Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

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Trends in Analytical Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trac

Microplastics and nanoplastics in the terrestrial food chain: Uptake,

translocation, trophic transfer, ecotoxicology, and human health risk
Pawan Kumar Rose a, 1, Sangita Yadav b, 1, Navish Kataria c, **, Kuan Shiong Khoo d, e, *
a
Department of Energy and Environmental Sciences, Chaudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa- 125055, Haryana, India
b
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India
c
Department of Environmental Sciences, J. C. Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA, Faridabad, 121006, Haryana, India
d
Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
e
Centre for Herbal Pharmacology and Environmental Sustainability, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education,
Kalpakkam, 603103, Tamil Nadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastics can linger for years in various environmental compartments after being discarded and exposed to the
Microplastics physical and chemical influences that dismantle their plastic structure to smaller pieces, commonly known as
Nanoplastics microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). These persisted particles in the environment may bioaccumulate in
Terrestrial food chain
living organisms subsequently, biomagnification through trophic transfer. However, a notable lack of attention
Trophic transfer
has been focused on investigating micro- and nano-plastics (M/NPs) behaviour in terrestrial ecosystems.
Human health
Therefore, this present review article comprehensively reviews the published data on the source, uptake,
translocation, trophic transfer, and biological impacts of M/NPs in terrestrial biota across different trophic levels
(i.e. soil to producers and then to consumers, including humans). The uptake mechanism of M/NPs at the cellular
level, the potential effect on human health attributed, and the associated contaminants are investigated. To
conclude, this review paper addresses the existing knowledge gap and recommends crucial avenues for further
investigation that one should pursue.

still up for debate. The threshold for defining nanoplastic (<100 nm) is
the same as that used for nanomaterials and nanotechnology. The pre­
1. Introduction sent epoch is commonly called the plasticene (age of plastic), charac­
terized by the prevalence of synthetic polymers. MPs have become
Plastic trash, however, takes a very long time to decompose. If the ubiquitous in diverse biotic communities, ranging from marine benthos
current trends continue, it is estimated by 2050 there will be 12 billion to alpine ecosystems [6].
metric tonnes of plastic waste will be accumulated in landfills or the The plasticene, a distinct biotope associated with plastic pollution,
environment [1], compared to the 259 million metric tonnes generated has already been established [7]. Due to the ubiquitous presence of
globally in 2018. In the environment, plastics are exposed to physical, M/NPs in the environment, they offer numerous avenues for human
chemical, or biological processes, which progressively degrade large consumption. MPs have the potential to infiltrate the human body via
plastics into tiny sizes of various shapes [2,3]. MPs are plastic particles three routes, including ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact, and
smaller than 5 mm, and can be classified as primary or secondary their presence has been detected in the faeces and colons of adults [4,8]
depending on their origin [4]. The primary MPs are found in the and infants [9]. MPs in a wide range of organisms facilitate the trophic
formulation of personal care items (e.g. microbeads) and laundry fibres. transfer from lower to higher levels, signifying their incorporation into
Most secondary MPs are fragmented plastic remnants from discarded food chains and webs. However, significant emphasis has been given to
consumer packaging that have undergone physical, chemical, and bio­ MP presence in the marine environment, and there has been a notable
logical degradation [5]. The exact definition of a nanoplastic’s size is

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
** Corresponding author. Department of Environmental Sciences, J. C. Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA, Faridabad, 121006, Haryana, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (N. Kataria), [email protected], kuanshiong.khoo@hotmail.
com (K.S. Khoo).
1
Equally contributed as the first author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2023.117249
Received 18 May 2023; Received in revised form 30 July 2023; Accepted 19 August 2023
Available online 22 August 2023
0165-9936/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

List of abbreviation MDPE Medium-density polyethylene

MP Microplastic
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene NP Nanoplastic
AChE Acetylcholinesterase OM Organic matter
ATR-MIR Attenuated Total Reflectance-Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
ATR-IR Attenuated Total Reflection-Infrared Spectroscopy PP Polypropylene
BET Brunauer-Emmett-Teller PET Polyethylene terephthalate
CRM Confocal raman spectroscopy PA Polyamides
DBP Dibutyl phthalate PVA Polyvinyl acetate
DEHP Diethylhexyl-phthalate PAN Polyacrylonitrile
DLS Dynamic Light Scattering PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
DTPA Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid PBA Poly(butyl acrylate)
EDS Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
EEM Excitation Emission Matrix PBAT Polybutylene adipate terephthalate
EMT External mass transfer PE Polyethylene
FE-SEM Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscopy PVC Polyvinyl chloride
FE-TEM Field Emission-Transmission Electron Microscopy PU Polyurethane
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy PC Polycarbonate
GC-MS Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry PS Polystyrene
GI Gastrointestinal PHAs Polyhydroxyalkanoates
HSA Human serum albumin Proton-NMR Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
HDPE High-density polyethylene Py-GC-MS Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
HOCs Hydrophobic organic compounds PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
HPLC-MS High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
Spectrometry SM Stereomicroscope
ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
IMT Internal mass transfer TED-GC-MS Thermal-Extraction-Desorption-Gas Chromatography-
LC Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry
LC-UV Liquid Chromatography with ultraviolet UHPLC-MS Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass
LCSM Laser Confocal Scanning Microscopy Spectrometry
LDPE Low-density polyethylene UV Ultraviolet
LDIR Laser Direct Infrared Imaging XRD X-ray Diffraction
LPSA Laser Particle Size Analyser μ-FTIR micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

lack of attention focused on investigating MPs in the soil compartment (plants) and then to consumer (animals). Since humans are at the top in
which provide many crucial ecosystem services. Overall, the level of the trophic level, their exposure to M/NPs via ingestion and possible
contamination in terrestrial ecosystems may exceed that of marine uptake at the cellular level and translocation to the circulatory system
ecosystems [10]. Consequently, enhancing our comprehension of the and intracellular fate have been discussed in detail. The present scenario
potential impact of MPs on the soil system is of utmost importance. underscores the potentially deleterious consequences of M/NPs on the
Additionally, MPs hydrophobic nature and chemical composition pro­ terrestrial food chain. On this account, the quantification of M/NPs
mote the adsorption of persistent organic pollutants and synthetic using various techniques in different components of the terrestrial food
plastic additives, such as phthalates (DEHP, DBP), and bisphenol A onto chain and their impact at the producer, consumer and decomposer levels
their surface. These substances may subsequently be released into living are also considered. Moreover, the latest information has been provided
organisms due to the degradation of MPs [11]. It is legitimate to be on the potential effect of M/NPs on human health, in-vitro studies in
worried that the smaller plastic particles may ultimately infect humans their support, and the effect of associated contaminants. Thus, the pre­
via trophic transfer and bioaccumulation, given the implications of sent review paper systematically assesses M/NPs ecotoxicological con­
human activities on the entire food web [12]. Approximately 90% of the sequences on the terrestrial food chain. In conclusion, the study
global single-use plastic waste is disposed of in the terrestrial ecosystem, pinpoints current areas of insufficient knowledge and proposes potential
thereby increasing the risk of food and end-product contamination for avenues for future research.
consumers. According to present estimations, the quantity of plastic
discharged into the terrestrial ecosystem annually surpasses the amount 1.1. Review methodology
released into the ocean by 4 to 23 times. The agroecosystem exposure to
MP contamination negatively influences food security, human health, The authors conducted a comprehensive literature review on M/NPs
and food productivity [13]. and noticed that most studies were conducted in aquatic ecosystems
Different agriculture practices such as tillage, irrigation and soil flora compared to terrestrial ecosystems, emphasizing the necessity for
and fauna transport M/NPs in different soil layers and ensure their further investigation on M/NPs behaviour in the terrestrial food chain as
presence both in surface and subsurface soil. The subsurface soil con­ the trophic level transfer of M/NPs from soil to producer (plant) to
taining M/NPs provides a primary route to the plant body (producer) via consumer (e.g. animals and humans) remain poorly understood. This
root. Therefore, the present review highlights the source and possible review was conducted using a five-pillar strategy.
migration of M/NPs in the soil to ensure their availability for trophic
transfer. Further, the paper comprehensively reviews the published data (1) to develop a better understanding of bioaccumulation and bio­
on the uptake, internal translocation and trophic transfer of M/NPs in magnification of M/NPs in trophic level transfer through
terrestrial biota across different trophic levels (i.e. soil to producer

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

demonstrating the uptake and internal transportation mechanism 2. Sources and migration of microplastics and nanoplastics in
of M/NPs in plants, animals and humans; soil
(2) to briefly delineate the perseverance and seriousness of M/NPs in
different components of the terrestrial food chain (i.e. soil, de­ 2.1. Sources of microplastics and nanoplastics in soil
composers, plants, animals and humans) by emphasizing their
potential negative impact; Inappropriate human behaviour and inattentive waste management
(3) to outline the availability and potential of various instruments are the leading causes of plastic loading entering the environment. The
and techniques for the quantification of M/NPs in terrestrial agriculture practices (human factor) such as plastic mulching, waste­
biomass by highlighting their frequent usage and potential; water dumping, sewage sludge amendment, and compost fertilization,
(4) to present the role of M/NPs particles as pollutant carriers and along with atmospheric precipitation (environmental factors), are major
mobility enhancers for associated contaminants by analysing the factors that influence M/NPs pollution in all land use categories [14,15].
influence on the uptake, bioaccumulation and effect of the asso­ The primary MP source in agricultural soil is film mulching since agri­
ciated contaminants in the terrestrial food chain. cultural mulching film recovers only about 60% of its original weight
(5) to summarize the future prospective, challenges to countermea­ after application. Consequently, a significant amount of film residue
sures for M/NPs in the terrestrial food chain and propose rec­ transforms into MPs through UV radiation and mechanical tillage [16].
ommendations for future research directions based on the The agricultural soils in Xinjiang (40.35 mg/kg) and vegetable farmland
available literature. soils in Shanghai (78.00 ± 12.91 items/kg) and Wuhan (320–12,560
items/kg) have exhibited a high prevalence of MPs attributed to plastic
Considering the objectives, the relevant information was gathered mulch films [17]. M/NPs have been detected in wastewater treatment
from Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar by using the keywords plant sludge and recycled wastewater used for irrigation [10,18].
“microplastics”, “nanoplastics”, “food chain”, “tropical level”, “terres­ Further, compost is often used to increase soil fertility and can contain a
trial food chain”, “analysis of M/NPs”, “uptake and translocation of M/ significant amount of plastics (1.20 g/kg) [19]. Another possible route of
NPs”, “ecotoxicological effects” and “associated contaminants” either M/NPs contamination in terrestrial systems is atmospheric deposition,
individually or in combination published between 2012 and 2023. Every which has been underestimated for years [18]. In addition, the building
paper was thoroughly studied, and only those were considered to have sector, landfills, littering, artificial grass and road paints, tires, agricul­
the information correlated with the objectives of present review. tural plastic films, personal care products, cosmetic items, and the
packaging business can also contribute significant amounts of M/NPs to
the soil environment [18]. Suburban areas have substantially higher
levels of plastic pollution (1.8 times greater) than rural or residential
areas [20]. Dust in the urbanized and industrialized region of coastal
Iran contains an average of 900 MPs and 250 microrubbers (MRs) per 15
g sample [21]. Even small amounts of road dust samples contained

Fig. 1. M/NPs in the food web of terrestrial ecosystems. Plastic enters the soil environment from various sources and breakdown into micro and nano sizes via
different degradation processes. Soil serves as a reservoir for M/NPs, and growing plants uptake and accumulate them in their various body parts, which subsequently
transfer through different trophic levels, ultimately reach to humans.

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

considerable MPs resulting from tyre wear-out [22]. Moreover, the 3. Trophic transfer of microplastics and nanoplastics in the
production and trade of textiles represent a notable contributor to MP terrestrial food chain
pollution [23]. Plastics undergo a continual process of fragmentation
and degradation via chemical, physical, and biological processes [24]. Trophic transfer, known as transference, describes how contami­
All the sources of M/NPs in soil that can potentially infiltrate the nants move from one trophic level to the next in the food chain [35].
terrestrial ecosphere via diverse pathways are illustrated in Fig. 1. Prey-predator interaction in the food chain is an interspecific relation­
ship of crucial ecological significance since it establishes the feeding
relationships between species within the same community and, as a
2.2. Migration of microplastics and nanoplastics in soil result, the energy transference from a source (prey) to the predator [36].
M/NPs can transfer across trophic levels within the food chain through
The distribution and the abundance of MPs also show notable dif­ the eating and being eaten process. Unfortunately, examining the tro­
ferences over the soil’s vertical slope. MPs are more accessible to phic transmission of M/NPs poses a formidable challenge due to the
accumulate in the top layer of soil via air deposition, sewage sludge, difficulty in identifying their exact source in the environment (i.e. direct
compost, and mulch and become less prevalent and smaller in size in ingestion or trophic transfer) [37]. The succeeding results provide evi­
deeper soil. According to Wang et al. (2020) MPs quantities across dence for the transfer of M/NP through the food chain as its concen­
various soil strata in Inner Mongolia’s agricultural regions were 35.07%, tration increases from lower to higher trophic levels.
33.43%, and 31.50% in the 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, and 20–30 cm soil In order to mimic a natural feeding chain from zooplankton to fish,
layers, respectively [25]. Hu et al. (2022) reported a high abundance of Batel et al. (2016) validated the transmission of 1 mm–20 mm size MP
MPs in semi-arid or dry north and a low in the temperate southwest part particles from Artemia nauplii (shrimp) to Danio rerio (zebrafish) [38].
of China [26]. MPs accounted for 93.1% of micro (meso)plastics. The Mattsson et al. [39] confirmed the transfer of PS-NPs along an artificial
range of micro (meso)plastics abundance in soils was 25.56–2067.2 aquatic food chain from algae (Scenedesmus sp.) through zooplankton
items/kg, with a mean of 358.37 items/kg, or 6.79 mg/kg. MP fate, (Daphnia magna) to fish (Carassius) [39]. Farrell and Nelson (2013)
distribution, and migration are governed by size, shape, surface area, demonstrated the ‘natural’ trophic transfer of 0.5 μm fluorescent PS
surface porosity, roughness, morphology, solubility, and surface chem­ microspheres to crab (Carcinus maenas) tissues and haemolymph from
istry [27]. The distribution of MPs in the soil can be influenced by mussels (Mytilus edulis) [40]. Poecilia reticulata (rainbow fish) and Danio
various factors, including soil biota, soil properties such as macropores rerio (zebrafish) are two trophic levels in the food chain where the tro­
(>75 μm), soil aggregation and cracking, and agronomic practices such phic transfer of PS MPs was proven by da Costa Arajo et al. (2020) [36].
as plowing and harvesting [24]. M/NPs in soil exhibit complex migra­ Wang et al. (2021) also confirmed the transfer of MPs from invertebrates
tion behaviours that occur continuously under abiotic and biotic in­ to fishes in the food chain (e.g. sandworms, molluscs, crustaceans, and
fluences. The abiotic behaviours include horizontal migration over a fishes) [41]. However, an insufficient investigation has been conducted
significant distance under the influence of wind, flowing water and regarding the trophic transfer of M/NPs within terrestrial ecosystems.
agriculture practices (e.g. plowing and harvesting) and vertical migra­ Only a few studies have highlighted the transfer of MPs throughout the
tion caused by leaching, gravity, and buoyancy [28]. The biotic factors terrestrial food web [37]. Kim et al. (2018) demonstrated trophic
include the activities of microbial life (e.g. bacteria and fungi) and soil transmission of MPs with a 13–18% rate between the zebrafish and the
animals (e.g. mites, earthworms and digging animals) and plant root diving beetle (Cybister japonicas) [42]. Huerta Lwanga et al. (2017)
disturbance and transpiration [16]. demonstrated the phenomenon of biomagnification and bio­
The soil animal and plant activities also influence the horizontal and accumulation of MPs and their trophic transfer from soil to chicken
vertical movement of MPs in soil. Recent studies have revealed that gizzards via earthworms in the backyard garden [43]. The concentration
earthworms play a vital role in promoting the dispersion of MPs within of MPs increased from soil (0.87 ± 1.9 particles/g) to earthworm cast­
the soil [29,30]. It has been observed that the existence of earthworm ings (14.8 ± 28.8 particles/g) and chicken faeces (129.8 ± 82.3 parti­
burrows enhances the probability of MPs percolating through the soil cles/g). An average of 45.82 ± 42.6 MP particles was found per gizzard,
profile [31]. Apart from earthworms, various soil arthropods, such as showing the possibility of micro- and macroplastic entering the terres­
mites and collembola, and burrowing mammals, like gophers and moles, trial food webs. Chae and An (2020) also investigated the transfer of MPs
have the potential to disperse MPs; however, the transferability of MPs in the food chain [44]. The results confirmed the trophic transfer of PS
varies among the species [32]. The transportation of soil particles is fluorescent NPs from soils to mung beans (Vigna radiata) and then to
notably impacted by bioturbation caused by plant roots, including root African giant snails (Achatina fulica). This indicates how M/NPs trans­
movement, root expansion, and root-mediated water extraction. Root ferred from terrestrial primary producers to low-trophic consumers.
expansion also creates cracks that allow MPs to sink downwards in the These instances demonstrate the ability of MPs to travel across trophic
soil. Soil pores facilitate the migration of MPs into deep soil [16]. Plant levels, thereby causing detrimental impacts on all levels of the food
roots can be expected to have an impact on the movement of soil par­ chain, including humans, via bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
ticles along with MPs through two different possible mechanisms: (a) Aside from these theoretical and laboratory-based studies, there is a
direct contact and (b) movement with roots, particularly root tips, dearth of fundamental knowledge regarding M/NPs particle movement
during root elongation and expansion and migration through the fissures and accumulation along natural food chains. These studies only
created during root elongation [33]. The “first flush” is a crucial employed model MPs under unrealistic exposure conditions. Based on
mechanism for pollutants and suspended particles to migrate through the available information, it is currently impossible to assess the possi­
porous media. First flush is the initial surface runoff of a rainstorm bility of plastic particles moving from terrestrial plants to the food chain.
which contains a high load of pollutants compared to the remainder of Pot experiments and investigations of commercially cultivated green­
the storm. Considering this, such flushing affects the vertical migration house vegetables demonstrate the potential for trophic transfer of these
of MPs, where the travel distance is mainly attributed to the length of plastic particles through the food chain remains significant. Although
penetrable linked pore space pathways. However, due to their relatively plenty of the presented evidence for the tropic transfer and bio­
low specific density, pore spaces may have given a backward avenue for accumulation of MPs is based on the aquatic food chain, it can be
MPs to migrate upward after they get saturated [34]. According to extrapolated from the aforementioned instances that such mode of tro­
O’Connor et al. (2019) wet-dry circles might speed up the downward phic transfer may also manifest in the terrestrial or agricultural food
mobility of MPs [34]. Typical tillage techniques affect only the upper­ chain. The bioaccumulation and biomagnification cause an increase in
most 20–30 cm of soil. Conversely, leaching has a more significant the abundance of M/NPs as items per individual at higher trophic levels,
facilitation effect on the vertical transport of M/NPs in soils. which is consistent with the literature review. Nevertheless, the extent

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

to which M/NPs may bioaccumulate and biomagnifies within the the bioaccumulation of M/NPs in plants is limited. Research on tobacco
terrestrial food chain remains uncertain. Additional research is required plant cells demonstrated that nano PS beads sizes of 20nm were suc­
to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the potential role of M/ cessfully absorbed, while those measuring 100 nm could not penetrate
NPs in transmitting associated contaminants throughout the terrestrial plant cells [49]. Further, larger plants can absorb submicrometer-sized
food web. Fig. 1 illustrates the various sources and trophic transfer of M/ (2 μm) PS beads and transport them from the roots to another part of
NPs in the food web of terrestrial ecosystems. the plants once inside the central cylinder (i.e. stele) [50]. Plants may
uptake M/NPs via root or foliar systems (Fig. 2). MPs are too large to
penetrate plant tissue physically while having the ability to block their
3.1. Soil as microplastics and nanoplastics reservoir
pores or the connections between cells, therefore limiting the supply of
water and nutrients to other parts of the plant. However, MP can
M/NPs mostly enter the terrestrial food chain through the soil. MPs
penetrate the roots via root openings caused by ageing processes,
presence in the soil can affect the amount of other organic matter that
below-ground pathogens/herbivore damage, or mechanical injuries
enters the food chain [14]. Applying sludge with M/NPs load and plastic
[51].
mulching on farmlands may serve as a source of plastic to humans
On the other hand, NPs can easily permeate the cell wall. According
through the food chain [45]. Terrestrial plants temporarily act as a sink
to Zhang et al. (2019), NPs can infiltrate root tips through the lignified
for atmospheric M/NPs, allowing them to enter the food chain [46]. Due
epidermis or rhizodes via intercellular wall routes [53]. However,
to decomposer movement, M/NPs were transferred from the top layer to
microbeads are extracellularly retained in the root cap’s mucilage,
the deeper soil. The fertilizer with nitrogen and phosphorus can accel­
allowing the beads to attach to the root surface securely and help in the
erate LDPE MP degradation [47]. The apoplastic pathway (i.e. soil to the
internalisation of particles [50]. Furthermore, because of the high hy­
stele through the cell wall) may be the primary route by which M/NPs
drophobicity of the PS beads and the cell wall at the root surface,
are transported from roots to aerial portions of the plant [48]. M/NP can
mucilage performs only a secondary purpose and hydrophobic in­
bioaccumulate and biomagnify; therefore, their quantification becomes
teractions predominate PS microbead attachment [54]. Once within the
essential to comprehend their impacts on the terrestrial food chain. The
central cylinder, NPs can travel towards the aerial parts of a plant by
three most common entry routes for MPs into the human body are
following the transpiration stream via the xylem. Previous studies have
ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact [23]. Among the three path­
shown that the movement of NPs is closely associated with transpiration
ways, ingestion is considered the most significant, while dermal contact
water, and their absorption rate is linked to plant transpiration [55,56].
is regarded as the least significant.
Therefore, the process of transpiration significantly impacts plant up­
take and transportation of plastic particles. According to Zhang et al.
3.2. Uptake and translocation of microplastics and nanoplastics by plants (2023), PS MPs can use the apoplastic route to access the roots and,
eventually, the vascular bundle [57]. Another potential route for M/NPs
Despite the potential implications on human health, the research on

Fig. 2. Uptake and translocation of M/NPs by the plant. The plants uptake M/NPs through root and foliar systems. The M/NPs interact with plant roots through the
crack entry and translocate to xylem vessels via apoplastic and symplastic pathways and later transport from root to stem and stem to leaf and fruits. The leaves
uptake M/NPs through stomata opening and translocate to vascular bundle (xylem and phloem) and later transfer to other parts of the plant. Adapted and modified
from Wang et al. (2023) [52].

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

penetration into the plant is the foliar system via stomata [58]. The exposure, which supports the translocation of NPs from the rat gut to
stomatal uptake is one potential route by which NPs enter the leaves and other body organs [63]. The ontogenic transmission of MPs has been
then pass to the vasculature. Additionally, M/NPs can be absorbed by documented in mosquitoes (Culex pipiens), which continued to store MPs
leaves and then transported downward to roots [59]. Lian et al. (2021) in their stomachs as adults despite consuming them as larvae [64]. The
demonstrated that PS NPs adhere to the plant stomata, pierce through available scientific literature shows that MP intake and accumulation in
the phloem, and enter the lettuce plant roots [60]. the digestive tract have been extensively studied. However, data
regarding M/NP translocation from the gut to other organs is
insufficient.
3.3. Uptake and translocation of microplastics and nanoplastics by
animals
3.4. Exposure route for humans via ingestion and cellular uptake
There is a lack of information on M/NPs intake in wild terrestrial
animals; however, preliminary research has shown that it does happen Ingestion of M/NPs contaminated items such as honey, table salt, sea
in the natural environment [61]. Some terrestrial species, including food, sugar, beer, packaged water and even animal-based traditional
birds, herpetofauna, and mammals, have been found to consume M/NPs medicinal materials are a significant source of human exposure [65]
[61]. Direct or indirect consumption of M/NPs by consumers in the food (Fig. 3A). According to Cox et al. [1], the yearly intake of plastic par­
chain results in their retention in the digestive system and ultimate ticles per person through the ingestion pathway is about 39,000 to 52,
excretion with faeces. Plastics can pass through the epithelial cells lining 000 [1]. However, Catarino et al. [66] suggested that this estimation
of the digestive system and pass to other tissues via blood circulation may be significantly higher when accounting for the settling dust on
(Fig. 3B). Further, suppose plastic particles are tiny enough to approx­ dishes during mealtimes [66].
imate the size of natural proteins. In that case, this allows them to enter
the cells through biological membranes via active endocytosis (i.e. 3.4.1. Cellular uptake routes and intracellular fate of microplastics and
transcellular pathway) and passive diffusion (i.e. paracellular pathway) nanoplastics
[62]. The information about the potential distribution of MPs in other The uptake mechanism of M/NPs is influenced by factors such as
tissues, like muscles, is inadequate. The gut’s epithelial barriers are their size, surface chemistry, the type of cells involved, and the bio­
susceptible to being penetrated by small particles (130 μm) through molecular corona [67]. Food items contaminated with M/NPs allow
paracellular transport. These particles can potentially disseminate to easy passage to the human GI system. The primary method of cellular
other organs via the circulatory system [61]. The uptake of M/NPs has uptake for M/NPs is endocytosis (i.e. transcellular pathway). However,
been investigated in various terrestrial species, including earthworms, there is also passive diffusion via the cell membrane, which is referred to
nematodes, snails, worms, silkworms, pill worms, mosquitoes, and rats, as an adhesive contact, and channel-protein or
and the results demonstrated that most of the ingested M/NPs were transport-protein-induced absorption [68]. The immune system phago­
egested with faeces. Amereh et al. (2020) observed an apparent con­ cytes, particularly macrophages, are often the first recipients of M/NPs
centration of PS NPs in the testis region of Wistar rats after oral [67]. Intestinal cells can only be reached by tiny particles that can pass

Fig. 3. (A) Possible pathways for M/NPs to the human body and (B) cellular level uptake routes for M/NPs in humans and animals and translocation to the cir­
culatory system.

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

through intestinal mucus or develop a biocompatible “corona” coating accurate chemical identification of the samples, permitting the separa­
surface [69]. The corona is a cluster of proteins which envelops M/NPs tion of M/NPs from other impurities and revealing the polymer base and
in the GI tract, influencing the interaction with GI epithelium. The even the presence of additives [5].
interaction M/NPs with the GI epithelium through cellular penetration SEM images provide the surface micromorphology of the M/NPs. The
(i.e. transcellular pathway) or diffusion (i.e. paracellular pathway) al­ MPs shape can be examined using an SM [73]. The analysis and iden­
lows their transfer to the circulatory system and other body organs [70]. tification of MPs in chicken meat using the ATR-MIR technique was
However, numerous immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic found viable by Huang et al. [75]. Müller et al. (2020) used LC-UV
cells, T and B lymphocytes, eosinophils, and mast cells, can be found in analysis and improved sample preparation methods to determine PET
the tissues directly beneath the epithelial layer of the skin known as the in environmental samples [76]. Neubauer chambers quantify plastic
lamina propria in the GI tract, act as a defence barrier for M/NPs further particles in biological samples with a good recovery rate and low vari­
migration [71]. ability of the results obtained in the counts/chamber [77]. Hanun et al.
Hypothetically M/NPs in the GI tract can enter the bloodstream (2023) employed SEM, FTIR, and BET analysis techniques to investigate
through transcellular and paracellular transport mechanisms (Fig. 3B). new and aged PET MPs [78]. The study revealed that the aged particles
Transcellular transport involves the uptake of M/NPs through endocy­ exhibited mechanical grinding, irregular wrinkles, cracks, and meso­
tosis by M cells present at the level of Peyer’s Patches in the small in­ pores on their surfaces. Since MPs were degraded through an oxidation
testine. These MPs are sequentially transported through the epithelium, process, which caused the emergence of carboxyl (C– – O) and hydroxyl
subepithelial dome, dendritic cells, and lymphatic circulation, ulti­ groups (-OH). BET analysis revealed that the freshwater-aged MPs had
mately entering the bloodstream. In paracellular transport, some in­ the highest specific surface area value. The assessment of MP can be
flammatory responses attributed to M/NPs increase the loose junction categorised into two distinct classifications: physical and chemical. MPs
and favour the intestinal passage of M/NPs through the intestinal lumen physical identification and classification are conducted through micro­
that subsequently transports to the bloodstream through dendritic cells scopic analysis based on their size, colour and shape, including fibre,
and the lymphatic system [72]. The large plastic particles leave the film, foam, pellets, or fragments, as shown in Fig. 5a [5,18]. The liter­
human body through excretion and are found in human stool [4]. It is ature mentions that several analytical techniques, such as pyrolysis
noteworthy that none in-vivo empirical investigations involving volun­ GC-MS, FTIR, or Raman spectroscopy, can be used to investigate the
teers who willingly exposed themselves to M/NPs through inhalation, chemical structure and determine the various types of MPs. These
ingestion, or skin exposure have been undertaken, to the best of avail­ methods enable accurate chemical identification of the samples,
able literature. permitting separation of MPs and non-MPs and revealing the polymer
base and even the presence of additives [5]. Therefore, using these
4. Instruments for microplastics and nanoplastics quantification techniques is feasible to determine if a particle is made of plastic
confidently and the polymer of MPs as shown in Fig. 5b.
Fig. 4 demonstrates that FTIR and SEM are the most commonly
employed instruments for identification. Nile Red staining is used in the 5. Impacts of microplastics and nanoplastics on different
fluorescence investigation to confirm the presence of MPs [73]. Initially, compartments of terrestrial ecosystem
MPs are visually recognized using an optical microscope and later
verified using μ-FTIR and Raman spectroscopy [74]. FTIR, Py-GC-MS, 5.1. Effect on physiochemical properties
and Raman spectroscopy are techniques used to analyze the chemical
structure and determine the types of MPs. These methods enable Topsoil has higher concentrations of MP contamination than deep

Fig. 4. The predominant type of instruments used to identify and quantify M/NPs. Based on the 186 articles reported in the present study, FTIR, SEM, Fluorescence
microscope, and Stereo microscope are common instruments for M/NPs quantification.

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

Fig. 5. (a) The common type of M/NPs polymers based on 182 articles reported in the present review, PS predominately found in the environmental matrix and (b)
shapes of M/NPs reported through 103 articles.

soil. MPs can alter the physiochemical properties of soil, such as desorption which eventually increases the metal mobility and the dan­
increasing the macroporosity and reducing the bulk density of the soil. gers of Cd to agroecosystems [83]. MPs concentration relies on the
Table 1 indicates the data for the occurrence of MPs within the soil. The diffusion gradients between MPs and soils to either act as a source or
MPs presence also influences the texture of the soil [79,80]. According sink of HOCs [61]. MPs can significantly influence the terrestrial carbon
to Sun et al. (2020), PVC and PE-based M/NPs prevent the breakdown of cycle; however, the interaction has been dose-dependent and
organic materials in the soil [81]. Further, different MPs had different MPs-specific [84].
effects on humification and the humic to fulvic acid ratio. The presence
of PE MPs (<250 μm) in soil increased the mobility of organic con­
taminants (atrazine and 4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) butyric acid) by 5.2. Effect on the fauna
reducing the sorption capacity of natural soils [82]. Consequently, there
is a higher chance that organic contaminants will end up in ground­ MPs presence affects the soil microbial biomass, influences the
water, further threatening human health. The presence of MPs in soil structure and metabolic state, and changes the microbial community
decreases its ability to adsorb cadmium (Cd) while increasing Cd [91–93]. In soil, PVC, PS, and PE-based MP impact the bacterial com­
munity by influencing the catalase, urease, and alkaline phosphatase

Table 1
Microplastics and nanoplastics occurrence and distribution in the soil.
Location Quantity Size Type of M/NPs Type of Analytic References
Polymer Instruments

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India 180 ± 13.44 particles/kg >5 mm Fragment PE, PP, PVC, FTIR [85]
(Urban soil) PET, PVA
Brazil (mangrove soils around 10,782 ± 7,671 items/kg avg. 196 μm Fibre, Fragment – Stereoscope [86]
the Todos Santos Bay)
Gulf of Mexico (Tropical lowland 1.53 particles/g soil (fibre) and 1.49 150–500 μm Fibre, Fragment PE, PET SM, UV light lamp [79]
coastal plain) particles/g soil (fragment)
Froya municipality, Norway 0.93 g/cm3 100 μm Fibre, Fragment MDPE, PP, PS Raman [87]
(Mausund and Froan spectrometer
landscape)
China (Farmland) 2,783-6,366 items/kg 0.02–1 mm Fibre, Fragment, Film PE, PA SM [88]
China (Agricultural soil) 3.78 × 103 items/kg 1,130–4,995 Fibre, Fragment PP, PE SM, μ-FTIR [89]
μm
Wuhan, central China 320-12,560 items/kg (dry weight) 0.2 mm Fibre, Microbead PA, PP SM, micro-Raman [20]
(Vegetable farmlands and (spherical) spectrometer
suburbs)
Germany (Agricultural soil with 57,000 mg/kg >100 μm Pellet PET TED-GC-MS, LC - UV [76]
sludge application)
Lahore, Pakistan (Urban soil) 4,483 ± 2,315 MP/kg 50–5000 μm Fibre, Sheet (fragment), LDPE SM [14]
Foam, Bead (Spherical)
Shanghai, China (Suburban 78.00 ± 12.91 items/kg (shallow soil) 20 μm - 5 mm Fibre, Fragment Film PP, PE, PET SM, μ-FTIR [90]
farmland soil) and 62.50 ± 12.97 items/kg (deep
soil)

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

enzyme activities [94]. Specifically, MPs decreased the abundance of from entering the root might be due to the larger size of PE MPs than the
Acidobacteria, Basidiomycota, and Chytridiomycota while increasing root cell pore. As demonstrated in Fig. 7, PE MPs only stuck on the
the abundance of Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Ascomycota [93]. lettuce root’s surface, can still cause damage to plants via interference
Actinobacteria overtook Proteobacteria as the predominant phylum in with the absorption of nutrients, reducing levels of essential trace ele­
soil containing MPs. The size of the MP also influenced the alpha di­ ments and the CO2 flux, and/or causing a decrease in cell migration
versity of microorganisms in the soil [95,96]. The consequences of soil [101].
fauna’s reactions to the addition of MPs cascaded through the soil food PS NPs have a detrimental effect on the photosynthetic, antioxidant,
chain, having a higher indirect impact on soil microbial functioning than and sugar metabolism systems in cucumbers, which reduces the biomass
the direct impact of the MPs themselves [92]. The microbiota in the of cucumber plants [114]. PS MPs were found to alter rice metabolic
Metaphire guillelmi gut and the nearby MP-containing soil differed processes, impacting rice production [119]. However, PS MPs had no
noticeably in the study by Cheng et al. (2021) [91]. Additionally, MPs noticeable impact on the germination of rice seeds [110]. Dong et al.
act as a vector for soil diseases. The relative abundance of phytopatho­ (2022) reported a reduction in rice grains with high PS and PTFE con­
genic fungi in the soil also increased due to MPs [97]. centrations [102]. The physiological toxicity of PS and PTFE and their
adverse effects on root activity reduced the rice biomass and yield.
Compared to the control, grain yields in soil containing 0.5% small
5.3. Ecological and health risks at trophic levels in the terrestrial food particle-sized PTFE and 0.5% small particle-sized PS were reduced by
chain 20.6% and 19.4%, respectively. PS adversely impacted the growth of
maize, and phytotoxicity was enhanced in the presence of Cd [118]. PS
5.3.1. Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics at the producer level NPs considerably enhanced root elongation in wheat seedlings and
The initial trophic level of the terrestrial food chain is comprised of partially hampered the translocation of nutritional metal elements (e.g.
producers. M/NPs occurrence can influence plant performance, agro­ iron, manganese, copper, and zinc) in wheat; however, no apparent ef­
ecosystems, and terrestrial biodiversity [98]. Table 2 displays the fects were observed on the rate at which wheat seeds germinate [113].
occurrence of M/NPs within the plant specimens. M/NPs caused MPs decreased the viability of soybean seed germination, which sug­
oxidative stress, severely reduced lettuce biomass, and harmed lettuce gests that plastic residues in the soil prevent the germination of seeds.
roots and leaves [99,100]. Moreover, the damage to the root tissue Further, MPs dramatically reduced the plant height of soybean and culm
remained comparatively higher than the leaves. However, the extent of diameter during growth [114]. Jiang et al. (2019) exposed the Vicia faba
cellular damage in lettuce decreased with growth. The plant height, root tips to PS fluorescent MPs of 5 μm and 100 nm sizes at 10, 50, and
number of leaves, fresh and dried leaf weights, and length of the roots 100 mg/L concentrations for 48 h [120]. The exposure to 5 μm PS MPs
significantly decreased with MPs [100]. In another study by Gao et al. led to a reduction in the biomass and catalase enzyme activity of V. faba
(2021), PE increased the DBP toxicity in lettuce roots, which lowered root. A noticeable reduction in growth was observed solely at the
root growth and viability and decreased the amount of soluble protein maximum concentration (100 mg/L) with 100 nm PS MPs. Further, 100
and sugar [99]. The SEM and TEM images demonstrated that PE MPs nm PS MPs had a greater genotoxic and oxidative effect on V. faba than
adhered to the surface of the lettuce root, without any penetration into 5 μm size. In addition, LCSM revealed that the 100 nm PS MPs
the root structure (Fig. 6C and D). The physical obstruction of PE MPs

Table 2
Microplastics and nanoplastics occurrence in various types of crops and plants in terrestrial ecosystems.
Location Plant species Size Type of Analytic instruments References
polymer

Hunan, China Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) 0.1–1 μm, 10–100 μm PS, PTFE SEM [102]
China Rice 80 nm, 1 μm PS LCSM [48]
China Rice (Oryza sativa L. II Y900 and XS123) 135.9–530 μm PS SEM [103]
Qingan Blackberry nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) 150 μm LDPE SEM, FTIR [104]
China Italian lettuce, radish, wheat, corn 100 nm, 5 μm PS LCSM, TEM, Zetasizer, SEM [105]
Netherlands Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) <53 μm–1000 μm LDPE, PLA, FTIR [106]
PBAT
Spain Radish (Raphanus sativus) 0.3–100 μm ABS CRM, SEM [107]
Italy Black fungus gnat and lentil (Lens culinaris) <0.25 mm HDPE Microscope [108]
China Soybean (Glycine max), Mung bean (Vigna radiata) 6.5 μm, 13 μm PE – [109]
China Rice 200 nm PS TEM, FTIR, SEM [110]
China Rice ~20 nm PS LCSM, Zeta-sizer [111]
– Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) <2 mm PET micro-Raman spectrometer, [21]
SEM EDS
Catania, Italy Vegetables and fruits <10 μm - SEM EDS [112]
South Korea Mung bean 0.02 μm PS Zeta-sizer, TEM [44]
China Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Ramosa Hort), Purple lettuce 23 μm PE TEM, SEM, FTIR [99]
(Lactuca sativa L. cv. ‘Red Sails’)
China Wheat 100 nm PS 3D LCSM, SEM [113]
China Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) 100, 300, 500, 700 nm PS SEM [114]
China Plant leaves 15.74 μm PET, CA, PAN, SM, μ-FTIR [46]
PBA
China Vegetable 30 μm PA, PVC PCR [115]
Germany Lepidium sativum (Garden cress) 3 mm ± 1 mm PC UHPLC-MS [116]
Owerri Imo State, Lime tree (Citrus aurantium) 5 cm, <5 mm LDPE, PP, PS - [117]
Nigeria
Qingdao, China Maize 100–154 μm HDPE, PS ICP-MS [118]
China Rice <50 mm PS GC-MS [119]
North Wales Wheat 125 μm PVC, PE Chromatography [84]
Berlin, Germany Spring onion (Allium fistulosum) 15− 20 mm, 5000 mm, 8 PA, PE, PET, – [98]
μm, 2− 3 mm PP, PS
China Vicia faba 5 μm, 100 nm PS - [120]

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

Fig. 6. SEM images of lettuce roots. (A) Control, which shows normal root surface and healthy root hair (blue arrows) (B) DBP treatment caused damage to the root
surface, i.e. no root hair (pink circle) (C) PE and (D) DBP + PE treatments revealed the presence of PE fragments adhered to lettuce root hair surfaces (green circle).
Adapted from Gao et al. (2021) with permission from Elsevier [99].

accumulated within the V. faba root and are likely to impede the 5.3.2. Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics at the consumer level
transportation of nutrients by obstructing cell connections or cell wall Table 3 displays the MP presence at the consumer level of the
pores. NPs prevented the mung bean plant roots from growing and terrestrial food chain. In mice, PS MPs exposure resulted in ovarian
caused particle build-up in their leaves [44]. The high MPs concentra­ inflammation and decreased oocyte quality, which provides a founda­
tions stunted the growth of Solanum nigrum L [104]. PVC exhibited the tion for research into PS MP-based reproductive toxicity in female
highest toxicity and produced oxidative bursts in Lepidium sativum mammals [123]. Xie et al. (2020) reported a notable reduction in sperm
[116]. quantity and motility, as well as a rise in the rate of sperm deformity
Austen et al. [121] employed fluorescent dye-tagged MPs beads caused by PS MPs [124]. After plastic exposure, the reproductive dam­
(5–50 μm) in the soil of developing Betula pendula Roth. (silver birch) age in mice can be attributed to oxidative stress, which activates the p38
[121]. LCSM and fluorescence microscopy after the five months of MPs MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) signalling pathways. PS MP
contamination revealed the presence of fluorescent MPs beads in the can cause hepatic lipid disorders in mice and alter the composition of
lateral root exodermis, cortex, and vascular tissue of silver birch. The their gut microbiome [125]. MPs caused the mouse liver insulin resis­
study confirms the translocation of MPs from the soil to the plant root tance and elevated plasma glucose. PS NPs can cause morphological
(Fig. 8). A single exposure to LDPE plastic residues exhibited the most alteration to different physiological systems and are absorbed into the
detrimental impact (inhibition of 0.26%) on the Citrus aurantium plant blood and organs via digestion pathways [126].
during vegetative development. In general, C. aurantium displayed a Colpaert et al. (2022) reported that the Cantareus aspersus snail
high tolerance for plastic contamination [117]. Plastics significantly development was influenced by LDPE, however their survival remains
impact plant biomass, tissue elemental composition, root characteris­ unaffected [128]. Small-sized LDPE particles (120 μm) caused oxidative
tics, and soil microbial activities [98]. The effect of PVC and PE MPs of stress at the molecular level but had no detectable cytotoxic or genotoxic
125 μm in different concentrations on plant growth, soil microorgan­ effects. However, big-sized LDPE particles promoted growth at the in­
isms, and photoassimilate carbon (C) allocation was investigated by dividual level with the lowest exposure dose (10% v/v). The transfer of
Zang et al. (2020) [84]. MPs had a negative, dose-dependent impact on PS NPs (28 nm) in the terrestrial food chain from soil to plant (mung
plant growth and affected the shoot and root system productivity by bean, Vigna radiata) to consumer (African giant snail, Achatina fulica)
− 22.9% and − 8.4%, respectively. PE MPs in the soil decreased the was investigated by Chae and An (2020) [44]. The NPs reduced root
sorption of the plant-protection compounds [82]. Fruits have more development by 83.3% and accumulated in the leaves of the mung bean
plastic participles per edible component than veggies [112]. Positively plants after direct exposure to a high concentration of NPs for 10 days.
charged, sulfonic-acid-modified NPs reduced plant growth and seedling The snails fed the leaves of NP-contaminated mung bean plants for 14
development more severely than negatively charged, unmodified NPs. days exhibited a reduction in their growth rate and eating and foraging
Further, their presence also caused a more considerable build-up of rates by 62.0% and 54%, respectively, of the control rate at high con­
reactive oxygen species in plants [122]. centrations. The histopathological study confirmed damage to the snail
digestive organ tissues; their gut microbiota reduced viability has been

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

Fig. 7. TEM images of lettuce roots. (A) Control,

shown cell walls (red arrow) of lettuce roots were
tightly bound to the cell membrane and normal
cytoplasm (green arrow) (B) DBP and (C) PE, treat­
ments demonstrated structural damage in the cell
wall and plasma membrane and cytoplasm separation
from the cell wall (red circle) (D) DBP + PE treatment
result into cell rupture (orange arrow) and expansion
of endoplasmic reticulum vesicles (blue arrow). PE
did not penetrate the lettuce, as PE was absent in the
root cells. Adapted from Gao et al. (2021) with
permission from Elsevier [99].

Fig. 8. Two cross-sectional confocal laser scanning

micrographs of birch roots. The micrographs reveal
the presence of MPs in a one-year-old tree birch root
exposed to contaminated soil (PA MPs to soil con­
centration of 0.043% by dry weight and diameter of
5–50 μm) for five months. MPs locations are shown
by arrows and highlighted within the circle. Over the
two birch trees, the percentage of tree root sections
with MPs particles was 5–17%, and the diameter was
5–10 μm. The uptake of MPs below 10 μm size at the
site of lateral root emergence occurred via the crack-
entry mode, and inter-cellular spaces migration was
based on internal gradients in hydrostatic pressure.
Adapted from Austen et al. (2022) with permission
from Elsevier under Creative Commons CC-BY
Ref. [121].

attributed to NPs. Female crickets were more susceptible to the effects of Zhao et al. (2016), which reflects the relative pollution level in the
microfibers on their development and weight, whereas male crickets terrestrial ecosystem [137]. However, there was no connection between
were unaffected [129]. The sex ratio and fertility of flies (Drosophila the plastic load and the bird’s body condition. Among animal tissues, the
melanogaster) changed due to feeding on plastic-treated media, although gut exhibits the most significant value of the bioaccumulation factor
the development time frame was unaltered. Shorter life cycles were [138]. A regular intake of MPs can have systemic immunopathological
observed in the progeny of treated flies [134]. MPs exposure reduced effects, which allow MPs to penetrate the gut wall and enter the body.
oviposition in female flies, which shows that MPs can affect the repro­ MPs can cause prolonged pro-inflammatory responses in animal joint
ductive system. MPs presence reduced triglyceride and glucose levels tissues [7]. The high concentration of MPs made European hermit crab
and decreased hunger resistance in male flies exposed to PET MPs [135]. (Pagurus bernhardus) less cautious, and their behaviour was more pre­
In honeybees, PS NPs negatively affect the expression of antioxidative, dictable [139]. Recent findings by Rondoni et al. (2021) demonstrated
detoxification, and immune system-related genes in the guts [136]. An that MPs presence in a plant-soil system reduced the attraction of the
average of 10.6 ± 6.4 MPs per bird was reported in their GI tracts by female black fungus gnat Bradysia difformis [108]. MPs harm the soil

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

Table 3
Microplastics and nanoplastics occurrence and bioavailability in various terrestrial organisms (secondary trophic level).
Location Species Size Type of M/NPs Type of polymer Analytic instruments References

China Mice 80 ± 6 nm Fragment PS TEM, FTIR [126]

Cottian Alps, Frog (Rana temporaria) 550.91–2,355.51 Fibre PA, PE, PET μ-FTIR [6]
northwest Italy μm
– ICR mice 10–50 μm Bead (sphere) PE Confocal microscope, Raman [127]
spectroscope, Necropsy
– Snail (Cantareus aspersus) 120–560 μm Fragment LDPE Microscope [128]
– House cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus) Fiber, Bead (sphere) PE, PET Fluorescence microscope [129]
Indonesia Duck 0.33–5 mm Fragment, Filament Polyester, PA SM [130]
(fibre)
USA Caenorhabditis elegans, Pristionchus 0.5–1.0 mm Bead (sphere) PS Fluorescence microscope [131]
pacificus (Nematodes)
Guangzhou, China Chicken 100 μm – PS, PVC Light microscope, ATR-IR [75]
China Male mice 5.0–5.9 μm Fragment PS Fluorescence microscope, ELISA [124]
kits
China Giant African snail (Achatina fulica) 1.343 ± 0.625 mm Fragment PS Chromatography, FTIR, Proton [132]
NMR
Chongqing, China Nematodes, Microarthropods 0.3–400 μm Fragment LDPE SM, Fluorescence microscope, [92]
μ-FTIR, LPSA
Florida, USA Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo >0.45 mm Fibre, Fragment, PET, PA μ-FTIR [133]
lineatus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) Beads (sphere)
China Mice 10–20 μm Microfiber, PET, CA, PE, PA, SM, μ-FTIR, SEM [125]
Fragment PP, PVC
UK Culex (mosquito) 2–15 μm Bead (sphere) PS – [64]
Mexico Chicken, Earthworm, Gizzards 10–50 μm Fibre, Debris LDPE SM [43]

biota by increasing mortality rates and decreasing growth and repro­ 30% with increased of long fibre concentration [151]. Table 4 displays
duction rates. MPs negatively affect both humans and animals, via the M/NPs presence in decomposers in the soil environment.
cytotoxicity, immunological response, oxidative stress, barrier proper­
ties, and genotoxicity, even at low levels of 10 μg/mL [140]. 5.4. Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on humans

5.3.3. Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics at the decomposer level The ingestion of food items contaminated with M/NPs, or the trophic
Decomposing organic matter is the job of decomposers in the envi­ transfer of MPs and associated pollutants down the food chain, can
ronment and is essential to the terrestrial food chain. The presence of M/ negatively affect human health. Table 5 demonstrates the presence of
NPs has a detrimental effect on the general health of the decomposers, M/NPs in various quantities, forms, and sizes in the human body’s colon,
which may cause nutrients to be locked up in the environment and ul­ placenta, faeces, and GI systems. The impact of M/NPs on human health
timately negatively influence the food chain, web, and overall health of has no direct evidence, but in-vitro studies are conducted to explore the
the environment by reducing ecosystem productivity [141]. The earth­ health effect of M/NPs on humans.
worm casts and intestines contained more MPs than soil samples [45].
The earthworm (Eisenia fetida) acquired HOCs when the soil was 5.4.1. Potential human health impact
polluted with MPs containing HOCs [142]. Worms, while moving into Once considered harmless inert particles, M/NPs now be detrimental
the soil carrying LDPE MPs, experience damage to the physical surface, to species depending on exposure and sensitivity. The large surface area
loss in surface mucus, and develop burns and skin lesions. These effects of M/NPs can potentially cause oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, and
are attributed to increased AChE enzyme, catalase, and glutathione translocation of M/NPs to other tissue. At the same time, their persistent
S-transferase levels, which could also cause oxidative stress and stimu­ nature limits their elimination from the organism, leading to chronic
late a neurotoxic reaction to E. fetida at high MPs concentrations [141, inflammation, which increases the risk of even cancer. M/NPs have
143,144]. The growth of earthworms is impeded by MPs, decreasing oxidative potential in organisms [65,158,159]. Membrane damage,
their overall weight [144]. Ding et al. (2020) and Lahive et al. (2019) oxidative stress, the activation of inflammatory responses, genotoxicity,
found that worm ability to reproduce was also reduced by CA based MP apoptosis, disturbance of energy homeostasis, and metabolism are just a
[145,146]. After exposure to PS MPs, intestinal cells showed signs of few of the many closely connected cytotoxic processes associated with
damage from oxidative stress, according to histopathological examina­ M/NPs to harm cells [160]. MPs induce inflammation due to their
tion. According to Jiang et al. (2020) earthworms exposed to PS MPs can unique characteristics, such as hydrophobicity and chemical composi­
experience DNA damage [147]. Li et al. (2021) demonstrated that the tion, contributing to their persistence.
exposure of HDPE and PP MPs to E. fetida severely disrupts several MPs have unintentionally evolved into a suitable vector for disease
pathways involving neurodegeneration, oxidative stress, and inflam­ transmission [161]. Human pathogenic microbes and parasites can be
matory reactions [148]. MPs can increase the bioaccessibility of heavy transmitted through MPs [159]. M/NPs can move between living cells
metal ions within soil environments, thereby acting as a conduit for and the lymphatic and circulatory systems, where they may accumulate
augmenting earthworm exposure to such inorganic contaminants [149]. in secondary organs or harm the immune system and cellular health
MPs with tetracycline, significantly decreased the microbial alpha di­ [162]. MPs are potentially hazardous due to their innate capacity to
versity of the Enchytraeus crypticus microbiome [115]. Maaβ et al. (2017) cause tissue obstruction [163]. NPs have the potential to engage in in­
demonstrated the interaction of Folsomia candida with PET fibres and UF teractions with a diverse array of substances within the GI tract, such as
particles and revealed their translocation [150]. The effects of polyester proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, ions, and water. As a
fibres on enchytraeids (Enchytraeus crypticus), springtails (Folsomia result, a cluster of proteins, referred to as “corona”, envelops the NPs,
candida), isopods (Porcellio scaber), and oribatid mites (Oppia nitens), all altering their adsorption rate and capacity within the GI tract [164].
of which are significant players as soil decomposer, were examined by Translocation of MPs from the GI tract into the lymphatic and circula­
Selonen et al. (2020) [151]. The study reported little impact of polyester tory systems has been observed in in-vivo research using rats and human
fibres on soil invertebrates. Enchytronia reproduction dropped up to cells. Subsequently, these MPs can accumulate in various organs such as

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Table 4
Microplastics and nanoplastics bioavailability in various soil micro/macro-organism (decomposers).
Location Species Size of M/NPs Type of Analytic instruments References
Polymer

Wuxi farmland soil, Taihu Lake, Amynthas cortices (Earthworm) 0–500 μm PE SM, μ-FTIR [45]
China
China Soil microbes 200 μm PET BET, FTIR [95]
Yangling, China Fungal community <5 mm PE, PVC, PCR [97]
PHA
China Metaphire guillelmi (Earthworm) 13 mm, 25 mm HDPE, PP Fluorescence microscope [91]
SEM, FTIR
– Eisenia fetida (Earthworm) 8–1,660 μm HDPE, PP SEM, FTIR [148]
Northern Italy, Southern Italy, Aspergillus flavus (Fungus) <0.05 mm Fluorescence microscope [152]
Mississippi Delta, USA
China Eisenia fetida (Earthworm) <100 μm LDPE SM [143]
SEM
– Folsomia candida (Springtail) 2 μm, 34 μm, 66 μm PE Fluorescence microscope [153]
China Eisenia foetida (Earthworm) <100 μm PP SM, Raman spectrometer, SEM [154]
China Fungal community - PE Fluorescence microscope, PCR [155]
Japan, Indonesia Coptotermes gestroi (Termites) 0.5–5 mm PE, PS, PP FTIR, Spectrophotometer [156]
– Eisenia fetida (Earthworm) 100 nm, 1,300 nm PS SEM, DLS, FTIR, Fluorescence [147]
spectrophotometer
Wallingford, UK Enchytraeus crypticus (worm) 13–18 μm, 90–150 μm, PA, PVC Fluorescence microscope, FTIR, [146]
106–150 μm Coulter counter
Xiamen, China Enchytraeus crypticus 13 μm-1,400 μm – GC-MS [145]
China Folsomia candida, Hypoaspis aculeifer, 80–250 μm PVC – [80]
Damaeus exspinosus (mite)

Table 5
Microplastics and nanoplastics presence in human specimens (higher trophic level).
Location Human specimen Concentration of M/ Size Shape Type of Analytic References
NPs Polymer instruments

Charité University Berlin, Placental tissue, 3 particles/20 g of stool >50 μm Fragment PE, PP, PS, PU FTIR [19]
Germany meconium, stool
Northeastern Peninsular, Faeces/tissue of the colon 28 ± 15.4 particles/g 0.8–1.6 mm Fibre, PC, PA, PP FTIR, EDS [8]
Malaysia tissue Filament
New York State Faeces 36,000 ng/g, 78 ng/g 3–5 mm Fibre PET, PC HPLC-MS [9]
Korea Blood 300–4500 μg/mL ~20 μm, – PP SEM [157]
25–200 μm
Europe and Asia Stool 20 MPs/10 g of stool 50–500 μm Film PP, PET FTIR [4]

the liver, kidney, and brain [165]. et al. (2021) observed a diverse range of MPs in the human placenta
Senathirajah et al. (2021) derived a mass value from MP counts from [72]. Three different PP-based MPs and nine diverse MPs associated
several sources associated with human toxicity for the first time [166]. with paints, coatings, adhesives, plasters, polymers, cosmetics, and
Based on information from 59 articles and the average mass of indi­ personal care products were identified. Five MPs measuring approxi­
vidual MPs in the 0–1 mm size range, the study concluded that on a mately 10 μm were identified in the foetal portion of the placenta, while
weekly average, 0.1–5 g of MPs has been consumed by humans world­ four MPs (measuring 5 μm and 10 μm) were detected in the maternal
wide via several exposure routes [166]. After the primary literature side. Further, three MPs (measuring 5 μm and 10 μm) were observed in
search, Rahman et al. (2021) revealed that no publications addressed the chorionic membrane of the placenta. Unfortunately, the precise
the direct effect of M/NPs on human health [167]. The available liter­ mechanism of MPs translocation to the bloodstream and their origin,
ature focused on M/NPs measurements and the associated effect on whether through the respiratory or GI system, remains unexplained.
ecology, marine life, or in-vitro cell culture studies. The potential human MPs pose a significant concern due to their potential risks to human
health risks of M/NPs exposure were derived from mathematical health.
modelling, animal studies, and in-vitro cell culture. Stock et al. (2021)
conducted an in-vitro investigation and compared the intestinal uptake 5.4.2. In-vitro studies of microplastics and nanoplastics for potential human
and cytotoxicity of PE, PP, PVC, and PET-based MP particles [168]. All health impacts
types and shapes of MPs understudy showed no evidence of acute In-vitro testing has demonstrated the potential impact of MPs on gene
toxicity. The research recommended that examining less severe cellular expression, cell viability, and pro-inflammatory responses in cells [168].
responses, such as inflammatory mechanisms, lysosomal alterations, or In-vitro studies demonstrate the potential adverse effect of M/NPs on
xenobiotic metabolism, may provide a more comprehensive under­ diverse cell types through multiple toxic mechanisms [66]. M/NPs can
standing of the toxicity associated with MPs. However, long-term effects cause individual GI tract cells to apoptosis. Overall, in-vitro research
may potentially have an impact. Hwang et al. (2019) applied cytokine suggested that M/NPs influence the cellular reactions of GI cells. Wang
analysis, reactive oxygen species assays, polarisation assays, and pro­ et al. (2013) showed that the accumulation of PS NPs in lysosomes was a
liferation assays to examine the cellular responses of secondary PP MPs crucial factor in cell death [169]. This build-up induced lysosome
to normal cells, immune cells, blood cells, and murine immune cells expansion and cathepsin release into the cytoplasm, which disseminated
under various conditions and sizes [157]. The high concentration and the damage to the mitochondria and induced apoptosis. Autophagy and
small size of PP MPs stimulated the immune system and increased the other mechanisms, including rising levels of reactive oxygen species,
possibility of PP particle hypersensitivity through increased cytokine accompany and support this phenomenon.
and histamine levels in PBMCs, Raw 264.7, and HMC-1 cells. Ragusa Murali et al. [170] investigated the interaction of different types of

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P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

neural cells with PS NPs and found that, depending on the cell type and influenced by co-exposure to MP particles, with the outcome being
concentration, PS NPs of 45–70 nm can cause toxicity and changes in either an increase or decrease in toxicity depending on the concentration
metabolic activity [170]. Interestingly, oral in-vitro exposure to 50 nm of MP particles [182]. Both MP and arsenic (III) have been found to
PS particles increased iron uptake (about 200% of control in +M cells impede biomass accumulation in rice seedlings and cause the degrada­
and 140% of control in Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells) and iron transportation tion of cell membranes. In another study, Dong et al. (2022) studied the
(about 500% of control in +M cells and 400% of control in combined effects of PS and PTFE MPs and arsenic on soil microorgan­
Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells), indicating the involvement of the intestinal isms and nutrients in the rice rhizosphere and observed that the arsenic
epithelium in MPs transport [171]. According to Barshtein et al. (2016), bioavailability was reduced in the presence of MP [102]. High Cd con­
PS NPs (0.05, 0.2, and 0.5 mg/mL) can stimulate RBC aggregation in a centrations (>3 mg/kg) and MPs in combination promote a higher de­
concentration-dependent manner while allowing RBCs to stick to posit of heavy metals in soil, which reduces the total number of fruits
endothelial cells and form self-aggregates, which further encourages and total biomass per strawberry plant. Further, urease activity in soil
RBC aggregation (at 0.50 mg/ml PS-NP concentration, the average contaminated with MPs showed significant variations [183]. HDPE and
aggregate size was 36.6 ± 8.20) [172]. The findings indicate that PS NPs PS resulted in a notable increase in soil DTPA extractable Cd concen­
can potentially induce circulatory complications by negatively impact­ trations. However, there was no significant impact on the uptake of Cd
ing the performance of endothelial cells and RBC. Çobanoğlu et al. into plant tissues (uptake was about 0.33%) [155]. The PET particles
(2021) reported that the micronuclearis, nucleoplasmic bridge forma­ stick together and coexist with Cd, lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in the
tion, and nuclear bud formation in human peripheral blood lymphocytes rhizosphere systems of wheat, serving as a conveyance mechanism that
were dramatically raised due to in-vitro MP exposure [173]. The me­ facilitates the transportation of heavy metals to the rhizosphere zone
chanical contact of MPs with cells and the release of monomers and [21]. Cheng et al. (2020) reported that atrazine and MPs produced from
additives from MPs caused genomic instability. DNA damage can be a LDPE mulch film cause reactive oxygen species accumulation and
significant and potentially harmful consequence of long-term M/NPs decrease superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in earthworms
exposure [174]. The interaction between NPs and the immune system [184]. Menéndez-Pedriza et al. (2022) investigated the combined ex­
may result in immune stimulation or immunosuppression, potentially posures of PS MPs and two PCB on the human hepatoma cell line HepG2,
leading to inflammation, autoimmune disorders, and increased suscep­ and the results revealed that MPs caused even more negative effects than
tibility to cancer and infection. Immunological cells that recognize NPs those produced intrinsically as a result of desorbing previously sorbed
as foreign substances may mount a complex immune response to the toxic pollutants [185]. Diepens and Koelmans (2018) developed a
particles, which eventually causes host damage [175]. The study con­ theoretical model that simulated the trophic transfer of MPs and hy­
ducted by Ju et al. (2020) employed multi-spectroscopic methods in an drophobic organic chemicals (such as PCBs and PAHs) along the food
in-vitro experiment to investigate the interaction between PVC MPs (5 chains [186]. The study revealed that PCBs do not exhibit noticeable
μm) and HSA [176]. The findings revealed that the interaction was biomagnification across the food chain, whereas PAHs do, as evidenced
facilitated by electrostatic forces, leading to alterations in the micro­ by examining nine species belonging to different trophic levels. The
environment and secondary structure of HSA at a molecular level. biomagnification impacts of chemical pollutants induced by M/NPs
Furthermore, the study suggested that the transfer of HSA to different remain unpredictable due to the varying effects of related chemicals on
tissues after ingestion by the blood can potentially result in harmful organisms and ecology, which depend on factors such as the chemical
effects. species, relative concentrations, and their complex mutual interactions.
There is no empirical evidence to substantiate the claim that M/NPs
exert a direct adverse influence on human health. The available obser­ 7. Toxicity mechanism of microplastics and nanoplastics
vations regarding evaluating the impacts of M/NPs on animal health are
primarily based on in-vitro or in-vivo investigations in model organisms, The phenomenon of particle adsorption on organism surfaces leading
subject to the same restrictions as outlined [69]. M/NPs are pervasive in to physical obstruction of light, gases, and nutrients, thereby causing a
the food chain and possess the characteristic of bioaccumulation and decrease in growth and photosynthetic activity, has been extensively
biomagnification, which can harm every trophic level. Since humans are investigated as a toxicity mechanism in the literature. Recent research
classified as omnivores within the food chain and can consume a wide indicates that toxicity is primarily induced by physical impacts, which
range of organisms within the food chain, the presence of M/NPs in the limit exchanges with the medium for larger particles such as MPs. In
human body is evident and can adversely affect human health. contrast, smaller particles like NPs primarily exhibit chemical effects,
such as an increase in the generation of reactive oxygen species and a
6. Microplastics and nanoplastics with its associated reduction in photosynthesis. In addition, the potential harmfulness of
contaminants plastics can be attributed to the presence of additives that are released
during ageing and the secondary metabolites that are formed due to the
M/NPs have the potential to serve as vectors for hydrophobic organic ageing process of these chemicals [187]. Researchers have not explored
pollutants into biota due to their ability to absorb and concentrate these too profoundly the diverse and intricate adsorption and desorption
pollutants at significantly higher levels than their surrounding envi­ mechanisms of hazardous compounds to plastic polymers. The adhesion
ronment. The plastic particles suspended in the environment due to of chemicals to MP particles can occur by three potential mechanisms:
biofilm development and a greater surface area allow the precipitation adsorption onto MPs as hydrophobic attraction, biofilm growth assis­
of inorganic contaminants, such as heavy metals, on their surface [177]. tance, and plastic additives and related chemicals contained with resins
The process by which heavy metals interact with charged or polar MPs is [188]. The separation of contaminants from MP particles is commonly
known as coulombic interaction (i.e. polar areas produced on the sur­ achieved through two mass transfer processes: IMT (internal mass
face). MPs produce new complexes through the sorption and bio­ transfer) and EMT (external mass transfer). IMT involves internal
accumulation of biofilms and organic substances from the environment diffusion within the MP particle, while EMT involves transfer from the
[178–180]. MPs presence in the soil elevate the concentration of heavy MPs to the surface of the plastic particle in the release medium [189].
metals attributed to the composite properties of MPs and organic mol­ Only a few researchers are exploring how molecular processes
ecules. The MP mixture becomes rougher, more porous, and hydrophilic change after exposure to plastic. MPs produce reactive oxygen species,
by the attachments, which enhances the possibility of heavy metal raise GST (glutathione S-transferase) activity, stimulate mitogen-
adsorption on the surface of the MPs [181]. MPs co-occurrence with activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathways, and activate en­
other contaminants can change the toxicity level in an organism. Dong zymes involved in antioxidant defence. The next most commonly stud­
et al. (2020) reported that the toxicity of arsenic (III) to rice was ied endpoint was neurotoxicity, followed by oxidative stress pathways.

14
P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

AChE inhibition by MPs produces neurotoxicity [190]. Wu et al. (2021) for extracting M/NPs from soil samples of the terrestrial food chain. In
revealed that PS MPs induce oxidative stress, and PS accumulates in the order to evaluate the deleterious impacts of M/NPs on soil and terrestrial
rice roots via endocytosis [89]. MPs can obstruct the connections be­ biota, it is imperative to establish a threshold value for them. Below are a
tween cells or pores in cell walls that facilitate the passage of pollutants. few points that should be focused on to address the current limitation
This mechanical hindrance exerted by MPs has been observed to limit and issues that arise from M/NPs-related research.
the growth of soybean roots [191]. Human tissues can also absorb MPs
via paracellular and transcellular transfer mechanisms, which is a factor ● Estimate the emission flux of primary MPs, explore degradation
of the size, surface functionalization, surface charge, generated protein mechanisms, and quantify secondary MPs. Geospatial models should
corona, and hydrophobicity of the MPs. According to pertinent animal be used to create high-resolution emission inventories.
model studies, MPs can travel from living cells to the lymphatic or cir­ ● Investigate the spatiotemporal concentrations of M/NPs in various
culatory system and collect in secondary organs, affecting the human environmental compartments worldwide to explore their global
immune system and cell health [192]. PS-M/NPs have been shown to distribution.
induce DNA fragmentation, decrease transcriptional gene expression, ● Identify and quantify the environmental contaminants adhered to
and correlate with apoptotic gene expressions [193]. Overall, findings M/NPs, their ecotoxicological impacts on prevalent organisms, and
show that MP toxicity is primarily caused by oxidative stress pathways, understand their natural degradation process.
resulting in mortality, stunted growth, and impaired reproduction. ● Standardize the identification and assessment procedure and proto­
col of M/NPs in high trophic level organisms.
8. Perspective views: future prospects and challenges ● Develop mathematical models that connect M/NP processes to a
spatially explicit fate model.
Several unresolved disagreements and knowledge gaps require ● Conduct in-vivo toxicity studies and employ high trophic level animal
attention to estimate the magnitude of plastic pollution from M/NPs. models to understand M/NPs transport, accumulation, and meta­
Furthermore, achieving consensus regarding the nomenclature of M/ bolism within the body.
NPs can facilitate their identification in terms of morphology and di­ ● Seafood, drinking water, and salts have been widely investigated as
mensions, thereby enhancing comprehension of their fate and transport the source of M/NPs contamination for human exposure, however
mechanisms. Moreover, identifying, quantifying, and managing M/NPs other food items such as milk, fruit, and meat (e.g. chickens, cows,
is difficult; each step towards M/NPs inspection, such as technical, social pigs, camels, goat) should also be considered.
and economical, suggests a barrier to their extensive monitoring. The ● Examine the localised toxicity attributed to MPs and their role in the
technical barriers include insufficient reliable analytical methods for internalisation of contaminants (i.e. transportation to body organs).
sampling, identification, and quantification of M/NPs in complex ● Explore the mechanism of co-migration of M/NPs with other pol­
matrices, especially in terrestrial biota. Social obstacles have the general lutants in plants and organisms.
public’s opinions, perspectives, and behavioural preferences towards ● Assess the potential risks of the chemical additives and degradation
M/NPs and the lack of adequate policies and legislation to regulate the by-products released from M/NPs.
use of plastic. Economic obstacles include the cost attribute to confirm ● Assess the various abiotic and biotic factors associated with M/NPs
their occurrence in the different components of the environment, such as ingestion, bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and egestion, espe­
complex and time-consuming sample preparation and identification cially during the trophic transfer of M/NPs and associated
using sophisticated instruments. Moreover, the conventional technolo­ contaminants.
gies used in the M/NPs removal are inefficient, and advanced techniques
are always an economic burden [18]. Society, government, policy­ 9. Conclusive remarks
makers, and the scientific community must work symbiotic and
harmonically to tackle this emerging micropollutant. Society must limit M/NPs are emerging as the most severe environmental contaminants
the use of plastic products, especially single-use plastic, and the gov­ in the current scenarios and are attracting researchers attention due to
ernment should work on efficient and proper collection and recycling their widespread detrimental effects on all environmental compart­
systems to reduce plastic pollution. The promotion of affordable, ments. Most experiments were conducted in lab conditions using single
eco-friendly alternatives to plastics is necessary. The scientific commu­ species; however, M/NPs can affect soil, the food chain, and humans
nity and researchers must establish standards/protocols and develop depending on various environmental conditions. M/NPs have a detri­
accurate, sensitive and cost-effective equipment for the sampling and mental impact on the physicochemical characteristics of soil, such as its
quantifying M/NPs in terrestrial components [194]. In addition to the texture, porosity, and retention power. The soil-borne M/NPs eventually
agricultural system and freshwater, which attract the most attention, made their way up the terrestrial food chain from plants to animals to
future research should address the information gap on the amount, humans. M/NPs can also absorb dangerous contaminants from the
distribution, scale of ecological and economic consequences, and environment due to their hydrophobic nature and large surface area. As
toxicity of M/NPs in drylands, deserts, grasslands, forests, and tundra a result, they act as a vector for other hazardous substances. The adverse
[195]. Furthermore, most investigations are being conducted in labo­ effects of plastic pollution on the environment range from molecular to
ratories. M/NPs research in the natural environment, with and without physiological impacts on organisms, as well as weak economic services.
controlled circumstances, is required. More emphasis must be on the MPs have been discovered in various human biological specimens,
development of biodegradable plastic and on exploring microorganisms including faeces, sputum, saliva, blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,
such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and invertebrates which can naturally placenta, and other organs, indicating that these particles may harm
degrade the plastic. human health. Potential health hazards such as cancer, immunotoxicity,
intestinal disorders, lung diseases, cardiovascular diseases, inflamma­
8.1. Recommendations and way forward tory diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and maternal exposure to
offspring can be among these impacts. The oxidative stress pathways are
M/NPs must be sampled, quantified, and characterized using valid predominantly responsible for M/NPs toxicity, leading to mortality,
and established procedures. The existing studies on M/NP exhibit a stunted growth, and decreased reproduction. However, the direct effects
significant degree of variability, indicating a need for further research in of human exposure to M/NPs are not fully recognized.
this area. Moreover, prolonged exposure to M/NPs necessitates further
investigation. More research is needed to focus on the terrestrial food
chain rather than individuals. There should be a standardised method

15
P.K. Rose et al. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 167 (2023) 117249

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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [21] S. Abbasi, B. Keshavarzi, F. Moore, A. Turner, F.J. Kelly, A.O. Dominguez,
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No data was used for the research described in the article. [23] S. Yadav, N. Kataria, P. Khyalia, P.K. Rose, S. Mukherjee, H. Sabherwal, W.
S. Chai, S. Rajendran, J.-J. Jiang, K.S. Khoo, Recent analytical techniques, and
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Acknowledgement associated contaminates: a review, Chemosphere (2023), 138495.
[24] J.-J. Guo, X.-P. Huang, L. Xiang, Y.-Z. Wang, Y.-W. Li, H. Li, Q.-Y. Cai, C.-H. Mo,
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One of the author Navish Kataria gratefully acknowledged the Int. 137 (2020), 105263.
funding support as a seed grant award (letter no. R&D/SG/2020–21/ [25] J. Wang, M. Huang, Q. Wang, Y. Sun, Y. Zhao, Y. Huang, LDPE microplastics
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Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, for the sup­ implications for environmental impacts, J. Hazard Mater. 424 (2022), 127283.
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