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STUDIA PATRISTICA
VOL. CIII

The Bible in the Patristic Period

Edited by
MARIUSZ SZRAM and MARCIN WYSOCKI

PEETERS
LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT
2021
 Table of Contents

Damian Mrugalski
Between Ontologisation and Apophaticism: On the Philosophical
Interpretation of Exodus 3:14 in the Alexandrian Tradition (1st-
3rd century AD) ................................................................................... 1

Ilaria L.E. raMelli

Origen’s Philosophical Exegesis of the Scripture Against the Back-
drop of Ancient Philosophy (Stoicism, Platonism) and Hellenistic
and Rabbinic Judaism ......................................................................... 13

Lorenzo Perrone
Mysteria in psalmis: Origen and Jerome as Interpreters of the
Psalter .................................................................................................. 59

Przemysław Piwowarczyk
The Memorisation of the Bible among the Egyptian Clergy and
Monks .................................................................................................. 87

Matteo Poiani
Cyrillona’s New Testament Paraphrase (End of the 4th Century):
An Exegetical Key for the Easter Homilies........................................ 99

Mariusz szraM
Inappropriate Biblical Exegesis as a Source of Heresy in Diversarum
hereseon liber by Philastrius of Brescia ............................................. 109

Leszek Misiarczyk
The Resurrection of Jesus in Jerome’s Commentary on Matthew ..... 119

Krzysztof Morta
Biblical Tannin/tannim in St. Jerome’s Translation and Interpretation 129

Magdalena Jóźwiak
The Song of Deborah as Interpreted by Pseudo-Jerome .................... 141

Colton Moore
Graeca Veritas: Saint Augustine’s Historical and Theological Ratio-
nale for the Septuagint as Authoritative Scripture ............................. 155
VI Table of Contents

Marcin wysocki
The Symbolism of Biblical Birds in the Letters of Paulinus of Nola 165

Eirini arteMi
John Chrysostom’s Teaching about the Holy Bible and the Necessity
of Reading it Daily .............................................................................. 175

Samuel Pell
Joy, Truth, and the Search for God in St. Augustine’s Confessions X 183

Tatiana krynicka
Isidore of Seville’s Treatise De ortu et obitu patrum: Biblical Salva-
tion History ‘in a Short Tale’ .............................................................. 195

Jan W. Żelazny
Oriental Exegesis Based on the Example of the Argumentation Used
in The Disputation of Sergius the Stylite Against a Jew .................... 205
 John Chrysostom’s Teaching about the Holy Bible
and the Necessity of Reading it Daily

Eirini arteMi, Athens, Greece

abstract
For John Chrysostom, the Holy Bible is not only a historical book or a book which
should be used for pedagogical reasons. It is the word of God: ‘All Scripture is inspired
by God’ (2Tim. 3:16; Ioannes Chrysostomus, In epistulam II ad Timotheum homiliae 9),
and for this reason Christians should not enclose the texts of the Holy in books, but
have an obligation to engrave them upon their hearts. The Holy Scriptures, given by
the inspiration of God, are of themselves sufficient for the discovery of truth. The
Scriptures show people the way to salvation. This was given by God to the people, in
order to help the people communicate with God. Direct communication between God
and the people was lost after the original sin of Adam and Eve. For this reason, Chrys-
ostom advises his congregation: ‘I also always entreat you, and do not cease entreating
you, not only to pay attention here to what I say, but also when you are at home, to
persevere continually in reading the divine Scriptures’ (Ioannes Chrysostomus, De Lazaro
conciones 3). In this paper, we are going to present how the Bible should be read and
why there is the necessity of continually reading it. Does Chrysostom accept the divine
origin of the Holy Scripture? Which method does he use for the interpretation of the
Bible? Does the reading of the Bible refer only to monks? Is the Scripture alone the
final Authority, or should it be read with the texts of the Church Fathers? Is the Bible
the only way for our salvation, or should we combine the reading of the Bible with our
participation in the Holy Sacraments and Holy Divine Mass?

1. John Chrysostom and the use of the Bible in his works

John Chrysostom is one of the most articulate and influential preachers of

the early Christian church. The golden-mouthed Church father deals with the
interpretation of the Scripture because he supports the idea that theology should
be based on the Bible. The latter doesn’t tell lies ‘For the Scripture by no means
speaks falsely’,1 so the theology will be orthodox and there will be no inclina-
tion towards any heresy.2
His writings are some of the most perfect expositions on the books of the
Bible, with great emphasis on the books of Genesis, the Psalms, the prophet

1
Iohannes Chrysostomus, De statuis 2, PG 49, 44.
2
Id., In Iohannem homiliae 43, PG 57, 291-3.

Studia Patristica CIII, 175-182.

© Peeters Publishers, 2021.
176 e. arteMi

Isaiah, the gospels of Matthew and John, the Acts of the Apostles and the
epistles of Saint Paul.3 Moreover, his exegetical works on the Book of Acts are
the only surviving commentary on the book from the first thousand years of
Christianity.4
In his writings and in their interpretation, John uses the books of the Bible;
he tries to find the depth of the divine truth which is hidden in the biblical
words. The words of the Scripture are not always self-explanatory. If he wants
to understand the real meanings of the words, Chrysostom realises that this can
only happen with the illumination of the Holy Spirit.5 Thus, the Holy Spirit had
a major role in inspiring the writing of the Bible.6 ‘Generally, the biblical inter-
pretation is not merely an art of understanding written and historical facts, but
a pure “theological” and “existential” case. It is not simply an interpretative
method, but energy, a movement of the healthy mind to the knowledge and
oversight of the beings, ultimately referring to the ultimate knowledge, the truth
of real and personal God’.7
John uses the Bible in his texts and interprets them in order to deepen their
meaning and to express the dogmatic and moral theology of the two Testaments.
For the interpretation of the Scripture’s text, he uses the very rare allegorical
method of the Alexandrian School,8 but he mainly employs the historical-liter-
ary9 method of interpretation which he adopted from his professor, Diodorus
Tarsus, the dominant figure of the Antioch school. Of course, he does not trust
the historical-literary method at all. For him, the basic presupposition for the
interpretation of the Scriptures is the faith, orthodox teaching, prayers and piety
of a Christian in his daily life.10 Of course, the most important thing is the grace

3
Mary Fairchild, ‘John Chrysostom, the Golden-Tongued Preacher. The Greatest Preacher of
the Early Church’ (3 September 2019), https://www.learnreligions.com/john-chrysostom-4764128
[accessed 05/09/2019].
4
Ibid.
5
Iohannes Chrysostomus, In Epistulam ad Galatas commentarius 1, PG 61, 629.
6
Ibid., PG 61, 624; id., In Acta Apostolorum homiliae 19, PG 60, 156.
7
Eirini Artemi, ‘The School of Alexandria and the use of allegorical method by Origen of
Alexandria’, Mirabilia Ars 8/1 (2018), 1-15, 4.
8
Ibid. 5: ‘The aim of this exegesis was to discover everywhere the spiritual sense underlying
the written word of the Scripture. Allegory reveals the obscure meaning within the ostensive report
of a text without any references to any historical realities. Allegory thinks every word of the
Scriptures as a shell, which includes the inner kernel of a moral and superior spiritual truth. The
reader should open this shell and to look for the real true meaning of every story, parable, word’.
9
The characteristic features are: attention to the revision of the text, a close adherence to the
plain, natural meaning according to the use of language and the state of the writer, and justice for
the human factor. See Allain Le Boulluec, ‘L’École d’Alexandrie. De quelques aventures d’un
concept historiographique’, in Alexandrina. Hellénisme, judaïsme et christianisme à Alexandrie.
Mélanges offerts à C. Mondésert (Paris, 1987), 403-17.
10
Iohannes Chrysostomus, In Iohannem homiliae 21, PG 59, 127; Homiliae in Genesim 15,
PG 53, 321-2; In Epistulam ad Hebraeos homiliae 8, PG 63, 74; In Epistulam ad Galatas com-
mentarius 1, PG 61, 629.
 John Chrysostom’s Teaching about the Holy Bible 177

of the Holy Spirit and His illumination for anyone who studies the Scriptures.11
After all, the Holy Spirit inspired the writers of the biblical books to reveal the
divine economy in human history.12 Furthermore, the use of the Scripture in
Chrysostom’s writings shows the generosity of God towards the people in order
for them to live virtuously and to ethically improve their lives. In order to
achieve this goal, Chrysostom emphasis ‘making ourselves like God as much
as possible for us’.13

2. The Holy Scripture is inspired by God

The Holy Scripture was written by men divinely inspired, and is God’s revela-
tion of Himself to man. John Chrysostom supports the idea that the Old and the
New Testaments are equal parts of the Holy Scripture,14 sisters which have the
same father.15 Their bond has to do with their unity for the same purpose, which
is to make people better and to show them the way to be saved from sin.16
Moreover, the whole Scripture is a testimony to Christ, who is Himself the cen-
tre of the divine revelation in the history of human race.17 Chrysostom parallels
this unity of the two covenants with the unity of the parts of any being:
But the harmony between them [...] But if there were any hostility in their statements,
neither would the sects, who maintain the contrary part, have received all, but only so
much as seemed to harmonize with themselves; nor would those, which have parted off
a portion, be utterly refuted by that portion; so that the very fragments cannot be hid, but
declare aloud their connection with the whole body. And like as if you should take any
part from the side of an animal, even in that part you would find all the things out of
which the whole is composed – nerves and veins, bones, arteries, and blood, and a sample,
as one might say, of the whole lump – so likewise with regard to the Scriptures.18

In the Old Testament the New is concealed, in the New the Old is revealed, so
their whole is blasphemous and undoubted for Christians. The Old Testament real-
ities point to the events of the New Covenant. Thus, through the Bible, Chrysostom
11
Id., In Acta Apostolorum homiliae 19, PG 60, 156.
12
Id., In epistulam ad Hebraeos homiliae 17, PG 63, 74; De incomprehensibili Dei natura
homiliae 3, 5, PG 48, 720-1.
13
Id., In Psalmum 134, PG 55, 398; In Matthaeum homiliae 52, PG 58, 523.
14
Jason Soroski, ‘What Does “Bible” Mean and How Did it Get That Name?’ (1 February
2019), https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-study/explore-the-bible/what-does-bible-mean.html
[accessed 15/09/2019]: ‘Chrysostom first refers to the Old and New Testament together as τά
βιβλία (the books)’. B.F. Westcott says: ‘“There are many sacred writings, yet there is but one
Book; there are four Evangelists, yet their histories form but one Gospel” they all conspire to one
end, and move by one way’.
15
Pseudo-Ioannes Chrysostomus, In illud: Exiit edictum, PG 50, 796.
16
Ioannes Chrysostomus, Synopsis scripturae sacrae, PG 56, 313.
17
Id., In Epistulam ad Romanos homiliae 1, PG 60, 397. See Rom. 1:20.
18
Id., In Matthaeum homiliae 1, PG 57, 18.
178 e. arteMi

analyses his perception of divine adaptability as a constitutive and basic principle

of the entire economy of the salvation of man and his reunification with his
Creator.19 The Bible is considered the first and most important of the sources of
Christian faith. It is inspired by God, and contains the supernatural revelation
of the Triune God as almighty, good, omniscient and omnipotent. The whole
Scripture analyses and presents the Lord’s plan for the salvation of mankind.20
John Chrysostom stresses the fact that all of the Scripture is God-breathed and
God-inspired, and is useful for teaching, criticising mistakes, correcting and train-
ing oneself in the righteousness of Christ.21 The Bible is not magical literature,
but divinely inspired human literature. God inspired the devout writers of the
Scripture to reveal His truth, the only truth to the people. All of the words in the
Holy Bible have come directly to the people from God the Father through the
Holy Spirit. It is the perfect treasury of divine instruction.22 Chrysostom under-
stands the Word of God as being the most important and greatest deed of His
condescension (συγκατάβασις) to the human race, in order for man to have the
opportunity to praise God along with the angels.23 The term condescension
(συγκατάβασις) here means that the language and the Bible is not proportionate
to the nature of God, but to the finite limits of human nature, of the human mind.
Although the authors of the books of the Bible wrote under the guidance,
inspiration, and illumination of the Holy Spirit (see 2Pet. 1:20),24 divine inspira-
tion did not reject and erase the personality of the Scripture’s authors, but rather
heightened them. Through these sacred texts, God reveals His plan for the objective
salvation of all human beings through the incarnation of the second Person of the
Triune God. Christ is the Messiah, the Logos incarnate. All the texts of the
Bible underline this truth and, for this reason, Christ advised the people to
‘search the Scriptures’25 in order to deepen the true sense of the Bible.26 When
people, such as Abraham, Moses and Noah, were near God, they could speak
to God directly without any written text. The same happened with the apostles.
With the number of Christians increasing every day, there was the necessity to
write down some things of the life, miracles and teaching of Christ, in order
for Christians to keep the teachings of Christ and the Apostles unchanged.27

19
Id., In Epistulam ad Romanos homiliae 1, PG 60, 397-9.
20
Id., In Epistulam I ad Corinthios homiliae 33, PG 61, 283-4.
21
Id., De Lazaro et divite 3, PG 48, 993.
22
Id., In Epistulam II ad Timotheum homiliae 9, PG 62, 649. See 2Tim. 3:16.
23
Iohannes Chrysostomus, In Osiam seu de seraphinis homiliae, PG 56, 97-140.
24
Id., In Mattheum homiliae 1, PG 57, 15: ‘By whom Matthew also, being filled with the
Spirit, wrote, what he did write: Matthew the Publican, for I am not ashamed to name him by his
trade, neither him nor the others. For this in a very special way indicates both the grace of the
Spirit, and their virtue’. See id., Adversus Iudaeos orationes 7, PG 48, 1041; In Iohannem homi-
liae 1, PG 59, 26.
25
Id., In Genesim homiliae 37, PG 53, 341. See John 5:39.
26
Iohannes Chrysostomus, In Genesim homiliae 37, PG 53, 341-2.
27
Id., In Matthaeum homiliae 1, PG 57, 13.
 John Chrysostom’s Teaching about the Holy Bible 179

The Bishop of Constantinople supported the idea that the divine roots of the
Holy Scripture are revealed in its power and the immense wealth of ideas which
are concealed in its expressions.28 Knowledge of the Bible is the only royal path
to the divine knowledge of God. Moreover, the divine writings of the Old and
New Testaments, including the divine teaching about God and his plan for the
salvation of all humans, have had such a widespread effect, in comparison with
the teachings of the philosophers. The teachings of the Bible are eternal and that
of philosophers temporary.29 For this reason, John Chrysostom argues that the
Old and the New Testaments have been the gift of the revelation of God Himself,
and express the aim of the reformation of mankind by God Himself.30 Therefore,
all of the Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. It shows the principles and
measures by which God will judge us, and therefore is, and will be and will
remain the centre of Christianity until the end of the world. The writers of the
books of the Bible do not speak by their own will, but with God’s grace.31
To sum up, Chrysostom stresses the fact that the divinely-inspired Scripture
is a unique book and cannot be compared to anything else. For this reason, he
characterises the Bible as a ‘spiritual meadow’32 whose flowers are always in
bloom,33 an ‘earthly paradise’,34 a ‘place full of precious stones’,35 a ‘healing
medicine’,36 a ‘gate for the entrance into paradise’.37 By these – and other –
characterisations of the Bible, Chrysostom lyrically shows the importance of
the Holy Bible in the life of any Christian who wants to continue in the true
faith; he should resort only to the Holy Scriptures which are the only real
nourishment of the soul.38 Both Testaments have as their aim the salvation of
mankind in order to be reunited with God. But the New Testament reveals the
perfect redemption of man, his renaissance through the incarnation, the passion,

28
Id., In Genesim homiliae 37, PG 53, 342.
29
Id., In Iohannem homiliae 59, PG 59, 321-2.
30
Id., In Matthaeum homiliae 1, PG 57, 15.
31
Id., In Psalmum 145, PG 55, 520.
32
Id., In Genesim homiliae 3, PG 53, 32.
33
Id., De capto Eutropio 1, PG 52, 395-7, trans. William R.W. Stephens, http://www. document
acatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0345-0407,_Iohannes_Chrysostomus,_In_Eutropim_[Schaff],_ EN.pdf,
309: ‘Delectable indeed are the meadow, and the garden, but far more delectable the study of the
divine writings. For there indeed are flowers which fade, but here are thoughts which abide in full
bloom; there is the breeze of the zephyr, but here the breath of the Spirit: there is the hedge of
thorns, but here is the guarding providence of God; there is the song of cicadæ, but here the
melody of the prophets: there is the pleasure which comes from sight, but here the profit which
comes from study. The garden is confined to one place, but the Scriptures are in all parts of the
world; the garden is subject to the necessities of the seasons, but the Scriptures are rich in foliage,
and laden with fruit alike in winter and in summer’.
34
Ioannes Chrysostomus, In Genesim homiliae 3, PG 53, 32; De capto Eutropio 1, PG 52,
395-7.
35
Ibid.
36
Id., In Genesim homiliae 29, PG 53, 261.
37
Id., In Psalmum 150, PG 55, 496; Interpretatio in Isaiam prophetam 5, PG 56, 59.
38
Id., Interpretatio in Isaiam prophetam 4, PG 56, 56.
180 e. arteMi

the crucifixion and the resurrection of Christ.39 John Chrysostom, through

his comments on both Covenants, presents the Old Testament with the same
characteristics as those of the New.

3. The necessity of reading the Bible daily by Christians

The Bible is the very Word of God and clarifies the creation of man, his sin
and the exile from Paradise, the hope of the incarnation of the Son of God,
Christ’s teaching and the salvation of mankind. In the Bible, besides the begin-
ning of the world we learn how it will end, and how we should live in the
meantime according to Christian virtues. Reading the Scriptures is the armour of
security against any sins. Ignorance of the Scripture is a great cliff and a deep
abyss; to know nothing of the divine laws is a great betrayal of salvation.40 This
is responsible for the birth of heresies, has introduced sinful ways of life full
of passions, and has put down the things above.41 All of these can be avoided
if we read the Scriptures every day. Therefore, it is impossible for anyone to
depart without benefit, if he attentively and continually reads the Holy Bible.42
Chrysostom does not cease entreating his listeners. He advises them not only
to pay attention to his preaching, but also, when they are at home, to persevere
in continually reading the divine Scriptures. If someone does not read the Bible,
he should use no excuse such as:
I cannot leave the courthouse, I administer the business of the city, I practice a craft, I
have a wife, I am raising children, I am in charge of a household, I am a man of the
world; reading the Scriptures is not for me, but for those who have been set apart, who
have settled on the mountaintops, who keep this way of life continuously.43

After all, ignorance of the Scriptures is a great betrayal of salvation. It harms

Christians.44 Instead of having the advantage of a remedy, Christians are led to
their death. It is the same with medicine. If someone doesn’t follow the instruc-
tions for taking medicine, they can die instead of recovering and living healthily.45
The reading of the Scriptures should not be as superficial as the reading of an
actual book, because the reader does not penetrate beneath the surface meaning

39
Id., Synopsis scripturae sacrae, PG 56, 313.
40
Id., In Epistulam II ad Timotheum homiliae 9, PG 62, 649. See 2Tim. 3:15.
41
Id., In Epistulam ad Romanos homiliae 1, PG 60, 391.
42
Ibid.
43
Id., De Lazaro et divite 3, PG 48, 991-3, trans. Catherine P. Roth: John Chrysostom, On
Wealth and Poverty (Crestwood, NY, 1984), 58-60.
44
Hos. 4:6: ‘My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge; because you have rejected
knowledge, I reject you from being a priest to me. And since you have forgotten the law of your
God, I also will forget your children’.
45
Iohannes Chrysostomus, De Lazaro et divite 3, PG 48, 993; In Acta Apostolorum homiliae
29, PG 60, 213-20; ibid., 34, PG 60, 245-51.
 John Chrysostom’s Teaching about the Holy Bible 181

of the text. A simple, surface reading is bound to be a false reading, because

everything in the Scriptures has a great significance and the slightest meaning
of any word can contain a hidden treasure.46 On this, John Chrysostom argues:
there is nothing superfluous, nothing added at random in the Scriptures [...] but there
are some even so low-minded, and empty, and unworthy of Heaven, as not to think that
names only, but whole books of the Bible are of no use, as Leviticus, Joshua, and more
besides. And in this way, many of the simple-minded ones have been in favour of
rejecting the Old Testament, and, advancing in this way which results from this evil
habit of the mind, have likewise pruned away many parts of the New Testament also.
[...] But if any be a lover of wisdom, and a friend to spiritual entertainments, let him
be told that even the things which seem to be unimportant in Scripture are not placed
there at random and to no purpose, and that even the old laws have much to benefit us.
For it says: All these things are examples and are written for our instruction.47

In every text of the Bible, the reader can find something for his family, how
to bring up his children, how to banish his disappointment and sadness,48 how to
struggle with his passions49 and, generally, for every problem in his daily life
there is a solution. Moreover, if we want to gain the greatest benefit from the
reading of biblical texts, we should not read them alone, but with other people
and with the help of a capable interpreter.50 In this way, we will arrive safe at the
port of the biblical meaning without fear of being drowned in waves of heresies.
Of course, Christians should read the biblical texts every day, but they must,
as a presupposition, request the enlightenment of God in order to deepen the
meaning of the Bible and to understand the text of these God-breathed books
of the Scripture. This is profane in the prayer before the gospel in the Orthodox
Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, which begins:
‘Illumine our hearts, O Master, Who loves mankind, with the pure light of Thy divine
knowledge, and open the eyes of our mind to the understanding of Thy gospel teachings;
implant in us also the fear of Thy blessed commandments, that trampling down all lusts
of the flesh, we may enter upon a spiritual way of life’.51

4. Conclusions

John Chrysostom has a great love for the Scripture, which is the result of the
cooperation between God and man. God revealed His being and His aim of
46
Id., In illud: Paulus vocatus 1-6, PG 51, 143-53.
47
Id., In Epistulam ad Romanos homiliae 31, PG 60, 667-8. See 1Cor. 10:11.
48
Id., De utilitate lectionis Scripturarum, PG 51, 90.
49
Ibid., PG 51, 89; De capto Eutropio 1, PG 52, 397; In Epistulam ad Romanos homiliae 29,
PG 60, 654.
50
Id., In Genesim homiliae 15, PG 53, 119.
51
Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, In Service Books of the Orthodox Church 1 (South
Canaan, 2017), 15.
182 e. arteMi

man’s salvation through the Bible. The two Testaments constitute the Holy
Scripture and they are as united as the organs of the human body. One cannot
exist without the other. The Old Testament is the foundation and the New
Testament is based on that foundation, with further revelations from God and
the fulfillment of the prophesies. The Old Testament reveals the hidden truths
about the Triune God, the incarnation of the Logos and the establishment of
the Christian Church, whilst the New Testament uncovers these truths through
the holy divine economy of the incarnate Christ, of His passions, His death and
resurrection, and the establishment of the historic Christian Church after the
Pentecost. Both Testaments are Christ-centred.
The method of Chrysostom’s biblical interpretation is more historic-literal
than typological and allegorical. Najeeb George Awad observes: ‘Chrysostom
does not seek to offer intellectual analysis or sophisticated theorization. He
attempts instead to create a relationship between the ordinary people – who
have no time to spend studying due to life duties – and the writers of the Tes-
taments’.52
It is necessary that the reading of the Bible be performed every day, and
there is no excuse for neglect in or dereliction of this task by Christians, because
the benefits for any one reader are many. Therein, he can find answers for most
of his daily problems. Moreover, he will be taught ways to behave towards his
wife or to bring up his children, to love and forgive other people. Of course,
the reading of the Scripture should be done by two or more people and not
by a Christian on his own. The reason for this is that the understanding of the
hidden meanings of the biblical texts needs an orthodox interpretation, which
can be found in the majority of the Church Fathers.
It is important to be known this: both as Christians and, generally, as human
beings:
we have a continuous need for the full armor of the Scriptures [...] There are many
things [...] which besiege our souls: we need the divine medicines to heal the wounds
which we have received and to protect us from those which we have not yet received
but will receive. We must thoroughly quench the darts of the devil and beat them off
by continual reading of the divine Scriptures. For it is not possible, not possible for
anyone to be saved without continually taking advantage of spiritual reading.53

Thus, reading the Scriptures is a great means of security against sin. If we want
to succeed our likeness to God in the eternity, we should take our medicine
against sin as they are found in the Scriptures.

52
Najeeb George Awad, ‘The influence of John Chrysostom’s hermeneutics on John Calvin’s
exegetical approach to Paul’s Epistle to the Romans’, SJT 63/4 (2010), 414-36, 414.
53
Iohannes Chrysostomus, De Lazaro et divite 3, PG 48, 993, trans. C.P. Roth, On Wealth and
Poverty (1984), 560.