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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 CONTENTS

Maps  xxi 1-5 New Centers of Civilization   21

Documents  xxiii 1-5a Nomadic Peoples: Impact of the
Features  xxviii Indo-Europeans  21
Preface  xxx 1-5b Territorial States in Western Asia:
The Phoenicians  22
Acknowledgments  xxxvi
1-5c The “Children of Israel”   22
Theme for Understanding World History   xxxviii
A Note to Students about Language and the Dating of Time   xxxix 1-6 The Rise of New Empires   24
1-6a The Assyrian Empire  24
HISTORICAL VOICES
PART I The Covenant and the Law: The Book of Exodus 25
1-6b The Persian Empire  26
THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RISE OF OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
EMPIRES (PREHISTORY TO 500 c.e.) 2 The Governing of Empires: Two Approaches   27

CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •

1 EARLY HUMANS AND THE FIRST CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES   29
CIVILIZATIONS  4
2 ANCIENT INDIA  31
1-1 The First Humans  5
1-1a The Emergence of Homo sapiens   5 2-1 The Emergence of Civilization in India: The Indus
1-1b The Hunter-Gatherers of the Paleolithic Age   6 Valley Society  32
1-1c The Neolithic Revolution, ca. 10,000–4000 b.c.e.  7 2-1a A Land of Diversity   32
COMPARATIVE ESSAY 2-1b The Indus Valley Civilization: A Fascinating
From Hunter-Gatherers and Herders to Farmers   8 Enigma  32

1-2 The Emergence of Civilization   9 2-2 The Aryans in India   34

1-2a Why did Early Civilizations Develop?   10 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Writing and Civilization   35
1-3 Civilization in Mesopotamia   10 2-2a Who Were the Aryans?   36
1-3a The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia   10 2-2b From Chieftains to Kings   36
1-3b Economy and Society  12 2-2c The Mauryan Empire  37
1-3c Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia   12 2-2d Caste and Class: Social Structures
1-3d The Culture of Mesopotamia   13 in Ancient India   38
HISTORICAL VOICES HISTORICAL VOICES
The Code of Hammurabi   14 In the Beginning   38
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION 2-2e Daily Life in Ancient India   40
Early Writing  15 HISTORICAL VOICES
The Position of Women in Ancient India   41
1-4 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”   16
2-2f The Economy  42
1-4a The Importance of Geography   16
1-4b The Importance of Religion   17 2-3 Escaping the Wheel of Life: The Religious World
HISTORICAL VOICES of Ancient India   43
The Significance of the Nile River and 2-3a Brahmanism  43
the Pharaoh  17
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
1-4c The Course of Egyptian History: The Search for Truth   44
The Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms   18
2-3b Buddhism: The Middle Path   45
1-4d Society and Daily Life in Ancient Egypt   20
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
1-4e The Culture of Egypt: Art and Writing   20 The Buddha and Jesus   47
1-4f The Spread of Egyptian Influence: Nubia   21 HISTORICAL VOICES
How to Achieve Enlightenment   48

vii

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
2-4 The Rule of the Fishes: India After 3-5d The Humble Estate: Women
the Mauryas  50 in Ancient China   77

2-5 The Exuberant World of Indian Culture   50 3-6 Chinese Culture  77

2-5a Literature  50 3-6a Metalwork and Sculpture  78
2-5b Architecture and Sculpture  51 3-6b Language and Literature  79
2-5c Science  52 CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  80
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES   53
4 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS  83
3 CHINA IN ANTIQUITY  55 4-1 Early Greece  84
3-1 The Dawn of Chinese Civilization   56 4-1a Minoan Crete  84
3-1a The Land and People of China   56 4-1b The First Greek State: Mycenae   86
3-1b The Shang Dynasty  57 4-1c The Greeks in a “Dark Age’’
(ca. 1100 – ca. 750 b.c.e.)  86
3-1c Shang China  58
HISTORICAL VOICES
3-2 The Zhou Dynasty  59 Homer’s Ideal of Excellence   87
3-2a Political Structures  59
4-2 The World of the Greek City-States
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
The Afterlife and Prized Possessions   59
(ca. 750 – ca. 500 b.c.e.)  88
4-2a The Polis  88
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
The Use of Metals   60 4-2b Greek Expansion and the Growth of Trade   88
HISTORICAL VOICES 4-2c Tyranny in the Greek Polis   89
The Mandate of Heaven   61 4-2d Sparta  90
3-2b Economy and Society  62 HISTORICAL VOICES
3-2c The Hundred Schools of Ancient Philosophy   63 The Lycurgan Reforms   91
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION 4-2e Athens  91
Early Agricultural Technology   63
4-3 The High Point of Greek Civilization:
HISTORICAL VOICES
The Wit and Wisdom of Confucius   65
Classical Greece  92
4-3a The Challenge of Persia   92
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
A Debate over Good and Evil   66 4-3b The Growth of an Athenian Empire
in the Age of Pericles   93
HISTORICAL VOICES
The Daoist Answer to Confucianism   67 4-3c The Great Peloponnesian War
and the Decline of the Greek States   93
3-3 The First Chinese Empire: The Qin Dynasty   68 4-3d The Culture of Classical Greece   94
3-3a Political Structures  69 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
3-3b Society and the Economy   70 The Axial Age   97
HISTORICAL VOICES 4-3e Greek Religion  98
Memorandum on the Burning of Books   70 4-3f Daily Life in Classical Athens   99
3-3c Beyond the Frontier: The Nomadic Peoples and OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
the Great Wall   71 Women in Athens and Sparta   100

3-4 The Glorious Han Dynasty   72 4-4 The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests
3-4a Confucianism and the State   72 of Alexander  101
3-4b The Economy  73 4-4a Alexander the Great  101
3-4c Imperial Expansion and the Origins of the FILM & HISTORY
Silk Road  73 Alexander (2004)  103
3-4d The Decline and Fall of the Han   75 HISTORICAL VOICES
The Character of Alexander   104
3-5 Daily Life in Ancient China   76
3-5a The Role of the Family   76 4-5 The World of the Hellenistic Kingdoms   104
3-5b Lifestyles  76 4-5a Political Institutions and the Role of Cities   104
3-5c Cities  77 4-5b Culture in the Hellenistic World   106

viii ■ Contents

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
Hellenistic Sculpture and a Greek-Style
PART II
Buddha  107 NEW PATTERNS OF CIVILIZATION
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • (500–1500 c.e.)  136
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  107

6 THE AMERICAS  138
5 THE ROMAN WORLD EMPIRE  110
6-1 The Peopling of the Americas   139
5-1 Early Rome and the Republic  111 6-1a The First Americans  139
5-1a Early Rome  112
5-1b The Roman Republic  112 6-2 Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica   139
HISTORICAL VOICES 6-2a The Olmecs: In the Land of Rubber   140
Cincinnatus Saves Rome: A Roman 6-2b The Zapotecs  140
Morality Tale  113 6-2c Teotihuacán: America’s First Metropolis   140
5-1c The Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
(264–133 b.c.e.)  114 The Pyramid  141
5-1d The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic 6-2d The Maya  142
(133–31 b.c.e.)  116 HISTORICAL VOICES
The Creation of the World: A Maya View   144
5-2 The Roman Empire at Its Height   117
6-2e Why Did The Maya Decline?   145
5-2a The Age of Augustus (31 b.c.e.–14 c.e.)  117
HISTORICAL VOICES
5-2b The Early Empire (14–180 c.e.)  118 The Legend of the Feathered Serpent   146
HISTORICAL VOICES 6-2f The Aztecs  147
The Achievements of Augustus   119
HISTORICAL VOICES
5-2c What Was Romanization?  121 Markets and Merchandise in Aztec Mexico   149
5-2d Culture and Society in the Roman World   122
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS 6-3 Peoples and Societies in Early North America   150
Women in the Roman and Han Empires   124 6-3a The Eastern Woodlands  150
FILM & HISTORY 6-3b Cahokia  150
Gladiator (2000)  126 6-3c The Ancient Pueblo Peoples   151
5-3 Crisis and the Late Empire   126 6-4 The First Civilizations in South America   152
5-3a Crises in the Third Century   126 6-4a Caral  152
5-3b The Late Roman Empire   126 6-4b Moche  153
5-3c What Caused the Fall of the Western 6-4c Wari and Chimor  153
Roman Empire?  127 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
History and the Environment   154
5-4 Transformation of the Roman World: The
Development of Christianity   128 6-4d The Inka  155
5-4a The Origins of Christianity   128 HISTORICAL VOICES
Virgins with Red Cheeks   157
5-4b The Spread of Christianity   129
6-4e Stateless Societies in South America   158
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Rulers and Gods   129 CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
5-4c The Triumph of Christianity  130 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  159
HISTORICAL VOICES
Roman Authorities on Christianity   131
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
7 FERMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST:
Emperors, West and East   132
THE RISE OF ISLAM  162

5-5 A Comparison of the Roman and 7-1 The Rise of Islam   163
7-1a The Role of Muhammad   164
Han Empires  132
7-1b The Teachings of Muhammad   165
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • FILM & HISTORY
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  133 The Message (1976)  165
HISTORICAL VOICES
“Draw Their Veils over Their Bosoms”   166

Contents ■ ix

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
7-2 The Arab Empire and Its Successors   166 8-3 States and Noncentralized Societies in Central
7-2a Creation of an Empire   167 and Southern Africa   201
7-2b What Was the Secret of Arab Success?   167 8-3a The Congo River Valley   201
HISTORICAL VOICES 8-3b Zimbabwe  201
The Spread of the Muslim Faith   168 8-3c Southern Africa  202
7-2c The Rise of the Umayyads   169 8-3d Africa: A Continent Without History?   202
7-2d The Abbasids  170
7-2e The Seljuk Turks  172 8-4 African Society  202
7-2f The Crusades  173 8-4a Urban Life  202
7-2g The Mongols  173 8-4b Village Life  203
7-2h Andalusia: A Muslim Outpost in Europe   174 8-4c The Role of Women   204
7-2i Moorish Spain: An Era of “Cultural Tolerance”?   175 8-4d Slavery  204

7-3 Islamic Civilization  175 8-5 African Culture  205

HISTORICAL VOICES 8-5a Painting and Sculpture  205
Sage Advice from Father to Son   176 HISTORICAL VOICES
Women and Islam in North Africa   205
7-3a Political Structures  176
7-3b The Wealth of Araby: Trade and Cities in 8-5b Music  206
the Middle East   177 8-5c Architecture  207
7-3c Islamic Society  177 8-5d Literature  207
COMPARATIVE ESSAY COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
Trade and Civilization   178 The Stele  208
7-3d The Culture of Islam   179 CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  209
A Twelfth-Century Map of the World   181
HISTORICAL VOICES
Ibn Khaldun: Islam’s Greatest Historian   183
9 THE EXPANSION OF CIVILIZATION
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA  211
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  185
9-1 The Silk Road  212
HISTORICAL VOICES
8 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN AFRICA  187 A Portrait of Medieval India   213

8-1 The Emergence of Civilization   188 9-2 India After the Mauryas   214
8-1a The Land  188 9-2a The Gupta Dynasty: A New Golden Age?   215
8-1b The First Farmers  188 9-2b The Transformation of Buddhism   215
8-1c Axum and Meroë  189 9-2c The Decline of Buddhism in India   216
8-1d The Sahara and Its Environs   190 HISTORICAL VOICES
COMPARATIVE ESSAY The Education of a Brahmin   217
The Migration of Peoples   192 9-2d When Did the Indians Become Hindus?   218
8-1e East Africa  193
9-3 The Arrival of Islam   219
8-2 The Coming of Islam   193 9-3a The Empire of Mahmud of Ghazni   219
8-2a African Religious Beliefs Before Islam   193 9-3b The Delhi Sultanate  220
HISTORICAL VOICES 9-3c Tamerlane  221
A Chinese View of Africa   194
8-2b The Arabs in North Africa   195 9-4 Society and Culture  222
8-2c The Kingdom of Ethiopia: A Christian Island in a 9-4a Religion  222
Muslim Sea  195 9-4b Economy and Daily Life   223
HISTORICAL VOICES COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Beware the Troglodytes!   196 Caste, Class, and Family   224
8-2d East Africa: The Land of the Zanj   197 9-4c The Indian Economy: Promise Unfulfilled?   225
8-2e The States of West Africa   198 9-4d The Wonder of Indian Culture   226
HISTORICAL VOICES COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
Royalty and Religion in Ghana   199 Rock Architecture  226

x ■ Contents

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
9-5 The Golden Region: Early Southeast Asia   228 10-4b Neo-Confucianism: The Investigation
9-5a Paddy Fields and Spices: The States of Things  258
of Southeast Asia   229 10-5 Changing Social Conditions in
HISTORICAL VOICES Traditional China  259
The Kingdom of Angkor   229
10-5a The Rise of the Gentry   259
9-5b Daily Life  232
10-5b Village and Family  260
9-5c World of the Spirits: Religious Belief    233
10-5c The Role of Women   260
HISTORICAL VOICES
Chinese Traders in the Philippines   234 10-6 The Apogee of Chinese Culture   261
9-5d Expansion into the Pacific   236 10-6a Literature  261
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • HISTORICAL VOICES
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  237 Two Tang Poets   262
10-6b Art  263

10 THE FLOWERING OF TRADITIONAL CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •

CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  264
CHINA  239
10-1 China’s Golden Age: The Sui, the Tang, 11 THE EAST ASIAN RIMLANDS: EARLY JAPAN,
and the Song   240 KOREA, AND VIETNAM  266
10-1a A Time of Troubles: China after the Han   240
10-1b The Sui Dynasty  240 11-1 Japan: Land of the Rising Sun   267
10-1c The Tang Dynasty  241 11-1a A Gift from the Gods: Prehistoric Japan   268
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
11-1b The Rise of the Japanese State   268
The Two Worlds of Tang China   243 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
The Longhouse  269
10-1d The Song Dynasty  244
HISTORICAL VOICES
10-1e Political Structures: The Triumph of
The Seventeen-Article Constitution   270
Confucianism  244
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Feudal Orders Around the World   272
Confucianism and Its Enemies: An Ideological Dispute
in Medieval China   245 HISTORICAL VOICES
Japan’s Warrior Class   273
10-1f The Economy  246
HISTORICAL VOICES
11-1c Was Japan a Feudal Society?   274
Choosing the Best and Brightest   247 11-1d Economic and Social Structures   275
COMPARATIVE ESSAY FILM & HISTORY
The Spread of Technology   249 Rashomon (1950)  276
11-1e In Search of the Pure Land: Religion in
10-2 Explosion in Central Asia: The Early Japan  277
Mongol Empire  250 HISTORICAL VOICES
10-2a Mongol Rule in China   252 Seduction of the Akashi Lady   277
HISTORICAL VOICES 11-1f Sources of Traditional Japanese Culture   278
A Letter to the Pope   252 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
10-2b The Mongols’ Place in History   254 In the Garden   281
FILM & HISTORY 11-1g Japan and the Chinese Model   282
The Adventures of Marco Polo (1938) and Marco
Polo (2007)  254 11-2 Korea: Bridge to the East   282
10-2c The Mongols: A Reputation Undeserved?   255 11-2a The Three Kingdoms  283
11-2b Resisting the Mongols  284
10-3 The Ming Dynasty  255
10-3a The Voyages of Zheng He   255 11-3 Vietnam: The Smaller Dragon   284
10-3b Why Were Zheng He’s Voyages Undertaken, and 11-3a The Rise of Great Viet   284
Why Were They Abandoned?   255 HISTORICAL VOICES
The First Vietnam War   285
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
The Great Walls of China   256 11-3b Society and Family Life   286
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
10-4 In Search of the Way   257 Vietnam: On the Fault Line of Asia   287
10-4a The Rise and Decline of Buddhism
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
and Daoism  257
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  288
Contents ■ xi

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
12 THE MAKING OF EUROPE  290 HISTORICAL VOICES
A Western View of the Byzantine Empire   325
12-1 The Emergence of Europe in the Early 13-2c Women in the Byzantine Empire   326
Middle Ages  291
13-3 The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine
12-1a The New Germanic Kingdoms   291
Empire (1025–1453)  326
12-1b The Role of the Christian Church   291
13-3a New Challenges and New Responses   326
12-1c Charlemagne and the Carolingians   293
13-3b Impact of the Crusades   327
12-1d What Was the Significance of Charlemagne?   293
13-3c The Ottoman Turks and the Fall
HISTORICAL VOICES of Constantinople  327
The Achievements of Charlemagne   294
13-3d Why Did the Eastern Roman Empire Last 1,000 Years
12-1e The World of Lords and Vassals   295 Longer Than the Western Roman Empire?   328
12-1f What Was Feudalism?  295
13-4 The Crises of the Fourteenth Century
12-2 Europe in the High Middle Ages   297 in Europe  328
12-2a Land and People  297 13-4a The Black Death: From Asia to Europe   328
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION 13-4b Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval   329
The New Agriculture in the Medieval World   298
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
12-2b The New World of Trade and Cities   299 The Role of Disease in History   330
FILM & HISTORY OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Lion in Winter (1968)  299
Causes of the Black Death: Contemporary Views   331
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS 13-4c Political Instability  332
Two Views of Trade and Merchants   300
13-4d The Decline of the Church   332
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Cities in the Medieval World   302 13-5 Recovery: The Renaissance  333
12-2c Evolution of the European Kingdoms   303 13-5a The Intellectual Renaissance  333
HISTORICAL VOICES 13-5b Was There a Renaissance for Women?   334
A Muslim’s Description of the Rus   307
13-5c The Artistic Renaissance  334
12-2d Christianity and Medieval Civilization   307 HISTORICAL VOICES
12-2e The Culture of the High Middle Ages   309 The Genius of Michelangelo   336
HISTORICAL VOICES 13-5d The State in the Renaissance   336
University Students and Violence at Oxford   310
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
12-3 Medieval Europe and the World   311 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  338
12-3a The Early Crusades  311
12-3b The Later Crusades  312 PART III
12-3c What Were the Effects of the Crusades?   313
THE EMERGENCE OF NEW WORLD PATTERNS
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  313
(1500–1800)  340

14 NEW ENCOUNTERS: THE CREATION

13 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND CRISIS AND OF A WORLD MARKET  342
RECOVERY IN THE WEST  316
14-1 An Age of Exploration and Expansion   343
13-1 From Eastern Roman to Byzantine Empire   317 14-1a Islam and the Spice Trade   343
13-1a The Reign of Justinian (527–565 c.e.)  317 14-1b The Spread of Islam in West Africa   344
13-1b A New Kind of Empire   319 HISTORICAL VOICES
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Great City of Timbuktu   345
Religious Imagery in the Medieval World   322 14-1c A New Player: Europe   345
HISTORICAL VOICES
A Byzantine Emperor Gives Military Advice   323 14-2 The Portuguese Maritime Empire   346
HISTORICAL VOICES
13-2 The Zenith of Byzantine For God, Gold, and Glory in the Age
Civilization (750–1025)  324 of Exploration  347
13-2a The Beginning of a Revival   324 14-2a En Route to India   347
13-2b The Macedonian Dynasty  324 14-2b The Search for the Source of Spices   348
14-2c New Rivals Enter the Scene   348
xii ■ Contents

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
14-3 The Conquest of the “New World”   350 HISTORICAL VOICES
14-3a The Voyages  350 The Destruction of Magdeburg in the Thirty
Years’ War  383
14-3b The Arrival of Hernando Cortés in Mexico   350
14-3c The Conquests  351 15-3 Response to Crisis: The Practice
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION of Absolutism  383
The Spaniards Conquer a New World   352 15-3a France Under Louis XIV   383
14-3d Governing the Empires  353 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
FILM & HISTORY Sun Kings, West and East   384
The Mission (1986)  354 15-3b Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe   385
14-3e The Competition Intensifies  354
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS 15-4 England and Limited Monarchy   386
The March of Civilization   355 15-4a Conflict Between King and Parliament   386
14-3f Christopher Columbus: Hero or Villain?   356 15-4b Civil War and Commonwealth   386
COMPARATIVE ESSAY 15-4c Restoration and a Glorious Revolution   387
The Columbian Exchange   357
15-5 The Flourishing of European Culture   387
14-4 Africa in Transition  358 15-5a Art: The Baroque  387
14-4a Europeans in Africa  358 HISTORICAL VOICES
14-4b The Slave Trade  358 The Bill of Rights   388
HISTORICAL VOICES 15-5b Art: Dutch Realism  389
A Plea Between Friends   361 15-5c A Golden Age of Literature in England   390
14-4c Political and Social Structures in a
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
Changing Continent  362
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  390
14-5 Southeast Asia in the Era of the Spice Trade   362
14-5a The Arrival of the West   363 16 THE MUSLIM EMPIRES  392
14-5b State and Society in Precolonial Southeast Asia   363
16-1 The Ottoman Empire  393
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • 16-1a The Rise of the Ottoman Turks   393
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  365 16-1b Expansion of the Empire   393
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
The Changing Face of War   394
15 EUROPE TRANSFORMED: REFORM AND 16-1c The Nature of Turkish Rule   396
STATE BUILDING  368 HISTORICAL VOICES
A Portrait of Suleyman the Magnificent   397
15-1 The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century   369 16-1d Religion and Society in the Ottoman World   398
15-1a Background to the Reformation   369
16-1e The Ottoman Empire: A Civilization in Decline?   400
15-1b Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany   371
16-1f Ottoman Art  400
15-1c The Spread of the Protestant Reformation   372
HISTORICAL VOICES
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS A Turkish Discourse on Coffee   401
A Reformation Debate: Conflict at Marburg   373
15-1d The Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation   375 16-2 The Safavids  401
15-1e The Catholic Reformation  375 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
15-1f Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation?   375 Hagia Sophia and the Suleymaniye Mosque   402
COMPARATIVE ESSAY 16-2a Safavid Politics and Society   404
Marriage in the Early Modern World   376 HISTORICAL VOICES
The Religious Zeal of Shah Abbas the Great   404
15-2 Europe in Crisis, 1560–1650   377 16-2b Safavid Art and Literature   405
15-2a Politics and the Wars of Religion in the
Sixteenth Century  377 16-3 The Grandeur of the Mughals   405
15-2b Economic and Social Crises   378 16-3a The Founding of the Empire   406
HISTORICAL VOICES 16-3b Akbar and Indo-Muslim Civilization   406
A Witchcraft Trial in France   380 16-3c Akbar’s Successors  407
15-2c Seventeenth-Century Crises: Revolution 16-3d The Impact of European Power in India   409
and War  381 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
15-2d Was There a Military Revolution?   382 The Capture of Port Hoogly   410

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 16-3e The Mughal Dynasty: A “Gunpowder HISTORICAL VOICES
Empire”?  412 The Rights of Women   448
16-3f  Society Under the Mughals: A Synthesis 18-1d Culture in an Enlightened Age   448
of Cultures  412
16-3g Mughal Culture  414 18-2 Economic Changes and the Social Order   450
18-2a New Economic Patterns  450
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  415 18-2b Was There an Agricultural Revolution?   451
18-2c European Society in the Eighteenth Century   452

17 THE EAST ASIAN WORLD  417 18-3 Colonial Empires and Revolution

in the Americas   452
17-1 China at Its Apex   418 18-3a British North America  452
17-1a The Later Ming  418 18-3b French North America  452
17-1b The Greatness of the Qing   420 18-3c The American Revolution  453
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Debate over Christianity   421 18-4 Toward a New Political Order and
Global Conflict  454
17-2 Changing China  424 18-4a Prussia  454
HISTORICAL VOICES
18-4b The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs   454
The Tribute System in Action   425
18-4c Russia Under Catherine the Great   454
17-2a The Population Explosion  425
HISTORICAL VOICES
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Frederick the Great and His Father   455
The Population Explosion   426
18-4d Enlightened Absolutism Reconsidered  455
17-2b Seeds of Industrialization  427
18-4e Changing Patterns of War: Global Confrontation   456
17-2c Daily Life in Qing China   428
17-2d Cultural Developments  429 18-5 The French Revolution  457
HISTORICAL VOICES 18-5a Background to the French Revolution   457
The Art of Printing   429 FILM & HISTORY
Marie Antoinette (2006)  458
17-3 Tokugawa Japan  430
18-5b From Estates-General to National Assembly   459
17-3a The Three Great Unifiers   431
18-5c Destruction of the Old Regime   459
17-3b Opening to the West   431
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
17-3c The Tokugawa “Great Peace”   433
Revolution and Revolt in France
17-3d Life in the Village   434 and China  460
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Some Confucian Commandments   435 The Natural Rights of the French People:
17-3e Tokugawa Culture  436 Two Views  461
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION 18-5d The Radical Revolution  462
Popular Culture, East and West   437 18-5e Reaction and the Directory   463
17-4 Korea and Vietnam  438 18-6 The Age of Napoleon   464
17-4a Korea: In a Dangerous Neighborhood   438 HISTORICAL VOICES
17-4b Vietnam: The Perils of Empire   439 Napoleon and Psychological Warfare   464
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • 18-6a Domestic Policies  464
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  440 18-6b Napoleon’s Empire  465
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
18 THE WEST ON THE EVE CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  467
OF A NEW WORLD ORDER  442
PART IV
18-1 Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An
Intellectual Revolution in the West   443 MODERN PATTERNS OF WORLD HISTORY
18-1a The Scientific Revolution  443 (1800–1945)  470
18-1b Background to the Enlightenment   445
18-1c The Philosophes and Their Ideas   445 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION:
COMPARATIVE ESSAY INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM
The Scientific Revolution   446 IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY  472
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19-1 The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact   473 20 THE AMERICAS AND SOCIETY
19-1a The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain   473 AND CULTURE IN THE WEST  498
HISTORICAL VOICES
The Steam Engine and Cotton   474 20-1 Latin America in the Nineteenth and Early
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION Twentieth Centuries  499
Textile Factories, West and East   476 20-1a The Wars for Independence   499
19-1b The Spread of Industrialization   476 20-1b The Difficulties of Nation Building   501
19-1c Limiting the Spread of Industrialization to the 20-1c Tradition and Change in the Latin American
Rest of the World   477 Economy and Society   503
19-1d Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution   477 HISTORICAL VOICES
COMPARATIVE ESSAY A Radical Critique of the Land Problem
The Industrial Revolution   478 in Mexico  504
19-1e  Did Industrialization Bring an Improved Standard 20-1d Political Change in Latin America   504
of Living?  479
20-2 The North American Neighbors: The United
19-2 The Growth of Industrial Prosperity   479 States and Canada   505
19-2a New Products  480 20-2a The Growth of the United States   506
19-2b New Patterns  480 20-2b The Rise of the United States   507
19-2c Emergence of a World Economy   481 20-2c The Making of Canada   508
19-2d The Spread of Industrialization   482
20-3 The Emergence of Mass Society   508
19-2e Women and Work: New Job Opportunities   482
20-3a The New Urban Environment   509
19-2f Organizing the Working Classes   482
20-3b The Social Structure of Mass Society   509
HISTORICAL VOICES
The Classless Society   483 20-3c The Experiences of Women   509
20-3d Education in an Age of Mass Society   511
19-3 Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of FILM & HISTORY
Nationalism  484 Suffragette (2015)  511
19-3a The Conservative Order  484 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
19-3b Forces for Change  484 Advice to Women: Two Views   512
19-3c The Revolutions of 1848   485 20-3e Leisure in an Age of Mass Society   513
19-3d Nationalism in the Balkans: The Ottoman Empire 20-4 Cultural Life: Romanticism and Realism
and the Eastern Question   486
in the Western World   513
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Response to Revolution: Two Perspectives   487 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
The Rise of Nationalism   514
19-4 National Unification and the National 20-4a The Characteristics of Romanticism   515
State, 1848–1871  488 20-4b A New Age of Science   515
19-4a The Unification of Italy   488 20-4c Realism in Literature and Art   516
19-4b The Unification of Germany   489
20-5 Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual
19-4c Nationalism and Reform: The European National
State at Midcentury   490 and Cultural Developments   516
FILM & HISTORY HISTORICAL VOICES
The Young Victoria (2009)  490 Flaubert and an Image of Bourgeois
Marriage  517
19-5 The European State, 1871–1914   491 20-5a A New Physics  517
19-5a Western Europe: The Growth of 20-5b Sigmund Freud and the Emergence of
Political Democracy  491 Psychoanalysis  518
HISTORICAL VOICES 20-5c The Impact of Darwin: Social Darwinism
Emancipation: Serfs and Slaves   492 and Racism  518
19-5b Central and Eastern Europe: Persistence of 20-5d The Culture of Modernity   519
the Old Order   493 HISTORICAL VOICES
19-5c International Rivalries and the Winds of War   494 Freud and the Concept of Repression   519
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  496 Painting, West and East   520

CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •

CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  522

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21 THE HIGH TIDE OF IMPERIALISM  524 22-1b The Taiping Rebellion  554
22-1c Efforts at Reform  555
21-1 The Spread of Colonial Rule   525 22-1d The Climax of Imperialism   555
21-1a The Motives  525 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
21-1b The Tactics  525 Practical Learning or Confucian Essence:
COMPARATIVE ESSAY The Debate over Reform   556
Imperialisms Old and New   526 22-1e The Collapse of the Old Order   557
HISTORICAL VOICES
21-2 The Colonial System  527 Program for a New China   559
21-2a The Philosophy of Colonialism   527 22-1f  Was the 1911 Revolution a Success
21-3 India Under the British Raj   528 or a Failure?   560
21-3a Colonial Reforms  528 22-2 Chinese Society in Transition  560
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS 22-2a The Economy: The Drag of Tradition   560
White Man’s Burden, Black Man’s Sorrow   529 22-2b The Impact of Imperialism   561
HISTORICAL VOICES 22-2c Daily Life in Qing China   561
Indian in Blood, English in Taste and Intellect   530
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
21-3b The Costs of Colonialism   530 Imperialism and the Global Environment   562
21-4 Colonial Regimes in Southeast Asia   531 22-3 A Rich Country and a Strong State: The Rise of
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION Modern Japan  563
Cultural Influences, East and West   532
22-3a Opening to the World   564
21-4a “Opportunity in the Orient”: Colonial Takeover
in Southeast Asia   532 22-3b The Meiji Restoration  565
FILM & HISTORY HISTORICAL VOICES
The Rules of Good Citizenship in Meiji Japan   567
A Passage to India (1984)  533
21-4b The Nature of Colonial Rule   534 22-3c Joining the Imperialist Club   568
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
21-5 Empire Building in Africa   535 Two Views of the World   569
21-5a From Slavery to “Legitimate Trade” in Africa   535 22-3d Japanese Culture in Transition   570
HISTORICAL VOICES 22-3e The Meiji Restoration: A Revolution from Above   571
Tragedy at Caffard Cove   536
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
21-5b Imperialist Shadow over the Nile   537 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  572
21-5c Arab Merchants and European Missionaries
in East Africa   538
21-5d Bantus, Boers, and British in the South   538 23 THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH-
21-5e The Scramble for Africa   539 CENTURY CRISIS: WAR AND
21-5f Colonialism in Africa  541 REVOLUTION  575
21-6 The Emergence of Anticolonialism   543 23-1 The Road to World War I   576
21-6a Stirrings of Nationhood  543 23-1a Nationalism and Internal Dissent   576
21-6b Traditional Resistance: A Precursor to 23-1b Militarism  576
Nationalism  543 23-1c The Outbreak of War: Summer 1914   577
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
To Resist or Not to Resist   546 23-2 The Great War  578
21-6c Imperialism: Drawing Up The Balance Sheet   547 23-2a 1914–1915: Illusions and Stalemate   578
HISTORICAL VOICES
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • The Excitement of War   579
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  548
23-2b 1916–1917: The Great Slaughter   581
FILM & HISTORY
22 SHADOWS OVER THE PACIFIC: Paths of Glory (1957)  581
EAST ASIA UNDER CHALLENGE  550 HISTORICAL VOICES
The Reality of War: The Views of British Poets   582
22-1 The Decline of the Qing   551 23-2c The Widening of the War   582
22-1a Opium and Rebellion  551 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
HISTORICAL VOICES Soldiers from Around the World   583
An Insignificant and Detestable Race   553 23-2d The Home Front: The Impact of Total War   584

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 HISTORICAL VOICES 24-3 Japan Between the Wars   617
Women in the Factories   586 24-3a Experiment in Democracy  617
23-3 Crisis in Russia and the End of the War   586 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
Out of the Doll’s House   618
23-3a The Russian Revolution  586
HISTORICAL VOICES
23-3b The Last Year of the War   589
An Arranged Marriage   619
23-3c The Peace Settlement  590
24-3b A Zaibatsu Economy  620
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
24-3c Shidehara Diplomacy  620
Two Voices of Peacemaking   591
24-3d Taisho Democracy: An Aberration?   621
23-4 An Uncertain Peace  593
23-4a The Search for Security   593
24-4 Nationalism and Dictatorship in
23-4b The Great Depression  593
Latin America  621
24-4a A Changing Economy  621
23-4c The Democratic States  594
24-4b The Effects of Dependency   621
23-4d Socialism in Soviet Russia   595
24-4c Latin American Culture  623
23-5 In Pursuit of a New Reality: Cultural and CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
Intellectual Trends  596 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  624
23-5a Nightmares and New Visions   596
23-5b Probing the Unconscious  596
COMPARATIVE ESSAY
25 THE CRISIS DEEPENS: WORLD
A Revolution in the Arts   597
WAR II  626
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • 25-1 Retreat from Democracy: Dictatorial
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  598 Regimes  627
25-1a The Retreat from Democracy: Did Europe Have
Totalitarian States?  627
24 NATIONALISM, REVOLUTION, AND 25-1b The Birth of Fascism   628
DICTATORSHIP: ASIA, THE MIDDLE 25-1c Hitler and Nazi Germany   628
EAST, AND LATIN AMERICA FROM FILM & HISTORY
1919 TO 1939  600 Triumph of the Will (1934)  630
24-1 The Rise of Nationalism   601 25-1d The Stalinist Era in the Soviet Union   631
24-1a Modern Nationalism  601 25-1e The Rise of Militarism in Japan   631
24-1b Gandhi and the Indian National Congress   602 25-2 The Path to War   631
HISTORICAL VOICES 25-2a The Path to War in Europe   632
The Dilemma of the Intellectual   603
25-2b The Path to War in Asia   632
24-1c Revolt in the Middle East   604
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Munich Conference   633
Masters and Disciples   605
HISTORICAL VOICES
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS Japan’s Justification for Expansion   634
Islam in the Modern World: Two Views   606
FILM & HISTORY 25-3 World War II  635
Lawrence of Arabia (1962)  607 25-3a Europe at War  635
HISTORICAL VOICES 25-3b Japan at War  637
The Zionist Case for Palestine   610 25-3c The Turning Point of the War,
24-1d Nationalism and Revolution  611 1942–1943  638
25-3d The Last Years of the War   638
24-2 Revolution in China  612
HISTORICAL VOICES
24-2a Mr. Science and Mr. Democracy:
A German Soldier at Stalingrad   639
The New Culture Movement   612
24-2b The Nationalist–Communist Alliance  613 25-4 The New Order  641
24-2c The Nanjing Republic  613 25-4a The New Order in Europe   641
HISTORICAL VOICES 25-4b The Holocaust  642
A Call for Revolt   614 25-4c The New Order in Asia   642
24-2d “Down with Confucius and Sons”: Economic, Social, HISTORICAL VOICES
and Cultural Change in Republican China   615 Heinrich Himmler: “We Had the Moral Right”   643

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25-5 The Home Front  644 26-3c The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Move
25-5a Mobilizing the People: Three Examples   644 Toward Détente  671
COMPARATIVE ESSAY 26-3d The Sino–Soviet Dispute  672
Paths to Modernization   645 26-3e The Second Indochina War   672
25-5b The Frontline Civilians: The Bombing OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
of Cities  645 Confrontation in Southeast Asia   673
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
The Bombing of Civilians, East and West   646 War in the Rice Paddies   674

25-6 Aftermath of the War   647 26-4 An Era of Equivalence   675

25-6a The Costs of World War II   647 26-4a The Brezhnev Doctrine  676
25-6b The Impact of Technology   647 26-4b An Era of Détente   677
25-6c World War II and the European Colonies: 26-4c Renewed Tensions in the Third World   677
Decolonization  647 26-4d Countering the Evil Empire   678
25-6d The Allied War Conferences   648 26-4e The End of the Cold War   678
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • COMPARATIVE ESSAY
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  649 Global Village or Clash of Civilizations?   680
26-4f The Revenge of History   681
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
PART V CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  681
TOWARD A GLOBAL CIVILIZATION?
THE WORLD SINCE 1945   652 27 BRAVE NEW WORLD: COMMUNISM
ON TRIAL  683
26 EAST AND WEST IN THE GRIP OF 27-1 The Postwar Soviet Union   684
THE COLD WAR  654 27-1a From Stalin to Khrushchev   684
26-1 The Collapse of the Grand Alliance   655 27-1b The Brezhnev Years (1964–1982)   686
HISTORICAL VOICES
26-1a Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe   655
Khrushchev Denounces Stalin   687
26-1b Descent of the Iron Curtain   656
27-1c Cultural Expression in the Soviet Union   688
26-1c The Truman Doctrine  656
27-1d Social Changes  688
HISTORICAL VOICES
HISTORICAL VOICES
The Truman Doctrine   657
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich   689
26-1d The Marshall Plan  657
26-1e Europe Divided  658 27-2 The Disintegration of the Soviet Empire   690
26-1f Who Started the Cold War?   658 27-2a The Gorbachev Era  690
27-2b Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?   691
26-2 Cold War in Asia   661
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
26-2a The Chinese Civil War   661 Sideline Industries: Creeping Capitalism in a
HISTORICAL VOICES Socialist Paradise  691
Who Lost China?   663
26-2b The New China  664 27-3 The East Is Red: China Under
26-2c The Korean War  664 Communism  692
26-2d Conflict in Indochina  665 27-3a New Democracy  692
27-3b The Transition to Socialism   693
26-3 From Confrontation to Coexistence   666 HISTORICAL VOICES
26-3a Ferment in Eastern Europe   667 Land Reform in the Countryside   693
HISTORICAL VOICES 27-3c The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution   694
A Plea for Peaceful Coexistence   668 27-3d From Mao to Deng   695
FILM & HISTORY 27-3e Incident at Tiananmen Square   695
Bridge of Spies (2015)  669
27-3f Riding the Tiger  696
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Soviet Repression in Eastern Europe:
Students Appeal for Democracy   697
Hungary, 1956  670
26-3b Rivalry in the Third World   670 27-3g Back to Confucius?  698

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27-4 “Serve the People”: Chinese Society 28-5i The World of Science and Technology   731
Under Communism  700 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
27-4a Economics in Command  700 From the Industrial Age to the
Technological Age  732
27-4b Chinese Society in Flux   702
28-5j The Explosion of Popular Culture   733
27-4c China’s Changing Culture  703
COMPARATIVE ESSAY CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
Family and Society in an Era of Change   704 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  733
27-4d Confucius and Marx: The Tenacity
of Tradition  706
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • 29 CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING IN
CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  707 AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST  736
29-1 Uhuru: The Struggle for Independence
28 EUROPE AND THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE in Africa  737
SINCE 1945  709 29-1a The Colonial Legacy  737
29-1b The Rise of Nationalism   737
28-1 Recovery and Renewal in Europe   710
28-1a Western Europe: The Triumph 29-2 The Era of Independence   738
of Democracy  710 29-2a The Destiny of Africa: Unity or Diversity?   738
FILM & HISTORY HISTORICAL VOICES
The Iron Lady (2011)  712 Toward African Unity   739
28-1b Eastern Europe After Communism   713 29-2b Dream and Reality: Political and Economic
HISTORICAL VOICES Conditions in Independent Africa   739
A Child’s Account of the Shelling of Sarajevo   715 29-2c The Search for Solutions   740
28-1c The New Russia  715 29-2d Africa: A Continent in Flux   743
28-1d The Unification of Europe   716
29-3 Continuity and Change in Modern
28-2 Emergence of the Superpower: African Societies  744
The United States   717 29-3a Education  744
28-2a American Politics and Society Through 29-3b Urban and Rural Life   744
the Vietnam Era   717 29-3c African Women  745
28-2b The Shift Rightward After 1973   719 29-3d African Culture  745
28-3 The Development of Canada   720 29-3e What Is the Future of Africa?   746
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
28-4 Latin America Since 1945   720 Africa: Dark Continent or Radiant Land?   747
28-4a The Threat of Marxist Revolutions:
The Example of Cuba   721 29-4 Crescent of Conflict  748
28-4b Nationalism and the Military: 29-4a The Question of Palestine   748
The Example of Argentina   722 HISTORICAL VOICES
28-4c The Mexican Way  723 The Arab Case for Palestine   749
29-4b Nasser and Pan-Arabism  750
28-5 Society and Culture in the Western World   723 29-4c The Arab–Israeli Dispute  750
28-5a The Emergence of a New Society   723 29-4d Revolution in Iran  752
28-5b The Permissive Society  724 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
HISTORICAL VOICES Religion and Society   753
“The Times They Are A-Changin’”: The Music of 29-4e Crisis in the Persian Gulf    754
Youthful Protest  725
29-4f Turmoil in the Middle East   754
28-5c Women in the Postwar World   725
HISTORICAL VOICES
28-5d The Growth of Terrorism   726 I Accuse!  755
28-5e Guest Workers and Immigrants   727
HISTORICAL VOICES 29-5 Society and Culture in the Contemporary
The West and Islam   728 Middle East  757
28-5f  The Environment and the Green 29-5a Varieties of Government: The Politics
Movements  729 of Islam  757
28-5g Western Culture Since 1945   729 29-5b Economics of the Middle East: Oil
28-5h Trends in Art  730 and Sand  758

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 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION 30-2c Regional Conflict and Cooperation:
From Rags to Riches in the Middle East   759 The Rise of ASEAN   777
29-5c The Islamic Revival  759 COMPARATIVE ESSAY
FILM & HISTORY One World, One Environment   778
Persepolis (2007)  760 30-2d Daily Life: Town and Country
29-5d Women in the Middle East   760 in Contemporary Southeast Asia   779
29-5e Literature and Art  761 30-2e A Region in Flux   779

CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS • 30-3 Japan: Asian Giant  780

CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  762 30-3a Occupation Reforms: The Transformation of
Modern Japan  780
HISTORICAL VOICES
30 TOWARD THE PACIFIC CENTURY?  764 Japan Renounces War   782
30-3b Politics and Government  782
30-1 South Asia  765 30-3c The Economy  783
30-1a The End of the British Raj   765 30-3d A Society in Transition   784
30-1b Independent India  765 COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION
FILM & HISTORY From Conformity to Counterculture   785
Gandhi (1982)  765
30-3e The Japanese Difference  786
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Two Visions for India   767 30-4 The Little Tigers  786
30-1c The Land of the Pure: Pakistan 30-4a Korea: A Peninsula Divided   786
Since Independence  768 30-4b Taiwan: The Other China   787
30-1d Poverty and Pluralism in South Asia   769 30-4c Singapore and Hong Kong: The
COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION Littlest Tigers  787
Two Indias  771 30-4d The East Asian Miracle: Fact or Myth?   789
30-1e South Asian Literature Since HISTORICAL VOICES
Independence  771 Return to the Motherland   790
30-1f What Is the Future of India?   772
CHAPTER SUMMARY • REFLECTION QUESTIONS •
30-2 Southeast Asia  772 CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER NOTES  790
30-2a In the Shadow of the Cold War   773
30-2b Southeast Asia in the New Millennium   774 Epilogue  793
HISTORICAL VOICES Glossary  798
The Golden Throat of President Sukarno   775 Index  809

xx ■ Contents

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 MAPS

MAP 1.1 The spread of Homo sapiens sapiens 6 MAP 8.2 Ancient Ethiopia and Nubia   191
MAP 1.2 The Ancient Near East   11 MAP 8.3 The Spread of Islam in Africa   194
MAP 1.3 Hammurabi’s Empire  13 MAP 8.4 The Swahili Coast   196
MAP 1.4 Ancient Egypt  16 MAP 8.5 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes   198
MAP 1.5 The Israelites and their Neighbors in the first MAP 8.6 The Emergence of States in Africa   200
Millennium b.c.e.  23 MAP 9.1 The Kushan Kingdom and the Silk Road   212
MAP 1.6 The Assyrian and Persian Empires   26 MAP 9.2 The Gupta Empire   214
MAP 2.1 Ancient Indus Valley civilization   33 MAP 9.3 The Spread of Religions in Southern and
MAP 2.2 Writing systems in the ancient world   36 Eastern Asia, 600–1400 c.e.  216
MAP 2.3 Alexander the Great’s movements in Asia   37 MAP 9.4 India, 1000–1200  220
MAP 2.4 The empire of Ashoka   37 MAP 9.5 The Empire of Tamerlane   222
MAP 3.1 Neolithic China  57 MAP 9.6 Southeast Asia in the Thirteenth Century   230
MAP 3.2 Shang China  58 MAP 10.1 Chang’an under the Sui and the Tang   241
MAP 3.3 China During the Warring States Period   69 MAP 10.2 China Under the Tang   242
MAP 3.4 The Qin Empire, 221–206 b.c.e.  69 MAP 10.3 The Mongol Conquest of China   253
MAP 3.5 The Han Empire   74 MAP 10.4 Asia Under the Mongols   253
MAP 4.1 Ancient Greece (ca. 750–338 b.c.e.)  85 MAP 11.1 Early Japan  267
MAP 4.2 Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece   85 MAP 11.2 The Yamato Plain   271
MAP 4.3 The Great Peloponnesian War MAP 11.3 Korea’s Three Kingdoms   283
(431–404 b.c.e.) 94 MAP 11.4 The Kingdom of Dai Viet, 1100   286
MAP 4.4 The conquests of Alexander the Great   102 MAP 12.1 The Germanic Kingdoms of the Old
MAP 4.5 The world of the Hellenistic kingdoms   105 Western Empire  292
MAP 5.1 Ancient Italy  111 MAP 12.2 Charlemagne’s Empire  293
MAP 5.2 Roman roads in Italy   114 MAP 12.3 Europe in the High Middle Ages   304
MAP 5.3 Roman conquests in the Mediterranean, MAP 12.4 The migrations of the Slavs   306
264–133 b.c.e.  115 MAP 13.1 The Eastern Roman Empire in the
MAP 5.4 The Roman Empire from Augustus through Time of Justinian   318
Trajan (14–117 c.e.)  120 MAP 13.2 The Byzantine Empire, ca. 750   320
MAP 5.5 Location of Constantinople, the MAP 13.3 The Byzantine Empire, 1025   324
“New Rome”  127 MAP 14.1 The Strait of Malacca   344
MAP 6.1 Early Mesoamerica  140 MAP 14.2 The Songhai Empire   344
MAP 6.2 The Maya Heartland   145 MAP 14.3 The Spice Islands   348
MAP 6.3 The Valley of Mexico Under Aztec Rule 147 MAP 14.4 European Voyages and Possessions in the
MAP 6.4 Early Peoples and Cultures of Central and Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries   349
South America  152 MAP 14.5 Cape Horn and the Strait of Magellan   351
MAP 6.5 The Inka Empire Around 1500 c.e.  156 MAP 14.6 Latin America from ca. 1500 to 1750   353
MAP 7.1 The Middle East in the Time of MAP 14.7 Patterns of World Trade Between 1500
Muhammad  164 and 1800  356
MAP 7.2 The Expansion of Islam   169 MAP 14.8 The Slave Trade   359
MAP 7.3 The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height MAP 15.1 Europe in the Seventeenth Century 382
of its Power   171
MAP 16.1 The Ottoman Empire   395
MAP 7.4 The Turkish Occupation of Anatolia   173
MAP 16.2 The Ottoman and Safavid Empires
MAP 7.5 Spain in the Eleventh Century   174 ca. 1683 403
MAP 8.1 Ancient Africa  189
xxi

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MAP 16.3 The Mughal Empire   407 MAP 23.4 Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle
MAP 16.4 India in 1805   411 East after World War I   590
MAP 17.1 China and its Enemies During the MAP 23.5 The Middle East in 1919   590
Late Ming Era   420 MAP 24.1 British India Between the Wars   600
MAP 17.2 The Qing Empire in the Eighteenth MAP 24.2 The Middle East After World War I   605
Century  423 MAP 24.3 Iran Under the Pahlavi Dynasty   606
MAP 17.3 Tokugawa Japan  431 MAP 24.4 The Northern Expedition and the
MAP 18.1 Global Trade Patterns of the European States in Long March  613
the Eighteenth Century   451 MAP 24.5 Latin America in the First Half of the
MAP 18.2 Europe in 1763   456 Twentieth Century  620
MAP 18.3 Napoleon’s Grand Empire   466 MAP 25.1 World War II in Europe and North Africa   634
MAP 19.1 The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of MAP 25.2 World War II in Asia and the Pacific   635
the Nineteenth Century   481 MAP 25.3 Territorial Changes in Europe After
MAP 19.2 Europe After the Congress of World War II   647
Vienna, 1815  485 MAP 26.1 Eastern Europe in 1948   654
MAP 19.3 The Unification of Italy   489 MAP 26.2 Berlin at the Start of the Cold War   656
MAP 19.4 The Unification of Germany   489 MAP 26.3 The New European Alliance Systems During the
MAP 19.5 Europe in 1871   494 Cold War   658
MAP 19.6 The Balkans in 1913   495 MAP 26.4 The Chinese Civil War   660
MAP 20.1 Latin America in the First Half of the MAP 26.5 The Korean Peninsula   663
Nineteenth Century  502 MAP 26.6 Indochina After 1954   664
MAP 20.2 Canada, 1914  508 MAP 26.7 The Global Cold War   665
MAP 20.3 Palestine in 1900   518 MAP 27.1 Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union   683
MAP 21.1 India Under British Rule, 1805–1931   531 MAP 27.2 The People’s Republic of China   697
MAP 21.2 Colonial Southeast Asia   533 MAP 28.1 European Union, 2013   715
MAP 21.3 The Suez Canal   537 MAP 28.2 South America  719
MAP 21.4 The Struggle for Southern Africa   539 MAP 29.1 Modern Africa  736
MAP 21.5 Africa in 1914   540 MAP 29.2 Israel and its Neighbors   749
MAP 22.1 The Qing Empire   552 MAP 29.3 Afghanistan and Pakistan   754
MAP 22.2 The Taiping Rebellion   554 MAP 29.4 Iraq  754
MAP 22.3 Canton and Hong Kong   555 MAP 30.1 Modern South Asia   764
MAP 22.4 Foreign Possessions and Spheres of Influence MAP 30.2 Modern Southeast Asia   773
About 1900  557 MAP 30.3 Modern Japan 779
MAP 22.5 Japanese Overseas Expansion During the MAP 30.4 The Korean Peninsula since 1953   784
Meiji Era  568
MAP 30.5 Modern Taiwan  785
MAP 23.1 Europe in 1914   575
MAP 30.6 The Republic of Singapore   785
MAP 23.2 The Schlieffen Plan   576
MAP 30.7 Hong Kong  786
MAP 23.3 World War I, 1914–1918   578

xxii ■ Maps

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 DOCUMENTS

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 4
THE CODE OF HAMMURABI    14 HOMER’S IDEAL OF EXCELLENCE    87
(The Code of Hammurabi) (Homer, Iliad)
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NILE RIVER THE LYCURGAN REFORMS   91
AND THE PHARAOH   17 (Plutarch, Lycurgus)
(Hymn to the Nile and Hymn to the Pharaoh) OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: WOMEN IN ATHENS
THE COVENANT AND THE LAW: THE BOOK AND SPARTA   100
OF EXODUS  25 (Xenophon, Oeconomicus; Xenophon, Constitution
(Exodus 19:1–8 and Exodus 20:1–3, 7–17) of the Spartans; Aristotle, Politics; and Plutarch,
Lycurgus)
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: THE GOVERNING
OF EMPIRES: TWO APPROACHES    27 THE CHARACTER OF ALEXANDER    104
(King Sennacherib [704–681 b.c.e.] Describes (Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander)
His Siege of Jerusalem [701 b.c.e.]; King
Ashurbanipal [669–627 b.c.e.] Describes His CHAPTER 5
Treatment of Conquered Babylon; and The
Cyrus Cylinder) CINCINNATUS SAVES ROME: A ROMAN
MORALITY TALE   113
(Livy, The Early History of Rome)
CHAPTER 2 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF AUGUSTUS    119
(Augustus, Res Gestae)
IN THE BEGINNING   38
(The Upanishads) OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: WOMEN IN THE
THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN ROMAN AND HAN EMPIRES    124
(Gaius Musonius Rufus, “That Women Too Should Study
ANCIENT INDIA  41
Philosophy” and Ban Zhao, Admonitions for Women)
(The Law of Manu)
ROMAN AUTHORITIES ON CHRISTIANITY    131
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: THE SEARCH FOR
(An Exchange Between Pliny and Trajan)
TRUTH   44
(The Rig Veda and The Mundaka Upanishad)
HOW TO ACHIEVE ENLIGHTENMENT   48 CHAPTER 6
(The Sermon at Benares) THE CREATION OF THE WORLD:
A MAYA VIEW   144
(Popul Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya)
CHAPTER 3 THE LEGEND OF THE FEATHERED
THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN    61 SERPENT   146
(The Book of History) (Chimalpopoca Codex)
THE WIT AND WISDOM OF CONFUCIUS    65 MARKETS AND MERCHANDISE IN
(The Confucian Analects) AZTEC MEXICO   149
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: A DEBATE OVER (Bernal Díaz, The Conquest of New Spain)
GOOD AND EVIL   66 VIRGINS WITH RED CHEEKS    157
(The Book of Mencius and The Book of Xunzi) (Huaman Poma, Letter to a King)
THE DAOIST ANSWER TO CONFUCIANISM   67
(The Way of the Tao) CHAPTER 7
MEMORANDUM ON THE BURNING OF “DRAW THEIR VEILS OVER THEIR
BOOKS   70 BOSOMS”   166
(Sima Qian, Historical Records) (Qur’an, Chapter 24: “The Light”)
xxiii

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THE SPREAD OF THE MUSLIM FAITH    168 THE FIRST VIETNAM WAR    285
(The Qur’an, Chapter 47: “Muhammad, (Masters of Huai Nan)
Revealed at Medina”)
SAGE ADVICE FROM FATHER TO SON    176 CHAPTER 12
(Letter of Tahir ibn Husayn)
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHARLEMAGNE    294
IBN KHALDUN: ISLAM’S GREATEST HISTORIAN   183 (Einhard, Life of Charlemagne)
(The Mugaddimah)
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: TWO VIEWS OF TRADE
AND MERCHANTS   300
CHAPTER 8 (Life of Saint Godric and Ibn Khaldun, Prolegomena)
A CHINESE VIEW OF AFRICA    194 A MUSLIM’S DESCRIPTION OF THE RUS    307
(Chau Ju-kua on East Africa) (Ibn Fadlan, Description of the Rus)
BEWARE THE TROGLODYTES!   196 UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND VIOLENCE
(On the Erythraean Sea) AT OXFORD   310
ROYALTY AND RELIGION IN GHANA    199 (A Student Riot at Oxford)
(Al-Bakri’s Description of Royalty in Ghana)
WOMEN AND ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA    205 CHAPTER 13
(Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa) A BYZANTINE EMPEROR GIVES
MILITARY ADVICE   323
CHAPTER 9 (Maurice, Strategikon)
A PORTRAIT OF MEDIEVAL INDIA      213 A WESTERN VIEW OF THE
(Fa Xian, The Travels of Fa Xian) BYZANTINE EMPIRE   325
THE EDUCATION OF A BRAHMIN    217 (Liudprand of Cremona, Antapodosis)
(Xuan Zang, Records of Western Countries) OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: CAUSES OF THE
THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR    229 BLACK DEATH: CONTEMPORARY VIEWS    331
(Chau Ju-kua, Records of Foreign Nations) (Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; On Earthquakes
CHINESE TRADERS IN THE PHILIPPINES    234 as the Cause of Plague; and Herman Gigas on
(A Description of Barbarian Peoples) Well Poisoning)
THE GENIUS OF MICHELANGELO    336
CHAPTER 10 (Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists)
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: CONFUCIANISM AND
ITS ENEMIES: AN IDEOLOGICAL DISPUTE IN
MEDIEVAL CHINA   245 CHAPTER 14
(Biography of a Great Man and Han Yu, Memorial THE GREAT CITY OF TIMBUKTU    345
Discussing the Buddha’s Bone) (Leo Africanus, History and Description of Africa)
CHOOSING THE BEST AND BRIGHTEST    247 FOR GOD, GOLD, AND GLORY IN THE AGE
(Memorial to Emperor Renzong) OF EXPLORATION   347
A LETTER TO THE POPE    252 (Letter from King Manuel of Portugal)
(A Letter from Kuyuk Khan to Pope Innocent IV) OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: THE MARCH
TWO TANG POETS   262 OF CIVILIZATION   355
(Li Bo, “Quiet Night Thoughts”; Li Bo, “Drinking Alone (Gonzalo Fernández de Ovieda, Historia General y
Beneath the Moon”; and Du Fu, “Spring Prospect”) Natural de las Indias and Bartolomé de Las Casas, The
Tears of the Indians)
CHAPTER 11 A PLEA BETWEEN FRIENDS    361
(A Letter to King João)
THE SEVENTEEN-ARTICLE CONSTITUTION   270
(The Chronicles of Japan)
CHAPTER 15
JAPAN’S WARRIOR CLASS   273
(The Way of the Samurai) OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: A REFORMATION
DEBATE: CONFLICT AT MARBURG    373
SEDUCTION OF THE AKASHI LADY    277 (The Marburg Colloquy, 1529)
(Lady Murasaki, The Tale of Genji)
xxiv ■ Documents

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Other documents randomly have
different content
note, as in reality isolated systems do not exist in the world. I
wished to show that, for this reason, the conception of vital system,
the conception of life, the conception of vital conditions are not
sharply defined. I wished likewise to show that as a necessary
consequence of this fact a sharp separation of the conception of
stimulation, which can only be made in relation to that of vital
conditions, cannot be maintained theoretically. I wished to show
further that there is no sharp line of division between inner and
outer vital conditions, and that we cannot, therefore, make a strictly
theoretical distinction between the conception of stimulation and
that of the processes of development. I wished to show that, for
these reasons, we must not expect from the conception of
stimulation, as we understand it, anything beyond its possibilities.
But finally I wished also to show that, whilst fully conscious of and
with due consideration of all these difficulties, it is possible to work
out a definition of stimulation which is of great practical working
value. The definition in short is: “Stimulus is every alteration in the
external vital conditions.”
This definition gives to the conception of stimulation its most
complete, that is to say, its generally applicable and simplest form.
The great importance from a methodical standpoint of this definition
of stimulation for the research of life is evident. Our whole
experimental natural science always employs for investigation of any
state or process the same method: the state or process to be
observed is studied under systematically altered conditions. By
stimulating the living substance it is brought under changed external
conditions. A systematic employment of stimulus is, therefore, the
experimental means for the research of life.
 CHAPTER III
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STIMULI
Contents: The quality of the stimulus. Positive and
negative alterations of the factors which act as vital
conditions. Extent of the alteration in vital conditions
or intensity of the stimulus. Threshold stimuli, sub-
threshold, submaximal, maximal and supermaximal
intensities of stimulus. Relations between the
intensity of stimulus and the amount of response. The
Weber and Fechner law. All or none law. Time
relations of the course of the stimulus. Form of
individual stimulus. Absolute and relative rapidity in
the course of the stimulus. Duration of the stimulus
after reaching its highest point. Adaptation to
persistent stimuli. Series of individual stimuli.
Rhythmical stimuli. The Nernst law.
We have found that stimuli are alterations in the external vital
conditions and that the irritability of living substance consists in the
capability to respond to stimuli by changes of the vital processes. It
now behooves us in the interest of experimental research to
investigate the relations between the nature of the alterations in the
external vital conditions on the one hand, and that of the alterations
of the vital process on the other; that is to say, to systematically
study the effects of stimulation on the living organism. For this
purpose it is above all necessary to become acquainted with the
almost countless numbers of alterations which take place in the
external vital conditions of an organism, and to create a systematic
scheme of stimulation which differentiates and presents in
comprehensive order those various elementary factors which, among
the innumerable varieties of stimuli, would prove effectual. For this
purpose it is necessary to select the various factors which are
involved in an alteration of the external vital conditions.
The first of these factors is the quality of the stimulus. The external
vital conditions are, in short, a series of chemical factors, such as
foodstuffs, water and oxygen; the presence of a certain
temperature; the existence of a certain light intensity; the existence
of a definite static pressure; and finally the presence of an equal
osmotic pressure. The stimulus according to its quality can be
differentiated into chemical, thermal, photic, mechanical and osmotic
varieties. To these must be added other forms of stimuli not
ordinarily operative, for instance, many uncommon chemicals, and
certain kinds of rays. The form of stimulation, par excellence, which
has acquired the greatest importance for the experimental
investigation of life, is electricity. In its manifold forms it permits, as
no other, of such fine gradations of intensity and duration that it has
become in the hand of the physiologist an invaluable means of
research.
Alterations in those factors which act as vital conditions compose the
great mass of physiological stimuli which act continuously on every
living organism. The first point to be considered in every alteration is
its direction. The alterations produced by stimuli may be of two
different kinds, either positive or negative. The quantity of
foodstuffs, water or oxygen, in the surrounding medium, can
undergo an increase or diminution; as may the temperature,
intensity of light, the atmospheric and osmotic pressure. The
strength of the electric current, which may be applied, can also be
regulated. In accordance with the definition of stimulation already
referred to, we must consider these alterations, whether negative or
positive, as forms of stimulation. Now the question arises: Is this
point of view justifiable? Should one also consider, for example, the
lessening or total removal of a vital condition as a stimulus? Should
one consider the removal of water or oxygen, cooling or darkening,
as a stimulus? It has, in point of fact, been occasionally attempted
not to regard these negative deviations as forms of stimuli. These
observers permitted themselves to be led by the dogma, that only
that which produces an excitation, that is, an increase of the
processes in the living substance, should be regarded as a stimulus.
Such a limitation of the conception of stimuli would only result from
the one-sided consideration of an all too limited circle of facts.
Considered from the point of view which results from a broader
range of experience, this narrow view becomes untenable.
In the first place it does not follow that only positive fluctuations of a
factor, acting as a vital condition, result in excitation in the existing
vital processes. The withdrawal of water produces a diametrically
opposite effect. A muscle, from which water has been removed, if
exposed to dry air or placed in a hypertonic salt solution, shows
violent excitation, which manifests itself in great increase of
irritability and development of fibrillary contractions. The breaking of
a constant current which has for a long time flowed through a nerve
or muscle also elicits a momentary excitation. Further, the abrupt
removal of light may also bring about stimulation. To cite an
example from the physiology of the single cell, I should like to call to
your attention the interesting observations of Engelmann 17 on the
Bacterium photometricum, of which he was the discoverer. When the
field containing these organisms is suddenly darkened, all the
individuals contained in the drop immediately dart forward for some
distance, at the same time, as is usually the case, quickly rotating
around their own axis, and then after a moment of immobility, swim
on quickly in another direction. An analogous responsivity has also
been shown by other single cell organisms, as has been pointed out
by several observers and especially by Jennings. 18 In all these cases
the excitation was produced by a lessening or total withdrawal of the
factors which act as vital conditions; and even those who take the
standpoint that only such factors are to be considered as stimuli
which produce an exciting effect, are compelled to regard these
alterations as stimuli, in spite of the fact that they are negative
variations of external vital conditions.
But further, the restriction of the term stimulation to those
alterations which increase the course of the changes in the living
substance involves the observer in still greater contradictions. It can
easily be shown that one and the same factor in one and the same
form of living substance has now an exciting, now a depressing
effect on the vital processes. This fact can be readily demonstrated 19
by means of the infusoria Colpidium colpoda, which can be grown
without difficulty in a hay infusion. A number of individuals in a drop
of fluid may be placed in a warm stage and observed under the
microscope; one then sees that at room temperature they swim
about by moving their ciliary processes at a definite rate. Now if the
temperature is raised to about 35° C., the ciliary movement becomes
enormously increased. The infusoria swim madly through the field of
vision. They are in a state of violent excitement. The increase has,
therefore, acted as a strong, exciting stimulus. But if one allows the
temperature to further increase only a few degrees the ciliary
movements are suddenly greatly retarded. The infusoria now swim
sluggishly through the field of vision and finally remain stationary. In
this case the increase in the temperature has had a depressing
effect. If the infusoria are not quickly removed, the depression is
followed by death. Should the increase in temperature be regarded
in the first instance as a stimulus, and not as such in the second, in
which the temperature rises only a few degrees higher? Here the
change in the vital conditions concerned is in both instances positive.
In all cases of overstimulation we are confronted by the same
question. Nevertheless it is not at all necessary to refer to such
strong or even life-endangering stimuli for the observation of these
conditions. In this connection I would like to cite an even more
striking instance and which is of special interest for the
understanding of the phenomena in nerve centers. If the posterior
spinal roots of a Rana temporara are severed, and the eighth root
stimulated with a faradic current, whilst the musculus Gastrocnemius
of the same side is connected with a writing lever, one obtains, as
Vészi 20 has found, at the moment of the beginning of stimulation a
contraction of the muscle. The faradic stimulus has, therefore,
produced an excitation reflexly. If instead of the eighth the ninth
posterior root is stimulated, the result obtained is also an excitation
of the muscle. In this case, however, the excitation in the form of a
tetanic contraction lasts for some time, provided that the stimulation
is not at once stopped. If now during tetanic stimulation of the ninth
root the eighth is at the same time stimulated, with a strength of
current equal to that which previously brought about contraction of
the muscle, instead of an increase and a strengthening of
contraction there is, on the contrary, an inhibition which continues
throughout the time during the stimulation of the eighth root. If the
stimulation of the eighth root is discontinued, the tetanic response of
the ninth root reappears. If, on the other hand, the faradic
stimulation of the ninth root is interrupted and the eighth root now
again stimulated, one obtains once more, as in the beginning, with
each stimulation a contraction of the muscle. This fact is illustrated
by the accompanying tracings. (Figure 2.) In this investigation
undertaken in the Göttingen laboratory it was further shown that a
faradic current of the same strength and the same frequency had at
one time an augmenting, at another an inhibitory effect, and these
effects could be produced alternately at will. Should the faradic
current at one time be called a stimulus, at another not? It is here
clearly shown to what absurd consequences it leads if the
conception of stimulation is limited solely to the cases in which an
external factor has an exciting effect; and yet an immense number
of instances of a like nature could be cited to show the untenability
of this view.
 Fig. 2.
Lower thick line shows duration of stimulation of
9th root; upper thick line that of 8th root.

It follows from this, that it is altogether impracticable to define the

stimulus itself in relation to the nature of the effects which the
stimulus has upon the substances in the living system. One can only
appreciate the nature of stimulation in relation to the vital conditions
and without considering the nature of the action of the stimuli on
the living substance. It is true that every stimulus is followed by an
alteration in living processes, but this is to be expected when one
clearly understands the nature of vital conditions. A stimulus is in all
cases an alteration in vital conditions and, in that each of the vital
conditions is necessary for the continuance of life, it follows of
necessity that every alteration in the vital conditions, so intimately
connected with the living processes, will also be followed by an
alteration in the processes occurring in the living system. In short,
response is produced. Nevertheless, a definite alteration of an
external vital condition, depending upon the state of other vital
conditions, that is, according to the state of living substance at the
moment, can produce quite opposite effects. Although it may appear
expedient to include in the conception of stimulation in given
instances, distinctions between stimuli according to the nature of
their effects upon the living substance, in all cases the conception
must under all circumstances be so formulated that it comprises all
alterations in the external vital conditions, either positive or
negative, that is to say, an increase or decrease, an augmentation or
diminution in those factors, acting as vital conditions.
Besides the quality there is another highly important factor to be
considered in the study of every alteration in the living process,
namely, its amount. The chemical concentration of the medium,
temperature, amount of light, the static and osmotic pressure may
undergo more or less variation. The electric stimulus can rise from
zero to great intensity and from great intensity can fall to zero. The
extent of the alteration determines the intensity of the stimulus. In
relation to the intensity, a differentiation of stimulation has been
introduced, which is not dependent upon the absolute intensity of
the stimulus, that is, upon the extent of the alterations in the
external vital conditions, but the intensity of the response that can
be observed. One refers frequently to threshold stimulation, to
stimulation beneath the threshold, to submaximal, maximal and
supermaximal stimulation. Such a classification is in many ways very
valuable. It is not only of practical value for the establishment of
definite intensities of stimulation, but also for the study of the state
of irritability in the living organisms.
The threshold of stimulation furnishes roughly a standard for the
degree of irritability of a living system. The threshold value of a
stimulus is then that degree of intensity which is just sufficient to
bring about a perceptible response. The threshold of stimulation is
low, that is, the irritability is great, when the intensity of the
threshold stimulus is small; the threshold is high, that is, the
irritability of a system is small, if the intensity of the threshold
stimulus is great. All intensities of stimuli beneath the threshold are
sub-threshold stimuli. Here a point must not be overlooked, which in
older physiology did not generally meet with sufficient attention.
From the fact that the sub-threshold stimuli produce no apparent
effects, the wrong deduction must not be made, that they have no
effect whatsoever. The conception of the threshold of stimulation
originated in the field of muscle physiology and that of the special
senses. Here the indicator of the response is, on the one hand,
contraction of the muscles, and on the other, conscious sensation.
There was a great temptation to consider the stimulus altogether
ineffectual, if it produced no conscious sensation or no contraction of
the muscle. Today with our finer and more sensitive indicators for
the study of the alterations in the living substance, we know in
reality that sub-threshold stimuli, which produce no apparent effect
in the living substance, can have an effect in reality.
I will call your attention later to the fact that these sub-threshold
stimuli play a very important rôle under certain conditions in the
activities of the central nervous system. It only depends upon the
sensitivity of our special senses, or the indicators used for this
purpose, as to whether the alterations can be observed or not. The
conception of the threshold of stimulation, therefore, has meaning
only when used in relation to a certain indicator. The threshold of the
same living system may be different for different indicators. When
we use the term threshold we must necessarily know the indicator
employed in its determination. The threshold stimulus produces only
barely perceptible effects. The amount of response in most living
substances increases with the intensity to a certain limit. If this limit
is reached, that is, if the response is maximal, the stimulus of the
weakest strength necessary to produce this result is termed the
maximal stimulus, whereas all intensities lying between the
threshold and the maximal stimulus are termed submaximal stimuli.
If the intensity of the stimulus is increased above that of the
maximal, the response, as in the case of the muscle, does not
increase, and therefore one could say that all intensities above the
maximal could also be called maximal stimuli.
In realty, however, the response to stimuli of different intensities is
never equal, even though it may appear so, when measured by an
indicator, as for instance, the height of the maximal muscle
contractions. This is clearly shown, for example, when the electrical
stimulus is increased far beyond that intensity which is necessary to
produce maximal effect. Injury is thereby produced, which is
manifested, for instance, in the muscle contraction by the nature of
its course and also by its height. One is, therefore, justified in a
certain sense in calling the intensities of the stimulus, which are
above the value which barely produces maximal contraction,
“supermaximal stimuli,” notwithstanding this is logically far from
being a happy expression. The term “maximal stimulus,” then, is
limited to the intensity of the stimulus which just produces a
maximal effect. I wish to point out this distinction between maximal
and supermaximal stimulus, as there is often a lack of clearness in
the use of these terms.
In that the nomenclature of intensity of stimulation is based upon
the intensity of response, the question arises as to the relation
between the intensity of stimulus and the amount of response. It is
well known that this question has met in one special field of
physiology with a very detailed and comprehensive treatment. I
allude to the teaching concerning sensation. Ernst Heinrich Weber 21
first called attention to the relation between increase in sensation
and that of the stimulus in the case of the sense of touch. His
observations, which have been formulated into “Weber’s law,” have
been the object of animated discussion. A presentation of this law is
the following: “The amount of pressure necessary to produce a
perceptible increase of sensation always bears the same ratio to the
amount of the stimulus already applied.”
If in accordance with Ziehen 22 we designate the relative increase in
pressure to that already applied, which is necessary to produce a
perceptible increase in sensation, as the threshold of relative
differentiation, we can formulate the law in the simplest way thus:
The relative threshold of differentiation is constant. Fechner, 23 who
indeed attempted to apply this law, applicable to the sense of
pressure, to all the other special senses, has given us a
mathematical formula, based on the assumption that the just
perceptible increase of sensation has the same value at all levels. By
this assumption he was able to establish for the first time a relation
between the intensity of sensation and that of stimulus, for it follows
that “the sensation increases in intensity in arithmetical progression,
whereas the intensity of the stimulus increases in geometrical
progression.” From this Fechner has worked out a psychophysical
formula, which today is generally termed the Fechner law. This is the
law: The intensity of sensation varies with the logarithm of the
intensity of the stimulus.
Soon the Weber as well as the Fechner law had been extended over
the whole field of sensation and stimulation. In this connection
Preyer 24 has formulated his “myophysical law,” which states that
there is the same relation between strength of stimulus and the
intensity of response of the muscle as is laid down by the Fechner
law for stimulation and sensation. Pfeffer 25 has found that Weber’s
law applied also to the relations of the chemotaxis of bacteria, to the
intensity of the chemical stimulus, and likewise the attempt has been
made to show that all living substances respond in the manner laid
down by the Weber-Fechner law. Unfortunately the innumerable
investigations in this field have shown more and more clearly that it
is not possible to formulate a general mathematical law, which
strictly fixes the relations of the intensity of the stimulus and the
intensity of response. Even in the field of the physiology of the
special senses many voices have opposed the general application of
the Weber and the Fechner law. Lotze, G. Meissner, Dohrn, Hering,
Biedermann and Löwitt, Funke and numerous other investigators
have already demonstrated for some decades, partly by means of
critical inquiry, partly by experimentation, that these laws are not
strictly valid. Above all these experiments have shown that
logarithmic relations are not tenable and likewise are not applicable
to very strong stimuli. The assumption made by Fechner, that is, the
acceptance that all barely perceptible increases of sensation have an
equal value, has been set aside as incorrect, and with this his
mathematical formulation within those boundaries of intensity of the
stimulus, in which the Weber law has proven itself valid, must also
be abandoned. That which we can say today with certainty
concerning the relation between the intensity of stimulus and the
amount of response is as follows: A law generally applicable to the
relation between the strength of the stimulus and the amount of
response cannot be mathematically formulated. For a great number
of living systems the rule which holds for the intensity of stimulation
within certain boundaries is the following: With increase of the
intensity of stimulation the response at first increases rapidly and
later more and more slowly.
This rule of course only applies within the boundaries of the intensity
between the threshold of stimulation and maximal stimulus. The
interval, however, between these intensities varies considerably in
different living substances. In this connection there are several forms
of living substance which call for our special attention. In these the
surprising condition seems to exist, that the interval between the
threshold and the maximal stimulus is zero; that is, every stimulus
which acts at all always produces a maximal response. Bowditch 26
first observed this behavior in the frog’s heart and this has also been
confirmed by Kronecker. 27 The induction current produces, as
Bowditch says, either a contraction or nothing. If the former, it is the
strongest contraction which can be produced by an induction shock
at the given time. Here for the first time a constancy of response
was discovered which has been termed the all or none law.
McWilliams 28 has later verified the same fact for the mammalian
heart. Gotch 29 has also arrived at the same conclusion in connection
with the nerve. He states that “the comparison of submaximal with
maximal responses shows that although there is an obvious
difference in the amount of E. M. F., there is little or no difference
between such time relations as the moment of commencement, the
moment of culmination of E. M. F. and the rate at which E. M. F.
disappears.” Further: “the rate of propagation of the excitatory wave
is the same whether this is maximal or submaximal.” He likewise
assumes that the “all or none law” is applicable to the constituent
fibers, and that the variations in the strength of response with weak
and strong stimulation are brought about in the first instance by
stimulation of a few, in the latter by a greater number of fibers in
the nerve trunk. The same conclusion has been reached by
Keith Lucas 30 for the single cross-striated fiber of the skeletal
muscle, founded on the fact that by direct stimulation of a bundle of
curarized muscle fibers, the contraction only increases inconstantly
and not regularly with the increasing intensity of the stimulus. This is
only comprehensible if one takes into consideration that, with the
increasing intensity of the stimulus, a greater and greater number of
fibers are stimulated. Keith Lucas 31 came to the same conclusion in
the case of the muscle stimulated indirectly through the nerve. He,
therefore, sees, because of the nature of the response of the single
muscle cell, no difference between heart muscle and skeletal muscle.
The “all or none law” applies to the individual muscle cells of both
kinds. The difference between the heart and skeletal muscle,
according to him, lies in the fact that in the heart the individual
muscle cells in their totality stand together as conductors of
excitation, whereas in the skeletal muscle the individual muscle
fibers are separated, as far as conduction of excitation is concerned,
by the sarcolemma. Finally, the recent investigations of Vészi 32 with
strychnine poisoned ganglia cells of the posterior horns of the spinal
cord, have made it appear probable that “the all or none law” can be
applied likewise to the individual ganglion cell. He draws this
conclusion not only from the fact that all reflex contractions of a
muscle of a strychninized frog are maximal, whether they are
produced by weak or strong stimuli, but also especially because of
the loss in the strychninized spinal cord of the capacity of the
summation of irritability. The normal spinal cord does not reflexly
respond at all to weak single stimuli, but responds to equally weak
faradic stimulation very readily. Therefore, the threshold lies very
high for the individual induction shock and very low for faradic
shocks. But these differences are equalized in the strychninized frog.
This seems intelligible, when we assume that the strychninized cell
responds to every stimulus, to which it responds at all, to the
maximal extent which is permitted at that moment by its stored up
energy, otherwise the excitation would necessarily be summated by
faradic stimulation.
Such are the instances to which one has up to the present applied
the “all or none law.” The question if, as a matter of fact, such a
condition has ever been realized in any living substance has until
now found no final answer. Most authors, who accept the validity of
the “all or none law” for certain living substances, do so with a
certain reserve and speak only of the possibility or probability of
such behavior. The subject has, however, as will be shown later, a
great and even vital interest in another direction. For this reason I
should prefer to postpone the treatment of the same to a later
occasion. Here I wish simply to say, that if the “all or none law” is
valid in a strict sense for certain structures, then there exists no
general constancy of the relations of the intensity of the stimulation
and the amount of response, applicable to all living organisms.
We will now return from this digression concerning the relations
between the intensity of the stimulus and the response, to the
further characterization of the properties of the stimulus. Besides the
quality, the direction and the intensity of every alteration in vital
conditions, an equally important factor is the duration of the
alteration. The time relations, under which a deviation of the
external vital conditions takes place, present immense and manifold
variations in nature. In many cases the change is very complicated,
as for instance, the alteration of the static pressure or the
temperature under the influence of air or water currents, the
osmotic pressure or chemical factors in diffusion currents, and the
light intensity produced by the movement of clouds. These very
irregular alterations have practically little interest for us. Here we are
concerned rather with the differentiation of the time alterations of
the processes of the simplest fundamental types, which are of
importance in studying the course of the reaction. For it is of such
simple elements that the complicated and irregular alterations of the
above-mentioned kinds are composed.
The simplest form of an individual change in the external vital
conditions would be a regular and constant alteration of intensity
which can be graphically represented as a straight line, wherein the
intensities are the ordinates and the time the abscissa. (Figure 3, A.)
A regularly rising pressure would, for instance, represent a stimulus
in its simplest form. But such forms of stimuli are only very rare in
nature and are also experimentally very difficult to produce. It is, for
example, not easy to give the electrical stimulus, so much used for
experimental purposes, this form. Fleichl and v. Kries have only
accomplished this by means of complicated apparatus. The usual
form of the individual stimulus is not a straight line, but a logarithmic
curve. (Figure 3, B.) The alteration hardly ever progresses with equal
rapidity from its beginning until it reaches its highest point, but as a
rule, with decreasing rapidity. This is the usual course of alterations
of concentration, also of chemical and osmotic stimuli, of changes of
temperature and of electric stimulation.

Fig. 3.

The rapidity of alterations in vital conditions has quite an important

influence on the development of the response to stimulation. It is
well known that if a constant current, which reaches its highest
intensity rapidly, is permitted to act upon a muscle, the effect differs
from that following the application of a current of the same intensity
but in which this is reached very slowly. In the first case there is a
sudden strong twitch, in the second none at all. In spite of this there
can be no doubt whatever of the current in the last case being
effective. That the muscle is also excited when the current is slowly
increased is shown by the contracture, which grows more and more
plainly perceptible with the increasing intensity of the current and in
higher intensities by the so-called Porret’s phenomenon, which
consists in a curious wave-like movement of the muscle-substance.
In reference to the rapidity of the alterations in the factors which act
as stimuli, the behavior varies greatly. Many stimuli because of their
nature never have a steep ascent or descent of intensity, as, for
instance, alterations in the concentrations of soluble substances, that
is, chemical or osmotic stimuli; likewise temperature variations may
be mentioned. They always act relatively slowly. On the contrary
there are forms of stimuli which have now a rapid, now a slow,
ascent or descent of their intensity, such as the photic and
mechanical stimuli. Finally, there are other stimuli that nearly always
show a very abrupt change of intensity, such as the electrical form.
The most important factor to be considered in producing the
response to variations of intensity, is not the absolute rapidity, but
rather the relative rapidity; that is, the rapidity in relation to the
characteristic rapidity of reaction of the particular living substance
concerned. The rapidity of the reaction to stimuli is very different in
various forms of living substance. On the one hand, we have forms
reacting very quickly, as the nerve and the striated muscle; on the
other, those which respond very slowly, such as a great number of
unicellular organisms. Between these are a great number of living
substances which, as far as the rapidity of the reaction is concerned,
occupy intermediate positions of every varying degree. It is clear
that the adequate stimuli for slowly reacting substances must be
those having also a slow change of intensity; for quickly reacting,
those having a rapid change of intensity. 33 If a nerve muscle
preparation is simulated with the single induction shock, the “break”
as well as the “make” shock has effect. But even here a difference is
noticeable. The “make” shock has a weaker effect than the “break”
shock. This difference is due to the difference of abruptness in its
course, which when the current is made is less than that of opening,
for, when the current is made, the ascent of the primary current is
retarded by the extra current flowing in the opposite direction,
whereas, when broken, with the fall of the intensity of the primary
current, the extra current in the primary coil flows in the same
direction. In consequence of this there is a perceptible difference in
the rapidity of the alteration of the “make” and “break” shocks.
(Figure 4.)
 Fig. 4.
Course of induction shocks. 1 and 2 make and
break of the primary current. 11 and 21 make
and break induction shocks. (After Hermann.)

Now slowly reacting forms of living substance, such as certain

foraminifera, in which the extended pseudopods are stimulated with
single induction shocks, the break as well as the make shocks are
wholly without effect, as both take place far too quickly for the slow
responsivity of these organisms. I have made such observations on
various forms of foraminifera of the Red Sea, on Orbitolites,
Amphistegina and others. The movement of granules in the
pseudopods is not influenced by the induction shocks in the least. It
also continues without interruption when the pseudopods are
extended. Even with the strongest induction shocks at my disposal I
could not induce them to contract; the faradic current, also, the
intensity of which I found quite unbearable, remained utterly without
effect. 34 These two extreme cases, the nerve and the foraminifera,
show plainly that the effect of a stimulus is not produced by the
absolute rapidity of the increase of intensity, but is solely influenced
by the relative rapidity of the same.

Fig. 5.

A further point for consideration in the duration of an alteration in a

vital condition in producing a stimulant action is the length of time
the stimulus remains after reaching its highest point. In the forms of
stimuli occurring in nature the duration of the alteration after
reaching its highest level can vary considerably. The stimulus may
remain indefinitely at a certain level, when this is once reached.
(Figure 5, A.) The alteration likewise persists. This would be the
case, for instance, with the changes of concentration in the transfer
of an organism from fresh into sea water. The alteration can also,
however, immediately after attaining its highest level, return, so that
the original state is at once reestablished. (Figure 5, B and C.) Here
it is a case of a quick deviation in the external vital conditions. A
sudden jar would be a case in point. Between these two extremes
we have all variations in the duration of all natural and experimental
forms of single stimuli.
Now we arrive at the question: Has a prolonged stimulation really a
prolonged effect? This question might seem superfluous, as from a
conditional standpoint it is self-evident that every alteration in any
one of the conditions of a system is followed by an alteration in the
system. But this very question played an important rôle in older
physiology and led to prolonged discussions for the reason that a
special case was taken into consideration in this connection, which at
that time was not clearly understood. Du Bois-Reymond, 35 as a
result of his investigations on the nerve muscle preparation of the
frog, formulated a law of nerve excitation, according to which it is
not the absolute value of the intensity of the constant current which
produces an excitation of the nerve and contraction of its muscle,
but an alteration of the intensity from one moment to another. The
more rapidly these changes are produced, the greater is the
excitation. His arguments were based upon the fact that a
contraction can only take place on the “making” or “breaking,” or by
rapidly strengthening or weakening the constant current; it is
possible to subject a nerve muscle preparation to a current of
considerable strength without a muscle contraction resulting,
provided it is slowly increased. One might be disposed to conclude
from this that the constant current, when showing no fluctuations,
has no stimulating effect whatsoever. Should this observation be
carried even further and the attempt made to extend it into a
general law of excitation by assuming that the effects of stimulation
are only produced by variations in the intensity, not by its continued
duration, one would commit the error of judging the occurrence of a
stimulus only by the unsatisfactory criterion of an abrupt muscle
contraction. Today we know with positiveness that a continued effect
also exists during the uninterrupted flowing of a constant current in
nerve or muscle, though much weaker, however, than in the case of
the excitations produced by sudden fluctuations of the intensity. This
is shown in the nerve by an altered excitability, which continues at
the poles during the whole duration of the current. In the region of
the anode the excitability is diminished, in that of the cathode it is
increased. An excitation can also be demonstrated which extends
from the cathode through the nerve, which can easily be detected
by sufficiently delicate methods. Among other effects of prolonged
stimulation is that of cathodal contracture, which remains localized in
the region of the cathode and which excitation persists as long as
the current continues. This permanent excitation can be particularly
well observed in the single cells of the rhizopods. If a constant
current is allowed to flow through an Actinosphærium, 36 the
straight, smooth, ray-shaped pseudopods of the cell body at the
moment of “making,” show evidence of contraction by being drawn
in, particularly those directed towards the anodic and in less degree
also those towards the cathodic pole. This excitation, greatest at the
time of “making” of the current, though diminishing rapidly in
intensity during its continuance, remains, however, to a less degree,
and leads to a progressive disintegration of the protoplasm on the
side towards the anode, which lasts until the current is again broken.
(Figure 6.) Thus even though there can be no doubt, on the one
hand, that the effect of stimulation, which appears at the moment of
the entrance, is to produce alterations, which develop very rapidly,
and that by a continuation of this state there is a more or less rapid
fall to a low level; on the other hand, it is just as certain that the
alterations in the living system persist throughout the duration of the
changed external conditions, or to put it more concisely: the effect
of the stimulus never wholly disappears unless the changes in the
external vital conditions return to their original state.
 Fig. 6.
Actinosphaerium eichhornii. Four stages
showing the progressive influence of a
constant current. Protoplasmic
disintegration at the side toward the
anode.

But more, an effect of the stimulus cannot indeed take place without
a certain duration of stimulation, which is related in its turn to the
rapidity of reaction of particular living system. This can be much
more readily observed in more slowly reacting substances. Fick 37
first proved this fact on the muscle of the Anodonta. I have also
been able to demonstrate the same fact in the slowly reacting sea
rhizopods 38 by the use of the constant current. When Orbitolites is
stimulated with a constant current lasting approximately the tenth of
a second, no response is seen in its extended pseudopods, which
are directed towards the poles. The same is the case if the induction
current is employed. Only when the constant current of the uniform
strength lasts approximately .05 seconds, a barely perceptible
response occurs, manifested by the sudden stoppage of the
centrifugal flowing of granules in the anodic pseudopods, which,
however, after the lapse of one to three seconds continues again
unaltered. Should the duration of the constant current be still further
prolonged, typical symptoms of contraction are seen being
manifested by a heaping up of the protoplasm in the pseudopods in
the form of spindles and balls, whilst the protoplasm flows in a
centripetal direction towards the central cell body. (Figure 7.)
Two effects can be realized by the alteration in the living system as
the result of prolonged stimulation. Either a new state of equilibrium
is established by the prolonged action, or sooner or later death
develops. In considering both results, however, we will ignore for the
present the fact that every living system in the absence of such
prolonged stimulation is always in a state of change, i.e.,
development. Only with this restriction can an equilibrium of the
living system be spoken of.
 Fig. 7.
Orbitolites complanatus. A—Before stimulation. B
—Under influence of a constant current.

It is sometimes the case that under the influence of a stimulus a

new equilibrium is developed, which may remain as long as the
stimulus persists. This most frequently occurs as a result of weak
stimuli. That which is usually termed “individual adaptation” belongs
in this category. Likewise some of the natural and artificial
immunizations may also be included. The continued stimulation in
such cases of adaptation as we learned before in the example of
Amœba limax and radiosa or Branchipus stagnalis and Artemia salina
becomes a vital condition for the living substance in its new state.
The other result, namely, that of death ensuing sooner or later, is
most frequently produced by stronger stimulation. Through the
effect of the prolonged stimulation, the change in the living system
is so great that all harmonious interaction of the various processes of
life become after a time impossible. The disturbance of this
equilibrium after a longer or shorter time becomes so great that life
ceases. By far the greater number of all diseases furnish examples of
this kind. Disease is nothing else but reaction to stimulation. Should
a constant stimulus persist and if the development of a new
equilibrium of this system is not established, the result is premature
death.
In most cases, as, for instance, the nerve impulses which move
toward an organ, or better still the electrical stimuli as used for
experimental purposes, it is not a question of a permanent but of a
temporary alteration in the external vital conditions. The stimulus
starts, then ceases after a longer or shorter period. In this way there
is added to the deviation at the start also the alteration at its
termination. The latter takes place with different degrees of rapidity,
in a manner analogous to that of the initial alteration, and can bring
about response. With this the curve of the duration of the course of
the stimulus becomes somewhat more complicated and in
consequence a like effect is observed in the response. The “making,”
duration and “breaking” of the constant current furnishes the
example of this type. The “making” of the current being a quick
alteration calls forth a strong and sudden excitation (in the muscle
contraction); the continuation of the current maintains weak
excitation of equal intensity (in the muscle a continued contraction)
and the “breaking,” being a sudden alteration, is followed again by a
stronger excitation (in the muscle a contraction). The duration of the
change can, however, be so short that its intensity does not remain
at two periods of time at the same height, but instead the ascent of
the intensity is immediately followed by its descent to zero.
Induction shocks of short duration, the duration of which have been
observed more in detail especially by Grützner, 39 offer typical
examples. Here a single effect of the stimulus results from the rise
and fall of the intensity curve. Hence the induction shocks as
momentary stimuli are universally used for experimental purposes.
In contrast to the single stimuli, which find their ideal in induction
shocks, another form of stimulation should receive our attention,
namely, the series of stimuli which produce a rhythmical alteration of
vital conditions. These show among their complex combination of
simultaneous and successive actions of their single stimuli relatively
the simplest and most easily understood regularity in their effects.
They are of particular interest, because they develop in the normal
physiological happenings of the animal body in the form of
rhythmical intermittent impulses of the nervous system.
Here again it is self-evident that with regard to the course of
response, we must first consider the character of the single stimulus
of the series, and this must be done from all those standpoints
already here discussed. However, a new factor is met with here, that
is, the frequency of the single stimuli of the series, or that which has
the same meaning, the duration of the intervals between them. This
is a feature upon which the result of stimulation depends in a very
high degree. But here, too, however, it is not a case of the absolute
frequency of the single stimulus, but simply of the relative frequency
in regard to the rapidity of reaction of the particular living system. I
should like to remark here that it is of greatest importance whether
the interval between the two single stimuli of the series is sufficiently
long or not to allow the living system time to completely recover
from the effect of the preceding stimulus. In the cases, for instance,
where we have recovery, we have the same rhythm of stimulation as
that of response. When recovery does not occur, interferences of the
response are developed, which are of great physiological
importance, with the analysis of which we shall later on find
occasion to occupy ourselves in detail. The physiological example for
these stimuli is the rhythmical discharge of impulses of the nerve
centers; the physical method, which is most widely used for
experiments, is the faradic current.
It is apparent that the question of frequency must again be
combined with all those factors previously discussed in connection
with the single stimulus. In consequence another complication arises
and with this another point must be taken into consideration,
namely, the fact that the duration of the single stimulus in a series
undergoes alteration by increasing frequency beyond a certain limit.
Beyond this limit the duration of the single stimulus must become
less and less. As the result of the fact that stimulation is, as we have
seen, dependent on the duration of stimulus, it is evident that,
depending upon the rapidity of response of the living system, sooner
or later the rhythmical stimulation must become ineffectual.
Nevertheless, this effect of shortening the duration of the single
stimulus can be compensated by a corresponding increase of its
intensity. In this connection Nernst 40 showed a very simple relation
for induction currents of higher frequency of interruption, which
furnishes a law according to which such a compensation takes place.
In conjunction with Barratt he found, namely, that the intensity must
increase proportionately to the square root of the number of single
stimuli if the threshold value of the stimulus is to be maintained, that
is, I : √m = const., in which I is the intensity of the current and m
the frequency of interruptions. The limits of the validity of this law
cannot at present be conclusively established.
This exhausts the small number of elementary factors concerned in
the course of the stimulation, and which are of importance in
considering its effect. The combination of the different varieties of
these single factors, that is, the nature, the direction, the intensity,
the rapidity, the duration and number of alterations in the external
vital conditions of the organism produce the enormous variety of
effects of stimulation which we observe in the living world.
 CHAPTER IV
THE GENERAL EFFECT OF STIMULATION
Contents: Various examples of the effects of stimulation.
Metabolism of rest and metabolism of stimulation.
Metabolic equilibrium. Disturbances of equilibrium by
stimuli. Quantitative and qualitative alterations of the
metabolism of rest under the influence of stimuli.
Excitation and depression. Specific energy of living
substance. Qualitative alterations of the specific
metabolism and their relations to pathology.
Functional and cytoplastic stimuli. Relations of the
cytoplastic effects of stimuli to the functional.
Hypertrophy of activity and atrophy of inactivity.
Metabolic alterations during growth of the cell.
Primary and secondary effects of stimulation. Scheme
of effects of stimulation.
In the foregoing lectures we have had occasion to touch more or
less often on the subject of the effects of the stimuli. This was the
case, however, only when it appeared necessary to obtain a
systematic knowledge of the stimuli and the differentiation of the
individual factors. We will now proceed to consider the effect of
stimulation in a more systematic manner. The conditional method of
observation, however, will remain our guide.
We have already pointed out the relations between the conception of
stimulation and that of vital conditions, now we will consider that of
the effect of stimulation with that of vital processes. Nevertheless,
the effect of stimulation being a manifestation of the vital process is
not, therefore, in opposition to the latter as such. Hence the