MTS 231 Actuating System

Dr. Basharat Ullah

Week 03

Department of Mechatronics
College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ In DC circuit, Power supplied to a DC load ; P = VI
❑ In AC circuit, there can be a phase difference between the ac voltage and the ac
current applied to the load.
❑ Instantaneous Power applied to an ac load
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ Note: The instantaneous power consists of two terms;
❑ The first term is a constant (i.e., it is time independent)
❑ The second term is a cosine wave of twice the excitation frequency
❑ Taking its average

❑ For purely a resistive circuits, for a purely reactive circuit

❑ Because purely reactive impedances absorb no average power, they are often called lossless
elements
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ The root mean square (rms) or effective value of a signal is given by;

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑀ൗ 2
and 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑀
ൗ 2
❑ Now as we know

❑ In terms of rms values of current and voltage,

Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ In terms of phasor,

❑ V & I are the rms values

❑ Assumption: Load is inductive
❑ The impedance angle θ of the load will be positive, and the current will lag the voltage by θ
degrees.
❑ The voltage applied to this load is v(t)
❑ The resulting current flow is i(t)
❑ The instantaneous power supplied to this load at any time t is

❑ The angle θ in this equation is the impedance angle of the load.

Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits

❑ If we apply trigonometric identities, we can manipulate above equation into an expression;

❑ The first term represents the power supplied to the load by the component of current that is in-
phase with the voltage

❑ Second term represent power supplied to the load by the component of current that is 90° out of
phase with the voltage.
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ Average value of component-1

❑ Average or real power (P) supplied to the load

❑ Unit Watt
❑ Average Power supplied by component-2 is zero
❑ Second term represent power that is first
transferred from the source to the load, and then
returned from the load to the source.
❑ Reactive Power (Q): The power that continually
bounces back and forth between the source and
the load.
❑ Reactive power represents the energy that is first
stored and then released in the magnetic field of
an inductor, or in the electric field of a capacitor.
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ The reactive power of a load is given by
❑ By convention,
❑ Q is positive for inductive loads
o The impedance angle θ is positive for inductive loads
❑ Q is negative for capacitive loads
o The impedance angle θ is negative for capacitive loads
❑ The units of reactive power are
o volt-amperes reactive (var), where 1 var = 1 V X 1 A

❑ Apparent Power (S): The product of the voltage across the load and the current through the load.
❑ This is the power that "appears" to be supplied to the load if the phase angle differences
between voltage and current are ignored.
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ Therefore, the apparent power of a load is given by, 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼
❑ The units of apparent power are volt-amperes (VA), where 1 VA = I V X 1 A.
❑ If a load has a constant impedance, Ohm's law can be used to derive alternative expressions for
the real, reactive, and apparent powers supplied to the load.
❑ Magnitude of the voltage across the load is given by

❑ Real power

❑ Reactive power

❑ Apparent power
❑ where |Z| is the magnitude of the load impedance Z
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power in ac circuits
❑ Complex power (S): For simplicity in computer calculations, real and reactive power are
sometimes represented together as a complex power S, where;

❑ The complex power S supplied to a load can be calculated from the equation

where the asterisk represents the complex conjugate operator.

❑ Suppose that the
o voltage applied to a load
o current through the load
❑ Then the complex power supplied to the load is
The Power Triangle
❑ The real, reactive, and apparent powers supplied to a load are related by the power triangle.

❑ The angle in the lower left corner is the impedance angle θ.

❑ The quantity cos θ is usually known as the power factor of a load.
❑ The power factor is defined as the fraction of the apparent power S that is actually supplying real
power to a load.

❑ We can't tell whether a load is inductive or capacitive from the power factor alone, because
cosine is even function.
❑ It is customary to state whether the current is leading or lagging the voltage whenever a power
factor is quoted.
Three-phase System
❑ If the three sinusoidal voltages have the same magnitude and frequency and each voltage is 120°
out of phase with the other two, the voltages are said to be balanced.

❑ An important property of the balanced voltage set is that

❑ The real power in three-phase system is

The Linear DC Machine
❑ A linear dc machine is about the simplest and easiest-to-understand version of a dc machine
❑ It consists of a battery and a resistance connected through a switch to a pair of smooth,
frictionless rails.

❑ This device behavior can be determined from an application of four basic equations to the
machine.
The Linear DC Machine
❑ The equation for the force on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field:

❑ The equation for the voltage induced on a wire moving in a magnetic field:

❑ Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this machine

❑ Newton's law for the bar across the tracks

Starting the DC Machine
❑ To start this machine, simply close the switch
❑ Now a current flows in the bar, which is given by KVL:

❑ Since the bar is initially at rest,

❑ The current flows down through the bar across the tracks.
❑ But from Force Equation, a current flowing through a wire in the presence of a magnetic field
induces a force on the wire.
❑ Because of the geometry of the machine, this force is

❑ Therefore, the bar will accelerate to the right (by Newton’s law).
Starting the DC Machine
❑ However, when the velocity of the bar begins to increase, an induced voltage appears across the
bar.

❑ The voltage now reduces the current flowing in the bar, since by Kirchhoff’s voltage law;

❑ As eind increases, the current i decreases

❑ The result of this action is that eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed where the
net force on the bar is zero.
❑ This will occur when eind has risen all the way up to equal the voltage VB.
❑ At that time, the bar will be moving at a speed given by

❑ The bar will continue to coast along at this no-load speed forever unless some external force
disturbs it.
Starting the DC Machine
❑ Closing the switch produces a current flow, 𝑖 = 𝑉𝐵 /𝑅.
❑ The current flow produces a force on the bar given by, 𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵.
❑ The bar accelerates to the right, producing an induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 as it speeds
up.
❑ This induced voltage reduces the current flow 𝑖 = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 )Τ𝑅.
❑ The induced force is thus decreased (𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵) until eventually 𝐹 = 0. At that
point, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑖 = 0, and the bar moves at a constant no-load speed 𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝐵
ൗ𝐵𝑙.
❑ This is precisely the behavior observed in real motors on starting.
Questions?
Lecture 06
Chapter 02: Transformers
❑ A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one frequency and voltage
level to ac electric power at the same frequency and another voltage level through the
action of a magnetic field.
❑ It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core.
❑ These coils are (usually) not directly connected and the only connection between the
coils is the common magnetic flux present within the core.
❑ One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of ac electric power, and the
second (and perhaps third) transformer winding supplies electric power to loads.
❑ The transformer winding connected to the power source is called the primary winding or
input winding, and the winding connected to the loads is called the secondary winding or
output winding.
❑ If there is a third winding on the transformer, it is called the tertiary winding.
Why Transformers are Important?
❑ 120-V dc system invented by Thomas A. Edison in 1882- low voltage, large current
❑ Huge voltage drop and power losses in transmission line
❑ If a transformer steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decrease the current to
keep the power into the device equal to the power out of it
❑ Voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low losses, and its
voltage stepped down again for final use
❑ The transmission losses in the lines of a power system are proportional to the square of
the current in the lines, raising the transmission voltage
❑ Reducing the resulting transmission currents by a factor of 10 with transformers reduces
power transmission losses by a factor of 100
Types and Construction of Transformers
❑ Power transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores;
❑ One type of construction consists of a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with
the transformer windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle. This type of
construction is known as core form
❑ The other type consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped
around the center leg. This type of construction is known as shell form
Types and Construction of Transformers
❑ The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top
of the other with the low-voltage winding innermost, Two purposes
o It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
o It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings were
separated by a distance on the core.
❑ Unit transformer: A transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step
its voltage up to transmission levels (110 + kV)
❑ Substation transformer: The transformer at the other end of the transmission line, which
steps the voltage down from transmission levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to 34.5
kV)
❑ Distribution transformer: The transformer that takes the distribution voltage and steps it
down to the final voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc.)
Types and Construction of Transformers
❑ In addition to the various power transformers, two special-purpose transformer are used
to measure voltage and current in electric machinery and power systems.
❑ The first of these special transformers is a device specially designed to sample a high
voltage and produce a low secondary voltage directly proportional to it. Such a
transformer is called a potential transformer
❑ A power transformer also produces a secondary voltage directly proportional to its
primary voltage
❑ The difference between a potential transformer and a power transformer is that the
potential transformer is designed to handle only a very small current
❑ The second type of special transformer is a device designed to provide a secondary
current much smaller than but directly proportional to its primary current. This device is
called a current transformer
Types and Construction of Transformers
Types and Construction of Transformers
Transformers Symbol
The Ideal Transformers
❑ An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding
❑ The transformer has Np turns of wire on its primary side and Ns turns of wire on its
secondary sides. The relationship between the primary and secondary voltage is as
follows:
vp (t ) Np
= =a
vs ( t ) Ns
where a is the turns ratio of the transformer.
❑ The relationship between primary and secondary current is
Np ip (t) = Ns is (t)
ip (t )
1
 =
is ( t ) a
The Ideal Transformers
❑ Dot Convention
❑ If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect
to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side of the
core.
❑ If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the primary
winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.
Power in Ideal Transformers
❑ The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit: Pin = Vp Ip cos p
where p = the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current.
❑ The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is given by:
Pout = Vs Is cos s
where s = the angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current.
❑ The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same power
factor. Because voltage and current angles are unaffected i.e. p = s = 
❑ Also, Vs = Vp/a and Is = a Ip So, Pout = Vp Ip cos = Pin
❑ Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to input power
❑ Similarly, the reactive and apparent power have same relationship
Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
❑ The impedance of a device or an element is defined as
the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor
current flowing through it.
VL
ZL =
IL

❑ If the secondary current is called 𝐼𝑆 and the secondary

voltage 𝑉𝑆 , then the impedance of the load is given by
VS
ZL =
IS

❑ The apparent impedance at the primary circuit of the

transformer is:
VP
ZL ' =
IP
Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
❑ Since primary voltage can be expressed as VP = aVS, and primary current as IP = IS /a, thus the
apparent impedance of the primary is
VP aVS 2 VS
ZL ' = = =a
IP IS / a IS

❑ With a transformer, it is possible to match the magnitude of a load impedance to a

source impedance simply by picking the proper turns ratio.
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
❑ Example 2.1: A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator supplying a load
𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4 + 𝑗3Ω through a transmission line of impedance 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.18 + 𝑗0.24Ω. Answer the
following questions about this system.
❑ (a) If the power system is exactly as described above as shown in Figure a?, what will the voltage
at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?
❑ (b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the transmission line
and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of the line (as shown in Figure b).
What will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be now?
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
❑ Solution: Here 𝐼𝐺 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , So;

❑ The line losses are

❑ Therefore, the load voltage is,

Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers

❑ Replace the portion of the circuit on one side of the transformer by an equivalent circuit with
same terminal characteristics.
❑ The process of replacing one side of a transformer with its equivalent at the other side’s voltage
level is known as referring the first side of the transformer to the second side.
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
❑ Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission line’s voltage level.

𝑁𝑝
❑ 𝑎= ൗ𝑁𝑠 = 10Τ1

❑ Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission line’s elements and the equivalent load at
the transmission line’s voltage over to the source side.
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers

❑ The generator’s current is;

❑ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 and 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 can be computed as;

Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
❑ It is now possible to answer the questions originally asked. The load voltage is given by;

❑ and the line losses are given by

❑ Notice that raising the transmission voltage of the power system reduced transmission losses by a
factor of nearly 90.
❑ This simple example dramatically illustrates the advantages of using higher-voltage transmission
lines as well as the extreme importance of transformers in modem power systems.
Questions?