National Aviation Academy

Approved Training Organization

AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

As an aircraft’s speed increases, its profile drag increases. To reduce drag and save fuel, the aircraft should
be as streamlined as possible. For fixed landing gear, the method used to streamline the gear is to fit aerofoil cross-
section fairings to the legs and more bulbous spats around the wheels, which conform where possible to the
fineness ratio of 4:1.

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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

Retracting the gear into wheel bays and fairing the apertures with doors removes the gearcreated element of the
profile drag. Diagram 7.1 represents the same aircraft fitted with a fixed gear without any fairing, then with the gear
fully faired, and finally with a retractable gear raised.
LANDING

When an aircraft lands, there are three factors that come into play. These are mass, vertical velocity at touchdown
(sink rate), and forward velocity at touchdown.
As mass times velocity equals force at touchdown, the aircraft exerts a downward force via its landing gear to the
Earth. Obviously, the greater the landing mass or the greater the sink rate, the greater the force created. The Earth
pushes back against the aircraft, as every force has an equal and opposite reaction. Unless controlled, this causes
the aircraft to recoil or bounce back into the air before touching down again. Thus, a landing can continue in a series
of kangaroo hops down the runway, or until the aircraft is pushed skyward but is lower than its stalling speed and
crashes.
This is due to the fact that at the initial touchdown, the vertical component of the landing force is absorbed, leaving
the mass. As the reaction is now greater than the mass alone, the aircraft bounces back into the air to restart the
process.

SUSPENSION/SHOCK ABSORBER SYSTEMS FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFT

The original Wright Flyer had no shock absorbing system as its landing gear took the form of a wooden sledge.
Attachment of pneumatic bicycle wheels to later versions gave very little suspension, for like all pneumatic tyres, the
mass of the vehicle to which the tyres are fitted is supported by the gas pressure acting against the tyre cover.

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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

To improve the suspension, the following systems were introduced:

 Bungee cords/bungee blocks

 Spring steel legs
 Torsion bar

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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

Diagram 7.2 illustrates bungee cords/bungee blocks, a system used on early aircraft and still in use on many
aircraft. It consists of a series of bungee cord rings or rubber blocks (bungee blocks) mounted inside a tubular
housing, which is connected to the aircraft’s structure. The lower section of the leg with the wheel attached presses
upward against the bungee blocks.

This system is frequently used on very light G.A. aircraft. It consists of several strips of spring grade steel
clamped together to form a bar. One end is attached to the fuselage structure, the other to a stub axle, as shown in
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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

diagram 7.3. On landing, the force of the aircraft sinking against the resistance of the runway causes the spring steel
legs to start bending and absorbing the landing energy. As with the bungee system, energy absorbed by the spring
steel is dissipated back into the fuselage structure at a controlled rate. Again, the aircraft sways and bounces as it
taxis over uneven ground.

The torsion bar, made of an elastic material that can withstand torsional loading, is attached to the fuselage
structure at one end. A bearing supports the torsion bar where it passes through the fuselage skin. It is attached to a
radius arm, so named as in its action it scribes an arc of a circle, as diagram 7.4 shows.
In flight, the torsion bar is unloaded. On touchdown, the radius leg moves backward and upward, applying a
torque load to the torsion bar. As with the bungee system and spring leg system, the landing load energy absorbed
by the torsion bar is dissipated back into the fuselage structure at a

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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

controlled rate. Again, the aircraft sways and bounces as it taxis over uneven ground.
As can be seen in diagram 7.4, these systems do not absorb the landing load other than controlling the rate at
which the load is dissipated into the aircraft’s structure. To control the landing load, absorb the shock, and control
the rate of recoil, oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers are used.

Oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers, generically referred to as oleos, function on the principle that fluid is
considered incompressible, and that gas can be compressed. The pressure raised in the gas is equal to the force
exerted in compressing it.
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 National Aviation Academy
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Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

As the gas is compressed, raising its pressure,

energy is absorbed and converted into heat. This is
dissipated into the enclosing container by conduction and
then to atmosphere by convection and radiation.
Controlling the rate at which the gas can compress and
expand allows the landing load and recoil action to be
controlled. Oleo shock absorbers can only absorb vertical
loads.
THE GAS CHARGE
The gas charge, normally nitrogen as it is inert (can
be compressed air for light G.A. aircraft), supports the
weight of the aircraft. The reason for using an inert gas is to
prevent dieseling. If air is used in place of an inert gas, as
the mineral fluid is kerosene based, there is a danger that
the oil vapour within the leg will explode should the
temperature and pressure reach a sufficient value. Aircraft
operated in the air transport role must use nitrogen or
another suitable inert gas for the gas charge.

A gas pressure versus extension graph, shown in

diagram 7.6, allows the engineers to check that
the oleo is correctly charged. Increasing the aircraft’s mass
decreases the oleo extension, and

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

the gas charge pressure increases.

THE OIL CHARGE

An oil charge acts as a damper to control both the rate of compression during initial touchdown landing load and the
recoil action of the leg. As the gas pressure increases, so does the pressure within the oil column.There are two
main designs for oleos: separated and unseparated. This refers to whether the oil and gas interface or have a
physical separator between them. Unseparated oleos are cheaper to manufacture and are frequently used on light
aircraft with both fixed and retractable landing gear. One of the disadvantages of this system is that the gas/oil
charges can mix, leading to poor damping (spongy operation).

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 National Aviation Academy
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AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

Diagram 7.7 shows a basic light aircraft unseparated oleo. The pressure in the gas charge supports the aircraft’s
mass. This acts directly on the fluid, raising its pressure. When the aircraft is in flight, the gas pressure and the
weight of the lower leg and wheel assembly extend the oleo leg to its maximum length. As the wheels touch down,
the lower leg is pushed upward as the upper leg moves downward. This action decreases the volume inside the
cylinder.
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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

As the fixed piston is attached to the upper leg, this compression forces the piston into the fluid. The pressure in the
fluid increases. However, the fluid is able to flow from the chamber in the lower leg via an orifice in the fixed piston.
The rate at which the fluid can transfer from the chamber in the lower leg is controlled by the metering rod, which is
moving upward through the orifice as the leg becomes compressed. This acts as a variable restrictor, as it
progressively reduces the size of the orifice.

This action allows the oleo to absorb the energy of the landing load by converting it into pressure.
The pressure that has built up inside the gas charge acts to make the aircraft recoil. This is controlled by limiting the
speed at which the oleo is able to extend. As the gas pressure acts to push the aircraft upward, the fluid flow rate
through the restricted orifice provides this limiting action. Throughout these operations, energy is dissipated as heat
into the leg castings. During ground manoeuvres, the oleos absorb any unevenness in the pavement surfaces.

Note: Some designs fit the metering rod in the top cylinder and the piston to the bottom cylinder.
However, the function remains the same.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

The oleo leg is manufactured as two tubes, one sliding inside the other. As shown in diagram 7.8, a torque link is
fitted to ensure that they remain in alignment (hence the wheel remains in alignment with the aircraft’s centreline).
The whole torque link has three pivot points, the upper link at its attachment to the upper leg, the lower link at its
attachment to the lower leg, and in the middle where the two links are joined together.
This allows the torque link to move as the leg shortens and lengthens. The link is not designed to cope with
the excessive side loads that can be created by trying to turn in a tighter circle than the specified minimum radius.
This creates wear in the link joints that can lead to wheel shimmy.
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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

HEAVY LANDINGS
In the event that the landing load is greater than the load that the oleo was designed for, the oleo can bottom
out. This is where the leg’s travel is greater than the available distance, and the top casting can physically touch the
bottom casting.

Obviously, the oleo cannot function properly in this condition, and the shock that it would normally absorb is
fed into the aircraft structure. In this situation, the aircraft needs to undergo heavy landing checks to ensure that it
has not suffered any structural damage.

OIL CHARGE – LEAKS OR LOSSES

The most likely place for an oleo oil leak is from the gland seal at the bottom of the upper leg. As oil is lost,
there is a loss in the oleo’s damping action. The aircraft is spongy in the landing roll out and ground manoeuvres.
The aircraft also appears to be unbalanced (i.e. nose down, wing down, etc.) on the ground. If an aircraft appears to
be low on its oleos and this is remedied by adding nitrogen without ascertaining if the oil charge is correct (known as
“adding an inch of nitrogen”), it can lead to the aircraft losing its damping action and bottoming out the oleo legs.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

The designers of certified aircraft that are piston or turboprop powered must take into account the effect of
either the nose leg for a tricycle undercarriage aircraft, or the main gear for a taildragger, collapsing. This is to
ensure that the propellers do not contact the ground in the landing run. Diagram 7.9 shows the prop clearance for a
tail-wheel aircraft.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

SEPARATED OLEO

Medium and large aircraft use the separated oleo system not only for safety against dieseling, but also because the
system is more able to cope with the greater recoil force that these aircraft produce. Diagram 7.10 shows the basic
component parts of this design. In this system, the upper and lower legs form a cylinder that is divided into two
separate chambers by a free floating piston or separator. Above the separator is the fluid chamber, and below the
separator is the gas chamber.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

Attached to the lower leg, but in the fluid chamber, is a piston. This has a simple non-return valve that opens
and closes a series of ports, and a fixed metered orifice allowing fluid to pass from one side to the other, at two
differently controlled rates. The internal operation of the oleo in four situations is shown in diagram 7.11 and
explained in the following paragraphs.
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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

UNLOADED
In flight with the gear lowered, the oleo is unloaded and extended to its maximum length, and the internal
volume is at its greatest. However, as the oil charge is a fixed volume at a given pressure, the gas expands and
pushes the piston upward, and the internal pressures equalise.
LANDING LOAD
On touchdown, the oleo shortens, forcing the piston upward into the oil. As oil is considered incompressible at
these pressures, the upward movement of the piston forces the oil through the non-return valves and the metered
orifice into the lower portion of its chamber in the lower leg. This has a smaller diameter, so the oil acts against the
piston pushing it downward, compressing the gas and raising its pressure.
RECOIL
When the initial touchdown load has been absorbed and the recoil action starts, the gas pressure pushes the
piston upward, trying to expel the fluid and lengthen the oleo. The rate of recoil is less than the original compression,
as the non-return valve action blocks off all but the metered orifice, which has a fixed flow rate. As the fluid transfers
across the piston, the pressure in the gas drops. In the landing run, the oleo goes through several progressively
smaller compression/recoil cycles.
STATIC LOAD
When the aircraft is static (i.e. stationary on the ground and without any mass added or subtracted), the gas
and fluid find their own level as the gas pressure, hence fluid pressure, equals the weight of the aircraft. Operators
must be aware that any mass added to the aircraft results in the oleo shortening, as the gas compresses to equal
the load applied. This basic fact catches many who leave equipment under an aircraft or boarding steps too close to
the fuselage doors before a refuel commences.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

In this design, the aircraft is supported by a small diameter wheel mounted at the rear of the fuselage with two
main wheels located forward under the heaviest/strongest section of the wing, which simplifies attachment to the
wing’s structure. This also allows the main wheels’ track to be increased, which adds to ground stability. To aid
ground manoeuvring and allow the aircraft to be steered using the rudder, the tail wheel takes the form of a castor
where the wheel’s axle is located behind the pivot.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

These early tail wheels were allowed to pivot freely, termed fully castoring, similar to the wheels of a
shopping trolley. Diagram 7.13 shows a fully castoring wheel. This allows the pilot to give a burst of prop wash over
a deflected rudder to turn the aircraft for taxiing. However, unless the aircraft takes off directly into wind, there is a
danger that the tail will weather cock the aircraft into wind on the take-off or landing run. This became a problem for
aircraft using prepared concrete runways in lieu of grass fields, and led to the introduction of the lockable tail wheel.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

The other problem with fully castoring tail wheels is that any lateral movement of the rear of the fuselage
results in the tail wheel pivoting and following the movement. If the turning moment at the tail of the aircraft is large
enough, the aircraft can pivot around and face the direction from which it came. This is termed ground looping. The
further aft the CG, the greater the turning moment created by any lateral movement of the tail, as in diagram 7.14.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

LOCKABLE TAIL WHEEL — PILOT-OPERATED

The lockable tail wheel takes two forms, pilot-operated and load-operated. In the pilot-operated system used
on larger aircraft, when both the aircraft and tail wheel are longitudinally aligned on the runway, the pilot releases a
spring-loaded pin to lock the tail wheel fore and aft. As the tail wheel is unable to pivot, any tendency for the tail of
the aircraft to swing laterally creates a side load on the wheel. The friction between the tyre and the ground resists
this lateral turning moment, thus preventing the tail from swinging.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

In the load-operated design used

on light aircraft, the tail wheel is spring-
loaded to remain fore and aft until the
side load applied to the wheel is greater
than the spring’s force. This normally
occurs when the individual wheel brakes
are applied, allowing the pilot to steer the
aircraft on the ground. Otherwise, the
wheel remains locked fore and aft. A
reduction in the springs’ force can result
in the aircraft unexpectedly ground
looping.

TAIL WHEELS AND NOSING OVER

Apart from ground looping, the other problem with tail wheel aircraft is the possibility of the aircraft tipping onto
its nose when braking on landing. The challenges of handling tail wheel aircraft led to the adoption of nose wheels
for air transport aircraft.

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 National Aviation Academy
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Nose wheels, or in JAA terms, auxiliary wheels, allow aircraft to be almost horizontal when parked or ground
manoeuvring. This gives the pilot the advantage of a clear view ahead without having to weave the aircraft. It also
allows the aircraft to be steered so that the fuselage follows the nose, rather than the tail having to be swung in the
opposite direction to the intended course. A tricycle arrangement is such that the nose wheel forms the apex of the
landing gear triangle.

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FULLY CASTORING NOSE WHEEL

For some light aircraft, the nose wheel’s axle is located behind the vertical leg to simplify the steering. This
arrangement allows the wheel to pivot like the front wheels of a shopping trolley. To steer the aircraft, the pilot uses
differential braking, whereby one main wheel is braked more than the other. This results in the aircraft pivoting
around the braked wheel. As the nose wheel is behind the leg, it pivots to follow the fuselage.

While this system is simple, it has the disadvantage of suffering from shimmy. To overcome this, a specialist
tyre called a Marstrand tyre is used. Both shimmy and Marstrand tyres are covered later in these notes. As this
form of steering is not precise, most modern tricycle undercarriage light aircraft use a direct steering system.

STEERABLE NOSE WHEELS — LIGHT AIRCRAFT WITH FIXED NDERCARRIAGES

Steerable nose wheels are directly linked to the pilot’s rudder pedals. For most light aircraft, the pilot is able to
steer the nose wheel through an arc 37° each side of the aircraft’s longitudinal centreline. A bungee spring is
incorporated into both steering rods. This prevents excessive force created by sudden large rudder pedal
movements from being transmitted to the nose wheel steering system when the wheel is on the ground.

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On all aircraft with retractable gear, the nose

wheel bays are very narrow in relation to the nose gear
itself. This requires the nose wheel to be in a fore and
aft condition before it is raised. Otherwise, the wheel
impacts against the bay’s structure, damaging it and
possibly jamming, thus preventing it from being fully
retracted or lowered. During flight, the nose wheel’s
steering must be disconnected from the rudder pedals to
prevent any input turning the wheel while it is retracted.

Referring to diagram 7.17, the steering head of the

retractable leg engages into a pivoting link (blocked in
black), which is connected to the steering rods. On
retraction, the steering head moves out of the pivoting
link and follows a guide, which centralises the wheel.

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Where the nose wheel is steerable, it is possible for the tyre to oscillate either side of the aircraft’s track due to play
in the linkages. To overcome this, a shimmy damper is fitted. On light aircraft, this consists of a housing attached to
the upper leg, which contains a piston and two compression springs, as shown in diagram 7.18. The piston is
connected to the steerable lower leg. When the wheel is fore and aft, the compression in the springs is equal. If the
wheel starts to turn, it increases the compression, resisting its movement, which acts to return it to the fore and aft
position. Worn shimmy dampers and torque links are the most common cause of nose wheel shimmy.

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For larger aircraft, hydraulic damper struts are used similar to the one shown in diagram 7.19. This system
uses a balanced actuator with metered orifices drilled through the piston. As the lower leg starts to oscillate, the
piston is moved through the fluid. As the orifices limit the rate of transfer from one side of the piston to the other,
damping occurs, and the pressure build-up against the piston resists the turning force of the oscillation. Attaching
the shimmy damper to the steering ring allows the nose wheel to be turned and still maintain shimmy damping.

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To overcome the greater forces acting on the nose wheel, these aircraft use hydraulic power systems. The
pilots have two steering controls. For alignment of the aircraft to the runway during landing and take-off, the pilots’
rudder pedals move the nose wheel through 7° of arc either side of the centreline.

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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

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When the aircraft’s speed falls below 60 kt, the pilot’s control wheel
or tiller bar takes effect. On some older aircraft, this was a small hand
wheel attached to the control column with a reference datum to show when
the nose wheels were fore and aft. Modern aircraft mount the control wheel
on the side panels. These are biased to neutral, and both captain and co-
pilot have this facility. In diagram 7.20, the steering motor in the photograph
is a rectangular box attached to the upper leg casting with the torque links
below it. Depending on design, the lower leg can be rotated using
two hydraulic linear actuators or a rotary actuator.

Where linear actuators are used, when the pilot makes an input to
turn right fluid from the aircraft’s hydraulic power system is allowed to enter
the first chamber of the right hand actuator and the second chamber of the
left hand actuator, as diagram 7.21 illustrates. This turns the steering ring,
and the lower leg is turned via the torque link.

When the wheels are in alignment with the centreline of the aircraft, hydraulic pressure can be brought into a
central feed to all four chambers that are diagonally interlinked. As movement of the wheel in either direction results
in expelling fluid from the first chamber of one actuator to the second chamber of the other actuator, the pressure
resists this movement and damps the oscillations.
As the pilot rotates the aircraft and the nose leg extends, an input is given to the steering to centralise the
nose wheel in the fore and aft position. Refer to diagram 7.22 for an illustration. When undercarriage retraction is
selected, an input hydraulically locks it in the fore and aft position.

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NOSE WHEEL RUMBLE

As nose wheels are not braked, there is a possibility that the nose wheel will continue to rotate for a period of
time after retraction, which creates a rumble and a gyroscopic mass. To prevent this rotation, a sprung steel strip
that is fitted in the nose bay contacts the tyre and stops the wheel from turning. Diagram 7.20 shows this.

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For large air transport aircraft such as the Airbus A340, Boeing 747, Lockheed Tri Star, and McDonnell
Douglas DC-10, the aircraft is supported on both wing gear and body gear. On these aircraft, the body gear is linked
to the pilot’s control wheel to allow the aircraft to turn. When the aircraft has slowed down below 60 kt, steering
inputs to the nose wheel activate a proportional steering signal in the opposite direction for the body gear. This
reduces the aircraft’s turning radius. In diagram 7.23, the body gear can be seen between the wing gears.

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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

Diagram 7.24 shows a medium aircraft’s turning circle. The nose wheel can be steered to 75°either side of the
centreline, but the effective angle of steering is 70 °. The aircraft manufacturer’s handbook always quotes the
aircraft’s minimum turning radius. This should not be reduced, as it leads to excessive stresses being created in the
inside leg. This smallest turning circle is achieved using nose wheel steering, inner wheel braking, and body gear
steering where fitted. Aircraft should always be turned using the largest turning radius practicable to reduce the
stresses on the main undercarriage gear.

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NOSE WHEEL STEERING DISCONNECT

To allow the nose wheel of aircraft fitted with powered steering to be turned when they are being towed or
pushed, a steering disconnect mechanism is fitted. In many designs, it is not possible to attach the tow bar until the
steering disconnect cover cap is removed and the steering disconnected.

As a safeguard, it is physically impossible to refit the cover cap without reconnecting the steering. The pilot is
also informed by a caution caption if the steering is inoperative. Both of these measures ensure that the pilot has
control of the steering prior to a take-off run.

MAIN GEAR BAYS — LOW-WING AIRCRAFT

On most modern medium/large air transport aircraft, the main undercarriage legs are attached to the wing
main spar and rear or auxiliary spar. These legs retract inward into the wheel well. Originally, the wheel bay was
part of the wing structure close to the wing root. However, as aircraft have become larger and heavier, the main
gear has become larger. It is now common practice for the wheel bay to be part of the fuselage structure with the
wheel bay doors forming part of the fairing around the fuselage/wing. Undercarriages that retract laterally have no
effect on the aircraft’s longitudinal C of G.

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In the case of high-wing turboprops, like the one shown in diagram 7.25, it is common practice for the
undercarriage bay to be formed and faired as part of the engine nacelle. These aircraft undercarriages either retract
forward or rearward, and extension and retraction cause the aircraft’s longitudinal C of G to move.

HIGH-WING TURBINE AIRCRAFT

For high-wing turbine powered aircraft, such as the BAe 146, the main gear is mounted and stowed in the
fuselage. This requires the whole gear to articulate and fold up to take up the minimum space possible. These
designs, by their nature, are complicated, and fuselage mounting reduces the wheel track.

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WHEEL LAYOUTS
As aircraft developed and their weight increased,
tyre pressures had to increase if the tyre size and
undercarriage bay were not to become excessive (see
tyres in the following chapter). As modern aircraft
operate on high-pressure tyres (up to 315 psi), more
wheels were required to be
fitted to the undercarriage to support the weight of ever
larger aircraft.

Some of the wheel mounting systems are shown in

diagram 7.26:
1 Half fork
2 Fork
3 Twin wheel, mounted on the same axle line
4 Tandem wheels
5 Bogies of four or six-wheel configuration for
large air transport aircraft.

The bogie beam attaches via a pivot to the bottom of the oleo leg. Refer to diagram 7.27. The lower leg is
kept in fore and aft alignment by torque links. The function of the bogie beam is to locate and support the axles.

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Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

To lessen the friction created when the bogie wheels touch down, it is standard practice for one pair of bogie
wheels to contact the runway first. This allows them to speed up and give the aircraft directional control. If all bogie
wheels were to touch down simultaneously, it is possible that the friction created would pivot the nose gear onto the
runway with such force as to cause structural damage.
It depends on the aircraft designer as to whether the front wheels (Airbus) or the rear wheels (Boeing) touch
down first. One of the reasons for using the front wheels is that it reduces the lever arm between the touchdown
point and the nose wheel.

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To ensure that the bogie takes the correct

position for landing (trail) and for retraction into the
undercarriage bay, a hydraulic trim jack is used.
Refer to diagram 7.28 for an illustration. This can
also function as a hop damper.

HOP DAMPER

To prevent the bogie wheels from bouncing

over rough surfaces and to ensure that the wheels
remain in contact with the runway, a hop damper
is pressurised and forms an actuator forcing the
front wheels downward.

To support the lower leg against the forces

of friction, a fore stay or drag strut is fitted, as in
the left picture of diagram 7.29. To prevent the
undercarriage from collapsing sideways, a side
stay is fitted. As the gear has to retract sideways into the wheel bay, the side stay is articulated. In the left
undercarriage of diagram 7.29, the side stay is held locked up and down by hook locks. This is not always the
case, as in the right undercarriage of the diagram, where a geometric locking
mechanism is used for the side stay.
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A smaller cross-bracing geometric lock, actuated by a

small hydraulic jack, can also lock the side stay. Using
overcentre locks ensures that the gear remains down when
hydraulic power has been removed. To retract the gear,
hydraulic sequencing is required to operate the locking actuator
first before the retraction actuator can retract the gear.

To ensure that all the components of the side stay form a solid
rod when extended, it is manufactured as an overcentre or
geometric lock, as in diagram 7.30. The two parts of the lock are
manufactured so that when they butt together at the hinge (as
shown in 1), their hinge point is below a line drawn from the
centre of each rod end. Any force applied from the direction of
arrow A, locks the strut more firmly, as does compression force applied to each end.

To unlock the joint, a force in the direction of arrow B must overcome the compression force applied to the
ends of the strut and be able to push the hinge up through the centreline (as shown in 2). The compression forces
are a proportion of the mass of the aircraft. When the wheels have left the ground, the compression load is

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removed. A small hydraulic actuator can exert sufficient force in the direction of arrow B to push or pull the strut
through the centreline, breaking the lock (as shown in 3).

Note: Overcentre locks are not to be used as up locks, only as down locks.

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In an air transport aircraft, the undercarriage is held in the up position using mechanical hook locks. This
ensures that the gear remains up in normal flight in the event of loss of hydraulic power, as the cam roller makes a
physical lock preventing the hook from rotating open, as shown in the left of diagram 7.31.
The hook lock can take the form of a single hook (as shown in diagram 7.31) or a pincer. The hook lock has a
pivot point and a profiled outline. A small hydraulic actuator operates a lever with a roller, which follows the cam
profile on the hook. When the pilot selects undercarriage down, hydraulic pressure is sequenced into the up lock
actuator, forcing the ram outward. The roller is forced to ride over the cam profile of the hook and moves into the
lower profile cut out, where it pushes against the hook and with the action of the spring rolls the hook open.
On the “up” selection, the undercarriage roller strikes the hook and forces it to rotate back to the closed
position, as the force produced by the retraction actuator is greater than the force produced by the up lock actuator.
EMERGENCY LOWERING
There is a JAA requirement that in the event of hydraulic failure, there must be a separate means of lowering
the undercarriage. In some aircraft, this takes the form of compressed nitrogen or air. This is a one-shot system. If
the pilot is unable to achieve satisfactory gear down indications, the undercarriage selector is left in the down
position, and a guarded emergency selector is operated. Operating this selector allows compressed gas into the
aircraft’s undercarriage down line. To ease the operation, fluid from the undercarriage up lines is jettisoned
overboard. This ensures that any back pressure created by the fluid is minimal, and the gear can snap to the locked
down, safe condition.

To comply with the JAA requirement, g force release force is an acceptable method. The pilot puts the aircraft
through a series of manoeuvres, first creating negative g, then positive g (manoeuvres laid down in the aircraft flight
manual). The positive g effectively increases the weight of the gear acting downward on the up lock hooks. As the
pivot point of the hook is offset from the centre point of the undercarriage roller, a large turning moment is made.

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This forces the hook round and at the same time, due to the gear lever being in the down selected position, the cam
roller is forced to turn. As the hook starts to rotate, the spring ensures the hook snaps clear, allowing the gear to
drop. For the main gears, the mass times acceleration by gravity snaps the gear into the locked condition. Airflow
aids extension of nose gears that retract forward.

Wheel bay doors, frequently referred to as D doors, have their own up locks. These are sequenced to open
before the main gear up lock opens and move clear as the wheels start to extend. Attached to the main legs are
fixed fairing doors. When the gear has moved through an arc, the D doors are sequenced to close and lock. This
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reduces the aircraft’s profile drag and prevents foreign objects (e.g. dirt, water, ice, snow, etc.) from being flung into
the bay. In the event of emergency landing gear extension, these doors remain open.

LARGE AIRCRAFT UNDERCARRIAGE INDICATORS

Large aircraft with undercarriage doors and bogies have:

 3 green lights to indicate that the gear is down and locked in a safe position
 A red gear unsafe light to indicate that part of the gear is unlocked
 A red doors light that indicates that the doors are in an unlocked position
 An amber truck light that indicates that the bogie is in an incorrect position for
retraction

When all the gears are up and the doors are correctly locked, all the lights are out. On down selection, the
gear unsafe light illuminates, and the red doors light illuminates. When the doors close, the red doors light
extinguishes. When the gears lock down, the red gear unsafe light extinguishes and the 3 green lights illuminate.

If a door fails to lock, the red doors and gear lights remain illuminated. If the amber truck light illuminates after
take-off, the undercarriage selector lever is physically prevented from moving to the up selection, as the truck would
be in the wrong position. This could cause damage if the pilot
attempted to retract the gear.

MECHANICAL INDICATION

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Some aircraft have mechanical position indicators. These are only used by the flight crew to check on the
condition of the landing gear in the event of an emergency and are normally located behind trim panels.

The gear selector must terminate in the shape of a wheel and the selector must be detented so as to require a
determined movement. In some designs, the detent takes the form of horizontal slots (as shown in diagram 7.33),
and the lever is biased to move into the slot and remain there. On larger aircraft, there is a third position labelled off.

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During the cruise, the selector is placed in this position. Gear selectors must be located forward of the throttles or
thrust levers.

AIR/GROUND LOGIC
Air/Ground Logic is the term given to a series of switches that make or break depending on whether the
aircraft undercarriage is compressed while on the ground or extended by being in flight. On light aircraft, this can
take the form of micro switches (measuring small movements) operated by the torque links of the main gear.
For systems that use a power pack to retract the gear, the micro switch completes the circuit. It removes the
electrical power supply to the power pack when the weight is on the gear. Thus, any movement of the selector lever
will not cause the gear to collapse.
For large aircraft, Air/Ground Logic switches can take the following form:
 Micro switches
 Proximity switches
 Pressure switches

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MICRO SWITCHES
As with the light aircraft, these switches register the movement of a plunger. As the plunger and its striker can
wear, more modern aircraft are fitted with proximity switches so as not to have moving parts.

PROXIMITY SWITCHES
Proximity switches consist of 2 small plates, each mounted on a separate surface. One plate is made of
magnetised stainless steel and the other plate incorporates a small field coil. When the plates are brought into close
proximity to each other, a small EMF is induced in the coil. This is sensed by a detector unit, which supplies the
signal to the Logic system.

PRESSURE SWITCHES
Some aircraft mount pressure sensitive switches inside the oleos. These sense the increasing pressure on
touchdown and operate the Ground Logic.
Ground Logic on a large aircraft controls the operation of:

 Thrust reversers in conjunction with power setting

 Braking (bounce protection)
 Nose wheel steering in conjunction with groundspeed
 Automatic spoiler deployment when spoilers are set to armed
 Gear selector locking
 Thermal wing anti ice selection to off

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To prevent inadvertent selection of an air transport aircraft undercarriage selector to retract, when the Logic
system senses ground, a safety lock, in the form of a mechanical plunger operated by an electrical solenoid, locks
the gear selector in the down detented position. Under normal operating circumstances, this plunger retracts only
when the gear extends, and the system senses Air Logic. A safety override switch allows the pilot to withdraw the
plunger and select “gear up” whilst on the ground (for emergency use only).

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When aircraft are being towed or serviced

without hydraulic power available, ground locks are
fitted. These take the form of tubular clamps or small
pins. To indicate that they are fitted, each locking
device has a red or red and white diagonally striped
flag (pennant) attached to it. When fitted, these locks
physically prevent the movement of the gear and
doors. Each aircraft carries its own set of locks. For an
air transport aircraft, these must be mounted in an
open-fronted or clearfronted stowage cupboard, which
the captain can check on the way to the flight deck.
Diagram 7.35 shows sleeves and pins, the two
main types of ground locks used. Sleeves are tubes
that are hinged along their length and clamp around
the ram of an actuator when it is fully extended. The sleeve forms a physical lock to the ram’s retraction. Pins, often
used on geometric locks, fit through holes that align when the struts are in the overcentred condition and have a
locking tag to prevent them from falling out.
Beware of ground locks that have lost their warning flags.

Diagram 7.36 shows a light aircraft’s retractable main undercarriage leg showing the down lock/side stay
which forms an overcentred lock, the springs that ensure that the side stay snaps locked, and the
extension/retraction actuator. As these aircraft are light, the oleo leg does not require the additional bracing of drag

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stays. The hydraulic power source for the gear’s extension and
retraction is described below.

Many light aircraft retractable undercarriages use self-

contained hydraulic power packs. Refer to the system schematic
diagram 7.37. In this system, a spur gear pump, operated by a
reversible electric motor, provides hydraulic power to raise and lower
the aircraft's undercarriage. For protection in the event of a power
failure, a freefall system is fitted. In this system a hydraulic lock
holds the gear in the up position, and a mechanical lock holds it
down.

A warning horn sounds to prevent inadvertent wheels up

landings if the gear is not selected down when the flaps are set to
landing, or the throttles retarded to flight idle. Selecting the gear
down, raising the flaps, or advancing the throttles removes the
warning.

OPERATION OF THE POWER PACK

A down selection causes the pump to rotate in an anti-clockwise direction. This draws unfiltered fluid from the
reservoir and supplies it under pressure to the left-hand side of the unit. The fluid pressure closes off the return line,
via the filter to the reservoir, and forces the gear up check valve piston to the right. This unseats the check valve,
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which breaks the hydraulic lock that held the gear up, and allows the fluid in the up line to enter the pump and be
transferred to the down line side of the unit. The build up of pressure forces the shuttle valve to the left, blocking the
return to the reservoir and supplying fluid to the down line.
As the gear is falling with gravity, and there are no mechanical locks to open, the down line functions at a low
pressure between 400-800 psi. To control this pressure, a relief valve, termed a low pressure control valve, allows
excess pressure to return to the reservoir.
Restrictors in both the down line and the up line of the nose gear control the fluid supply to the three gears’
actuators. These restrictions to flow allow the main gears to move first before the nose gear starts to move. This
ensures that the drag created by lowering the gear is controlled when the main gears have locked down. Likewise,
the nose gear lowered into wind is stopped from moving rearward too quickly by the restrictors. When all three gears
are down and locked, the red gear unsafe light extinguishes, and the electric power to the pump is removed. As the
pressure in the down line decays, the shuttle valve moves to the right by spring pressure.
On up selection, the pump rotates in a clockwise direction drawing fluid from the reservoir via the filter, the
pressure closes off the return to the reservoir, and forces the gear up check valve piston to the left. Fluid pressure
unseats the check valve, and fluid enters the up line. As the gears have to be raised against gravity, the piston
areas are reduced by the rams, and the nose gear has to retract against the air flow, the operating pressure of the
high pressure control valve is set at a nominal 1800 psi.

The initial action of the retraction actuators is to unlock the down lock/side stays mechanical hooks, and then
pull the down locks through the overcentred condition, before starting to retract the gear. The main gear moves first
due to the restrictors. When the gear is up and cannot travel any further, the pressure in the up line increases to a
value of 1800 +/- 100 psi. At this point, the pressure switch in the up line removes the electrical power from the
pump and cancels the red light. When pumping stops, the gear up check valve reseats, forming the hydraulic lock
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holding the gear up. If the pressure drops by a preset value,

the pressure switch re-energises the pump motor,
increasing the system pressure. Fluid from the down line is
returned to the reservoir.

In the event that the pump fails to operate, the pilot

selects down on the normal selector, isolates the pump
electrically by pulling the circuit breakers, and operates the
guarded emergency lowering selector. This opens the free
fall valve breaking the hydraulic lock, which allows gravity
and air flow to lower the gears. The down lock springs
ensure that the gears snap locked.
Regulations require that the undercarriage selector
must be forward of the throttle(s), where they are mounted
on a quadrant. The gear selector is made in the shape of a
wheel to differentiate it from any of the other controls. To
prevent inadvertent operation, the selector has to have detents to lock it in the up or down position. This requires the
pilot to pull or push the selector to unlock it before making a selection. It is conventional for light aircraft to have
three green lights in the form of a triangle, which only illuminate when the gear is down and locked. A red light (this
can be part of the master caution panel) with the legend gear unsafe illuminates when the gear is unlocked and in
transit.

QF-ATO-001 Presentation Template For Training Purposes Only Rev. 00, Date: 01.08.2022 Page 50 of 53
 National Aviation Academy
Approved Training Organization
AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

When the gear is locked up, both the red light and the green light are extinguished. The green lights frequently
take the form of block bulbs. In the event that an indicator fails, the pilot is able to interchange the blocks and see if
it is a bulb failure or a condition.
If the pilot has to lower the gear through the emergency extension system, the indication is 3 greens when the
gear is down and locked, and the red gear unsafe light illuminates to warn that the gear has been lowered by
emergency means.
If the aircraft is parked with the throttles closed and electrical power is applied, should for any reason the gear
selector be moved to gear up, the gear unsafe light illuminates, and the warning horn sounds. The ground logic
system (micro switches) has isolated the power pack, preventing an inadvertent retraction.
SKIS AND BEAR PAWS

For aircraft that are operating from snow and ice runways, the aircraft’s wheels are replaced with skis. The
skis are attached to the undercarriage legs for shock load absorption. They have to be able to pivot about their
attachment point to enable them to follow the contours of the ground over which they are running and to allow for
the rotation of the aircraft. To prevent the skis from rotating so that the tips are down in flight, a steel cable is
attached from the tips back to the aircraft’s structure. To prevent the ski tips from rotating upward in flight, a bungee
cord is attached between the aircraft’s structure and the ski tails.

For aircraft that are operating between snow/ice runways and paved runways, the wheels remain attached.
The skis are mounted on hydraulic actuators to allow them to be retracted for use on paved surfaces and extended
for snow/ice surfaces. Again, the skis have to pivot and have attachment cables and bungees.

QF-ATO-001 Presentation Template For Training Purposes Only Rev. 00, Date: 01.08.2022 Page 51 of 53
 National Aviation Academy
Approved Training Organization
AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

When operating from snow, the aircraft’s weight is supported by the surface area of the skis. To achieve the
same support, shorter but wider skis can be used. These are termed bear paws. Again they can be fixed or
retractable for use on both paved and snow/ice surfaces.

To convert a land plane to operate exclusively from water, floats are fitted in place of the aircraft’s standard
undercarriage. Each main float must have:

 A buoyancy of 80% in excess of the maximum weight which that float is expected to carry
in supporting the maximum weight of the seaplane or amphibian in fresh water
 At least four watertight compartments approximately equal in volume

QF-ATO-001 Presentation Template For Training Purposes Only Rev. 00, Date: 01.08.2022 Page 52 of 53
 National Aviation Academy
Approved Training Organization
AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS
Landing Gear
Rating: ✘ ATPL (A) ✘ ATPL (H) ✘ CPL (A) ✘ CPL (H) IR ✘ ATPL (H)/VFR ✘ ATPL (H)/IR Rev. 00, Date: 15.08.2022

In diagram 7.39, the shape of the floats with their distinctive cut out step, which allows the floats to plane during
the take-off run, can be clearly seen as can the water rudders for water steerage. This aircraft, a Cessna Caravan, is
an amphibian. The landing gear is retracted into the floats.

QF-ATO-001 Presentation Template For Training Purposes Only Rev. 00, Date: 01.08.2022 Page 53 of 53