Measurement Systems

Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments that

are used for indicating, measuring and recording physical quantities.
The term has its origins in the art and science of scientific
instrument-making.

In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and

engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing
physical quantities of real-world objects and events. ... Measuring
instruments, and formal test methods
which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these
relations of numbers are obtained.
Generalized Block Diagram of Measurement System
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
In this measurement system, bourdon tube is act as primary sensing and
variable conversion element. The input pressure is sensed and converted
into small displacement by a 7 bourdon tube. On account of input
pressure the closed end of the tube is displaced. Because of this pressure
in converted into small displacement. The closed end of bourdon tube is
connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.

The small displacement signal can be amplified by gearing arrangement

and transmitted by mechanical linkages and finally it makes the pointer to
rotate on a large angle of scale. If it is calibrated with known input
pressure, gives the measurement of the pressure signal applied to the
bourdon tube in measured
 CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT - STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS - DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments:
These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in
their selection.
Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered
for instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Performance criteria based upon static relations represent the static
Characteristics. (The static characteristics are the value or performance given
after the steady state condition has reached).
Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
considered for instruments which are used to measure a varying process
condition. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations represent the
dynamic Characteristics.
Static Characteristics:

1)Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument

reading approaches to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the
closeness to true value of instrument reading.
Accuracy is represented by percentage of full scale reading or in terms of inaccuracy or
in terms of error value. Example, Accuracy of temperature measuring instrument might
be specified by ±3ºC. This accuracy means the temperature reading might be within + or
-3ºC deviation from the true value. Accuracy of an instrument is specified by ±5% for the
range of 0 to 200ºC in the temperature scale means the reading might be within + or -
10ºC of the true reading.

2) Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement.

Precision is measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of
measurements are repeatedly made under the prescribed condition. Precision is used in
measurements to describe the stability or reliability or the reproducibility of results.
Comparison between accuracy and precision.
Accuracy

1. It refers to degree of closeness of the measured value to the true

value
2.. Accuracy gives the maximum error that is maximum departure of the
final result from its true value.

Precision

1. It refers to the degree of agreement among group of readings

2. Precision of a measuring system gives its capability to reproduce a
certain reading with a given accuracy
3)Bias: Bias is quantitative term describing the difference between the average of
measured readings made on the same instrument and its true value (It is a characteristic
of measuring instruments to give indications of the value of a measured quantity for
which the average value differs from true value).

4) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to

the change in input signal (measured). It is the relationship indicating how much output
changes when input changes.
Sensitivity=change in output change in input Sensitivity=∆qo / ∆qi If the sensitivity is
constant then the system is said to be linear system. If the sensitivity is variable then the
system is said to be non linear system
5) Linearity: Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system.
Linearity of the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input
over the entire range of instrument. So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship
between the output to input is called as linearity of an instrument.
5) Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is
required to cause an appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or
input change which can be detected by an instrument is called as resolution or discrimination.)
6) Hysteresis: Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves on output.
Hysteresis effect shows up in any physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon When input
increases, output also increases and calibration curve can be drawn. If input is decreases from
maximum value and output also decreases but does not follow the same curve, then there is a
residual output when input is zero. This phenomenon is called Hysteresis. The difference
between increasing change and decreasing change of output values is known as hysteresis
error. (The different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured are reached by
7) Dead Zone: Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for
which there is no output the instrument due the factors such as friction, backlash and
hysteresis within the system.( The region upto which the instrument does not respond for an
input change is called dead zone) Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to
respond to change in input quantity.

8) Backlash: The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved
without disturbing the other part is called as backlash. (Backlash may be defined as the
maximum distance or angle through which any part of the instrument can be moved without
causing any motion of next part of the system)
Loading Effect: Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure,
record or control the input signal in accurate form.
Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same
output for repeated applications of same input value under same environmental condition.
Reproducibility: Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the
same output for repeated applications of same input value under different environment
condition. In case of perfect reproducibility the instrument satisfies no drift condition.

Dynamic Characteristics: The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by

applying some standard form of known and predetermined input to its primary element
(sensing element) and then studies the output. Generally dynamic behavior is determined
by applying following three types of inputs.
l. Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous
and finite change in measured variable .
2. Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured
variable, changing linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured
variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
(i) Speed of response, (ii) Fidelity, (iii) Lag, and (iv) Dynamic error.

(i) Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
(ii) Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the
ability of reproducing an input signal faithfully (truly)).
(iii) Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable.
The measuring lags are two types:
Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately after a
change in measured variable is occurred.
Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead time after the
application of the input quantity.
(iv)Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true values of a quantity changing with time and
the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed. It is also called as Measurement
Error. When measurement problems are concerned with rapidly varying quantities, the dynamic
relations between the instruments input and output are generally defined by the use of differential
equations.
TYPES OF ERRORS: All measurement can be made without perfect accuracy (degree of error must
always be assumed). In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is important to
find that actual accuracy and different types of errors can be occurred in measuring instruments.
Errors may arise from different sources and usually classified as follows,
Classification of Error
Gross Errors
Systematic Errors
1. Instrumental errors
i. Inherent shortcomings of instruments
ii. Misuse of instruments
iii. Loading effects
2. Environmental errors
3. Observational errors
Random Errors
1. Gross Errors: The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using
instruments and in recording and calculating measured quantity. As long as human
beings are involved and they may grossly misread the scale reading, then definitely some
gross errors will be occurred in measured value. Example, Due to an oversight,
Experimenter may read the temperature as 22.7oC while the actual reading may be
32.7oC He may transpose the reading while recording. For example, he may read 16.7oC
and record 27.6oC as an alternative. The complete elimination of gross errors is maybe
impossible, one should try to predict and correct them. Some gross errors are easily
identified while others may be very difficult to detect.
Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two ways.
Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being measured by
using different experimenters and different reading point (different environment
condition of instrument) to avoid re-reading with same error. So it is suitable to take
a large number of readings as a close agreement between readings assures that no
gross error has been occurred in measured values
2. Systematic Errors: Systematic errors are divided into following three categories.
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors
iii. Observational Errors
i) Instrumental Errors These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error).
a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
c) Due to loading effects of instruments

a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments

These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure due to construction,
calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.
These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
Example, if the spring (used for producing controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become
weak, so the instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear
backlash. Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,
The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration against
standards may be used for the purpose.
Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
b) Misuse of Instruments In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the
fault of the operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent
way may give wrong results. Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero
adjustment of instrument, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill
practices of instrument beyond the manufacturer’s instruction and specifications ect.
c) Loading Effects The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an
instrument for measurement work. In measurement system, loading effects are identified and
corrections should be made or more suitable instruments can be used.
Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading (may be false) voltage reading
when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected across
a low resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or steady or true value).
In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual circuit
conditions by measurement process. So errors caused by loading effect of the meters can be
avoided by using them intelligently.
Environmental Error :
Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the instrument, such
as effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or
electrostatic fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are Arrangements should be
made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible. Example, temperature can be
kept constant by keeping the instrument in the temperature controlled region. The device
which is used against these environmental effects.
Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using very low
resistance temperature co-efficient of resistive material. Employing techniques which
eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the effect of humidity dust etc., can
be entirely eliminated by tightly sealing the equipment. The external or electrostatic effects
can be eliminated by using magnetic or electrostatic shield on the instrument.
Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of application
of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are necessary, they are
incorporated for the computations of the results
iii) Observational Errors There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale.
Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be acquired unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the
pointer.
To minimize parallax errors highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales as shown in figure 2.1.

Correct reading 250V

Errors due to parallax When the pointer’s image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in line with the
pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax error, an error is necessarily presented through it may be very small.
3. Random Errors: These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the
magnitude and polarity of a measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner. The quantity
being measure is affected by many happenings or disturbances and ambient influence about which we
are unaware are lumped together and called as Random or Residual. The errors caused by these
disturbances are called Random Errors. Since the errors remain even after the systematic errors have
been taken care, those errors are called as Residual (Random) Errors. Random errors cannot normally
be predicted or corrected, but they can be minimized by skilled observer and using a well maintained
quality instrument.
Errors in Measuring Instruments: No measurement is free from error in reality. An intelligent skill in
taking measurements is the ability to understand results in terms of possible errors. If the precision of
the instrument is sufficient, no matter what its accuracy is, a difference will always be observed
between two measured results. So an understanding and careful evaluation of the errors is necessary
in measuring instruments. The Accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of errors.

True value : The true value of quantity being measured is defined as the average of an infinite number
of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero.
In ideal situation is not possible to determine the True value of a quantity by experimental way.
Normally an experimenter would never know that the quantity being measured by experimental way
is the True value of the quantity or not. In practice the true value would be determined by a “standard
method”, that is a method agreed by experts with sufficient accurate.
LIMITING ERRORS (Guarantee Errors or Limits of errors):
In most of the instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of full
scale reading. The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a
particular quantity. The limits of these deviations from the specified value are called as
Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors. The magnitude of Limiting Error=Accuracy x Full scale
reading. In general the actual value of quantity is determined as follows. Actual Value of
Quantity = Nominal value ± Limiting Error
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA: Statistical Evaluation of measured data is obtained in two methods of tests as shown
in below. Multi Sample Test: In multi sample test, repeated measured data have been acquired by different instruments,
different methods of measurement and different observer. Single Sample Test: measured data have been acquired by
identical conditions (same instrument, methods and observer) at different times.

Statistical Evaluation methods will give the most probable true value of measured quantity. The mathematical
background statistical evaluation methods are Arithmetic Mean, Deviation Average Deviation, Standard Deviation and
variance. Arithmetic Mean The most probable value of measured reading is the arithmetic mean of the number of
reading taken. The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the same quantity is very large.
Arithmetic mean or average of measured variables X is calculated by taking the sum of all readings and dividing by the
number of reading
Types of Transducers:

• Active and Passive Transducers:

Active transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy
into electrical energy by itself. Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell and more are the
best examples of the transducers

Passive transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy

into electrical energy by external force. Resistance strain gauge, Differential
Transformer are the examples for the Passive transducers.
Passive Type Transducers
a. Resistance Variation Type
• Resistance Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due
to elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or
force.
• Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
• Resistance Hygrometer – The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the
change of moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
• Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection
cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
• Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in
light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
• Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-
efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
b. Capacitance Variation Type
• Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge – The change in capacitance due to the change of
distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its
corresponding displacement or pressure.
• Dielectric Gauge – The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known
by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
• Capacitor Microphone – The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure
on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound.

c. Inductance Variation Type

• Eddy Current Transducer – The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an
eddy current plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness.
• Variable Reluctance Type – The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs
due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding
displacement or pressure.
• Differential Transformer – The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of a
transformer because of the change in position of the magnetic core is known by its
corresponding force, pressure or displacement
2. Active Type

• Photo-voltaic Cell – The voltage change that occurs across the p-n junction due to light
radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity.

• Thermopile – The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is
known by its corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow.

• Piezoelectric Type – When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be
a change in the voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its
corresponding value of sound or vibration.

• Moving Coil Type – The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field can be measured
using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.
Classification of Transducers
The classification of transducers are made from the following basis:

1. Based on the physical phenomenon

•Primary transducer
•Secondary transducer

2. Based on the power type Classification

•Active transducer
•Passive transducer

3. Based on the type of output the classification of transducers are made

•Analog transducer
•Digital transducer
4. Based on the electrical phenomenon is a best Classification of Trasnducer
•Resistive transducer
•Capacitive transducer
•Inductive transducer
•Photoelectric transducer
•Photovoltaic transducer

5. Based on the non-electrical phenomenon Classification of transducer

•Linear displacement
•Rotary displacement

6. Based on the transduction phenomenon

•Transducer
•Inverse transducer.
Factor to be considered while Selecting Transducer

•It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect.
•It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.
•It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.
•Preferably small in size.
•It should be able to work n corrosive environment.
•It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc..
•It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
•Selected transducer must be free from errors.

Requirements of a Good Transducers

•Smaller in size and weight.

•High sensitivity.
•Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
•Low cost.
Basics of Calibration
• Calibration is the comparsion of measurement device or an instrument(device under
test, DUT) against a known with equal or better standard. The standard in a
measurement is considered to be more correct of the two and one would calibrate the
device under test to know far it deviates from the standard.
• Usual calibration usually done by commercial calibration laboratories uses a
manufacturer’s calibration procedure and is performed with a reference standard
multiple times more accurate typically at four times with accuracy of the DUT.

• Why Do We Need to Calibrate?

Having instruments that are calibrated insures quality output products. Out of tolerance
(OOT) instruments tend to give wrong readings resulting in unnecessary back jobs and
process failures. Bad or low quality products would pass as good ones resulting in
warranty costs, and good products as non-conformance to quality ones, resulting to
unnecessary reworks. So basically, calibration is all about producing high quality which is
Common calibration terms

Out of Tolerance Conditions: If the results are outside of the instrument’s performance specifications it is
considered an OOT (Out of Tolerance) condition and will result in the need to adjust the instrument back
into specification.

Optimization: Adjusting a measuring instrument to make it more accurate is NOT part of a “Typical”
calibration and is frequently referred to as “Optimizing” or “Nominalizing” an instrument. (this is a common
misconception) Only reputable and experienced calibration providers should be trusted to make
adjustments on critical test equipment.

As Found Data: The reading of the instrument before it is adjusted.

delays.

As Left Data: The reading of the instrument after adjustment or “Same As Found” if no adjustment was
made.

Without Data: Most calibration labs charge more to provide the certificate with data and will offer a “No-
Data” option. In any case “As-Found” data must be provided for any OOT condition.
Limited Calibration: Sometimes certain functions of an instrument may not be needed by
the user. It may be more cost effective to have a limited calibration performed (This can even
include a reduced accuracy calibration).
TUR – Test Uncertainty Ratio: The ratio of the accuracy of the instrument under test
compared to the accuracy of the reference standard.
ISO 9000 Calibration
ISO 9000 calibrations are crucial for many industries. The following is required for ISO
9000 Compliant Calibrations.
An Accredited Calibration Lab Performing the Work: The calibration laboratory
employed to perform the calibration must be an ISO 9001:2000 accredited lab or be the
original equipment manufacture.
Documented Calibration Procedures: It is critical that a valid calibration procedure be
used based on the manufacture’s recommendations and covering all aspects of the instrument
under test.
Trained Technicians: Proper Training must be documented for each discipline involved in
performing the calibration.
Traceable Assets: The calibration provider must be able to demonstrate an unbroken chain
of traceability back to NIST.
When Do We Need To Calibrate?

How Calibration Intervals are Determined

Calibration intervals are to be determined by the instrument “owner” based on manufacture

recommendations. Commercial calibration laboratories can suggest intervals but in most
cases they are not familiar with the details of the instrument’s application.
The OEM intervals are typically based on parameters like mean drift rates for the various
components within the instrument. However, when determining calibration intervals as an
instrument “owner” several other factors should be taken into consideration such as: the
required accuracy vs. the instrument’s accuracy, the impact an OOT will have on the
process, and the performance history of the particular instrument in your application.
ISO/IEC 17025 Calibration
ISO/IEC 17025 Calibration: As a general rule 17025 calibrations are required by
anyone supplying the automotive industry and it has also been voluntarily adopted by
numerous companies in FDA regulated industries.

ISO/IEC 17025 is an international standard that assesses the technical competency of

calibration laboratories. ISO/IEC 17025 covers every aspect of laboratory management,
ranging from testing proficiency to record keeping and reports. It goes several steps
beyond a ISO 9001:2000 certification.
A “17025” calibration is a premium option that provides additional information about
the quality of each measurement made during the calibration process by individually
stating the uncertainty calculation of each test point.
 Piezo-Electric Transducer
• Definition: The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic transducer use
for conversion of pressure or mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force. It is
used for measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure, stress, etc., which is directly
not possible to measure.
• The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an electrical voltage which is
easily measured by analogue and digital meter.
• The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which has a special property,
i.e. the material induces voltage when the pressure or stress applied to it. The material
which shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.
• The word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by the pressure. The Quartz
is the examples of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the Rochelle salts,
ammonium dehydration, phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the
examples of the man made crystals. The ceramic material is also used for
piezoelectric transducer.
The ceramic material does not have the piezoelectric property. The property is developed on
it by special polarizing treatment. The ceramic material has several advantages. It is
available in different shapes and sizes. The material has the capability of working at low
voltages, and also it can operate at the temperature more than 3000ºC

Piezoelectric Effect:

The EMF develops because of the displacement of the charges. The effect is changeable, i.e.
if the varying potential applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will change the dimension of
the material or deform it. This effect is known as the piezoelectric effect.
The pressure is applied to the crystals with the help of the force summing devices for
examples the stress is applied through mechanical pressure gauges and pressure sensors, etc.
The deformation induces the EMF which determines the value of applied pressure.
Theory of Piezo-Electric Transducer

A piezoelectric crystal is shown in the figure below.

The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity
and pressure.
When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this
charge develops the voltages across the electrodes.
The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the
direction of the force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity
of the charges depend on the magnitude and the direction of the applied force.

Modes of Operation of Piezo-Electric Crystal

The Piezoelectric crystals are used in many modes likes, thickness shear, face shear,
thickness expansion, Transverse expansion, etc. The figure of the fear shear is shown in the
figure below.
Properties of Piezo Electric-Crystal

The following are the properties of the Piezoelectric Crystals.

1.The piezoelectric material has high stability.
2.It is available in various shapes and sizes.
3.The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and humidity.

Uses of Piezoelectric Crystal

The following are the uses of the Piezoelectric transducers.

1.The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillator.
2.The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This generator is used in
SONAR for underwater detection and in industrials apparatus for cleaning.
3.It is used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric signal into sound.
4.The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter.
The transducer has low output, and hence external circuit is associated with it.
Inductive Transducers

• Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change

due to any appreciable change in the quantity to be measured i.e.
measured. For example, LVDT, a kind of inductive transducers,
measures displacement in terms of voltage difference between its two
secondary voltages. Secondary voltages are nothing but the result of
induction due to the flux change in the secondary coil with the
displacement of the iron bar. Anyway, LVDT is discussed here briefly
to explain the principle of inductive transducer. LVDT will be
explained in another article in more detail. For the time being let’s
focus on the basic introduction of inductive transducers.
Inductive transducers use one of the following principles for its working.
Change of self inductance
Change of mutual inductance
Production of eddy current
Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer

We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by

Where,
N = number of turns.
R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Also we know that reluctance R is given by
Where, μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil.

Where,
G = A/l and called the geometric form factor.
A = area of cross-section of the coil.
l = length of the coil.
So, we can vary self inductance by
•Change in number of turns, N,
•Changing geometric configuration, G,
•Changing permeability

For the sake of understanding we can say that if the displacement is to be

measured by the inductive transducers, it should change any of the above
parameter for causing in the change in self inductance.
 Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer
Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple coils.
We use here two coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self-inductance as
well. So let’s denote their self-inductance by L1 and L2.
Mutual inductance between these two coils is given by

Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying

coefficient of coupling, K. The methods of changing self inductance we already
discussed. Now coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation
between two coils. Thus for the measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and
make other movable which moves with the source whose displacement is to be
measured. With the change in distance in displacement coefficient of coupling changes
and it causes the change in mutual inductance. This change in mutual inductance can be
calibrated with the displacement and measurement can be done.
Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer
We know that when a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, a
circulating current is induced in the plate called “EDDY CURRENT”. This principle is
used in such type of inductive transducers. Actually what happens? When a coil is
placed near to coil carrying alternating current, a circulating current is induced in it which
in turn produces its own flux which try to reduce the flux of the coil carrying the current
and hence inductance of the coil changes. Nearer the plate is to the coil, higher will be
eddy current and higher is the reduction in inductance and vice versa. Thus inductance of
coil varied with the variation of distance between coil and plate. Thus the movement of
the plate can be calibrated in terms of inductance change to measure the quantity like
displacement.
Photoelectric Transducer
• Definition: The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy into electrical
energy. It is made of semiconductor material. The photoelectric transducer uses a
photosensitive element, which ejects the electrons when the beam of light absorbs
through it.
The discharges of electrons vary the property of the photosensitive
element. Hence the current induces in the devices. The magnitude of the current is
equal to the total light absorbed by the photosensitive element.
The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which falls on their semiconductor
material. The absorption of light energises the electrons of the material, and hence the
electrons start moving. The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects.
1.The resistance of the material changes.
2.The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3.The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
Classification of Photoelectric Transducers

The photoelectric transducers are classified into following ways.

Photoemissive Cell
The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy. It consists the anode rode
and the cathode plate. The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive material called
caesium antimony. When the radiation of light fall on cathode plates the electrons starts
flowing from anode to cathode. Both the anode and the cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque
evacuated tube.
When the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube,
the electrons starts emitting from the cathode and
moves towards the anode. The anode is kept to the
positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric current
starts flowing through the anode. The magnitude
of the current is directly proportional to the
intensity of light passes through it.
Photoconductive Cell

The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current. It uses the
semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.
When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their conductivity increases
and the material works like a closed switch. The current starts flowing into the material
and deflects the pointer of the meter.
Photo-voltaic cell
The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer. The current starts flowing into the
photovoltaic cell when the load is connected to it. The silicon and selenium are used as a
semiconductor material. When the semiconductor material absorbs heat, the free electrons of
the material starts moving. This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect. The
movements of electrons develop the current in the cell, and the current is known as the
photoelectric current.
Photodiode

The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the light into the current. The
electrons of the semiconductor material start moving when the photodiode absorbs the
light energy. The response time of the photodiode is very less. It is designed for working in
reverse bias.
Phototransistor

The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into electric energy. It produces
both the current and voltage.
The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is made of semiconductor material. The
semiconductor material is enclosed in an opaque container in which the light easily reaches
to the photosensitive element. The element absorbs light, and the current starts flowing from
base to emitter of the device. This current is converted into the voltages.
 Photomultiplier Tubes (PMT)

• The photomultiplier is an extremely sensitive light detector providing a current

output proportional to light intensity. Photomultipliers are used to measure any
process which directly or indirectly emits light.
• The operating principle is that – caused by the photoelectric effect – photons
striking a photocathode at the entrance window of a PMT produce electrons,
which are then accelerated by a high-voltage field and multiplied in number within
a chain of dynodes by the process of secondary emission.
• One major advantage of PMTs is that these can be produced in different sizes,
starting from a few mm (as in multi-pixel PMTs) to half a meter in diameter (as
those used in the Super-Kamiokande experiment).
• One of the drawbacks of increasing the size of the PMT photocathode is
the deterioration of the time resolution.
Ionisation transducers

• Ionization transducers (vacuum gages) are used to measure low pressures

(vacuum levels) below atmospheric pressure.

• The basic transduction mechanism in these gages is the generation of positive ions
from the gas molecules that are present in the chambers to be evacuated. The ions
are generated as a result of collisions between the gas molecules and the high-
energy electrons that are generated specifically for that purpose. The resulting ion
current is proportional to the gas pressure in the chamber.

• There are two types of vaccum gauges, Hot-cathode vacuum gage and cold-
cathode vaccum gage
Hot-cathode vacuum gage:
The triode or thermionic emission ionization transducer is a hot-cathode vacuum gage.
It consists of a tungsten filament and cathode in the center. Concentric with the cathode is the
grid, which is made from a fine nickel wire helix, held in position by upright supports.
Surrounding the grid is the external nickel plate electrode, which is concentric with the grid.
The gage is housed in an enclosure with an opening that is connected to the chamber whose
pressure is being measured.

The electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the grid (+180 V), but most electrons not
collected by the fine helix move toward the plate (-20 V). As they move in the vicinity of the
plate, the electrons get repelled by the negative potential of the plate. These electrons undergo
several oscillations between the grid and the plate, and during this process they collide with
the gas molecules, creating positive ions. The ions are attracted toward the negatively biased
plate collector, and an ion current flows in the plate circuit. This ion current, within a certain
pressure range, is proportional to the total pressure (vacuum) in the chamber.
Cold-cathode vacuum gage:
In this gage, the electrons are generated by a large electric field instead of a hot cathode. The
gage consists of two plate cathodes made from zirconium or thorium. In the space between
these cathodes is placed a ring-shaped anode. A magnet provides a magnetic field normal to
the plane of the cathode plates, as shown:

It is also known as the Penning or Philips gage. A

high voltage is applied between the anode and the
cathodes, producing electrons that leave the cold
cathode surface. These electrons, in the presence of
the magnetic field B, travel in spiral paths toward the
positively biased ring anode. Only a few electrons
are captured by the anode, but the rest make several
passes through the ring anode, and in the process
ionize the gas. The positive ions collected by the
negatively biased cathodes produce the usual ion
current proportional to the gas pressure.
Different Types of Errors in Measurement and Measurement Error Calculation:

The measurement of an amount is based on some international standards which are completely
accurate compared with others. Generally, measurement of any quantity is done by comparing it
with derived standards with which they are not completely accurate. Thus, the errors in
measurement are not only due to error in methods, but are also due to derivation being not done
perfectly well. So, 100% measurement error is not possible with any methods.

It is very important for the operator to take proper care of the experiment while performing on
industrial instruments so that the error in measurement can be reduced. Some of the errors are
constant in nature due to the unknown reasons, some will be random in nature, and the other will
be due to gross blunder on the part of the experimenter.

Errors in Measurement System

An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the actual value. For
example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for finding the errors in
measurement, it is not necessary that they may get similar results. There may be a difference
between both measurements. The difference that occurs between both the measurements is referred
to as an ERROR.

Sequentially, to understand the concept of errors in measurement, you should know the two terms
that define the error. They are true value and the measured value. The true value is impossible to
find out the truth of quantity by experimental means. It may be defined as the average value of an
infinite number of measured values. Measured value can be defined as the estimated value of true
value that can be found by taking several measured values during an experiment.

Types of Errors in Measurement System

1) Gross Errors
2) Blunders
3) Measurement Errors

Systematic Errors

 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoretical Errors

Random Errors

1) Gross Errors
Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating measurement and
recording data results. The best example of these errors is a person or operator reading pressure
gage 1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be due to the person’s bad habit of not properly remembering
data at the time of taking down reading, writing and calculating, and then presenting the wrong
data at a later time. This may be the reason for gross errors in the reported data, and such errors
may end up in calculation of the final results, thus deviating results.

2) Blunders

Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong
value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while reading a
scale. These blunders should stick out like sore thumbs if one person checks the work of another
person. It should not be comprised in the analysis of data.

3) Measurement Error

The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value. Usually,
Measurement error consists of a random error and systematic error. The best example of the
measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is
10002 grams, then

The measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000 grams) = 2 grams

Measurement Errors are classified into two types: systematic error and random errors

Systematic Errors

The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic
errors. Usually they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative error. These errors can be
detached by correcting the measurement device. These errors may be classified into different
categories.

Systematic Errors
In order to understand the concept of systematic errors, let us classify the errors as:

 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoritical

Instrumental Errors

Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments. These errors
may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types of errors include loading effect and misuse of
the instruments. In order to reduce the gross errors in measurement, different correction factors
must be applied and in the extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully.

Environmental Errors

The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument. External
conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields. In order to
reduce the environmental errors

 Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by making some
arrangements.
 Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around the instrument.

Observational Errors

As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due to wrong observations or reading in the
instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading. The wrong observations may be due to
PARALLAX. In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are needed: meters
provided with mirror scales.

Theoretical Errors

Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example, a theory states
that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the readings taken when it actually
does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement.

Random Errors

Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions and noise and tiredness
in the working persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An example of the random
errors is during changes in humidity, unexpected change in temperature and fluctuation in voltage.
These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a large number of readings.
Random Errors

Measurement Error Calculation

There are several ways to make a reasonable measurement error calculation such as estimating
random errors and estimating systematic errors.

Estimating Random Errors

There are a number of ways to make a reasonable estimate of the random error in a particular
measurement. The best way is to make a series of measurements of a given quantity (say, x) and
calculate the mean and standard deviation (x ̅ & σ_x ) from this data.

The mean x ̅ is defined as

Where, Xi is the result of the i th measurements

‘N’ is the number of measurements

The standard variation is given by

f a measurement is repeated many times, then 68% of the measured valves will drop in the
range x ̅ ± σ_x

We become more positive that , is an accurate representation of the true value of the quantity x ̅ .
The standard deviation of the mean σ_x is defined as

σ_(x ̅ )=σ_x⁄√N

The quantity σ_x is a good estimate of our uncertainty in x ̅. Notice that the measurement
precision increases in proportion to √N as we increase the number of measurements. The
following example will clarify these ideas.