Psychophysiological Responses to “Happy” and “Sad” Music

Author(s): Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden and Gunter Kreutz
Source: Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal , APRIL 2018, Vol. 35, No. 4 (APRIL
2018), pp. 502-517
Published by: University of California Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26417422

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502 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

P S YC H O P H YS I O L O G I C A L R E S P O N S E S T O ‘‘H A P P Y ’’ AND ‘‘S A D ’’ M U S I C :

A R E P L I C AT I O N S T U DY

A N T J E B U L L AC K , N I K L A S B Ü D E N B E N D E R , 2009; White & Rickard, 2016). The relationship between

INGO RODEN, & GUNTER KREUTZ emotions expressed by the music and actually felt by the
University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany listener is a basic concern of music psychology (Evans &
Schubert, 2008). Supporters of the so-called cognitivist
LUNDQVIST, CARLSSON, HILMERSSON, AND JUSLIN position assume that music is representative of emotions
(2009) presented evidence of differential autonomic and the listener only recognizes the emotional expres-
emotional responses to ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ music in sion, whereas supporters of the emotivist position postu-
healthy adult listeners. The present study sought to rep- late that music could elicit most if not all components
licate and extend these findings by employing a similar that are associated with emotions in real life (Scherer &
research design and measurement instruments. There- Zentner, 2001). Therefore, changes in physiological and
fore, we used instrumental film music instead of vocal expressive responses could be evidence for the emotivist
music, and assessed listeners’ music expertise. The pres- position (Krumhansl, 1997; Rickard, 2004). Alternatively,
ent results show similarities and differences in patterns according to a more empirical interpretation of this phil-
of psychological and physiological responses as com- osophical stance, the data suggest a music-evoked inter-
pared to the previous work. Happy music evoked more nal locus of affect (Schubert, 2007).
happiness, higher skin conductance level, higher respi- One prevailing question is to what extent emotionally
ratory rate, and more zygomatic facial muscle activity charged stimuli may evoke specific responses in the
than sad music, whereas sad music generated higher autonomic nervous system (ANS), in general (Leven-
corrugator muscle activity than happy music. Influences son, 2003, 2014) and with respect to music stimulation,
of music sophistication as well as of sex were negligible. in particular (e.g., Krumhansl, 1997; Nyklicek, Thayer,
Taken together, these results further support the & Van Doornen, 1997). Although the available literature
hypothesis that music induces differential autonomic is limited, ANS responses to musically induced basic
emotional responses in healthy listeners. They also emotions have produced conflicting patterns in past
highlight the importance of replication or multi-site research. For example, although some studies showed
studies to strengthen the empirical basis of fundamental increases of heart rate during listening to ‘‘happy’’ and
issues in music psychological research. ‘‘sad’’ music (Kreutz et al. 2002; Lundqvist et al., 2009),
other researchers found decreases in this measure
Received: March 17, 2016, accepted September 16, 2017.
(White & Rickard, 2016). A large number of studies
Key words: music listening, psychophysiology, auto- reported divergent findings across different physiologi-
nomic activity, emotions, replication study cal parameters including, for example, systolic and dia-
stolic blood pressure as well as skin conductance levels
(Bartlett, 1996).

E
MOTIONAL RESPONSES TO MUSIC LISTENING To unravel the mysteries of varying levels of psycho-
have been studied extensively over the past dec- physiological association between music materials and
ades (Juslin & Sloboda, 2010; Swaminathan & listeners’ responses, Juslin, Harmat, and Eerola (2013)
Schellenberg, 2015). Some theorists have argued that have addressed hypothetical mechanisms that mediate
music may communicate (Argstatter, 2016; Juslin, 1997; emotional responses in different ways (see also Juslin
Mohn, Argstatter, & Wilker, 2011) or even induce basic et al., 2015). For example, these authors found that
emotions including ‘‘happiness’’ and ‘‘sadness’’ (Kreutz, musically induced ‘‘happiness’’ was associated with
Ott, Teichmann, Osawa, & Vaitl, 2007). Others have a memory mechanism, whereas ‘‘sadness’’ was associ-
sought evidence to differentiate these emotions at both ated with a contagion mechanism. These mechanisms
psychological and physiological levels (Juslin, Barradas, refer to more general theories of emotion induction,
& Eerola, 2015; Kreutz, Bongard, & Jussis, 2002; Krum- which hold that elicitation of emotions may occur at
hansl, 1997; Lundqvist, Carlsson, Hilmersson, & Juslin, different levels of processing. Note that the evidence

Music Perception, VOLUM E 35, ISSU E 4, PP. 502–517, IS S N 0730-7829, EL ECTR ONI C ISSN 1533-8312. © 2018 B Y THE R E GE N TS OF THE UN IV E RS I T Y O F CA LI FOR NIA A LL
R IG HTS RES ERV ED . PLEASE DIR ECT ALL REQ UEST S F OR PER MISSION T O PHOT O COPY OR R EPRO DUC E A RTI CLE CONT ENT T HRO UGH T HE UNI VE R S IT Y OF CALI FO RNIA P R E SS ’ S
R EPR IN TS AN D P ERMISSI ONS WEB PAG E , HT T P :// W W W. UCPR ESS . E DU / JOU RNA LS . PHP ? P ¼REPR IN TS . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/ M P.2018.35.4.502

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 503

Preparation phase Experimental phase Debriefing phase Facial electromyography measures can be seen as reli-
Welcome (1 practice trial Detachment of sensors able indicators for discriminating between different emo-
Demographic and followed by main Mood rating tions (Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983). Musically
music questionnaires experiment = 8 trials*)
Debriefing induced facial EMG responses to different emotion cate-
(Gold-MSI)
gories were found to be in line with the predicted patterns
Application of sensors
across studies (e.g., Witvliet, 1998; Witvliet & Vrana,
Mood and emotion
ratings 2007). Lundqvist and colleagues (2009), for example,
found that ‘‘happy’’ music was associated with greater
ca. 15 minutes ca. 40 minutes ca. 5 minutes zygomatic facial muscle activity than ‘‘sad’’ music.
Skin conductance levels, respiratory rate, as well as
time finger temperature are commonly seen as indicators
* Presentation in randomized order (4 ‘happy’ and 4 ‘sad’ music excerpts) reflecting different aspects of autonomic activation. For
example, Khalfa, Isabelle, Jean-Pierre, and Manon.
FIGURE 1. Flowchart of the experimental design and procedure (single (2002) observed that higher skin conductance levels
trials; for further details see text). were associated with high-arousing music, whereas low
skin conductance has been associated with low-arousing
produced to verify emotional mechanism entail specific music (Khalfa et al., 2004). Similarly, both elevated skin
music selections as well as the recording of psychophys- conductance and breathing were associated with higher
iological responses including skin conductance and physiological activation in a study comparing the effects
facial electromyography. Specifically, the memory of music versus noise stimulation (Gomez & Danuser,
mechanism was associated with enhanced skin conduc- 2004). Such arousing effects as reflected in increased
tance and zygomaticus levels on the one hand, and skin conductance, respiration, and heart rate levels
reduced corrugator activity on the other. By contrast, extend to the enhancing effects of films by accompany-
the contagion mechanism was associated with the ing music (Baumgartner, Esslen, & Jäncke, 2006).
enhanced corrugator and reduced zygomaticus activity, Studies on the potential entrainment effects to musi-
whereas skin conductance stayed level (Juslin et al., cal tempo and rhythm (Etzel, Johnsen, Dickerson, Tra-
2015, Figure 1, p. 298). The possibility of confounds nel, & Adolphs, 2006) have sparked a controversy as to
with other mechanisms notwithstanding, there emerges whether responses that differentiate ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’
a strong pattern of psychophysiological associations music might be attributable to musical surface features
that underscore the predictability and consistency of rather than to the emotional responses the music elicits
emotional reactions to music listening at least in healthy (Khalfa, Roy, Rainville, Dalla Bella, & Peretz, 2008).
adult listeners and with respect to distinct emotion Although this controversy cannot be regarded as
categories. unequivocally solved, at least it has made clear that
Recent studies that particularly emphasize cardiore- there could be several pathways by which musically
spiratory variables seem to converge in suggesting at induced ANS modulation might occur. In addition,
least partial adaptation between variables related to the individual differences including personality traits have
acoustic surface of music sounds on the one hand, and been discussed as factors that systematically influence
psychobiological responses in the process of listening on autonomous responses to music, which suggests the
the other (Bernardi et al., 2009; Bernardi, Porta, & importance of person-related influences (Liljeström,
Sleight, 2006), but also emphasize the importance of Juslin, & Västfjäll, 2012).
context. Koelsch and Jäncke (2015) concluded from In sum, research on ANS responses to music stimu-
their review, that exciting music induces significantly lation is characterized by rather complex sets of obser-
higher heart rate values than tranquil music. However, vations, pointing to the equally complex nature of the
this prediction, if extended to listening to ‘‘happy’’ ver- underlying physiological processes (Grewe, Nagel,
sus ‘‘sad’’ music, was not supported by Lundqvist et al. Kopiez, & Altenmüller, 2007). Therefore, replication
(2009), who failed to observe significant effects of music of specific experimental designs and procedures seems
listening on heart rate. One recurrent observation is an important, to ascertain greater levels of consistency in
increase of physiological relaxation in prolonged listen- research findings. In the current study, we tested
ing sessions across blocks of trials (Kreutz et al., 2002; whether ANS responses to ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ music
Krumhansl, 1997). In fact, the strongest effect on relax- excerpts would lead to convergent or divergent patterns
ation seems to come from the silence following music as compared to previous work by using instrumental
stimulation (Bernardi et al., 2006). music in our study instead of vocal music.

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504 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

Studies targeting lyrics as a source of emotion mod- Aims and Hypotheses

ulation in music produced mixed findings (Ali & Pey-
nircioglu, 2006; Juslin, Liljeström, Västfjäll, Barradas, The central aim of the present study sought to replicate
& Silva, 2008). For example, Ali and Peynircioglu and extend previous findings by adapting a similar
(2006) found that melodies of songs influenced listen- research paradigm as Lundqvist et al. (2009), but with
ers’ emotion ratings more strongly than did lyrics. some modifications. First, instrumental film music
Moreover, listeners describe the influence of lyrics as (audio tracks only) was used instead of vocal music.
a cause of emotions as marginal (Juslin et al., 2008). Second, we applied a recently developed measure of
Nevertheless, aggressive thoughts and affect were music sophistication (Gold-MSI; Schaal, Bauer, &
found significantly enhanced in response to hard rock Müllensiefen, 2014) to investigate whether this trait
songs with violent as compared to nonviolent lyrics might modulate individual emotional responses. Third,
(Anderson, Carnagey, & Eubanks, 2003). However, the study protocol entailed a more extended baseline
numerous studies have intentionally focused on measurement to help participants relax in the intervals
instrumental music to avoid the potentially confound- before and after the music presentations and to reduce
ing influence of linguistic information in emotional carry-over effects of the emotional tone from the pre-
responses to music (Eerola, 2011; Hunter, Schellen- vious music excerpt to the following one.
berg, & Schimmack, 2010; Kallinen, 2005). For similar The hypotheses being tested here follow Lundqvist et al.
reasons, only musical excerpts without lyrics were (2009) with a few modifications. We expected listeners to
included in the present study. respond differentially to ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ music excerpts
One further objective of the study was to address to by significantly higher ratings on corresponding scales
what extent musical sophistication might modulate psy- relative to the opposite emotion category. Further, we
chophysiological responses to music listening as previ- assumed that ‘‘happy’’ music would induce significantly
ous studies produced inconsistent results. For example, greater activation in the zygomaticus and less in the cor-
Kreutz et al. (2002) found little indication that musical rugator muscles, while the reverse pattern was expected
expertise modulated cardiovascular reactions during for ‘‘sad’’ music (Witvliet & Vrana, 2007). In addition, we
music listening, whereas Bigand and colleagues (2005) expected that ‘‘happy’’ music would lead to significantly
found only a slight influence of music training on musi- greater physiological arousal as represented in higher skin
cal emotion ratings. Bigand and Poulin-Charonnat conductance and finger temperature level, suggesting an
(2006) concluded in their review that musicians had increase in sympathetic system activity. As one addi-
no advantage in perceiving emotions in music. How- tional parameter, our study protocol included respira-
ever, some studies have suggested that musical expertise tory rate, because emotional reactions are frequently
might influence recognition of emotions in listening to accompanied by changes in the respective systems
speech prosody (Lima & Castro, 2011), music (Kantor- (Bernardi et al., 2006; Gomez & Danuser, 2007; Krum-
Martynuska, & Horabik, 2015), and even cardiorespira- hansl, 1997). Furthermore, we hypothesized that music
tory changes induced by music listening (Bernardi et al., sophistication is significantly positively associated with
2006). listeners’ psychophysiological reactivity, following obser-
Following Lundqvist and colleagues (2009), we inves- vations that suggest differential patterns of psychophysi-
tigated potential influences of sex differences on psy- ological responses in musically trained versus untrained
chological and physiological responses to music. listeners (Bernardi et al., 2006). Finally, consistent with the
Again, previous studies do not allow firm conclusions. results of Lundqvist et al. (2009), we expected no differ-
Perceived emotions, in general, appear unaffected by the ences between female and male listeners.
sex of listener (Dimberg, & Lundqvist, 1990; Nater, The study design and protocol received approval
Abbruzzese, Krebs, & Ehlert, 2006; Robazza, Macaluso, from the Ethics committee of the Carl von Ossietzky
& D’Urso, 1994). However, sex differences have been University Oldenburg. It was conducted following the
discussed in more specific work on psychophysiological principles as outlined in the latest version of the Decla-
responses during emotion processing (Kring & Gordon, ration of Helsinki.
1998) and emotion regulation (McRae, Ochsner, Mauss,
Gabrieli, & Gross, 2008), as well as in the context of Method
music listening (Altenmüller, Schürmann, Lim, & Par-
litz, 2002; Kamenetsky, Hill, & Trehub, 1997; McFarland PRE-TEST AND STIMULUS SELECTION
& Kadish, 1991) and auditory stimulation (Dimberg, Music composed originally as soundtracks for commer-
1990a, 1990b). cial film drama has been shown to effectively intensify

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 505

the emotional experience (Eschrich, Münte, & Alten-

0.45 (0.59)
0.00 (0.00)
0.20 (0.40)
0.10 (0.30)
2.20 (0.81)
2.25 (0.77)
2.25 (0.99)
2.65 (0.57)
‘‘sadness’’
müller, 2008). Music as a soundtrack in film is even
considered as one key factor influencing viewers’ emo-
tional responses (Cohen, 2001).
The music excerpts were tested in a pilot experiment

‘‘happiness’’
(0.68)
(0.57)
(0.77)
(0.62)
(0.36)
(0.48)
(0.22)
(0.30)
with 20 participants (10 women, age M ¼ 25.8 years, age
SD ¼ 3.19; 10 men, age M ¼ 29.7 years, age SD ¼ 3.56). In

2.20
2.65
2.00
2.10
0.15
0.35
0.05
0.10
single or group sessions, the participants rated the degree
to which each of the eight ‘‘happy’’ and eight ‘‘sad’’ excerpts

Duration
evoked emotional responses. The items included valence,

(in min)
02:22a,b
02:21a
02:27a,b
02:36b
02:21b
02:30b
02:24a
02:23a,b
arousal, pleasantness, and familiarity as well as six emo-

Note: The superscript ‘‘a’’ means that excerpts were looped to achieve a comparable duration with the other excerpts; the superscript ‘‘b’’ indicates that excerpts were faded out.
tions of the Differential Emotions Scale (Izard, 1977),
namely ‘‘happiness,’’ ‘‘surprise,’’ ‘‘sadness,’’ ‘‘anger,’’ ‘‘dis-

00:00-01:15

00:00-02:36

00:00-02:30
00:00-01:47
00:00-01:28

00:00-01:57

00:00-02:21

00:00-02:23
gust,’’ and ‘‘fear.’’ The ratings were recorded on 4-point

(in min)
Section
Likert scales (0 ¼ not at all, 1 ¼ slightly, 2 ¼ somewhat, 3 ¼
very strongly). In addition, listeners rated whether or not

TABLE 1. Description and Pre-test Ratings for “Happiness” and “Sadness” of Music Excerpts Used in the Main Experiment
they were familiar with each of the excerpts.
The music excerpts of highest salience with respect to

Track

04

03
10

02

04
10
21
01
the target emotion categories were selected for the main
experiment. Four of these excerpts represented ‘‘happy’’

Pünktchen und Anton

and four ‘‘sad’’ emotional tones. Besides a specific asso-

Pride and Prejudice

ciation with the target emotion category, we confirmed

Portrait of A Lady
Fantastic Mr. Fox
Soundtrack
that the stimuli were unfamiliar to most participants

Pan’s Labyrinth
The Fountain

The Fountain
(see Table 1 for details).

The Artist
PARTICIPANTS
Thirty-two healthy adults (16 female, age M ¼ 26.25,
age SD ¼ 2.17; 16 male; age M ¼ 26.31, age SD ¼ 3.57)

Together we will live forever

participated. None of the participants reported hearing
High-Speed French Train

impairments, cardiovascular, or respiratory conditions.

Pan’s Labyrinth Lullaby
Meryton Townhall
Title

George Valentin

MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
Twilight Cellos

The Last Man

Behavioral measures. The Differential Emotions Scale
(DES, Izard, 1977; German translation, Merten & Krause,
Glücklich

1993) served to identify the subjective emotional experi-

ence. Seven emotion categories were each represented by
three different adjectives (German translation in brack-
Alexandre Desplat

ets): 1) ‘‘Interest’’: ‘‘attentive’’ (aufmerksam), ‘‘focused’’

Dario Marianelli

Javier Navarrete
Ludovic Bource

(konzentriert), ‘‘alert’’ (wach); 2) ‘‘Joy’’: ‘‘delighted’’

Wojciech Kilar
Composer

Clint Mansell

Clint Mansell

(erfreut), ‘‘happy’’ (glücklich), ‘‘glad’’ (froh); 3) ‘‘Surprise’’:

Niki Reiser

‘‘surprised’’ (überrascht), ‘‘amazed’’ (verblüfft), ‘‘aston-

ished’’ (erstaunt); 4) ‘‘Sadness’’: ‘‘disheartened’’ (nieder-
geschlagen), ‘‘sad’’ (traurig), ‘‘discouraged’’ (entmutigt);
5) ‘‘Anger’’: ‘‘enraged’’ (aufgebracht), ‘‘angry’’ (zornig),
Happiness
Happiness
Happiness
Happiness
Emotion

‘‘mad’’ (wütend); 6) ‘‘Disgust’’: ‘‘distasted’’ (angeekelt),

Sadness
Sadness
Sadness
Sadness

‘‘disgusted’’ (abgestoßen), ‘‘repulsed’’ (angewidert); 7)

‘‘Fear’’: ‘‘scared’’ (bange), ‘‘fearful’’ (ängstlich), ‘‘afraid’’
(sich fürchtend). The participants rated the intensity of
Stimulus

their feelings by drawing a line on a 100 mm visual

analog scale, which was labeled with the end-points not
H2
H3
H4
H1

S1
S2
S3
S4

at all and very strong.

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506 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

Additionally, participants rated valence (pleasant – of the left musculus corrugator and the left musculus
unpleasant) and arousal (activating – calming) on bipo- zygomaticus. Ag/AgCl electrodes were placed according
lar 5-point scales. Liking (‘‘I like this piece of music’’) to standard guidelines (e.g., Fridlund & Cacioppo, 1986;
and familiarity (‘‘I know this piece of music’’) were eval- Tassinary, Cacioppo, & Green, 1989; Ekman, Hager &
uated on 5-point Likert scales ranging from 0 (not at all) Friesen, 1981). Finally, respiratory rate was measured
to 4 (very strongly). using an elastic belt in the abdominal area, which reg-
To assess mood level changes in response to the istered changes in volume. A computer, which was
experimental procedures, participants rated wakeful- placed exterior to the experimental cabin, recorded the
ness on bipolar 5-point scales (awake ¼ 1 – tired ¼ digitized signals via USB-port. Physiological measures
5), attention (attentive ¼ 1 – distracted ¼ 5), and ten- were recorded at a rate of 32 samples per second. The
sion (tensed ¼ 1 – relaxed ¼ 5). signals were monitored during the entire session.
Music sophistication. The German version of the Gold-
PROCEDURE
smiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI) was
Participants were tested individually after informed
used to identify musicians and nonmusicians (Müllensie-
consent was obtained. Then, participants filled a ques-
fen, Gingras, Musil, & Stewart, 2014; German version:
tionnaire with general demographic information and
Schaal et al., 2014). The concept of music sophistication
questions about their health status and rated their cur-
is based on the idea that music expertise not only consists
rent mood (wakefulness, attention, and tension). Next,
of practical music training but also includes active
they were seated in a comfortable chair in the experi-
engagement with music in many different forms and at
mental cabin and familiarized with the materials of the
various levels across the lifespan.
study. Music was presented by a computer via speakers
The self-report questionnaire measured music engage-
that were placed at a distance of approximately one
ment by five subscales that capture several aspects (active
meter from the participants’ ears. It was ensured prior
engagement, perceptual abilities, music training, singing
to the experiment that the loudness of the music
abilities, and emotions). From these, a general music
excerpts was set at a comfortable level. Finger sensors
sophistication factor is calculated. Participants could
and facial electrodes were applied as described and fol-
achieve a score between 23 and 121. Participants were
lowing recommendations in the NeXus-10 MKII1 sys-
grouped as high or low in music sophistication based on
tem manual. Recordings of physiological data were
a median split of the total music sophistication score.
started about 10 minutes before the test procedure
High music sophistication is characterized by a frequent
began to ensure that participants adjusted well to the
exercise of music abilities or behaviors, greater ease and
testing situation. They were told that the facial electro-
precision of music abilities or behaviors, and greater and
des captured the activity of the sweat glands. Likewise,
highly varied repertoire of music behavior. For example,
the aim of the DES was disguised. Participants were told
individuals with high music sophistication are thought to
that the questionnaire captured aspects such as fatigue
respond to a wider range of music situations. They also
and their current mood because these variables could
show a greater diversity in their music-related behavior
influence psychophysiological measures (Fridlund &
and more effective approaches to achieve their music
Cacioppo, 1986). Then, the participants filled the first
goals (Müllensiefen et al., 2014).
DES questionnaire and the Gold-MSI inventory.
Physiological measures. Physiological responses were After the questionnaires were completed, participants
recorded using the NeXus-10 MKII1 system via stan- were asked to avoid deliberate movement of bodily mus-
dard sensors. They were applied according to the writ- cles during the testing period as far as possible. Then, the
ten manual and recommendations provided by the computer-assisted test sequence programmed with E-
supplier. In particular, heart rate was measured using Prime1 2.0 was initiated. The experimental phase started
a blood volume pulse (BVP) sensor. This photoplethys- with one practice trial followed by the main experiment
mograph was attached to the forefinger of the left hand. consisting of eight trials. Every trial started with a different
Skin conductance was measured by placing two Ag/ two-minute video, showing nature scenes with sounds
AgCl electrodes on the distal phalanges of the middle (burbling of water, singing birds, etc.) to support partici-
and ring finger of the left hand. The electrodes were pants resuming a neutral emotional state. Next, partici-
fixed with a Velcro tape. Finger temperature was mea- pants listened to one happy or one sad excerpt. They
sured with a thermistor, attached with adhesive tape on rated each on the emotion categories provided by the
the distal phalanx of the auricular finger of the left hand. DES as well as on additional 5-point Likert-type scales
Bipolar facial EMG signals were recorded in the regions for valence, arousal, pleasantness, and familiarity.

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 507

Presentation of excerpts occurred in random order. After ANS data were first analyzed using a 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA
the experiment, participants filled out a second question- with condition (change score for ‘‘happy’’ music, change
naire about their current mood and were debriefed after- score for ‘‘sad’’ music) as within-subjects factor and gen-
wards. Further information on psychophysiological der (female, male) and music sophistication (nonmusi-
measurements as well as the purpose of the DES was cian, musician) as between-subject factors.
provided upon request. Figure 1 presents a flow chart To consider temporal changes, ANS data were also
of the experimental sessions. Participants were tested analyzed using a 2 x 28 ANOVA, in which the change
individually. Each session lasted approximately 60 min. scores of the ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ music conditions rela-
tive to baseline were entered as the within-subject factor
DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSES and time block was entered as the repeated measures
The psychophysiological data were exported using the factor. Again, sex (female, male) and music sophistica-
software BioTraceþ1. Heart rate was measured as beat tion (nonmusician, musician) served as between-subject
per minute (bpm) and derived from the interbeat inter- factors in subsequent analyses to assess any influence of
val as provided by the blood volume pulse recordings. these independent variables.
Skin conductance units were measured in micro- For each measure, we assessed whether preconditions
Siemens (mS). EMG signals were subjected to low- and for conducting ANOVAs (normality Box’s M test of
high-pass filtering to eliminate artifacts. Filters were set equality of covariance matrices and Mauchly’s test of
at 10 Hz and 1 kHz. In addition, a notch filter with sphericity) were met. Accordingly, degrees of freedom
a center frequency at 50 Hz was applied. EMG signals were estimated in the F-statistics using Greenhouse-
were measured in microvolts (mV). Inspection of raw Geisser corrections where appropriate.
data revealed that certain streams of physiological data In all statistical tests, the p values were set to .05,
had to be excluded from analysis: corrugator supercilii except when an adjustment to multiple comparisons
data (female, nonmusician), two data sets of musculus was mandatory. In addition, partial eta-squared was
zygomaticus activity (males, nonmusicians), one data calculated as a measure of the effect size.
set of electrodermal activity (female, musician), and one
further data set of heart rate (male, musician). Repeated Results
measures ANOVAs with order as a within-subject factor
were conducted across all dependent variables, but only SUBJECTIVE RESPONSES
significant order effects are reported. Table 2 shows the results from the emotion ratings on
Values of the three items representing an emotion on the DES from pre- to post-measurements. Both induced
the Differential emotion scale (DES) were summed up ‘‘happiness’’ and ‘‘sadness’’ decreased significantly in
scoring between 0 and 300 points. The ratings of the both music conditions. However, ratings on the former
first questionnaire filled out before the experiment scale decreased more strongly after listening to ‘‘sad’’
served as initial measures of emotional tone, hence music than after listening to ‘‘happy’’ music, t(31) ¼
called ‘‘pre-measurement.’’ The questionnaires after 11.65, p < .001, d ¼ 2.06. In addition, there was a signif-
listening to happy and sad music excerpts served as icant difference in ‘‘happiness’’ ratings with respect to
subsequent measures of emotional tone, hence called music condition, t(31) ¼ 8.76, p < .001, d ¼ 1.55. ‘‘sad’’
‘‘post-measurements.’’ DES ratings were first analyzed music induced higher ratings of ‘‘sadness’’ than did
by two-way 3 x 2 x 2 repeated measures ANOVAs with ‘‘happy’’ music, t(31) ¼ 4.20, p < .001, d ¼ 0.74.
condition (pre-measurement, ‘‘happy’’ music, ‘‘sad’’ Conversely, ‘‘sadness’’ ratings decreased when listening
music) as the within-subject and sex (female, male) and to ‘‘happy’’ music, t(31) ¼ 2.63, p < .05, d ¼ 0.46.
music sophistication (nonmusician, musician) as Table 2 reveals that significant differences were also
between-subjects factors. observed for emotion categories other than ‘‘happiness’’
Recordings of the eight two-minute videos between and ‘‘sadness.’’ In particular, listening to ‘‘sad’’ music
music presentations were averaged, thereby providing was associated with decreases of ‘‘interest’’ and ‘‘sur-
baseline values for the calculation of change scores. To prise,’’ whereas ‘‘disgust’’ and ‘‘fear’’ increased. ‘‘Happy’’
this end, baseline values were subtracted from averages music, by contrast, led to a decrease of ‘‘interest’’ and
of physiological measurements during ‘‘happy’’ as well ‘‘fear.’’ No significant effects for ‘‘anger’’ were found.
as ‘‘sad’’ music listening. In addition, we analyzed the ‘‘Happy’’ music excerpts (M ¼ 1.76, SD ¼ 0.52) were
data in accordance with Lundqvist et al. (2009); that is, rated as more pleasant than ‘‘sad’’ excerpts (M ¼ 2.30,
28 epochs of 5-s segments for each physiological vari- SD ¼ 0.88), t(50.14) ¼ 2.98, p < .01, d ¼ 0.56. Also
able for further statistical analysis. ‘‘happy’’ excerpts (M ¼ 1.91, SD ¼ 0.58) were evaluated

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508 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

TABLE 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Emotional Experience Ratings (0-300) Before and After Listening to “Happy” and “Sad” Music

Emotion Pre Music Condition Post t d

Interest 224.88 (41.20) happy 182.13 (53.56) 5.24*** .93
sad 150.39 (52.75) 8.67*** 1.53
Happiness 213.50 (40.81) happy 195.58 (42.50) 2.63** .46
sad 93.56 (57.52) 11.65*** 2.06
Surprise 76.19 (74.55) happy 61.42 (61.51) 1.34 .24
sad 25.00 (29.64) 4.56*** .81
Sadness 20.31 (28.45) happy 9.39 (11.02) 2.63** .46
sad 70.69 (63.26) 4.20*** .74
Anger 16.91 (24.77) happy 11.30 (16.71) 1.43 .25
sad 11.94 (17.86) 1.39 .25
Disgust 6.42 (9.32) happy 7.53 (8.04) .73 .13
sad 14.08 (19.85) 2.44* .43
Fear 9.06 (8.04) happy 5.93 (8.04) 2.51* .44
sad 27.58 (42.07) 2.46* .43
Note: t-tests represent changes between pre- and post-measurements. *p < .05; **p  .01; ***p < .001

TABLE 3. Means and Standard Deviations of Levels of Physiological Activity at Baseline and During Listening to “Happy” and “Sad” Music

Baseline Music Condition Post t d

SC 6.56 (3.58) happy 6.29 (3.49) 3.72*** .68
sad 6.01 (3.45) 6.57*** 1.19
RR 18.03 (2.51) happy 19.46 (2.90) 8.08*** 1.43
sad 18.22 (2.93) 1.14 .20
HR 73.99 (9.03) happy 74.26 (9.44) .58 .10
sad 73.90 (9.53) .18 .03
TEMP 34.82 (2.25) happy 34.81 (2.34) .15 .03
sad 34.96 (2.11) 2.26* .41
CORR 5.78 (3.82) happy 5.72 (4.33) .37 .66
sad 6.36 (4.17) 3.26** .59
ZYG 3.87 (1.92) happy 4.17 (2.53) .97 .18
sad 3.11 (1.59) 5.45*** .99
Note: t-tests represent changes between baseline and music conditions (happy or sad). p values were adjusted for multiple comparisons. SC ¼ skin conductance (mS); RR ¼
respiratory rate (breaths/min); HR ¼ heart rate (bpm); TEMP ¼ finger temperature ( C); CORR ¼ corrugator electromyographic activity (mV); ZYG ¼ zygomaticus
electromyographic activity (mV). *p < .025; **p  .005; ***p < .0005

as more arousing and ‘‘sad’’ excerpts (M ¼ 3.90, SD ¼ AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) ACTIVITY
0.61) as more calming, t(62) ¼ 14.04, p < .001, d ¼ Table 3 summarizes the averaged physiological
2.34. The mean rating for liking was 2.63 (SD ¼ 0.64) responses with respect to the recordings of parameters
for ‘‘happy’’ excerpts and 2.20 (SD ¼ 0.84) for ‘‘sad’’ included in this study in relation to baseline values. It
music stimuli, t(62) ¼ 2.32, p < .05, d ¼ 0.44. Excerpts shows that significant physiological responses to
were highly unfamiliar to the participants (Mhappy ¼ ‘‘happy’’ music were found in two variables (skin con-
0.86, SD ¼ 0.83, Msad ¼ 0.35, SD ¼ 0.50), t(50.84) ¼ ductance, respiratory rate), whereas three parameters
2.97, p < .01, d ¼ 0.68. (skin conductance, corrugator, zygomaticus) were asso-
Neither sex nor music sophistication significantly ciated with significant changes in response to ‘‘sad’’
influenced emotion ratings, all Fs  3.67, p  .06. Also, music.
general mood before and after the experiment was sta- There were variations of physiological responses in
ble and in a positive range (awake – tired: Mbefore, ¼ the time course of listening during the two music con-
1.88, SD ¼ 0.79; Mafter ¼ 2.22, SD ¼ 0.94; attentive – ditions as calculated relative to baseline. Therefore, the
distracted: Mbefore, ¼ 1.78, SD ¼ 0.71; Mafter ¼ 2.06, following analyses will address the change scores with
SD ¼ 0.76; tensed – relaxed: Mbefore, ¼ 4.00, SD ¼ respect to the ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ music conditions for
0.95; Mafter ¼ 4.06, SD ¼ 0.62), all ts  1.94, p  .06). each physiological parameter separately.

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 509

Happy
Sad
0,3

0,1

-0,1

-0,3
μS

-0,5

-0,7

-0,9
1 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

FIGURE 2. Means and standard errors of the means (SEM) of changes of skin conductance levels across emotion categories averaged over all happy
respectively sad music excerpts.

Happy
Sad

2,2

1,8

1,4
breaths/min

0,6

0,2

-0,2

-0,6
1 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

FIGURE 3. Means and standard errors of the means (SEM) of changes of respiratory activity levels across emotion categories averaged over all happy
respectively sad music excerpts.

Skin conductance. Significant influences of order could Respiratory rate. Respiratory rate significantly increased
be observed for skin conductance, F(3.7, 111.71) ¼ when listening to ‘‘happy’’ music in comparison to ‘‘sad’’
4.74, p < .01, p2 ¼ 0.14. There was a significant dif- music, F(1, 28) ¼ 60.32, p < .001, p2 ¼ 0.68. Again, there
ference between the first and the second music excerpt, was a main effect for time block, F(14.56, 815.36) ¼
t(30) ¼ 2.85, p < .001, d ¼ 0.51. Further, there was 1.76, p < .05, p2 ¼ 0.30, indicating an overall higher
a significant main effect for condition, F(1, 27) ¼ breathing rate during music listening as compared to
15.72, p < .001, p2 ¼ 0.37. Skin conductance during baseline (see Figure 3).
listening to ‘‘happy’’ music was significantly higher
than during listening to ‘‘sad’’ music. There was also Heart rate. No significant effects of music condition were
a main effect for time block, F(4.67, 252.19) ¼ 31.46, observed for heart rate, F(1, 27) ¼ 2.14, p ¼ .15, ns, but
p < .001, p2 ¼ 0.37, indicating an overall decrease of there was a main effect for time block F(15.92, 859.58) ¼
skin conductance levels in the time course of listening 2.18, p < .005, ¼ 0.39, again indicating higher cardiac
(see Figure 2). activity during music listening as compared to baseline.

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510 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

Happy
Sad
1,3

0,9

0,5
μV

0,1

-0,3

-0,7
1 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

FIGURE 4A. Means and standard errors of the means (SEM) of changes of corrugator activity levels across emotion categories averaged over all
happy respectively sad music excerpts.

Happy
Sad

1,1

0,7

0,3
μV

-0,1

-0,5

-0,9

-1,3
1 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

FIGURE 4B. Means and standard errors of the means (SEM) of changes of zygomaticus activity levels across emotion categories averaged over all
happy respectively sad music excerpts.

Finger temperature. Significant influences of order were Facial electromyography. Zygomatic activity was higher
observed for temperature, F(2.07, 64.14) ¼ 3.42, p < .05, while listening to ‘‘happy’’ music, F(1, 26) ¼ 13.52, p <
p2 ¼ 0.99. Specifically, temperature increased from the .01, p2 ¼ 0.34, than when listening to ‘‘sad’’ music. An
first to the second piece of music, t(32) ¼ 3.21, p < .01, increase of corrugator activity was found for the ‘‘sad’’
d ¼ 0.57. No significant main effects of ‘‘happy’’ or music condition, F(1, 27) ¼ 6.53, p < .05, p2 ¼ 0.20.
‘‘sad’’ music on finger temperature occurred, F(1, 28) ¼ A significant main effect for time block was found for
1.72, p ¼ .20, ns. However, a significant effect of time both zygomatic, F(6.35, 330.05) ¼ 3.91, p < .001, p2 ¼
block, F(1.22, 68.26) ¼ 3.86, p < .05, p2 ¼ 0.64, was 0.07, and corrugator activity, F(5.26, 284.07) ¼ 7.05, p <
found, indicating a small decrease of finger temperature .001, p2 ¼ 0.12. Whereas zygomatic activity showed
during music listening. A nonsignificant increase of fin- a slight decrease, corrugator activity increased over time
ger temperature relative to baseline was also associated in both music conditions (cf. Figures 4a and 4b).
with exposure to ‘‘sad’’ rather than ‘‘happy’’ music (cf. Table 4 summarizes and compares the effect sizes of
Table 3). dependent measures in Lundqvist et al. (2009) and the

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 511

TABLE 4. Comparison of Effect Sizes (p2 ) of Dependent Measures there remained a significant difference in happiness
(“Happy” versus “Sad” Music) Between Lundqvist et al. (2009) and indicating higher values after listening to ‘‘happy’’ music
Present Study
as compared to ‘‘sad’’ music. Moreover, perceived sad-
Lundqvist et al. (2009) Present study ness increased after listening to ‘‘sad’’ music, which is in
line with expectations (Lundqvist et al., 2009). Given
Skin Conductance .18" .37" that participants started the experiment in a positive
Respiration rate n/a* .68"
Heart rate n/a** .07 mood, it is not too surprising that listening to generally
Temperature .12# .06 unfamiliar music did not lead to increases in positive
Corrugator n/a** .20# affect (Hunter, Schellenberg, & Griffith, 2011). With
Zygomatic .13" .34" respect to induced sadness, ‘‘sad’’ music, again as
Note: " indicates values were significantly higher in response to ‘‘happy’’ music as expected, was highly effective in intensifying this emo-
compared to ‘‘sad’’ music, whereas # indicates the opposite effect. *This parameter tion, whereas ‘‘happy’’ music was not effective in this
was not being recorded. **Data were reported as not significant; information to sense. It is important to note that listening to music may
calculate effect sizes not available.
enhance instantaneous feelings of negative emotions
without affecting overall mood negatively (Garrido &
Schubert, 2011). Furthermore, current research suggests
present study based on change scores. Results suggest that listening to ‘‘sad’’ music can evoke a range of feel-
significant and empirically relevant associations between ings of reward that could explain the somewhat para-
music listening and psychophysiological response pat- doxical finding that the ‘‘sad’’ music excerpts were
terns with respect to the two emotion categories. However, associated with relatively high happiness ratings (Taruffi
there are both similarities and differences in these patterns & Koelsch, 2014).
of changes. For example, the results of the present study Previous studies suggest a trend of deactivation in
indicated no significant differences in finger temperature, experiments concerning physiological responses to
whereas respiratory rate was significantly affected. music listening (e.g., Kreutz et al., 2002). A similar, but
nonsignificant trend was also observed here in ratings of
Sex and music sophistication. Musicality ranged from
overall mood, especially wakefulness and attention,
nonmusicians to well-trained musicians (range ¼ 32–
which could be interpreted as a general increase of
111, M ¼ 75.8, SD ¼ 20.7; nonmusicians: M ¼ 57.75,
relaxation over time in participants while being seated.
SD ¼ 11.73; musicians: M ¼ 93.81, SD ¼ 9.20).
Contrary to our expectations, emotions other than hap-
Neither sex nor music sophistication yielded any
piness and sadness were also affected, specifically dis-
main effects on the dependent measures in this study;
gust and fear in the presence of ‘‘sad’’ music. However,
all Fs  2.85, p  .10. Moreover, these variables also did
the changes indicated a somewhat subtle shift of emo-
not interact with other independent measures (time 
tional states. Furthermore, the co-occurrence of emo-
sex  music condition; time  music sophistication 
tional changes with respect to negative emotions
music condition; all Fs  1.84, p  .14).
including sadness, fear, and disgust is common accord-
ing to the Differential Emotion Theory (Izard, 1977).
Discussion Considering ANS responses, the present study
revealed both similarities and differences with respect
We designed the present study to investigate the psy- to the precursor study by Lundqvist et al. (2009). In that
chophysiological effects of listening to music excerpts study, no differences between baseline and music con-
representing ‘‘happiness’’ and ‘‘sadness’’ in healthy adult ditions were reported. By contrast, our findings show
listeners. Following Lunqvist et al. (2009), we assumed that, in comparison to baseline, skin conductance levels
similar patterns of responses would occur in behavioral decreased across both music conditions, albeit more
as well as physiological measures. In particular, we strongly in response to ‘‘sad’’ music, perhaps indicating
expected that musically induced ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ an overall trend of physiological relaxation. However,
emotions would evoke differential changes from pre- respiratory rate (a measure not included in Lundqvist
to post-measurements in terms of emotion ratings as et al., 2009) increased in response to ‘‘happy’’ music
well as differential time course of physiological only, but not in the presence of ‘‘sad’’ music. Although
responses. Furthermore, we expected that levels of the literature on music listening and respiration is rel-
music sophistication modulated those. atively scarce, elevated rates of breathing in response to
First, participants felt significantly less ‘‘happy’’ after music listening are common (Ellis & Brighouse, 1952).
listening to music of either emotion category. However, With respect to our final physiological measure, finger

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512 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

temperature, the hypothesized increase in response to points to a correlation between zygomaticus/corrugator

listening to ‘‘happy’’ music was not observed, thus activation on the one hand, and positive/negative stimulus
resembling findings by Blood and Zatorre (2001) and valence on the other (Ellis & Simons, 2005; Witvliet, 1998).
Craig (2005). To conclude so far, the music conditions induced distinct
Considering change scores, skin conductance levels patterns of physiological activation and deactivation,
were greater during listening to ‘‘happy’’ music as com- which indicate that ‘‘sad’’ music had overall greater phys-
pared to ‘‘sad’’ music, which is in line with Lundqvist iological effects than ‘‘happy’’ music with respect to both
et al. (2009) as well as with other studies (Khalfa et al., deactivation and facial muscular responses.
2002, 2008). These findings support the notion of
a rather robust association between highly activating ORDER EFFECTS
music and psychophysiological indicators of arousal The observed order effects between the first and second
(Gomez & Danuser, 2007; Trochidis, Sears, Trân, & music excerpt for skin conductance and temperature
McAdams, 2013). In addition, Rickard (2004) found may represent an orienting response, which means that
significantly greater increases in skin conductance when a reaction to a novel stimulus occurred, triggering auto-
listening to emotionally powerful music. She concluded nomic reactions that are unrelated to the nature of the
that an intense emotional reaction to music, in general, is stimulation. Orienting responses have been frequently
accompanied by an increase of skin conductance level. reported in studies using skin conductance (Dawson,
Listeners responded to listening to ‘‘happy’’ music with Schell, & Filion, 2016).
relatively faster breathing as compared to ‘‘sad’’ music. As
the above analysis reveals, breathing was, in fact, unaf-
MUSIC EXPERTISE
fected by the latter music condition. This pattern, if con-
sidered along with heart rate, provides further indication Against expectations, no differences with regard to musi-
that the ‘‘sad’’ music used in this study must not be cality were found. Differences between musicians and
equated with ‘relaxing’ music despite the fact, that some nonmusicians were overall negligible, although a highly
parameters did suggest deactivation, specifically skin reliable construct for the assessment of music sophistica-
conductance levels. The observation that heart rate was tion was applied here (Schaal et al., 2014). However, this
not significantly affected resonates well with several pre- observation is corroborated by previous work suggesting
vious studies (Ellis & Brighouse, 1952; Gomez & Danu- that emotional reactions to music are more strongly asso-
ser, 2007; Khalfa et al., 2008; Lundqvist et al. 2009). ciated with listener characteristics other than music
However, it may be that changes in heart rate occur with expertise (Bigand et al., 2005), let alone characteristics
some latency after exposure to music has ceased (Ber- of the music stimuli as well as situation and context of
nardi et al., 2006; Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki, 1996). More- listening. Nevertheless, this does not preclude differences
over, although the BVP-sensor is a common instrument in listening strategies between musicians and nonmusi-
to measure heart rate, it delivers more artifacts and shows cians that could extend to some components of emo-
less sensitivity in comparison to an electrocardiogram tional processing (e.g., Bigand & Poulin-Charronnat,
(ECG). Maybe the lack of outcome regarding heart rate 2006). In addition, only amateur musicians took part in
in our study as well as in Lundqvist et al. (2009) is due to our study. Maybe professional musicians are more likely
the limited sensitivity of the BVP-sensor. to experience strong emotions in music.
The electromyographic measurements show a greater
activity at the zygomaticus region when listening to EFFECTS OF SEX
‘‘happy’’ music in comparison to the ‘‘sad’’ music condi- Neither Lundqvist et al. (2009) nor the present findings
tion. Contrary to the results of Lundqvist et al. (2009) entail significant sex differences in subjective and auto-
there is also an increase in corrugator activity when listen- nomic responses. Similar findings have been reported in
ing to ‘‘sad’’ music. The patterns of changes in corrugator the past (Kallinen, 2005; Rickard, 2004; Robazza et al.,
and zygomaticus activity were found in line with the 1994). Kallinen (2005) concluded that certain demo-
hypothesis of differential activation of these muscles with graphic variables including sex could be less important
respect to the music conditions. By contrast, facial elec- in emotional responses to music as compared to other
tromyography was not affected by ‘‘happy’’ music per se, if variables such as age, physical or mental condition, or
only the comparison to baseline is considered, but only in music experience of the listener. Recently, personality
relation to ‘‘sad’’ music. These results, at least in part, traits have been considered as significant moderators
support the findings of previous research (Khalfa et al., of emotional ratings of music (Vuoskoski & Eerola,
2008; Thayer & Faith, 2006). Further, previous work 2011).

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 Psychophysiology of Music Listening and Emotion 513

TIME BLOCK EFFECTS to elicit a variety of feelings. That is supported by the

Physiological recordings revealed significant changes results of Hunter et al. (2008). In two experiments, par-
over time during listening across conditions for several ticipants listened to 30-sec excerpts of ‘‘happy’’ and
parameters. These patterns reveal the dynamic nature of ‘‘sad’’ songs that varied in tempo (fast and slow) and
induced bodily changes in the course of listening. It is mode (major and minor). The ratings of ‘‘happiness’’
likely that some of the dynamics continue to unfold and ‘‘sadness’’ showed that music could elicit mixed
during the silence periods between music presentations. feelings. A subsequent investigation (Hunter, Schellen-
However, it remains a methodologically challenging berg, & Schimmack, 2010) also showed that ‘‘sad’’ music
task to decompose the various trends of continued excerpts elicit more ambivalent ratings than did
response to the music activation and the potentially ‘‘happy’’ music excerpts. Moreover, the present study
counteracting forces of silence and the associated shift showed a slight, but significant decrease in happiness
of perceptual and attentive focus from auditory to other when listening to ‘‘happy’’ music, when pre- and post-
environmental information. At least in this study, it can measurements were compared. Lundqvist et al. (2009)
be concluded that roughly two minutes of exposure to did not examine this comparison. Different approaches
music suffice to evoke significant physiological reac- could be an explanation for this decrease. When the
tions including directional trends in some parameters, participants arrived at the laboratory, they were in a pos-
specifically skin conductance, respiratory rate, and itive mood and accordingly showed high ratings for
facial electromyography. happiness. The music excerpts were not specially
selected for them, so it might not be surprising that the
LIMITATIONS ‘‘happy’’ music could not increase happiness ratings. In
To the best of our knowledge, there have been few addition, the experimental condition could be unfamil-
attempts to replicate Lundqvist et al. (2009) in order iar to the participants, which might lead to a decrease of
to ascertain the reproducibility of the rather complex happiness in general. Nonetheless, the additional ratings
pattern of observations. Although we have been success- of ‘‘wakefulness,’’ ‘‘attention,’’ and ‘‘tension’’ before and
ful to some extent in reproducing the previous findings, after the experiment showed no significant changes, so
there remain a number of issues. Recent work on repro- a fundamental change in mood can be eliminated.
ducibility of psychological research (Open Science Col- The current study used a video condition between the
laboration, 2015) can be seen as the perhaps most single music excerpts to reduce carry-over effects of
profound response so far to a long-standing debate on the emotional tone from one music excerpt to the next.
the importance of replication. Despite the absence of The duration of an emotional episode, however, can last
a single measure to assess the replication success, the from a few seconds up to several hours (Verduyn, Del-
authors found: a) a significant reduction of successful vaux, Van Coillie, Tuerlinckx, & Van Mechelen, 2009).
replication in a sample of 100 studies across several This variability of duration is caused by different fac-
different measures of replication success, and b) a sub- tors, for example, personality traits, the importance, and
stantial general decline of effect sizes across studies. As intensity of the eliciting stimulus or the reappearance of
can be seen in Table 4, effect sizes in the previous study a stimulus. There are also differences between emotions;
were high, so there was a chance to replicate the pattern for example, ‘‘sadness’’ seems to be more persistent than
of findings. Nevertheless, the substantial effect of finger ‘‘joy’’ or ‘‘anger’’ (Verduyn, Van Mechelen, & Tuerlinckx,
temperature changes notwithstanding, we were unable 2011). Therefore, we assume that potential carry-over
to reproduce this finding in the precursor study. effects, if present at all in our study, were similar to those
In the present study, in contrast with the findings of in the previous study by Lundqvist et al. (2009).
Lundqvist et al. (2009), the co-occurrence of different For future studies, it would be advisable to add a silent
basic emotions while listening to ‘‘happy’’ and ‘‘sad’’ control condition supplementing exposure to emotional
music could be observed. The ‘‘sad’’ music excerpts were music excerpts. It would thereby be possible to deter-
also linked to enhanced negative feelings including ‘‘dis- mine a clearer coherence between emotional ratings,
gust’’ and ‘‘fear.’’ Therefore, the physiological responses respectively autonomic responses and corresponding
might reflect, at least in part, negative valence in broader condition over time.
terms and not just the experience of musical sadness. Individual difference variables like personality or
Facial muscle activity in particular is strongly related to music preferences were not included in this study. For
affective valence (Bradley & Lang, 2000; Juslin et al., example, Kallinen and Ravaja (2006) found that extra-
2013; Larsen, Norris, & Cacioppo, 2003). Nevertheless, version is positively associated with the overall intensity
music is a complex stimulus and it is a quality of music of emotions like ‘‘happiness,’’ ‘‘sadness,’’ and ‘‘tenderness’’

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514 Antje Bullack, Niklas Büdenbender, Ingo Roden, & Gunter Kreutz

in response to music, whereas Kreutz et al. (2007) no professional musicians represented in the study sam-
observed influences of stylistic preferences on emotional ple. In addition, listeners were recruited from a healthy
responses to music excerpts. Moreover, Liljeström et al. student population. It would be of interest to extend the
(2012) found that self-chosen music arouses more present work to other populations including children
intense emotions as randomly selected music as indicated and older adults as well as individuals suffering from
by psychological and physiological markers. By contrast, physical and/or mental health problems. Moreover, the
however, work by Iwanaga and Moroki (1999) as well as present study adds further evidence suggesting that
Bernardi et al. (2006) suggested little influence of music music listening to ‘‘sad’’ music evokes stronger and
preference on physiological measures. more complex responses than does ‘‘happy’’ music. It
would be of interest to examine more systematically
Conclusions to what extent this asymmetry arises from music-,
listener-, or from task-related factors. In other words,
The present results corroborate the view that listening the social and cultural dimensions of psychophysiolog-
to music evokes differential emotional responses at both ical responses need to be accounted for in order to build
behavioral and physiological levels, thus supporting coherent frameworks to understand the behavioral
the philosophical emotivist position. Therefore, the implications of music listening in everyday life.
findings add further support to the notion that ‘‘happy’’ Correspondence concerning this article should be
and ‘‘sad’’ music can be used to effectively modulate addressed to Antje Bullack, Department of Music, Uni-
emotional states as reflected, for example, in facial elec- versity of Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114–118,
tromyography, skin conductance, and respiration. 26111 Oldenburg, Germany. E-mail: antje.bullack@uni-
Importantly, there seems to be little influence of poten- oldenburg.de; or Gunter Kreutz, Department of Music,
tially moderating variables such as music sophistication Ammerländer Heerstr. 114–118, 26111 Oldenburg, Ger-
or sex. However, more research is needed, as there were many. E-mail: [email protected]

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