Chapter Summary.

Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the

Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and Mycenae. Internal warfare and Indo-European invasions destroyed
the early civilization by 1100 B.C.E. By 800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge.
Greek politics and culture flourished until 400 B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military
empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time when Greek culture spread widely in the
Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks demonstrated new political and
cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and mathematical advances. The
Greek legacy influenced many later societies.

The Political Character of Classical Greece. The Greeks highly valued political activity,
contributing greatly to the later developments of democratic cultures. Although Greek
communities had varied political forms, aristocratic rule was prevalent. A general revival of
eastern Mediterranean trade spurred the growth of Greek city-states and challenged existing
political structures. The Greeks during the 8th century B.C.E. simplified the Phoenician alphabet to
write their own language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural
life. The Iliad and the Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic
culture. In architecture, the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building
framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while
decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity.

The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E., the prevailing form of government was the
city-state (polis): polities varying in size and embracing a city and its dependent agricultural
hinterland. Many city-states formed, independent and frequently in conflict with each other.
Land-owning aristocrats ruled the city-states descended from Indo-European warriors. They and
free farmer citizens met in councils, even when there were kings, to discuss political issues.
After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of commercial
expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered and
a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. In purely agricultural regions, some
aristocratic oligarchies, such as Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure.
By the 6th century B.C.E., urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform.
Tyrants won support by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solon of Athens,
labored to develop new laws to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change
came from the democratization of military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most
city-states were based upon principles of loyalty to the public community rather than to an
individual ruler. Male citizens were immersed in the public life of the polis. Since each city-state
had its own gods, religious rituals also deepened participation.

The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon’s
reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Peisistratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death,
the reformer Cleisthenes reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to
depend upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority, and citizens formed the army
and the judiciary. Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly.
Athenian democracy was both more extensive and less inclusive by modern standards. Many
adults–women, slaves, and foreigners—were excluded from political rights, and aristocrats like
Pericles and Alcibiades had excessive importance.
A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized
individual participation, but in a heterogeneous system quite different from the single
centralized Chinese state. Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese
stressed bureaucratic codes.

Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along
the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Colonization relieved population pressure, and
provided grain supplies and markets for Greek products. The city-states were only occasionally
united. They came together under a truce at the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at
Delphi. An important collaboration occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence
by defeating a Persian invasion. After the wars, Athens dominated other Greek city-states
through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens gained valuable resources, but the new wealth
caused political divisions and infighting.

Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to
competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. When Corcyra tried to free itself
from Athenian domination in 435 B.C.E., warfare between the two powers of Greece ensued. The
Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta lasted from 431 to 404 B.C.E. Athens, weakened
by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily, surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E.
The defeat marked the end of the polis as the dominant political form in Greece.

The Hellenistic Period. Sparta failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The Peloponnesian
War had destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A conquering
northern state took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The short-
lived empire of Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture.

Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece.
The loosely organized, Greek-influenced state was strengthened militarily during the rule of
Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.). He invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E.

Alexander the Great. Philip’s son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian Empire in
campaigns between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into
India but was halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian
traditions. He founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage
with local women, and established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander’s unexpected death in
323 B.C.E. ended the dream of a multinational empire.

Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals.
City-states still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties
were the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece.
Many Greeks remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture
spread widely to mix with other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the
civilized world. In northwestern India the kingdom of Bactria importantly mixed Greek and
Indian themes.
Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek
civilization expressed itself more in culture than politics. Greek culture made
lasting contributions, especially in art and philosophy, to the Mediterranean world
and the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander.

Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did
not create a major religion. A pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses, presided over
by Zeus, interfered in human affairs. Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from
Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a more human-centered approach. Its
lack of spiritual passion contributed to the development of alternative “mystery”
religions more satisfying to people’s needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for
ethical thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate philosophical system. The
effort to understand phenomena through rational observation became a hallmark of
Greek and Hellenistic culture. Socrates urged consideration of secular criteria for
moral decisions. Aristotle stressed the importance of moderation to balance political
and religious instability, while the Stoics focused on inner moral independence. Other
philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. Plato proposed an
ideal government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical,
balanced systems incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious
philosophy encouraged emphasis on the powers of human thought. Socrates
encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an understanding of
eternal reality. In science, the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature’s
order, founding a lasting Western passion for seeking rationality in the universe.
Pythagoras and Euclid contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen’s
contributions to anatomy were a standard for centuries. Archimedes, primarily a
mathematician, also studied hydraulics.

Literature and the Visual Arts. All arts received attention, but drama had a central
role in Greek culture. The Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a
Western tradition. The Athenian dramatist Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the
fragility of human virtues. Aristophanes did the same through comedy. Greek literature
included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with Herodotus
and Thucydides. In the visual arts, the Greeks emphasized architecture, ceramics, and
realistic sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles:
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All art was public: temples and markets were for daily
use; dramas were public rituals for all citizens. Cultural achievement was based on four
principles. An emphasis on formal political theory reflected the special political
atmosphere of Greece. Art and sculpture glorified human achievement. Drama and
philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The philosophical and scientific
tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the natural
world. A large cultural gap existed between the elite and the masses.

Hellenistic Culture During and After Alexander. The Hellenistic world did not
develop new styles and continued the influence of Greek art and sculpture. Hellenistic
intellectuals preserved Greek scientific achievements while making advances in
astronomy, geography, and mathematics. The knowledge amassed was fundamental to
future research in Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.

Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an

agricultural society, a large peasantry, and a landowning aristocracy were basic to
Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce, although often looked down upon, was
vital. Patriarchal family values predominated, although there was more ambivalence
about women than in classical China. Slavery was of major importance.

Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece
resembled that of other civilizations where warlike invaders had settled down to
agriculture. The aristocracy was based on land ownership and military service. Many
independent farmers owned land and claimed political and social rights. Subsequently,
commerce and urban growth complicated social structure. Distinctive factors for the
Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment, making city-states dependent on
trade. War and colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in
less attention being given to manufacturing technology.
Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained in an
ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but less firm than
in India.

A Complex Legacy. The classical Greek and Hellenistic political legacy was in the
form of ideas; unlike the Chinese, they did not develop enduring
political institutions. The most enduring legacy came in art and philosophy. Although
the Western educational tradition long focused on the legacy of the Greeks, they were
inferior to China and India in many political and scientific achievements. Their legacy
is not only a result of their achievement, but also because the West consciously
adopted many of its features. Moreover, Alexander’s conquest of Persia brought a
complex mixture of reciprocal influences, blurring the line between Greek and Middle
Eastern culture.