MODULE 1

BASIC CONCEPT OF SURVEYING

Intended Learning Outcomes:
• At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Define the different types and classification of surveying
• Define and differentiate the common surveying tools
• Define the different units of measurement
• Define and differentiate errors and mistakes
• Determine the accuracy of surveyed data
• Determine the different methods in computing the weights of observed data
• Apply different methods in computing the weights of observed data

Defining Surveying
Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of natural
and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may be represented
in analogue form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such as a digital ground model
(DGM).
Today the importance of measuring and monitoring our environment is becoming increasingly critical
as our population expands, land values appreciate, our natural resources dwindle, and human
activities continue to stress the quality of our land, water, and air. Using modern ground, aerial, and
satellite technologies, and computers for data processing, contemporary surveyors are now able to
measure and monitor the Earth and its natural resources on literally a global basis.
A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise to
conduct one, or more, of the following activities;
• to determine, measure and represent the land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields, and
trajectories;
• to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information;
• to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and
any structures thereon; and
• to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.

Classification of surveying
• Geodetic surveying, the curved surface of the Earth is considered by performing the
computations on an ellipsoid (curved surface approximating the size and shape of the Earth.
• Plane surveying, the reference base for fieldwork and computations is assumed to be a flat
horizontal surface.

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Application of Surveying
1. Construction
In construction, surveying is used to locate the precise location of structures such as roads, buildings,
bridges, and so forth.
2. Mining
In mining, surveying is used to direct the locations of mining activities according to a systematic plan,
to make sure mining occurs within the boundaries of the claim, to connect tunnels and shafts, and to
provide legal records of mining activities.
3. Agriculture
In agriculture, surveying is used to determine the acreage of fields, to locate lines of constant
elevation for strip farming, to track harvesting machinery to enable the size of the harvest, and to
track the position of the planting equipment to allow for precise applications of seeds and fertilizers.
The field is known as high-precision agriculture.

Types of surveying
Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as a reference
framework for initiating other surveys.
Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and elevations used in
map making.
Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property corner markers. The
term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public lands systems.
Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans, reservoirs, and
other bodies of water. Sea surveying is associated with port and offshore industries and the marine
environment, including measurements and marine investigations made by shipborne personnel.
Alignment surveys are made to plan, design, and construct highways, railroads, pipelines, and
other linear projects. They normally begin at one control point and progress to another in the most
direct manner permitted by field conditions.
Construction surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions, dimensions, and
configurations for construction operations. They also secure essential data for computing
construction pay quantities.
As-built surveys document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering works and record
any design changes that may have been incorporated into the construction. These are particularly
important when underground facilities are constructed, so their locations are accurately known for
maintenance purposes, and so that unexpected damage to them can be avoided during later
installation of other underground utilities.

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Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to guide tunneling and other operations
associated with mining. This classification also includes geophysical surveys for mineral and energy
resource exploration.
Solar surveys map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions according to sun angles,
and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title insurance companies.
Optical tooling (also referred to as industrial surveying or optical alignment) is a method of making
extremely accurate measurements for manufacturing processes where small tolerances are
required.
Ground surveys utilize measurements made with ground-based equipment such as automatic
levels and total station instruments.
Aerial surveys are accomplished using either photogrammetry or remote sensing.
Photogrammetry uses cameras that are carried usually in airplanes to obtain images, whereas
remote sensing employs cameras and other types of sensors that can be transported in either aircraft
or satellites.

Land Information Systems (LISs) and Geographic Information Systems (GISs) are areas of activity that
have rapidly assumed positions of major prominence in surveying. These computer-based systems enable
storing, integrating, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying virtually any type of spatially related information
about our environment. LISs and GISs are being used at all levels of government, and by businesses, private
industry, and public utilities to assist in management and decision making.

Surveying tools
Chains and Tapes - Pocket tapes are ideal for small-scale measurements while measuring wheels
can be used for larger distances.

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Compasses - Used to determine direction

Transits and Theodolites - These tools are used to measure both horizontal and vertical angles.

Levels - A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in elevation between
two points.

Poles and Tripods and Mounts - Even the most precise of surveying instruments can be thrown off
by an unstable mount. Poles, tripods, and other mounting accessories are essential for surveyors to
ensure solid, stable readings.

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GPS - Used to determine location and elevation.

Significant Units
In recording observations, an indication of the accuracy attained is the number of digits (significant figures)
recorded. By definition, the number of significant figures in any observed value includes the positive (certain)
digits plus one (only one) digit that is estimated or rounded off.
To be consistent with the theory of errors, it is essential that data be recorded with the correct number of
significant figures.
The number of significant figures is often confused with the number of decimal places. Decimal places may
have to be used to maintain the correct number of significant figures, but in themselves they do not indicate
significant figures. Some examples follow:
Two significant figures: 24, 2.4, 0.24, 0.0024, 0.020
Three significant figures: 364, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240
Four significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621, 2400.00
Reference Video for Significant Units: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZkYpvCK2pw

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ERRORS AND MISTAKES

Units of Measurements
Degrees, Minutes, and seconds
There are several systems of angular measurement. The most common is the sexagesimal system,
in which a complete rotation of a line (or a circle) is divided into 360 degrees of arc. In this system,
1 degree is divided into 60 minutes, and 1 minute is further divided into 60 seconds of arc. The
symbols for degrees, minutes, and seconds are °, ', and '', respectively. (35°20'15'' - 35 degrees, 20
minutes, and 15 seconds)

Grads
The centesimal system of angular measurement is used in some countries. Here, a complete rotation
is divided into 400 grades, or grads, written as 400g.
Radian
Angular measurement programmed into most calculators is the radian, or rad. By definition, one
radian is equivalent to the angle formed between two radii in a circle, when the arc length between
the radii is the same as the radius, 2π rad= 360°.
Mills
There are other systems for angular measurement that find use in astronomy, navigation, and military
applications. For military use, the mil is used, where one full circumference is equal to 6400 mils.

Field Notes
Field notes are the records of work done in the field. They typically contain measurements, sketches,
descriptions, and many other items of miscellaneous information.
Field Notes Requirements
o Accuracy. This is the most important quality in all surveying operations.
o Integrity. A single omitted measurement or detail can nullify use of the notes for computing
or plotting. If the project was far from the office, it is time-consuming and expensive to return
for a missing measurement. Notes should be checked carefully for completeness before
leaving the survey site and never “fudged” to improve closures.
o Legibility. Notes can be used only if they are legible. A professional-looking set of notes is
likely to be professional in quality.
o Arrangement. Note forms appropriate to a particular survey contribute to accuracy, integrity,
and legibility.
o Clarity. Advance planning and proper field procedures are necessary to ensure clarity of
sketches and tabulations, and to minimize the possibility of mistakes and omissions.

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Kinds of notes
Four types of notes are kept in practice: (1) sketches, (2) tabulations, (3) descriptions, and (4) combinations
of these.

Errors in Data Surveyed

An error is the difference between a measured quantity and its true value, caused by imperfection
in the measuring instrument, by the method of measurement, by natural factors such as temperature,
or by random variations in human observation. It is not a mistake due to carelessness. Errors can
never be completely eliminated, but they can be minimized by using certain instruments and field
procedures and by applying computed correction factors.
Systematic Errors are repetitive errors that are caused by imperfections in the surveying equipment,
by the specific method of observation, or by certain environmental factors, are systematic errors.
They are also referred to as mechanical or cumulative errors.
Accidental Errors or random error is the difference between a true quantity and a measurement of
that quantity that is free from blunders or systematic errors. Accidental errors always occur in every
measurement. They are the relatively small, unavoidable errors in observation that are generally
beyond the control of the surveyor.

Mistakes in Data Surveyed

A blunder is a significant mistake caused by human error. It may also be called a gross error.
Generally, it is due to the inattention or carelessness of the surveyor, and it usually results in a large
difference between the observed or recorded quantity and the actual or true value. Blunders may
also be caused by a lack of judgment or knowledge.

Differences of Errors and Mistakes in Data Surveyed

Error Mistakes
Tape does not have standard length
Imperfect alignment of tape
Recording wrong observed value
Tape not horizontal or not stretched right
Reading wrong meter mark
Imperfection of observation
Variations in temperature and tension

Accuracy of Data
A discrepancy is the difference between two observed values of the same quantity. A small
discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small. However, small
discrepancies do not preclude the presence of systematic errors.

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Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of observations and is

evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations are made of the same quantity
and small discrepancies result, this indicates high precision. The degree of precision attainable is
dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill.
Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true values. The difference
between precision and accuracy is perhaps best illustrated with reference to target shooting.
Reference Video for Accuracy of Data: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnU7hoxPEs8

Most Probable Value

If two or more measurements of the same quantity are made, usually different values are obtained
due to random errors. As long as each measurement is equally reliable, the average value of the
different measurements is taken to be the true or most probable value.

Example1: A distance was measured four times, resulting in values of 55.63, 55.78, 55.55, and 55.81 m,
then the most probable value of the distance would be taken as 55.6925m.

50, 90, and 95 Percent Error

The most probable error is that which has an equal chance (50 percent) of either being exceeded or
not being exceeded in a particular measurement. It is sometimes designated as E50. In surveying,
the 90 and 95 percent error, or E90 and E95, are a useful criterion for rating survey methods.

The multipliers of the 50, 90, and 95 percent errors are listed as:
𝐸𝐸50 = 0.6745𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸90 = 1.6449𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸95 = 1.9599𝜎𝜎
The magnitude of dispersion is an indication of the relative precisions of the observations. Other
statistical terms more commonly used to express precisions of groups of observations are standard
deviation and variance. The equation for the standard deviation is:
∑(∆)2
𝜎𝜎 2 = (𝑛𝑛−1) ; variance

∑(∆)2
𝜎𝜎 = � ; standard deviation
(𝑛𝑛−1)

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where
σ = standard deviation (Standard Deviation is just the square root of Variance)
Δ = delta, the difference between each individual measurement and the average
of n measurements
n = the number of measurements

Probable Error of the Mean

𝐸𝐸
𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 =
√𝑛𝑛

∑(∆)2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸50 = 0.6748�
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)

∑(∆)2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸90 = 1.6449�
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)

∑(∆)2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸95 = 1.9599�
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)

Example2: A distance was measured five times (by pacing) as follows: 75.3, 76.2, 75.7, 75.5, and 75.8
m. Compute the most probable distance and the 95 percent mean error of that procedure.

Error of Closure and Relative Accuracy

The difference between a measured quantity and its true, or actual, value is called the error of closure
or just closure. In some cases, the closure can be taken simply as the difference between two
independent measurements. For horizontal distances, the ratio of the error of closure to the actual
distance is called the relative accuracy. Relative accuracy is generally expressed as a ratio with unity
as the first number or numerator. This is also written as 1:2000. Basically, this means that for every
2000 m measured, there is an error of 1 m.
𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1: = 1:
𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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where
D = distance measured
C = Error of closure

Example3: A distance of 577.80m is measured by a surveying crew. The true distance is later found to
be 577.98m from another source. What is the relative accuracy of the measurement?

Sum of Errors
Assume the sum of independently observed observations is Z. The formula for the computed quantity
Z is:
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 + ⋯
The sum of errors is computed as:

𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ±�(𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 )2 + (𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 )2 + (𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 )2 + ⋯

where E represents any specified percentage error (such as E50 E90 or E95) and a, b, and c are the
separate, independent observations.

Example4: Assume that a line is observed in three sections, with the individual parts equal to 753.81,
±0.012, 1238.40, ±0.028, and 1062.95, ±0.020 respectively. The unit of observed length are in ft.
Determine the line’s total length and its anticipated standard deviation.

Series of Error
If the same error E in each observation is assumed and the sum of errors equation is applied, the
series error is:

𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ±�(𝐸𝐸)2 + (𝐸𝐸)2 + (𝐸𝐸)2 + ⋯ = ±�𝑛𝑛(𝐸𝐸)2 = ±𝐸𝐸 √𝑛𝑛

Example5: Assume that any distance of 100 ft can be taped with an error of ±0.02ft if certain
techniques are employed. Determine the error in taping 5000 ft using these skills.

Product of Error
The illustration and equation for propagated AB, where Ea and Eb are the respective errors in A and
B, is

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𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ±�𝐴𝐴2 (𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 )2 + 𝐵𝐵 2 (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 )2

Example6: For a rectangular lot, observations of sides A and B with their 95% errors are 252.46, ±0.053
and 605.08, ±0.072 respectively. Calculate the parcel area and the expected 95% error in the area.

WEIGHTS OF OBSERVATION
It is evident that some observations are more precise than others because of better equipment,
improved techniques, and superior field conditions. In making adjustments, it is consequently
desirable to assign relative weights to individual observations. It can logically be concluded that if an
observation is very precise, it will have a small standard deviation or variance, and thus should be
weighted more heavily (held closer to its observed value) in an adjustment than an observation of
lower precision.
• Weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding probable errors.
• Weights are also proportional to the number of observations.
• Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of distances.

Example7: Suppose four observations of a distance are recorded as 482.16, 482.17, 482.20, and
482.18. Determine the correct weighted distance using the three conditions for weighted observations.

Route Difference in Distance Errors

1 482.16 ±0.020
2 482.17 ±0.041
3 482.20 ±0.012
4 482.18 ±0.032

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 MODULE 2

HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENT
Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this discussion, the students will be able to:
• Compute their own pace factor
• Determine and define the taping equipment
• Apply correction to taping

Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying

observations. In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If
the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between vertical lines at
the points.
Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance. The length of an
individual’s pace must be determined first. This is best done by walking with natural steps back and
forth over a level course at least 300 ft (92m) long, and dividing the known distance by the average
number of steps. The length of an individual’s pace varies when going uphill or downhill and
changes with age.

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Example 1: Determine the distance of point E to point F if the pace factor of the student is 0.68. His
observed number of steps in conducting 20 trials walking from point E to F (and F to E) are: 123, 125,
130, 122, 120, 128, 127, 131, 129, 129, 121, 122, 125, 125, 127, 128, 128, 123, 124, and 128.

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Taping
Observation of horizontal distances by taping consists of applying the known length of a graduated
tape directly to a line a number of times.

Taping Equipment and Accessories

a. Surveyor’s and engineer’s tapes

b. Cloth (or metallic) tapes
c. Chaining pins or taping pins
d. Hand level
e. Range poles (lining rods)
f. Plumb bobs

Taping on slope
In measuring the distance between two points on a steep slope, rather than break tape every few
feet, it may be desirable to tape along the slope and compute the horizontal component.

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𝐻𝐻 = 𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛼𝛼

Sources of error in taping

There are three fundamental sources of error in taping
• Instrumental errors. A tape may differ in actual length from its nominal graduated length
because of a defect in manufacture or repair, or as a result of kinks.
• Natural errors. The horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies because
of the effects of temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.
• Personal errors. Tape persons setting pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the
equipment.

Example 2: On a hill side having a slope of 1.00 : 1.20 (V:H), a surveyor measured AB and BC distance
along the slope. The distances are known to be 85.6352m and 48.4983m consecutively. Determine the
horizontal measurement of point A to C using these data.

Taping errors
It is best, however, to understand and then memorize the following set of rules:
1. When measuring an unknown distance, if the tape is too short, subtract the correction; if the tape
is too long, add the correction.
2. When laying out a given distance, if the tape is too short, add the correction; if the tape is too
long, subtract the correction.

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1. Incorrect tape length

𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑙 ′
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = � � (𝐿𝐿)
𝑙𝑙

CL is the correction to be applied to the measured (recorded) length of a line to obtain the
true length
l the actual tape length
l’ the nominal tape length, and
L the measured (recorded) length of line

2. Temperature
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇0 )(𝐿𝐿)

CT is the correction in the length of a line caused by nonstandard temperature

k the coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of the tape (11.6x10-6 per oC for
steel tape)
T1 temperature at the time of measurement
T0 temperature when the tape is of length L

3. Inconsistent Pull or Tension

(𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃0 )(𝐿𝐿)
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

CP is the total elongation in tape length due to pull

P1 the pull applied to the tape at the time of the observation
P0 the standard pull when the tape is of length L
A the cross-sectional area of the tape
E the modulus of elasticity of steel

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4. Sag
𝑤𝑤 2 𝐿𝐿3
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 = −
24𝑃𝑃2

CS is the correction for sag (difference between length of curved tape and straight line from
one support to the next)
L the unsupported length of the tape
w weight of the tape per linear m or ft
P the pull applied to the tape at the time of the observation

Example 3: A civil engineer used a 30m tape in laying out a horizontal distance 459.20m long. The 30m
tape of standard length at a temperature of 10oC and a pull of 50N. During the survey, the temperature
reading was 15oC and the tape is having a pull of 75N in both ends. The cross-sectional area of the tape is
6.20mm2 and the Modulus of Elasticity is 200GPa. The tape has a mass of 0.075kg per meter.

Determine:
• The total correction per tape length
• Determine the correct distance

Reference Video for Taping: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMr9-SvoYVs

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 MODULE 3

VERTICAL MEASUREMENT
Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Determine the different equipment used in Leveling
• Determine how to read a value for a differential leveling survey
• Define and apply differential leveling in computing the elevation of a point

The vertical direction is parallel to the direction of gravity; at any point, it is the direction of a freely
suspended plumb-bob cord. The vertical distance of a point above or below a given reference
surface is called the elevation of the point. The most commonly used reference surface for vertical
distance is mean sea level (MSL).
Vertical distances are measured by the surveyor to determine the elevations of points, in a process
called running levels or, simply, leveling.
A level line is a line in a level surface. A level surface is a curved surface parallel to the mean
surface of the Earth. A level surface is best visualized as being the surface of a large body of water
at rest.

Level Equipment
1. Level (Automatic or Self Leveling Level and Digital Level)
2. Tripod
3. Level Rod

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Differential Leveling
Differential leveling is used to determine differences in elevation between points (that are some
distance from each other) by using a surveyors’ level and a graduated measuring rod.
Benchmark (BM) is a permanent point of known elevation. BMs are established by using
precise leveling techniques and instrumentation; more recently, precise GPS techniques
have been used.
Turning point (TP) is a point temporarily used to transfer an elevation.
Backsight (BS) is a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation to establish the
elevation of the instrument line of sight.
Height of instrument (HI) is the elevation of the line of sight through the level
Foresight (FS) is a rod reading taken on a TP, BM, or TBM to determine its elevation
Intermediate foresight (IS) is a rod reading taken at any other point where the elevation is
required
Temporary benchmark (TBM) is a semi-permanent point of known elevation.

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 MODULE 3

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 (𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸. 𝐴𝐴) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

Errors in Leveling
Accidental errors can be minimized with a properly maintained and adjusted instrument if the
following steps are taken:
1. Make sure the tripod legs are secure and firmly anchored before leveling the instrument. Avoid
setting up on asphalt or frozen ground because the sharp legs may slowly sink; this will change the
HI. It is particularly difficult to notice such movement with a self-leveling instrument.
2. Check to see that the bubble is centered before each reading; recenter it if necessary. With an
automatic level, gently tap the instrument to make sure the internal prism system is not stuck or
broken.
3. Do not lean on the tripod legs when reading the rod.
4. Have the rod person use a rod level or wave the rod to make sure it is held vertically.
5. Try to keep the line of sight about 0.5 m, or 1.5 ft, above the ground when positioning the
instrument, particularly when leveling over pavement on a hot day.
6. Focus the eyepiece and objective lens properly before reading the rod. It is best to get in the
habit of keeping both eyes open when sighting through the telescope.
7. Without actually rushing the work (which leads to blunders), take as little time as possible
between BS and FS readings.
8. Do not use very long BS and FS distances.
Reference Video for setting up the level instrument: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j8poe2vvD2Q

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 MODULE 3

Example1: Find the elevation of each station.

Station BS FS Elevation
0+100 5.87 392.25
0+200 7.03 6.29
0+300 3.48 6.25
0+400 7.25 7.08

Example2: Find the elevation of each station.

Station BS FS IFS Elevation

BM1 1.90 250
1 1.50
2 1.65
3 1.83
4 1.47
TP1 2.88

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 MODULE 4

TWO-PEG TEST
Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Determine the different equipment used in two peg test survey
• Apply two-peg test in computing the elevation of a point

The two-peg test is used to make sure the line of sight provides an accurate reading and determine
how much of an adjustment is necessary. This should be done by the installer periodically to make
sure the instrument is correctly leveled so it provides accurate readings.

Example1:
In the two-peg test method of a dumpy level, the following observations were taken:

Instrument set up near A Instrument set up near B

Rod reading on A 1.505m 0.938m
Rod reading on B 2.054m 1.449m

Determine:

• The difference in elevation of point A and B

• The error in the line of sight of the instrument
• The correct reading at A when instrument is near B
• The correct reading B at when instrument is near A

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 MODULE 4

Example2:

Instrument set at point C Instrument set at point D

Rod reading on A 1.103m 0.568m
Rod reading on B 0.991m 0.289m

Where point C is at the middle of rod A and B and D is 12 meters from A and 72 meters from B.

Determine:

• The error in the line of sight of the instrument if it is located in point C

• The difference in elevation of point A and B
• The error in the line of sight of the instrument if it is located in point D (at point A reading)
• The error in the line of sight of the instrument if it is located in point D (at point B reading)
• The correct reading A at when instrument is at point D
• The correct reading B at when instrument is at point D

Reference Video for two-peg test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ij-yIAvChhk

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 2 of 2

 MODULE 5

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTION

Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Determine the different equipment used in measuring angles and direction
• Define and understand the difference between vertical and horizontal angles
• Define and understand the difference between azimuth and bearing angles

The vertical angle, as already illustrated, is used in obtaining the elevation of points (trig levelling)
and in the reduction of slant distance to the horizontal.

Angle measured upward from a horizontal reference line and is considered a positive, or plus (+),
angle; it may also be called an angle of elevation. Angle measured downward from the horizon and
is considered to be a negative, or minus (-), angle; it may also be called an angle of depression.

In modern surveying instruments, the upward vertical direction is usually used as a reference for
measuring vertical angles, instead of the horizon. That direction is called the zenith direction, and an
angle measured with respect to it is called a zenith angle or a zenith distance. It may sometimes be
necessary to convert plus or minus vertical angles to zenith angles, and vice versa.

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 MODULE 5

A Zenith angle is measured from the upper end of the vertical line continuously all the way around.
It ranges from 0° directly upward (zenith) to 90° on the horizontal to 180° directly downward (nadir)
to 270° on the opposite horizontal to 360° back at the zenith.

Example1: Solve for the zenith angle of the following vertical angles:
Vertical Angle
8o45'
-8o45'

The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey control point, or to topographic
detail points, or to points to be set out.
There are two types of horizontal angles: an interior angle is measured on the inside of a closed
polygon; and an exterior angle is measured outside of the closed polygon. Take note that at any
point, the sum of the interior and exterior angles must equal 360°.

An instrument used for the measurement of angles is called a theodolite, the horizontal and vertical
circles of which can be likened to circular protractors set in horizontal and vertical planes. There are
basically two types of theodolites, the optical mechanical type or the electronic digital type, both of
which may be capable of reading directly to 1', 20'', 1'' or 0.1'' of arc, depending upon the precision
of the instrument.

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 MODULE 5

AZIMUTH AND BEARING

The direction of any line may be described either by its azimuth angle or by its bearing. The azimuth
of a line is the clockwise horizontal angle between the line and a given reference direction or
meridian. Usually, north is the reference direction; south is sometimes used as a reference for
geodetic surveys that cover large areas. An azimuth angle should be identified as being measured
from the north (AzimN) or from the south (AzimS); north is generally assumed if no specific
identification is given.

A bearing of a line is the angle from the north (N) or the south (S) end of the meridian, whichever is
nearest, to the line; it has the added designation of east (E) or west (W), whichever applies. The
directions due east and due west are, of course, perpendicular to the north–south meridian. A line
may fall in one of four quadrants: northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), or northwest
(NW). A bearing may be measured either in a clockwise or in a counterclockwise direction, depending
on which quadrant the line is in. A bearing angle is always an acute angle, that is, less than 90°. It
must always be accompanied by the two letters that indicate the quadrant of the line.

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 3 of 5

 MODULE 5

CONVERTING BEARING TO AZIMUTH AND AZIMUTH TO BEARING ANGLE

Example2: Solve for the azimuth of line 1-2, 2-3, and 3-1 in degrees.

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 MODULE 5

Example3: Solve for the bearing angles of line AB, BC, and CA in degrees.

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 5 of 5

 MODULE 6

TRAVERSE INTRODUCTION
Intended Learning Outcome
At the end of this discussion, the students will be able to:
• Plot an open traverse using bearing angles and distance
• Plot an open traverse using azimuth angles and distance
• Solve the Latitude and Departure of a line with a given Azimuth or Bearing Angle
• Solve for the corrected distance and angle of a line using compass rule
• Solve for the corrected distance and angle of a line using transit rule

A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and whose
lengths and directions have been determined from observations. In traditional surveying by ground
methods, traversing, the act of marking the lines, that is, establishing traverse stations and making
the necessary observations, is one of the most basic and widely practiced means of determining the
relative locations of points. There are two kinds of traverses: closed and open.

COMPUTING TRAVERSE LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES

The latitude of a traverse course is simply the Y component of the line in a rectangular XY coordinate
system. In surveying, the Y axis is usually taken as the north–south meridian axis. A latitude, then,
may also be defined as the projection of a traverse course onto the north–south axis of the survey.
From basic right-angle trigonometry, it is computed as the product of the course length L and the
cosine of the bearing angle β:

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 1 of 4

 MODULE 6

The departure of a traverse course is simply the X component of the line in a rectangular XY
coordinate system. The X axis is usually the same as the east–west axis of the survey. A departure,
then, may also be defined as the projection of a traverse course onto the east–west axis. From right-
angle trigonometry, it is computed as the product of the course length L and the sine of the bearing
angle β:

Sign convention
If the traverse course has a northerly (N) bearing, its latitude will have a positive sign (+); a positive
latitude is sometimes called the northing of the line. If the course has a southerly (S) bearing, its
latitude will carry a negative (-) sign; it may also be called the southing of the line.
If a line has an easterly (E) bearing, its departure will have a positive sign; a positive departure may
be called the easting of the line. If the line has a westerly (W) bearing, its departure will be negative;
it may be called the westing of the line.

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 MODULE 6

ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSE TRAVERSE

There are several methods of traverse adjustment. The simplest are “approximate” procedures called
the compass (or Bowditch) rule and the transit rule. With the advent of numerous software packages,
a method called least squares adjustment can easily be applied. The least squares method is most
accurate.
Compass Rule
In this method, corrections are applied to the latitudes and departures in proportion to the lengths of
each of the courses. It is assumed that angles and distances have been measured with equal
precision (e.g., with transit and steel tape). Application of the compass rule changes both the latitudes
and departures in such a way that both the bearings and lengths of the courses are slightly changed.
A formula for this rule may be written as follows:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
=
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

=
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Transit Rule
The Transit Rule In this method, corrections are applied to the latitudes in proportion to the lengths
of the latitudes and to the departures in proportion to the lengths of the departures. This rule is best
used for traverse surveys in which the angles have been measured with greater precision than the
distances. It changes the latitudes and departures in such a way that the lengths of the courses are
changed slightly, but the bearings remain almost the same. A formula for the transit rule can be
written as follows:

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
=
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
=
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 3 of 4

 MODULE 6

Example1: Compute for the corrected Bearing and Distance of the following lines in a traverse

Line Azimuth Distance (m)

AB 53o 27' 59.82
BC 113o06' 70.38
CD 209o 08' 76.62
DA 308o 00' 95.75

Engr. Donna Trisha T. Romano Page 4 of 4