Chapter 7

First-Order Circuits
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 First-Order Circuits
Chapter 7
7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit
7.3 Unit-step Function
7.4 Step Response of an RC Circuit
7.5 Step Response of an RL Circuit

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 6.1 Capacitors (1)
• A capacitor is a passive element designed
to store energy in its electric field.

• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates

separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
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 6.1 Capacitors (2)
• Capacitance C is the ratio of the charge q on one
plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference v
between the two plates, measured in farads (F).

q=C v  A
and C=
d

• Where  is the permittivity of the dielectric material

between the plates, A is the surface area of each
plate, d is the distance between the plates.
• Unit: F, pF (10–12), nF (10–9), and F (10–6)
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 6.1 Capacitors (3)
• If i is flowing into the +ve
terminal of C
– Charging => i is +ve
– Discharging => i is –ve

• The current-voltage relationship of capacitor

according to above convention is

dv 1 t
i =C
dt
and v=
C  i d t + v(t )
t0
0

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 6.1 Capacitors (4)
• The energy, w, stored in
the capacitor is

1
w= Cv 2

2
• A capacitor is
– an open circuit to dc (dv/dt = 0).
– its voltage cannot change abruptly.

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 6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (1)
• The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitances.

C eq = C1 + C 2 + ... + C N

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 6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (2)
• The equivalent capacitance of N series-connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
C eq C1 C 2 CN

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 6.3 Inductors (1)
• An inductor is a passive element designed
to store energy in its magnetic field.

• An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

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 6.3 Inductors (2)
• Inductance is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).

di N2  A
v=L and L=
dt l

• The unit of inductors is Henry (H), mH (10–3)

and H (10–6).
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 6.3 Inductors (3)
• The current-voltage relationship of an inductor:

1 t
i =  v (t ) d t + i (t 0 )
L t0
• The power stored by an inductor:

1 2
w= Li
2
• An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc (di/dt = 0)
and its current cannot change abruptly. 11
 6.4 Series and Parallel
Inductors (1)
• The equivalent inductance of series-connected
inductors is the sum of the individual
inductances.

Leq = L1 + L2 + ... + LN

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 6.4 Series and Parallel
Inductors (2)
• The equivalent capacitance of parallel inductors
is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual inductances.

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
Leq L1 L2 LN

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7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (1)
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (1)
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.

By KCL
v dv
iR + iC = 0 +C =0
R dt

Ohms law Capacitor law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuit results in

algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
equations. 15
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (2)
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior
(in terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself,
with no external sources of excitation.

Time constant =RC

Decays more slowly

Decays faster

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• v decays faster for small  and slower for large .
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (3)
The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:

v (t ) = V0 e − t /  where =RC

1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the

capacitor.
2. The time constant  = RC.

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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (4)
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and
io for t ≥ 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: vC = 30e–0.25t V ; vx = 10e–0.25t ; io = –2.5e–0.25t A
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (5)
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0,
find v(t) for t ≥ 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: V(t) = 8e–2t V
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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (1)
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor
L (or its equivalent) and a resistor (or its
equivalent)
By KVL vL + vR = 0
di
L + iR = 0
dt

Inductors law Ohms law

di R −Rt / L
= − dt i (t ) = I 0 e
i L
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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (2)

A general form representing a RL

−t / 
i (t ) = I 0 e
L
where =
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response
to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small  and slower for large .
• The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit. 21
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (3)
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t ) = I 0 e −t / 
where = v(t ) = V0 e − t / where  = RC
R

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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (4)
The key to working with a source-free RL
circuit is finding:

L
i (t ) = I 0 e −t / where =
R

1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the

inductor.
2. The time constant  = L/R.
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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (5)
Example 3
Find i and vx in the circuit.
Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 5e–53t A 24

 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (6)
Example 4
For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 2e–2t A 25

 7.3 Unit-Step Function (1)
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative
values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

 0, t0
u(t ) = 
1, t0

 0, t  to
u (t − to ) = 
1, t  to

 0, t  − to
u (t + to ) = 
1, t  − to
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 7.3 Unit-Step Function (2)
Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

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 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage
or a current source.
• Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0

• Applying KCL,
dv v − Vs u (t )
c + =0
dt R
or
dv v − Vs
=− u (t )
dt RC
• Where u(t) is the unit-step function 28
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (2)
• Integrating both sides and considering the initial
conditions, the solution of the equation is:

V0 t0
v(t ) =  −t / 
 s
V + (V0 − Vs ) e t 0

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)
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= V0 e–t/τ + Vs (1–e–t/τ)
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (3)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v() — DC
voltage across C.
3. The time constant .

− t /
v (t ) = v () + [v (0+) − v ()] e
Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also
determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 30
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (4)
Example 5
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below.
Assume the switch has been open for a long
time and is closed at t = 0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t ) = 15e −2t − 5

and v(0.5) = 0.5182V 31
 7.5 The Step-response
of a RL Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.

• Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

• Final inductor current

i(∞) = Vs/R

• Time constant  = L/R

t
Vs Vs  −
i(t ) = + ( I o − )e u (t )
R R
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 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (2)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RL circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant .

− t /
i (t ) = i () + [i (0+) − i ()] e

Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also

determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 33
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (4)
Example 6
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i (t ) = 2 + e −10t 34