Chapter 36

nojo

THEORIES AND FACTORS OF

SOCIAL CHANGE
Theories of Social Change: Evolutionary Theories-Cyclical Theories-Functionalist
or Dynamic Theories- Conflict Theories- FactorsofSocial Change: Geographic Fac-
1ors Biological Factors Cultural Factors - Technological Factors-Social Legis-
lation and Social Change- Education and Social Change.

A. THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

number of general theories
Sociologists, historians and social anthropologists have proposed a
into four main categories: evolution-
ofsocial change. These theories may conveniently be grouped glimpse
ary,.cyelical, conflict theories and functional theories. The following explanation provides
a

of these theories:
1. EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES
societies gradually change from simple
Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that
with Auguste Comte be-
beginnings into even more complex forms. Early sociologists, beginning
lieved that human societies evolve in a unilinear way -that is, in one line of development. According
o them, social change meant "progress" toward something
better. They saw change as positive and
societies would necessarily reach new and
beneficial. To them, the evolutionary process implied that
higher levels of civilisation.
missionaries, merchants and ad-
During the 19th Century due to colonial expansion soldiers,
had been almost unknown in Europe. Most
Venturers came in touch with distant lands whose peoples made some attempts to study
Orthese peoples happened to be sprimitives'. Early anthropologists
limited observations, inaccurate and unconfirmed
SUchprimitives and their societies. Based on their that there was a universal evolutionary pro-
nromation and unqualified imagination they argued ori-
in
through a number of stages beginning primitive
ess. They claimed that all societies passedWestern believed that
type. L.H. Morgan, for example,
SI5 and culminating in civilísation of the barbarism and civilisation. Even Auguste
Were three basic stages in the process: savagery, and also of society
development of human thought
e ideas relating to the three stages in theand the positive in a way, represent
-
the three basic
ey the theological, the metaphysical
ges of social change.
was highly influenced by
Charles Drawin's theory of
evolutionary view of social change
O it to the human söciety and
Evolution'. Those who were fascinated by this theory applied
c simpleand primitive to that oftoo complex
and
OCieties must have evolved from the
too
d
495
496 Social Chan
advanced such as the western society. Herbert Spencer, a British sociologist, carried thie.
its extremity. He argued that society itself is an organism. He even applied Darwin's ne
"the survial ofthe fittest" to human societies. He said that society has been gradually Drole
towards a better state. He argued that it has evolved from military society to the industrial eEin
claimed that Western races, classes or societies had survived and evolved because thev
trial sociery.He
adapted to face the conditions oflife. This view, known as Social Darwinism, got widesnroDe were
in the late 19th Century. It survived even during the first phase of the 20th Centur Popu.
larity ary.
Emile Durkheim identified the cause of societal evolunon as a soeciey's increasing
density". "Durkheim viewed societies as changing in the direction of greater differentiationOa
pendence and formal control under the pressure of increasing moral density'". He advocate
Societies have evolved froma relatively undiferentiated social structure with minimum ofdh
of labour and with a kind of solidarity called 'mechanical solidarity' to a more diferentiated se
structure with maximum division of labour giving rise to a kind of solidarity called 'OrganicS
Soli
darity'.
Evaluation of The Evolutionary Theory
The early evolutionary doctrines were readily accepted because they served the colonial inte
ests of Europeans. This theory provided a convenient justification for colonial rule over primiti
peoples. "The enforced spread of western culture was conveniently thought of as "the white mani
burden' - the thankless but noble task of bringing "higher" forms of civilisation to "inferior" peopis
Those who supported this theory had no concept of cultural relativity and hence judged other onl.
tures purely in terms of their own culture's standards.
The unilinear evolutionary theories described but did not explain social change. They have nt
given any convincing explanation of how or hy societies should evolve toward the westernpattem
The theories were based on the faulty interpretations of the data. "Different theorists groupei
vastly different cultures into misleading categories so that they would fit into the various 'stages'o
evolution". -{lan Robertson)
The theorists in an ethnocentric way treated the trends in western civilisation as "progres"
They largely stressed the importance of economic and technological changes in development and
neglected gther aspects. Thus, the non-westermers may regard western cultures as technological
more advanced, yet morally backwad.
Further, the recent ethnographic data from primitive societies have proved that the societés
need notfollow the same step by step evolutionary sequence. In fact, societies have developed
different ways, often by borrowing ideas and innovations from other societies. Ex: The Bushm
the Kalahari and the aborigines of Australia are being introduced directly to industrial society. r

they are skipping the 'stage' which the theorists have spoken of.
ther
The modern anthropologists have tended to support the theory of multilinear evolution au
than the unilinear one. Modern anthropologists like Steward agree that this evolutionary p t
* the
multilinear. It can take place in many different ways and change need not necessarily follon
same pattern everywhere. They do not press the analogy between societies and living orst pro
They do not equate change with progress. They do not assume that greater social compe thrope

duces greater human happiness. This theory is becoming relatively more popular in socialan
logical circles today.
2. CYCLICAL THEORIES
Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilisations art
discover and account for these patterns,of growth and decay"-(lan Robertson). Spengler here

and Sorokin can be regarded as the Champions ofthis theory. Their ideas may be brieted
 d Factors cial Change
497
ywmgler:T h e TheDestiny of Civilisations
Spengler, a Geman sehool teacher, in his book "7he Decline
that the fate of
civilisations was a of the West"-1918,
and has similar life-cycle; birth,matter
a
of "destiny", Each civilisation is like a biologi
ivilisations, including the West, hematurity,
ism
old age and death.
said that the modern WesternAfter making a study of
dage, He concluded that the Westerm Societies
were entering
Society
is in the last
wars, conflicts, and social breakdown that heralded their a period of decay-as
e n today. His idea of destiny' is hardly an doom.
This theory is almost
rer
ashi
adequate explanation of social change. His
analogy is also too unrealistic and his work is too mystical and speculative.
oynbee:
Challenge and Response
Tovnbee, a British historian with enough sociological insight has offered a
ld
somewhat
umising a theory of social change. His famous book "4 Study of History"-1946, a multivolume
s ,
n materials from 24 civilisations. The
draws
key-concepts in Toynbee's theory are those of
and response". "Every society faces challenges-at first, challenges posed by
later challenges from internal and external enemies. The nature of the responses envi-
thedeter-
the society's fate. The achievements of a civilisation consist of its successful responses to
nges:if it cannot niount an effective response, it dies"- (lan Robertson).
Toynbee's views are more optimistic than those of Spengler's, for he does not believe that all
eativ
n/satio
ns will inevitably decay. He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of decay and
th. But each new civilisation is able to learn from the mistakes and to borrow from cultures of
s I t is, therefore, possible for each new cycle to offer higher levels of achievement. Still he has
eplained why some societies are able to offer effective responses to their challenges while
r s do not, or why a society should overcome one challenge but become a victim ofanother.

eSorokin: 'Sensate' and "Ideational' Culture

The Russian-American sociologist, Pitirim A Sorokin, in his book "Socialand Culture Dynam-
1938, has offered another explanation ofsocial change. His work has had a more lasting impact
msociological thinking. Instead of viewing civilisations into terms of development and decline he
extremes: The "sensate" and the "ide-
mposed that they alternate or fluctuate between two cultural
which can be perceived directly by the senses. It
onal". The sensate culure stresses those things
Ideational Culture emphasises those things which
Bpractical, hedonistic, sensual, and materialistic. concerned with faith and ultimate truth.It
nbe perceived only by the mind. It is abstract, religious, of culture. Hence no society ever
BDe opposite of the sensate culture. Both represent pure' types he said that as the culture of a society
the
conforms to either type. Without mentioning causes, cultural force. Cultural development
elops towards one pure type, it is
countered opposing
by the
of culture. In brief, too much emphasis
on one

n reversedmoving towards the opposite type in

culhure leads a reaction towards the
other. "Societies contain both these impulses vary
of to
instability". Between these types,
of
and the tension between them creates long-term
ees This is a happy and a
desirable blend ofthe other
OUTse 'ideastic' culture.
ere lies a third type achieved it as a stable
condition.
SOCIety ever seems to have and
the sociologists for it portrays his prejudices
by
In's theory has not been accepted His concepts of 'sensate' and 'ideational are purely
modern society. as
e dsgust with the speculative and descriptive. It does not provide an explanation
theory is in a way are not satistac-
Wh s the cyclical theories, in general
form. Thus,
d Change should take this
THEORIES
OR EQUILIBRIUM
FUNCTIONALI
In the
ONALISTS OR
DYNAMIC

a
THEORIES

number of American
sociologists shifted their
Talcot
decades of the 20th century social change to
social stability.
on fudle social statics or from
l a l dynamics to
 Soci Change
Parsons and his followers have been the main
tance of cultural patterns in controlling the advocates of this theory. Parsons
stressed the
ability to absorb disruptive forces while stability of a society. According to him, impo.
5ociety ha
maintaining overall stability. Because it is "Constantly
Sor equilibrium or balance". The stra
resist radical changes and serve to conservative forces of society such as shared norms and vo
hold the society
Between 1940-50s Parsons' together. valuea
Theory
cially in America. But critics began to doubt
of social order or
stability, gained wide acceptancee
Parsons' assumptions during 1960s. Critics li
Wright Mills and Lockwood questioned whether a
theory of
of conflict and constant change.equilibrium
societies that were in a state and stability was
relev
change (1961-1966) in his functionalist model. Hence, Parsons, tried to include
Parsons Theory of Social Change
Parsons considers change "'not as
thing that something that disturbs the social equilibrium, but as
alters the state of the
equilibrium so that a qualitatively new equilibrium results". s0
stated that changes may arise from two
sources. They may come from
outside the
He h
contact with other societies.
They may also come from inside the society, society, thro
must be made to resolve strains within the through adjustments th
system.
Persons speakes of two
processes that are'at work in social change. In simple
tions are undifferentiated, that is, a
single institution serves many functions. The family societies, instib
performs reproductive, educational, socialising, economic, recreational and other for examo
cess of
differentiation takes place when the society becomes more and more complex. functions. Apto
institutions such as school, factory, etc., may take over some of the Differen
functions of the family. The nes
institutions must be linked together in a proper way by the
process of integration. New
example, must be established in order to govern the relationship between noms, fr
the school and the home
Further, "bridging institutions", such as law courts must resolve conflicts
in the system. between other component
Evaluation: The equilibrium theory is an ambitious attempt to
explain both social statics sociul
dynamics. Still, greater stress is laid on the former. Parsons, as an advocate of this theory,andconce
trated more on institutional changes. Other functionalists such as R.K. Merton and others
overcome this limitation. Merton writes, "The strain.
tried u
tension, contradiction and discrepancy be
tween the component parts of social structure" may lead to changes. Thus, in order to accommoda
the concept of change within the functional model, he has borrowed concepts from conflict theons
of change.
4. CONFLICT THEORIES
Whereas the equilibrium theories emphasise the stabilising processes at work in social s
tems, the so-called conflict theories highlight the forces producing instability, struggle, and s
disorganisation. RalfDahrendorfa German sociologist, says that the conflict theories assume tha-u
every societry is subjected at every moment tochange, hence social change is ubiquitous. (
society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence social conflict is ubiquitous; (3) E
element in society contributes to change: (4) Every society rests on constraint of'some ofismen
by others.
Karl Marx: Change Through Class Conflict
Mar
The most famous and influential of the conflict theories, is the one put forward by Kar
a famous German social thinker and philosopher. "All history is the historyofclass confncs
Marx and Engels in the Communist Manifesto' (1848). "Violence is the midwife ofhisto
declared. Individuals and groups with opposing interests are bound to be at contlict- ve
nave
Since the two major social classes, thaf is, the rich and poor, or capitalists and laboure,
ally hostile interests they are at conflict. History is actually the story of conflict betweenu
Theoriesand ractOs
a n dF 4 Oy DoCial Change

499
and the
and the
(therich) exploited (the poor) classes. This conflict
(hehrown by the workers and a
is ther conflict theorists deem socialist state is created. Whatitself
repeats off and on until capital
is to be stresscd
m.

and
M a r
society as basically dynamic and not
normal, not an abnormal process.
here is that
contino as a
They also belicve that "the statie. They consider
contain the seeds of future
social changes". existing conditions in any
Karl Marx, another German Sociologist,
fictn social change. According to him, conflict George Simmel too stresscd the
permanent feature of society importance
of
on event. It is a process that binds
is a
and not
epnle of similar interests to unite peopletotogether in interaction. Further, conflict just a
Rkeeps society dynamic and evertogether achieve their
objectives. encour
C'ontinuous conlictin
Conflict theory is quite impressIve changing,
and
Simmel maintained.
ofsocial change. It only gives us a meansinfluential, no doubt. But it does not uccount for all
and of analysing some of the most
present-day society. Stull it is not a comprehensive
tory
rh about the direction of social theory
significant changes in
much
change. Even the
of social change. It cannot tell
NoteFor more details about the Conflit Theory of predictions Marx have
of
Marx, Please see Chapter No. 50| gone wrong.
B. FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Society is in
continuous flux. Various forces and
factors internal as well as
work to make society changeful. The physical, external, are at
biological, cultural
have been generally regarded as the potential factors of social and the technological factors
these factors must be understood as 'intervening variables that'
change. As Lapiere has pointed out
s'determining' or 'casual' factors. condition social change rather than

GEOGRAPHIC OR THE PHYSICAL FACTORS OF

5.
SOCIAL CHANGE
The physical factors consist of the surface
of the
natural vegetation, forests, animal life, minerals, etc. Theyearth, climate, rainfall, rivers, mountains,
have a profound influence
man society. Social change is, to some extent, conditioned, by the upon the hu-
physical or the
Rate and direction of social change are govermed by the physical environment. Atgeographic factors.
the polar regions,
and in the deserts there can be no cities and almost changeless stabilities are
maintained. The surface
of the earth is never at rest. Slow geographic changes as well as the occasional
form of storms, famines and floods, cyclones and hurricanes and earthquakes doconvulsions in the
take place. They
may bring about social change. But these changes in nature are usually unaffocted the human
activity. Here, the causation is onesided. The great volcanic erupion of Yokohamabyin 1923 was
responsible for the new kind of architecture in Japan. It is said that the ancient eivilisations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and Indus valley withered away due to bad climate. However, certain changes in the
environment may be attributed to human activity. For example, soil impoverishment has taken
in South Italy, Greece, Palestine, Egypt and Morocco. The desert wastes of North Africa were place
once
green and well populated. Man has disturbed the ecological balance by exhausting the minerals,
0estroying the forests and devastating the land and by the mass killing of the wild life. The modes of
uture, and the whole system of social institutions have undergone modifications. Consequently,
e Centres of population, the routes of trade, the seats of empire and the systems of structures of
Societies have been vastly affected.
Some social geographers and social ecologists have attributed too much importance to geo-
phic factors in bringing about social change. The influences that geographic factors exert upon
an societies are neither decisive nor negligible, they are limiting but not determining. Man is
pable of modifying the 'natural landscape' into a cultural landscape. "Geographicfactors account
Rat can be and for what cannot be in human societies, but they do not account,for what is"-Robert
edt.Geography alone cannot explain the rise and fall ofcivilisations. "For no period of human
d o we have information of a geographic character that will adequately account for the social
Changes
"EES that
occurred." As human societies grow in complexity and as culture accumulates,
geogra-
 500
significance."Geography,
in short oos
Social Chan
decrease in sociological
phie factors steadily
a simple function of
habital, n o r culture of elis the Po
suble, not the actual. History is not
Robert Bierstedi, ate; neither
misaral nor monsown
determines morality, n o r soil society."-
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
6. BIOLOGICAL

too, set limits to

the social possibilities of human societies. In .

ce
Biological factors, societies. Plants and animals fin wa
and s t r u c t u r e of these
they help to determine the form non-human biological factors Dan
man's non-human environment.
Man is influencedby
interaction between biological and cultural factoodifa
them to s e r v e his purposes ereating
and animal life to meet his basic needs for food. c l .
example, has always utilised plant
shelter. The biological factors influence
the numbers, the composition, the birth rate, thed
the fertiliny rate and the hereditary quality
successive generations. Heredity,
of the h for ra
one of the important agencies
of variation. It contributes to vast amount of diversity we
le,
and the children. Therefore, no new generation can be
an exact copy old, ofthe EveEvery
parents
a ditferent distribution of qualities and potentialities lifeu
The biological factors like the size and composition of population, produce social cho
The phenomenal growth of population in the 19th century has led to vast social changes and
poor health, low Stand
problems. Food problem, housing problem, unemployment, also countriespoverty,
and the problems are its direct outcome. But there are where there is the n
living
lem of under-population. The falling rate of population has posed a serious problem for coiume proko
cOuntres
like U.S.A., U.S.S.R. and Sweden. It is said that such countries are facing the threat of"rares
cide". It has its own political implications also. Further, the proportion of younger people is deree
ing in few countries like U.K., U.S.A., Sweden, etc. The
death rate has
fallen and hence the nimi
soCial arrangement such as tabons
of the old is increasing. It has its social implications. Some
inter-marriage, customs respecting the age at marriage, persecution of the minorities, war, etc. ti
to lower the biological quality of the population. Hence the increase and decrease in population:
in rates of birth and death are likely to afect or
change in the ratio of men and women, changes
social system. The relations of man and his society to the biological environment are more dynaez
than those of man and his society to the physical environment. The latter submits to his use z
unstable responds rather than submise
abuse. But the biological enviroment which is inherently
man's uses and abuses. It is more sensitive. Hence man has to fight against the diseases, harmi|
bacterias, weeds, wild beasts constantly.

7. CULTURAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Cultural factors constitute yet another source of social change. Cultural factors consst o
values, and beliefs, ideas and ideologies, morals and manners, customs and traditions and
institutions. Not only social values direct social changes but they themselves are Subjec
Ideas and ideals, ideologies and philosophies are inherently changeful. They change witn Jemo:za

in turn, initiate change in the social order. In some periods ideas of liberty, equality anend
may be found, in some others, ideas ofstrict discipline and centralised order may be o v i

still in some other periods religious orthodoxy or religious non-conformity may preai relatio

intimate connection between our beliefs and institutions, our valuations and s as the
the svs
s
as
relations)
Certainly cultural change involves social change (in so far as it affects human relaud uman
ines.

and cultural changes are closely related. "What people think, in short, u
measure... what they do and what they want"- Robert Bierstedt. chang

social
Culture gives speed and direction to the social change. Actually, the field of
limited in comparison with the field of cultural liv1 the hela g ,thinkimg

Our ways of behaving, Socialvalbe

change.
acting arevery much influenced by the changes in social values. These changes
socia
no doubt
influenced, if not determined by the technological factors.
Culture is not something static. No culture ever remains constant. It niey
 nd Factors of Social/ Change
T h e o r i e sa n a
501
Tation, foreign invasion, international trade and contacts, exchange of cultural deiegntions,
pi f one nation by another, foreign rule, etc. Further changeability is inherent in culture.
O notmerely responds to the outside influences, but it itself is a force directing sociul change.
CMeitselfor develops by itself. It is men who plan, strive and act. Culture gives cuos and
s t social behaviour. Men are beset with stresses and strains for which the past offcrs no
iec New ideologies cause significant changes in the models of
o rule the world'. The social philosophy of Marxism, for group life. It is said that
vorld. Hinduism, Budd
ddhism and erample has swept one-third of
Christianity, too wielded influence on the social
del ulture ever remains constant and no culture ever great in institu-
Dons

develops isolation.
CULTURAL FACTOR INFLUENCES THE DIRECTION AND
CHARACTER OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
Culture not only influences our social relationships, it also influences the
ftechnological change. It is not only that our beliefs and social institutionsdirection and charnc-
must correspond to
hanges in technolagy,
the
but our beliefs and social institutions
determine the use to which the
hnological inventions will be put. The tools and techniques of technology are indifferent to the
make of them. For example, the atomic energy can be used for the production of deadly war
uSewe
ans or for the production of economic goods that satisfy the basic needs of man. The factories
weapoi
n roduce the armaments or necessaries of life. Steel and iron can be used for building warships or
ectors. It is the culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention must be put.
Although technology has advanced geometrically in the recent past, technology alone does not
cuse social change. It does not by itself even cause further advances in technology. Social values
nly adominant role here. In one timne and place, why are further technological advances welcomed?
in other time and place, why are they resisted or rejected? India opposed technological innovations
nd refused to accept and use many of the technological products during the early stages of the
Briish rule. On the other hand, America welcomed almost all kinds oftechnical inventions during
te 18th and 19th centuries. Only the cultural factors can provide a satisfactory explanation for these
phenomena. The complex combination oftechnology and social values produce conditions that en-
COwagefurther technological change. For example, the belief or the idea that human life must not
esacrificed for want of medical treatment, contributed to the advancement in medical technology.
Max Weber in his "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"
made
has classical
atempt to establish a correlation between the changes in the religious outlook, beliefs and practices
a

i the people on the one hand, and their economic behaviour, on the other. He has observed that
Cptalism could grow in the Western societies to very great extent apd not in the Eastern countries
ie India and China. He has concluded that Protestantism with its practical ethics encouraged
ialism to grow in the West and hence industrial and economic advancement took place In
there.
East, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and Islam, on the other hand, did not encourage capitalism.
nus, cultural factors play a positive as well as negative role in bringing about technological
g.Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions, conservatism, traditional values,etc.
of
technological inventions. On the other hand, factors such as breakdown in the unity
S the
institutions such as family, religion,
bes,the diversification of social institutions (that is,
new thoughts, values, etc., may contrib-
ht coming relatively independent) craving for the
technological inventions.
chnological change
nges do not take place
They are engineered by men only.
on their own.

schnol
phi ogy tne creation
of man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts,
values, beliefs, mor
sometimes decide or influence the
cction S, the elements of culture. These
etc. These are
more materialistic in
change. Men are becoming more and
ntechnology undergoes
atitd has become a practical ethic
ney are after pleasure. Hedonic or pleasure philosophy and outlook is reflected in
sin currency
y especially in the West today. This change
in the attitude
 Delar C
to lead a pleasurely and a leisurely life and to
to
Chan
minimise
echnological fleld. Thus, in order started inventing new
techniques
manual labour and maximise merriment, man has
struments an devices. Various clectrical equipments
refrigerator. grinder, tape-recor
corder,
such as
into
fan, etc., have come
electric

being
heater, bojile
to ease the routin
acninen, n.
in t
et, electhc

people and to provide them great pleasure

8. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS

ne lechnological factors represent the conditions created by man which

The technolo nich have.
have
influence on his life. In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfil his needs and to make hi Pro
is a product of civilization. When thes
cOmtortable, man builds civilisation. Technology
knowledge is applied to the problems of life, it becomes technology. Techn hnology isis a
nowledge which is put into practice, that is, to use tools and run machines to serve
serve human
huma systemu
Science and technology go together. Technology is fast growing. The modern Age is ofe
Technological Age or the Mechanical Era. In utilising the products of technology mar often purcalylewad
man nology
changes.
social The social effects of technology are far-reaching. According to Karl Mar provoke
formation of social relations and mental conceptions and attitudes are dependent unon
Karl Marx, Veblen and a few others have regarded technology as the sole explanatin
change. WF. Ogburn says, 'technology changes sOciety by changing our environmentsto
in turn adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustment the
with these changes often modifies customs and social institutions'. A single invention
innumerable social effects. Radio, for example, has influenced our enterta
rtainment, education, ay tave
tics, sports, literature, attitudes, knowledge and so on. Ogburn and Nimkof have given a list

ing of 150 effects ofthe radio in the U.S.A.

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE ON SOCIAL ORDER
The development in the field of technology culminated in the great event of Industrial Revw
tion. The Industrial Revolution ofthe 18th century and the various developments woven aroudt
revolutionalised human life in several respects. The tempo of the technological changes ha p
vanished. Technology and technological changes continue to affect the human life and socialone
The impact of technological change on the social order may be discussed here.

Effect of Technology
1. Industrialisation (The Birth ofthe Factory System of Production)
Technology has contributed to the growth of industries or to the process of industrialsatiou
Industrialisation' is a term covering in general terms the growthin a society hithertomainly
ian of modem industry with all its attendant circumstances and problems, economic and socal
describes in general terms, the growth of a society in which a major role is played by manufactunt
industry of the moderm type. The industry is characterised by heavy, fixed-capital investmenti
plant and building, by the application of science to industrial techniques, and by mainly large-s*a
standardised production. Some writers hold that "the best general test of the industrialisation
nation's life under modern conditions is the rate and character of the growth of its industries:
The Industrial Revolution that took place in England during the 18th century contributedn
unprecedented growth of industries. Industrialisation is associated with the factory system of
duction. Today, goods are produced in factories and not in homes. The family has lost its ecom
importance. The factories have brought down the prices of commodities, improved their qua
maximised their output. The whole process of productionis mechanised. Consequenty
tional skills have declined and a good number of artisans have lost their work. Huge factone
provide employment opportunities to thousands of people. Hençe men have becoman
factories ina very big number. The process ofindustrialisation has affected the nature,
the growth ofnmy. It has contributed to the growth of cities or to the processofurou
 horiesa
and Factors of Social Change
e
he AUrbanisation 503
In many countri
tries, the growth of
gities
(urba
industries
anisation). Urbanisation denotes a (industrialisation) has contributed to the growth of
lanl. Afitchell refers
ll to difiusion
of the of urban centres togroa rural
om agriculure to other pursuits as being the process inflhuence
ale urbanisation
of
gence only when a large proportion common to cities, and becoming urban, moving to cities,
of
inhabitants in ancorresponding change of behaviour
i l l e m s

area come to
Urbanisation has become a
cities urbanisation is
world phenomenon today. In 1800
on) there were only 21 cities in
the world each (i.e., before the Industria
n urope, By 1950 there withhaa
were 858 population of 100,000
trial Revo-
e with a combined population of such cities in the world or over, and all these
w h n e n t )

over (364 of them in the

cities but313,000,000, European
in the number
plae not only of An
ution took place first, becamegreat also in their size.unprecedented growth has taken
g urbanised at a relatively England, where the Industrial
are the most urbanised
countries of the world faster rate. England, America,
gets and cities where more than 75% Germany
of the
people live in
result ofindustrialisation people have
isa

lavment. Due to this the industrial areas started moving towards the industrial areas in
ial cities are there in the world now, developed into towns and cities. A search
Bangalore, Durgapur, Kanpur, number of such
Manchester, Lancashire ot England, Chicago Bombay,
s Camples.
and Detroit
of America can be Calcutta of mentioned here
The growth of cities or
urbanisation has
The unregulated growth of resulted in urban
cities has caused concentration and rural
ation, inadequate water and problems such as -overcrowding, depopula-
electricity
e also become the centres of various supply; lack of privacy and congestion,
intimacy,
socio-cconomic problems such as crime, etc. The cities
peny, gambling, prostitution, etc. juvenile delin-
Modernisation
"Modernisation" is
process which indicates the
a

es. It refers toattempt on the part of the people, adoption of the modern ways of life and
an

iet themselves to the present time, particularly those who are custom-bound, to
nge in people's food habits, dress habits,conditions, needs, styles, and ways in general. It indicates a
ales, recreational speaking
activities, and so on. People, in the styles, tastes, choices, preferences, ideas,
e more importance to science and process of getting themselves modernised
dermised societies in various countries. technology. The scientific and technological inventions
have
They have brought about remarkable
otem of social changes
relationship and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional in the whole
In

the process of ones.

modernsiation some typical forms of
ey Changes in social structure involve role changes occur in the social structure of
differentiations in
ence and technology adds impetus to this process and finally almost all aspects of life. Growth
accelerates the movement or the
Re of change.
opment of the Means of
Transport and Communication
cvelopment of transport and communication has led to the national and international trade on
e , The road transport, the train service, the ships and the aeroplanes have eased the
o f men and material goods. Post and telegraph, radio ard television,
Ciephone and wireless and the like, have developed a newspapers and
aunchTof the satellites for communication great deal. The space research and
purposes have further added to these develop
a v e helped the people belonging to different corners of the nation or the world to have
contacts. The nation
ons have come nearer today. The world has shrunk in size. The intermixing
people has led to the removal of
prejudices and misunderstandings.
 the Nen Soeial Cu
Evolution of
504 and the
in the Economy prodsAN Has
tarned the agr
factory sysemof a e capisai
5.Transformation

kiown
The introduction ofthe economy
is popularly
industrial organisation
The the soial
industrial economy, has divided arding to i
in the economy
Class. Thesetwo
casses, Mars
A imean inte
transformation
Working
Class and the
COuIO
interests. In
theCapltalist have mutually
opposite f t e called h i
because both which consists
conflict evolved. This class
Class' has
"the Middle role in the sciety
important
playing an tehn
6. Unemployment
is a
concomitant feature ofthe rapid
unemployment for menbr t they also tahea
The problem of employment
opportunities
Machines not only províde
in what iis known 2s ehnokgje
results in what
ment. devíces. This
labour-saving
of men through
ment.

evident thrOugh the modern mde d wa

and War
7. Technology
effect of technology is
The highly dangerous battle. The atomi bomb and
not hands, but
bormbs fight the
Today, not men,
but guns, The atomic and the bactee
fears and anxieties for mankind.
could be misused Thus
new
bomb have brought race reveal how technology
human
is the devilish wholesale murder, Ho
entire
that can destroy the
advancement, the more ingenious
technological constructive purposes
also.
for
nology could be used
Values
8. Changes in comemin
development in the means transtut and
of
Industrialisation, urbanisation, birth of new organisations nrin
introduction of secular education,
progress of democracy, effects on the beliefs, ideals, tendencies and
thougits
economic, etc., have had profound
toa vast transformation
in the values of life.
people, This has led have brought new values and philosophies.Thetad
Industrialisatíon and mechanisation
changed. Things are measured more in pecuniary terms. Men are devoted mareta
values have Human beings by theuse ofmachne
quality, to measurement than to appreciation.
titythanto and more mechanical. As Maclver and Page have saidim
become less human, more passive are means to means and to no final end. fiunctionso funcin
mechanistic point of view, "all things
and ofno alues beyond."
industrial expansion have very directly promoted hedomim
Technological invention and
have become pleasure-seekers. Theywant to maums
want to have 'good time' always. Theyor no efforts. Mounting productionhas provided men
pleasure by putting forth minimum, and to
sufficient money and also leisure to play enjoy. More importance is given to porp
impersonal andseconoig
thanto contemplation and thought. Humán relations becoming
are

not sincerity,
Sidesone is confronted with "human machines" which possess motion but
emotion, heart but not feelings. n
There has been'a movement towards individualism. Individuals are movinga
family and community loyalty and responsibility. Individualism has intensifiedsoc
logicaluprootedness.Technology has substituted the 'hand work with the 'head wor
Work requires manipulation of people instead of things. "Manipulating others aru
alone."

iated by others enhcnce individuation, the sense ofbeing alone and operatingu
9. Changes in Social Institutions
noleg
Technology has profoundly altered our modes of life and also thought. a i n , morality

sparedthe social institutions of its effects. The institutions of family, religion,

state, property, etc., have been altered. chare
radically

Moderm technology, in taking away industry from the household, has has rad
family organisation. Many functions of the family have been taken away by otneree
 d
Factors of ocialChange 505
leisure at home Much of their work is
re done by nodern household electrie
ving nnvention of birth control
techniques the size appli
Due tothe
treated more
civil contract than a
as a
of the family is reduced. Marriage
sacred bond. Marriages are becoming&
ore iwetable.
Instances of divorce, desertion and
r ando
u
s t a t u s ofw
women no doubt, but it has
separation are increasing, Technology
the
elrvated
en and women at home.
also contributed
to the stresses and strains in the
wns between men

losing its hold over the members. People are

is
becoming more secular, rational and
Rel but es religious in their outlook. Though religion has
wlgion
not been directly affected by the
ventions and discoveries in science have shaken
echnology, invent
the foundations of religion.
changed attitudes vards religious rituals and creeds.
etion of the state or the field of state activity has been widened. The modern states cal
welfare' states. They have become secular in nature. Modern inventions have made the
ctions as-the protection of the aged, the weaker section and the
rform such functi
minori
i n e provision for the schools, colleges, universities, child labour laws, health measures,
urts, etc. Transportation and communication inventions are leading toa shift of functions
bcal government to the central govenment of the whole state. The modern inventions have
rengthened nationalism. The moderm governments which rule through the bureaucracy have
er impersonalised the human relations.
Perhaps, the most striking change in modern times is the change in economic organisatio.
ry has been taken away from the household and new types of economic organisations have
n set up, such as, factories, stores, banks, joint stock companies, corporations, amalgamations,
E haroduction of factories changes the character of relations between the employer and the em-
oves
Conclusion: It is that technology is capable
clear from the above explanation
r vast changes in society. But technology should not be considered a tdetermining' factor of
of bringing
al life. Man is a master as well as a servant of the machine. He has the ability to alter the circum-
which have been the creation of his own technology. He is indeed, a creature as well as a
c of the circumstances.
Hypothesis of Cultural Lag
Hllam F. Ogburn, in his famous book 'Social Change', has formulated the hypothesis of
lag'.Ogburn has divided cuiture into two parts namely: material and non-materialculture.
erial culture he means civilisation which includes tools, utensils, machines, dwellings, sci-
a n s of transport and technology, in brief, 'the whole apparatus of life'. By non-material
means just 'culture' in its ordinary sense which includes beliefs, practices, customs, tradi
s , values, and institutions like family, morality, religion, education, ete. 'Culnural lag',
h i m , refers to the imbalance in the rate and speed ofchange between these nvo parts off
.The word 'lag'
lag denotes crippled movement. Hence culture means the faltering ofone aspect
re behind another
According to Ogburn, changes are quick to take place in the material eulture. 1These in tum
le anges in the -material culture. But the non-material culture may be slow to respond,
grise to a or a lagnon-t
bctween the material and the non-material cultures. This lag is called the
lag p
lag, For exampple, the development in the field of industry requires a coresponding change
ystem of educat The failure ofeducation to cater to the ofmoderm
needs industrial devel-
leadeleads ucation.
to the ral lag. Similarly, the forests of the country may be destroyed because the
cultural
Conservation
he ste 0oes not keep pace with industrial or agricultural
development. Thus Ogburn
that change af unequal rates of
ay be i a l exists between two correlated parts ofculure the slower rate for the one lag
terpreted as a lag in the part that is changing itathas
Nd the other.
me
society is to maintain its equilibrium to seek ways and means of