduce
bothtypes.
Mostfastcodesarenowread,orscanned,byacodereaderorscanner.
However,someearliersystemswithfaultmemorywereabletooutputslow
codesasaseriesofpulses.
AnLED,dashwarninglight,scopeorevenananaloguevoltmetercanbeused Keyfact
toreadslowcodes.Normally,slowcodesareoutputasaseriesoffashesthat An LED, dash warning light, scope
mustthenbeinterpretedbylookingupthecodeinatable.Theslowcodesare or even an analogue voltmeter can
normallyinitiatedbyshortingtwoconnectionsonthediagnosticplugandthen be used to read slow codes.
switchingtheignitionon.Refertodetaileddatabeforeshortinganypinsout.
ModernECUsonlyusefastcodes.Thisreallymeansthat,inthesamewaywe
acceptthatagooddigitalmultimeterisanessentialpieceoftestequipment,itis
nownecessarytoconsiderafaultcodereaderinthesameway.
Keyfact
Ifacodereaderisattachedtotheserialportonthevehicleharness,fast
andslowcodescanbereadoutfromthevehiclecomputer.Theseareeither Modern ECUs only use fast codes.
displayedintheformofatwo-,three-orfour-digitoutputcodeorifsoftwareis
usedthedisplayisintextformat.
32 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Mostconnectionsforthisinformationarenowmadetothestandarddatalink
Defnition connector(DLC),whichisamandatoryon-boarddiagnostics(OBD)item.More
DLC: Data link connector
. onthislater.
DTC: Diagnostic trouble code.
OBD: On-board diagnostics.
2.6.2
Faultcodeexamples
EOBD: European on-board diagnostics.
Anumberofcodesanddescriptionsarereproducedhereasanexampleofthe
detailedinformationthatisavailablefromanOBD2system( Table2.11).

Table2.11OBD2DTCs
Code Description
P0000 SAE Reserved – Usage not allowed except as padding in DTC
response message
P0001 Fuel volume regulator control circuit/Open
P0002 Fuel volume regulator control range/Performance
P0003 Fuel volume regulator control circuit low
P0004 Fuel volume regulator control circuit high
P0005 Fuel shutoff valve ‘A
’ control circuit/Open
P0006 Fuel shutoff valve ‘A
’ control circuit low
P0007 Fuel shutoff valve ‘A
’ control circuit high
P0008 Engine position system performance (Bank 1)
P0009 Engine position system performance (Bank 2)
P000A Intake (A) Camshaft position slow response (Bank 1)
P000B Exhaust (B) Camshaft position slow response (Bank 1)
P000C Intake (A) Camshaft position slow response (Bank 2)
P000D Exhaust (B) Camshaft position slow response (Bank 2)
P000E Fuel volume regulator control exceeded learning limit
P000F Fuel system over pressure relief valve activated
P0010 Intake (A) Camshaft position actuator circuit/Open (Bank 1)
P0011 Intake (A) Camshaft position timing – Over
-advanced (Bank 1)
P0012 Intake (A) Camshaft position timing – Over
-retarded (Bank 1)
P0013 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position actuator circuit/Open (Bank 1)
P0014 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position timing – Over
-advanced (Bank 1)
P0015 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position timing – Over
-retarded (Bank 1)
P0016 Crankshaft position – Camshaft position correlation (Bank 1 Sensor A)
P0017 Crankshaft position – Camshaft position correlation (Bank 1 Sensor B)
P0018 Crankshaft position – Camshaft position correlation (Bank 2 Sensor A)
P0019 Crankshaft position – Camshaft position correlation (Bank 2 Sensor B)
P001A Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit/Open (Bank 1)
P001B Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit Low (Bank 1)
(Continued)
 Diagnostic techniques 2 33

Table2.11 (Continued)
Code Description
P001C Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit High (Bank 1)
P001D Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit/Open (Bank 2)
P001E Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit Low (Bank 2)
P001F Intake (A) Cam prof
le control circuit High (Bank 2)
P0020 Intake (A) Camshaft position actuator circuit/Open (Bank 2)
P0021 Intake (A) Camshaft position timing – Over
-advanced (Bank 2)
P0022 Intake (A) Camshaft position timing – Over
-retarded (Bank 2)
P0023 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position actuator circuit/Open (Bank 2)
P0024 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position timing – Over
-advanced (Bank 2)
P0025 Exhaust (B) Camshaft position timing – Over
-retarded (Bank 2)
P0026 Intake valve control solenoid circuit range/Performance (Bank 1)
P0027 Exhaust valve control solenoid circuit range/Performance (Bank 1)
P0028 Intake valve control solenoid circuit range/Performance (Bank 2)
P0029 Exhaust valve control solenoid circuit range/Performance (Bank 2)
P002A Exhaust(B) Cam profle control circuit/Open (Bank 1)
P002B Exhaust (B) Cam prof
le control circuit Low (Bank 1)
P002C Exhaust (B) Cam prof
le control circuit High (Bank 1)
P002D Exhaust (B) Cam prof
le control circuit/Open (Bank 2)
P002E Exhaust (B) Cam prof
le control circuit Low (Bank 2)
P002F Exhaust (B) Cam prof
le control circuit High (Bank 2)
P0030 HO2S Heater control circuit (Bank 1 Sensor 1)
P0031 HO2S Heater control circuit Low (Bank 1 Sensor 1)
P0032 HO2S Heater control circuit High (Bank 1 Sensor 1)
P0033 Turbocharger/Supercharger bypass valve ‘A
’ control circuit/Open
P0034 Turbocharger/Supercharger bypass valve ‘A
’ control circuit low
P0035 Turbocharger/Supercharger bypass valve ‘A
’ control circuit high
P0036 HO2S Heater control circuit (Bank 1 Sensor 2)
P0037 HO2S Heater control circuit low (Bank 1 Sensor 2)
P0038 HO2S Heater control circuit high (Bank 1 Sensor 2)

2.6.3
Clearing
FaultcodescanbeclearedfromtheECUmemoryintwoways:
1
Using thefacilitiesofafaultcoder eader(scanner)toclearthememory;
2
Disconnecting thebatteryearthleadforabouttwominutes(onsomesystems
thisdoesnotwork).
34 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Thefrstmethodisclearlyrecommendedbecausedisconnectingthebatterywill
also‘reset’manyotherfunctionssuchastheradiocode,theclockandeventhe
learntoradaptivefunctionsintheECUs.

2.7
Systems
2.7.1
Whatisasystem?
Defnition Systemisawordusedtodescribeacollectionofrelatedcomponents,which
System: From the Latinsyste–ma, in interactasawhole.Amotorwaysystem,theeducationsystemorcomputer
turn from Greekσύστημαsyste–ma, systemsarethreevariedexamples.Alargesystemisoftenmadeupofmany
system is a set of interacting or smallersystemswhichinturncaneachbemadeupofsmallersystemsandso
interdependent system components on.Figure2.13showshowthiscanberepresentedinavisualform.Onefurther
forming an integrated whole. defnition:‘Agroupofdevicesservingacommonpurpose’.
Usingthesystemsapproachhelpstosplitextremelycomplextechnicalentities
intomoremanageableparts.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthelinks
betweenthesmallerpartsandtheboundariesaroundthemarealsovery
important.Systemboundarieswilloverlapinmanycases.
Themodernmotorvehicleisacomplexsystemandinitselfformsjustasmall
partofalargertransportsystem.Itistheabilityforthemotorvehicletobesplit
intosystemsonmanylevelswhichaidsbothinitsdesignandconstruction.
Thesystemsapproachhelpsinparticularwithunderstandingofhowsomething
worksandfurtherhowtogoaboutrepairingitwhenitdoesn’t.

2.7.2
Vehiclesystems
Splittingthevehicleintosystemsisnotaneasytaskbecauseitcanbedonein
manydifferentways.Asplitbetweenmechanicalsystemsandelectricalsystems
wouldseemagoodstart.However,thisdivisioncancauseasmanyproblemsas
itsolves.Forexample,inwhichhalfdoweputanti-lockbrakes,mechanicalor
electrical?Theanswerisofcourseboth.Nonetheless,itstillmakesiteasiertobe
abletojustconsideroneareaofthevehicleandnothavetotrytocomprehend
thewhole.

Engine Electrical

ABS

Complete vehicle Braking system

Figure 2.13 Systems in systems representation

 Diagnostic techniques 2 35

Onceacomplexsetof interactingpartssuchasamotorvehiclehasbeen
‘systemised’,thefunctionorperformanceofeachpartcanbeexaminedinmore
detail.Inotherwords,whateachpartofthesystemshoulddointurn helps
todeterminehoweachpartactuallyworks.Itisagainimportanttostressthat
thelinksandinteractionsbetweenvarioussub-systemsareaveryimportant
consideration.Examplesofthiswouldbehowthepowerdemandsofthevehicle
lightingsystemwillhaveaneffectonthechargingsystemoperation,orinthe
caseofafault,howanairleakfromabrakeservocouldcauseaweakair/fuel
ratio.
Tofurtheranalyseasystemwhateverwayithasbeensub-dividedfromthe
whole,considerationshouldbegiventotheinputsandtheoutputsofthe
system.Manyofthecomplexelectronicsystemson avehiclelendthemselvesto
thisformofanalysis.ConsideringtheECUofthesystem asthecontrolelement
andlookingatitsinputsandoutputsistherecommendedapproach.

2.7.3
Open-loopsystems
Anopen-loopsystemisdesignedtogivetherequiredoutputwheneveragiven
inputisapplied.Agoodexampleofanopen-loopvehiclesystemwouldbethe
headlights.Withthegiveninputistheswitchbeingoperated,theoutput required
isthattheheadlightswillbeilluminated.
Thiscanbetakenfurtherbysayingthataninputisalsorequiredfromthebattery
andafurtherinputfrom,say,thedipswitch.Thefeature,whichdetermines thata
systemisopenloop,isthatnofeedbackisrequiredforittooperate. Figure2.14
shows thisexampleinblockdiagramform.

2.7.4
Closed-loopsystems
Aclosed-loopsystemisidentifedbyafeedbackloop.Itcanbedescribedasa
systemwherethereisapossibilityofapplyingcorrectivemeasuresiftheoutput
isnotquitewhatiswanted.Agoodexampleof thisinavehicleisanautomatic
temperaturecontrolsystem.Theinteriortemperatureofthevehicleisdetermined
bytheoutputfromtheheaterwhichisswitchedonoroffinresponsetoasignal
fromatemperaturesensorinsidethecabin.Thefeedbackloopisthefactthat
theoutputfromthesystem,temperature,isalsoaninputtothesystem.This is
representedby Figure2.15.
Thefeedbackloopinanyclosed-loopsystemcanbeinmanyforms.Thedriver
ofacarwithaconventionalheatingsystemcanformafeedbackloopbyturning

Input Control Outputs

Figure 2.14 Open-loop system

Input Control Outputs

Figure 2.15 Closed-loop system

36 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Door
switch
Warning
light
Voltage
sensor

ECU

Control
switch

Siren

Movement
sensor

Figure 2.16 Block diagram

theheaterdownwhenheorsheistoohotandturningitbackupwhencold.
Keyfact ThefeedbackonanABSsystemisasignalthatthewheelislocking,wherethe
A closed-loop system always has a systemreactsbyreducingthebrakingforce–untilitstopslocking,whenbraking
feedback loop that may be negative forcecanbeincreasedagain–andsoontomaintainasteadystate.
or positive.

2.7.5
Blockdiagrams
Anothersecrettogooddiagnosticsisthe‘blockdiagram’approach.Most
systemscanbeconsideredasconsistingof‘inputstoacontrolwhichhas
outputs’.Thistechniquemeansthatcomplexsystemscanbeconsideredin
manageable‘chunks’.Itissimilartotheblackboxmethodbutjustadifferent
approach.
Manycomplexvehicleelectronicsystemscanberepresentedasblockdiagrams.
InthiswayseveralinputscanbeshownsupplyinginformationtoanECUthatin
turncontrolsthesystemoutputs.Asanexampleofthis,considertheoperation
ofavehiclealarmsystem( Figure2.16).Initssimplestformtheinputswouldbe
the‘sensors’(suchasdoorswitches)andthe‘outputs’theactuators(suchasthe
siren).The‘control’sectionisthealarmECU.
Thediagnosticapproachisthatifallthesensorsareprovidingthecorrect
informationtothecontrolandtheactuatorsrespondwhentested,thenthefault
mustbethecontrolunit.Ifasensordoesnotproducetherequiredinformation
thenthefaultisequallyevident.

2.8
Datasources
2.8.1
Introduction
Keyfact Dataisavailablefromanumberofsources;clearlythebestbeingdirectfrom
The best source of data is the themanufacturer.However,formost‘general’repairworkshopsothersources
manufacturer but other companies havetobefound.MostsourcesarenoweitheronlineorsuppliedonCD/DVD.
are now able to supply ver
y good However,someuseful‘databooks’arestillavailable( Figure2.17).
information.
Examplesofthetypeofdatanecessaryfordiagnosticandotherworkareas
follows:
Component
● specifcation(resistance,voltageoutput,etc.)
Diagnostics
● charts
 Diagnostic techniques 2 37

1
3
6

HS-CAN

7 8 4

A B

10 11

Figure 2.17 Example of a manufacturer ’s data (Ford): Keyless starting system: 1 – keyless
vehicle module; 2 – Start/Stop button; 3 – electronic steering lock; 4 – powertrain control
module; 5 – crank sensor; 6 – keyless vehicle antenna; 7 – vehicles with manual transmission:
clutch pedal position switch/vehicles with automatic transmission: stoplamp switch; 8 – the TR
sensor; 9 – starter relay; 10 – starter motor; 11 – ybatter
(Source: Ford Motor Company)

Circuit
● diagrams
Adjustmentdata
●

Timing
● beltfttingdata
Componentlocation
●

Repair
● times
Service
● schedules
38 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Figure 2.18 Standard data book (Source: Autodata)

2.8.2
Autodata
OneofthebestknowncompaniesforsupplyingautomotivedataisAutodata,
bothintheUnitedKingdom,UnitedStatesandelsewhere. Thisinformation,
presentedasbooks,ontheWebandonCDs,iswellknownandwell respected
(
Figure 2.18).
Verycomprehensiveinformationisavailablerangingfromthestandard‘data
book’tofullvehiclecircuitdiagramsandenginemanagement(andother
systems)diagnostictestroutines.Theonlinesystemisparticularlyuseful.Visit
www.autodata.ltd.ukformoreinformation.
Informationabouttestingproceduresisavailableasshownin Figure2.19.These
sheetsincludetestdataaswellastestproceduresrelatedtospecifcvehiclesor
systems(Figure2.20).

2.8.3
BoschESItronic
Therearealreadyover30millionregisteredcarsintheUnitedKingdomandover
240millionintheUnitedStates.Ofcoursethisincludesoldervehiclesbutallof
 Diagnostic techniques 2 39

Figure 2.19 Example data sheet (Source: Autodata)

thenewerones(still10sofmillions)haveenginemanagementsystems.These Keyfact
needqualitytestequipmenttodiagnosefaultsandsystemfailures.Ineffective
diagnosticworkinevitablyleadstovehicleproblems,dissatisfedcustomersand There are already over 30 million
registered cars in the United
labourcostswhichfarexceedarealisticinvoicevaluefortheworkshop. Kingdom and over 240 million in the
Gooddatawillhelpreduceerrorsandincreasesatisfaction.TheBoschESItronic United States.
system(Figure2.21)runsfromaDVDandaswellasinformationabouttest
proceduresandtestresults,otherdetailssuchasservicedataareincluded.
40 2 Advanced automotive fault diagnosis

Figure 2.20 Fuel injection testing example (Source: Autodata)

Figure 2.21 ESItronic data (Source: Bosch Media)

 Diagnostic techniques 2 41

ThisdatasystemcanbeusedinconjunctionwiththeBoschdiagnostictool
discussedinthenextchapter.

2.9
Summary
Bothofthepreviouslymentionedcompaniesassourcesofdataareexcellent–
andessential.Itispossibletocarryoutdiagnosticworkwithoutthis,butmuch
morediffcultandlessreliable.Themoneyforgooddatawillbewellspent.