AREA NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS (RNAV)
 RNAV is defined as a method of navigation which permits
aircraft operations on any desired track within the coverage
of station-referenced navigation signal, or within the limits
of a self-contained navigation system.
An area navigation (RNAV) system is any system that allows
the aircraft to be navigated to the required level of accuracy
without the requirement to fly directly over ground based
facilities.

INTRODUCTION The required accuracy is achieved by using some, or all, of

the following inputs of information:
▪ VOR/DME

▪ ILS/MLS

▪ GNSS

▪ INS/IRS

▪ ADC

▪ Time
 ▪ A reduction in distance, flight time and fuel (and hence
costs) by giving airlines and pilots greater flexibility
and choice of routes.

BENEFITS OF ▪ An increase in the present route capacity by making full

use of the available airspace by providing more direct
RNAV routes, parallel or dual routes and bypass routes for
overflying aircraft in high density terminal areas.

▪ A reduction in vertical and horizontal separation

criteria.
 There are two types of RNAV:
▪ Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) which is required to give a
position accuracy to within 5 NM on at least 95% of

TYPES AND
the time. It is now mandatory for all aircraft carrying
30 passengers or more to have B-RNAV capability
within Euro-control airspace.
LEVELS OF RNAV
▪ Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) must be accurate to within
1.0 NM on at least 95% of the time. P-RNAV routes
are now being established in terminal airspace.
 There are three levels of RNAV capability:

▪ 2D RNAV which relates to the capabilities in the

horizontal plane only.
TYPES AND
LEVELS OF RNAV ▪ 3D RNAV indicates the addition of a guidance
capability in the vertical plane.

▪ 4D RNAV indicates the addition to 3D RNAV of a timing

function.
A SIMPLE 2D RNAV SYSTEM
The flight deck of a simple 2D RNAV
system includes the following
components:

▪ Navigation Computer Unit.

▪ Control and Display Unit (CDU).

▪ Indicator in the form of a:

➢ Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)

➢ or Horizontal Situation Indicator

(HSI)
 ▪ A simple RNAV system uses rho/theta
(range/bearing) to define position, which is
derived from range and bearing information from

OPERATION VOR/DME stations.

▪ The pilot defines waypoints along the route to be

OF A SIMPLE flown as range and bearing from suitably located
VOR/DME.
2D RNAV ▪ Then the equipment, using the VOR/DME bearing

SYSTEM and range, computes the QDM and distance to the

waypoint and presents the information to the pilot
on a CDI or HSI as if the waypoint itself is a
VOR/DME station, hence these waypoints are
known as phantom stations.
Waypoints may be selected and
programmed for:
▪ En route navigation.

▪ Initial approach fixes.

▪ Locator Outer Markers.

▪ ILS frequencies (when selected

the instrumentation automatically
reverts to ILS mode).
 ▪ The beacons are selected by the pilot during the pre-
flight planning and the pilot must ensure that each
LIMITATIONS waypoint is within DOC of the VOR/DME designating that
waypoint and of the VOR/ DME designating the next
AND ACCURACY waypoint.

OF SIMPLE RNAV ▪ Slant range error in DME must be considered in selecting

facilities close to the track.

SYSTEMS ▪ The pilot must ensure that the information is correctly

input into the CDU because the computer cannot
recognize or rectify mistakes.
LEVEL 4 RNAV SYSTEMS
The area navigation function in modern
passenger aircraft is carried out by a
flight management computer (FMC)
which also provides guidance and
performance functions.

VOR, NDB, ILS information is known as

raw data.
RNAV/PBN information is known as
computed data (not sensor-specific).
 The term FMS implies the joining of all these systems into
one integrated system which provides automatic navigation,
guidance and performance management.

THE FMS (FLIGHT The FMS provides 4D area navigation (latitude, longitude,

MANAGEMENT altitude and time) and optimizes performance to achieve

the most economical flight possible.

SYSTEM) If the FMS is using just the IRS information to derive position
a warning is displayed to the crew indicating that the
positional information is downgraded.
THE FMS (FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)
FMS comprises:
▪ Flight Management Computer System
(FMCS)
▪ Autopilot/Flight Director System (AFDS)

▪ Autothrottle (A/T)

▪ Inertial Reference Systems (IRS)

 ▪ The Flight Management Computer (FMC) is the heart of
the system, performing all the navigational and
performance calculations and providing control and
guidance commands.

FLIGHT ▪ A control and display unit (CDU) allows the crew to input
the flight details and performance parameters into the
MANAGEMENT FMC.

COMPUTER (FMC) ▪ The FMC compares inputs from external and internal
references and by a process known as Kalman filtering
produces a system position.

▪ The FMC commands for lateral (LNAV) and vertical

(VNAV) navigation may be coupled to the AFDS and A/T.
 The performance database contains all parameters of the
aircraft performance and the company’s cost index strategy.

The navigation database contains aeronautical information

for the planned area of operations of the aircraft, comprising:

FLIGHT ▪ aerodrome details, positions, elevations, runways and

lengths etc.

MANAGEMENT ▪ navigation facilities, including location, altitude, frequency,

identification and DOC.
COMPUTER (FMC) ▪ airways routes, including reporting points.

▪ SIDs and STARs and runway approaches.

▪ company routes.

The navigation data is updated every 28 days (this coincides

with the ICAO AIRAC cycle).
CONTROL AND
DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)
The CDU is the means of communication
with the FMC.
It is used before flight to initialize the
performance and navigation requirements
for the flight.
Manual entry of new waypoints is allowed
through the CDU ONLY under RNP/RNAV
10, RNP 4 and RNAV 5.
PERFORMANCE BASED
NAVIGATION (PBN)
PBN aims to ensure global standardization of RNAV and RNP
(Required Navigation Performance) specifications.

The ICAO PBN Manual (Doc 9613) definition is:

“Area navigation based on performance requirements for

aircraft operating along an ATS route, on an instrument
approach procedure or in a designated airspace.”

Both the aircraft and the crew must be approved to fly under
any navigation specification.
 AIRSPACE
CONCEPT
The effect from strategic
objectives to the airspace concept
places requirements on the various
“enablers”, such as
communication, navigation, ATS
surveillance, air traffic
management and flight operations.
 ▪ The Navigation Specification prescribes the performance
requirements in terms of accuracy, integrity, continuity for
proposed operations in a particular airspace. It also
describes which navigation functionalities are required to
achieve the prescribed performance.
COMPONENTS OF
THE PBN ▪ The Navaid Infrastructure relates to ground or space
based navigation aids that are called up in each Navigation

CONCEPT Specification.

▪ The Navigation Application refers to the application of

the Navigation Specification and Navaid Infrastructure in
the context of an airspace concept to ATS routes and
instrument flight procedures.
 NAVIGATION
SPECIFICATION

* RNAV 1, RNP 1 and RNP 0.3 may be used in en-route phases of

low-level IFR helicopter flights.
 At the basic level, the functional requirements may
include:

▪ continuous indication of aircraft position relative to track

REQUIREMENTS to be displayed to the pilot flying on a navigation display

situated in his primary field of view;

FOR CERTAIN ▪ display of distance and bearing to the active waypoint;

NAVIGATION ▪ display of ground speed or time to the active waypoint;

FUNCTIONALITIES ▪ navigation data storage function; and

▪ appropriate failure indication of the RNAV or RNP

system, including the sensors.
 ▪ All aircraft performing RNP 10 operations in oceanic and
remote airspace must be equipped with two LRNS (Long
range navigation system), independent and operational,
made up by one INS, one IRS/FMS or one GNSS (e.g., a
GPS), with such integrity that will prevent the navigation

OPERATIONAL system from providing error-inducing information.

▪ The CAA may approve the use of a single LRNS under

REQUIREMENTS specific circumstances (e.g., in the North Atlantic MNPS
airspace).

▪ Operators may extend their RNP 10 navigation capability

time by VOR/DME updating.
 Total system error is composed by the sum of:

▪ Path Definition Error (PDE) occurs when the path

TOTAL
defined in the RNAV system does not correspond to
the desired path, i.e. the path expected to be flown
over the ground.

SYSTEM ▪ Flight Technical Error (FTE) relates to the air crew

or autopilot’s ability to follow the defined path or

ERROR
track, including any display error (e.g. course
deviation indicator (CDI) centring error).

▪ Navigation System Error (NSE) refers to the

difference between the aircraft’s estimated position
* Also known as Estimated Position and actual position.
Error (EPE) or Actual Navigation
Performance (ANP).
 After sequencing the FAP and during operations
on the FAS of an RNP APCH operation:

ERROR
▪ a) the aircraft navigation equipment shall
provide an alert within 6 seconds if the SIS
errors causing a lateral position error are
greater than 40 m, and

ALERT ▪ b) the aircraft navigation equipment shall

provide an alert within 6 seconds if the SIS
errors causing a vertical position error is
greater than 50 m (or 35 m for LPV minima down
to 200 ft).
 ARINC 424 PATH TERMINATORS
▪ The Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) 424 path terminators set the standards
for coding the SIDs, STARs and instrument approach procedures (IAPs) from the
official published charts into the navigation database format.
▪ The ARINC 424 path terminators are the 24 different types of path our FMS can
program in and fly.
▪ They include a path to follow (it could be a heading, a radial, an arc, etc.) followed by
the point where the path finishes, which could be an altitude that is reached, a fixed
coordinate, a radial, etc.
▪ This makes there a 2-letter code describing them (first letter for path, second letter
for the end point), where an arc radius ending at a fix would be an "RF" (radius to fix),
for example.
 FIXED RADIUS PATHS
There is two types of fixed radius paths:

Radius to Fix legs (RF) - used in Fixed Radius Transition (FRT) -

terminal or approach procedures used with en-route procedures.
(defined by radius, arc length and
fix);
OFFSET FLIGHT RNAV and RNP systems may provide the
capability for the flight crew to specify a lateral

PATH offset from a defined route.

Generally, lateral offsets can be specified in

increments of 1 NM up to 20 NM.

When a lateral offset is activated in the RNAV or

RNP system, the aircraft will leave the defined
route and typically intercept the offset at an
angle of 45 degrees or less.

When the offset is cancelled, the aircraft returns

to the defined route in a similar manner.

Most RNAV systems discontinue offsets in the terminal area or at the beginning of an
approach procedure, at an RNAV hold, or during course changes of 90 degrees or greater.
 TYPES OF
WAYPOINTS ▪ A fly-by waypoint is one where the pilot is
required to use turn anticipation to avoid
overshoot of the next flight segment. It allows
the turn to start just before the waypoint
overhead.

▪ A fly-over waypoint, as it says, requires the

aircraft to actually fly overhead the waypoint. It
precludes any turn until the waypoint is
overflown, and is followed by an intercept
manoeuver of the next flight segment.
 LATERAL
En-route,
PERFORMANCE
APV (Approach with
LNAV/VNAV app Vertical Guidance) ▪ For oceanic/remote, en-route and terminal
phases of flight, PBN is limited to operations
with linear lateral performance requirements
and time constraints.

▪ In the approach phases of flight, PBN

accommodates both linear and angular
laterally guided operations.

▪ LNAV/VNAV approaches are based on linear

lateral guidance, but LPV approaches have an
angular lateral guidance to act the same as an
ILS localiser.
 ▪ RNP APCH is the main navigation specification for
making approaches using PBN.

▪ RNP AR APCH is the same, but requires specific

authorisation, and is used for more complex

RNP
approaches.

RNP APCH can only be used when the procedures are

APPROACH
retrieved by name from the internal aircraft database
(within validity of course). It should then be checked
against a published approach chart to check the
waypoints, altitudes, etc. to make sure the FMS is
programmed correctly.

The waypoints cannot be changed or added/removed

for RNP APCH, as this would invalidate the approval,
and pilots should not create the approach manually.

*RNP 0.3 for helicopter operation also required specific authorization.

 The approach horizontal guidance is managed based on
GNSS and the vertical profile is guided by barometric
altitude.

LNAV/VNAV Barometric descents are prone to effects of the atmospheric

parameters affecting altimetry:
MINIMA BASED ▪ It is crucial to have the correct QNH altimeter setting to

ON BARO-VNAV avoid offset altitudes during final approach.

▪ Altimeters are calibrated in accordance with the ISA. In

case of low temperature, the pressure layers in the
atmosphere move closer together resulting in a lower true
altitude than indicated. Consequently, obstacle clearance
minima may be jeopardised if temperatures are below a
* The majority of RNP approaches will certain limit.
have an OAT minimum temperature
limit, and the approach plate will state
‘uncompensated BARO-VNAV not
authorised below X°C’.
 The procedure must be discontinued:
▪ a) if the navigation display is flagged invalid; or

MISSED ▪ b) in case of not working alerting function; or

APPROACH
▪ c) if integrity alerting function is annunciated not
available before passing the FAF; or
▪ d) if FTE (Flight Technical Error) is excessive.