: Reversible isochorie process (C=C,) x= 1: Reversible isothermal process (C+) Reversible ad tic /isentropic process (C = 0) soap InCCR ‘ (8) Reverb ether expansion w = 2.09 Tago Y (©) Irreversible isothermal expansion w = ~Pagy(V~ Vi). Rr T)). tT -Ty (e) Reversible adiabatic expansion w VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 1 ‘Class-XI | ThermodynamicsVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success (@ Irreversible adiabatic expansion w ~- nk... 72°i—TiPa) () _Isochoric process w = 0 (© Isobaric process w= ~Pay(V cy Where y = —2 (ratio of molar heat capacities at constant P and constant V) For expansion Wey 0 Reversible Adiabatic ° ° =o (v2) irreversible Adiabatic Ren} —2 | > Irreversible Adib [Z| Jo ° Reversible lot -0 Reversible Isochoric =o MC | Summary | Chemistry ge 2 ‘Class-XI | Thermodynamics12, 1s. a4. 15. 16. a7. Vidyamandl Classes: lnavating Fr Your Success (a) Entropy change due to isothermal mixing of Kea gases (at constant Pi: AS aaspngin RS ly, wane nmol f wile cae (b) Entropy change during phase transition (at constant P): AH yansition Santi = Titan cymereT is tansiion temperature (©) Entropy change for a reaction: Simply balance the reaction and use the following formla ASzystem = 4r8 = Sproducts ~ > Sreactants {in general if Ang > 0, ,S > O and if Any <0. ,5<0) Fora re HY (AG gyatem) < OOF TASieeqh > 0 ‘The change in free ¢ producte ~ > |Greactanta Chemical reaction in which a compound in its standard state is formed from its elements in thelr standard states, the Gibbs ener y change is the Standard Gibbs energy of formation, 4,6°. 46° = for an element in its standard AG is an extensive property and state function AG = ac’ +23 O3RT log @ AG" = -2.303RT log Keg AG = Wyrsofl o G G Reactant Products Reactant Products Reactant Products Ke< K, the reaction will proceed from right to left (backward direction) to achieve equilibrium. If Q < K. the reaction will proceed from left to right (forward direction) n equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle state that if an external stress is applied to a system at chemical equilibrium, the system will adjust to partially offset the stress. Only a change in temperature changes the value of equilibrium constant of a particular reaction, Changes in concentration, pressure, or volume may change the equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products, The addition of a catalyst hastens the attainment of equilibrium but does not affect the equilibrium concentrations of re fants and products, tow, 82. aH 1 logy =2 = | 21) wan't Hoff equation) K, 2.305R| TyTy | ‘The relation between AG" and equilibrium constant (Keg) is given by AG" =-RTInK,g where T is always in Kelvin, and if Ris in joules, AG" will also be in joules, and if R is in calories, then AG” will also be in calories. Keq may either be K,orK,, or any other equilibrium con VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page Class-XI | Chemical EquilVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 11. Fora gas-phase reaction system, A(g) -» nB{g) YD, 1_( VD, NDynix = & a=——| Ts (n-Da m-DVD mie Where, VD, :Vapour density of A Dynix ? Vapour Density of equilibrium mixture u:degree of dissociation of A at equilibrium VMC | Summary | Cher Page2 Class-XI | Chemical EqVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Chapter 7: Ionic Equilibrium @) Ey The acidity of an aqueous solution is expressed as its pH, which is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration (in mol/litre). For dilute solutions, pH = log, g(H"] ‘At 28°C, an acidic solution has pH < 7, a basic solution has pH > 7 a neutral solution has pH=7, ‘The product of the ionization constant of an acid and the ionization constant of its conjugate base is, equal to the ionie product (K,,) of water Ky =Ky Ky For the calculation of pH of a strong acid, the contribution of H1* from water would be taken into account if [H"Jacjq <10M_ and when the [H"Ijejg 2 10°°M, the H* contribution from water ean be ignored. For the pH calculation of a weak monoprotie acid first calculate a usin fk. me tut if a 2 value is > 0.05 then calculate exact value of « using the expression, K, =~ and then eateutate the value from this expression is < 0.05, then [H"] is calculated using [H HT] as [111 = ca. 1 For a weal monobasic acid with concentration © and « <0.05, pH =~(pK, logge) 2 1 For a weak monoacidie base with concentration cand «<0.05. pit = ply (Pk log 9°) ‘The common ion effect tends to suppress the ionization of a weak acid or a weak base. This effect is seen only on electrolyte with a smaller equilibrium constant, by the strong electrolyte or electrolyte having higher equilibrium cons! A buffer solution maintains pH of the solution almost in constant range. A mixed buffer solution comprises of either a mixture of weak acid and salt of its conjugate base or weak base and salt of its (sate) conjugate acid. pH ofan acidie buller : pit = pi, loo [sat] pH of baste buffer: pOH = py + logo # [base] ‘AL maximum bufler capacity, pH = pK,. in case of acidic buffer or pH = pK... in case of basic butler Most salts are strong electrolytes that dissociate completely into ions in solution. The reaction of these fons with water, called salt hydrolysis, can prod or basic solutions. In salt hydrolysis, the conjugate bases of weak acids yield basic solutions and the conjugate acids of weak bases yield acidic solutions, @ Fora salt of strong acid and weak base (degree of hydrolysis, h < 0.05) 1 P= [py PK), lose] « centration of cationic point of salt VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 1 Class-XI | lonie EquiVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 10. qu. 12. 4s. 14. 15. Gi) Fora salt of weak acid and strong base (degree of hydrolysis. h < 0.05) 1. pK y + pK, + logy9¢] centration of anionic point of salt Gif) For salt of weak acid and weak base 1. PH= [PK y + PK, ~ PK] Acid-base indicators are weak organic acids or bases that chan colour at the equivalence point in an acid-base neutralization reaction, Weal Acid Indicator (Hin) Hin — Why Colour 1 Colour ~2 PH = PK, + log a] At end point, pH = pKj,, [point of colour change} Colour —1 -» pH < py, -1 Colour ~2-+ pH2 pj, +1 Colour change of indi salor occurs in the pH range (pK, ~1) (0 (pK, +1) The solubility product (K,) expresses the equilibrium between a solid and its jons in solution. For Example: AgCl(s) > Ag*“(aq)+ CI-(aq) Solubility product. K,, = [Ae* [Cr ‘The presence of a common ion decreases the solubility of a salt while complex ton formation increases 's solubility, For a sparingly soluble salt, A,B, with solubility produet, K, ‘sp Ky Jeo) Solubility of sparingly soluble salt in pure water =) 2 Lx*y" J If product of fonic concentration Q, is greater than K,,, then only precipitation of fons will occur till the system attain an equilibrium state. ‘To solve the problems of minimum condi jons to just prevent/start precipitation use the formula Q = K,). In that case molarity of one of ion would be given and we need to get molarity of other ion in the Q, expression, For amphiprotic salts like NaHCO, (K,,:18t dissociation constant of H,COs. K,, 1p! 2nd dissociation constant of HgCO3) PK, pH For amphiprotic salts like HPO, 3 dissoc (K.,, :2% dissociation constant of HyPO4. K,,, jon constant of HyPO4) PK, + PK, 2 pu = ——22 VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 2 Class-XI | lonie EquiVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 16. (a) ) ) @ Monobasic SA v/s Monoacidic SB At equivalence point, solution is neutral. Both phenolphthalein and methyl orange are suitable indicator [due to long vertical span on} titration curve] Monobasic WA v/s Monoacidic SB. At half neutralization point, pH = pk, At equivalence point, solution is basic (due to salt hydrolysis) Phenolphthalein is a suitable indicator Monobasic WB v/s Monoacidie SA At half neutralization point, pOH = pk, At equivalence point, solution is acidie (due to salt hydrolysis) Methyl orange is a suit Monobasic WA v/s Monoacidie WB, At equivalence point, solution is nearly neutral, ip 3 As pl==[pKy + PK, — pK] PH = 2 [PKy +PK, ~PKy, No indicator is a suitable indicator [due to very small vertical span on titratio VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 3 ‘Class-XI | lonie EquilibriumVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Chapter 8: Stoichiometry-II 1. Rules for Assigning Oxidation State (0.8. (a) Any clement in fee state is assigned an oxidation state of zero 0), For example: 0.8. of H. PS 0, Fe, Br, in Hy, Py, Sg, Op, Fe, Bry is equal to 0. (©) The oxidation state of any cation of anion (of form At or B-) fs equal to the magnitude of its charge. For example: 0.8, ofCa in Cat = 42, 0. of Alin AP* = +3, 08. of Clin Cl = -1 andl (©) The algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is equal to 0. (€) The algebraic sum of the oxta bers ofall atoms in an ton (ike POR ete.) is equal to the change on the fon (©) The oxidation states of Al ali Metals (G 1p 1A) is +1 in all of their compounds and that of] Alkaline Earth elements (Group IIA) is +2 in all of their compounds. (© Hydrogen in almost all of its compounds is assigned an oxidation state of +1. The exception, curs when hydrogen forms compat nds with strong metals (metallic hydrides), e.g. KH, NaH MgHy, Cal, ete. In alll of these, the oxidation state is -1 (@ Oxygen in almost all of its compounds is assigned an oxidation state of -2. In class of compounds, Peraxides, oxidation state of oxygen Is -1, eg. Hy03,Naj0, ete. Another! exception is OF, . where O.S. is +2, O:Fs, where O.S. is +1 and KO in which 0S. is, 2 in all its compounds, (h) Fluorine is most electronegative clement and is assigned an 0.5. of For other halogens, O.S. is generally -1 except when they are bonded to a more electronegative! halogen or oxygen. ©.S. of iodine in IF, is +7. O.S. of chlorine in KCIQ, is +5. ® electrons, minimum 0.S. = maximum 0: -ral range of oxidation state for p-block elements : maximum ,S. = number of valence, 8. @ Concept of Fractional Oxidation States: Fractional oxidation state is the average oxidation state of the element under examination and) it means that the element for which fractional oxidation state is realised is present in different) oxidation states, Structure of C:O reveal the above bonding situations: ° © Here average oxidation state of carbon is + and individual Struoture of COs oxidation state of carbon are 2, 0, 2 (carbon suboxide) ‘Oxidation is an increase in oxidation state nd Reduction is a decrease in oxidation st Onidisin Agent (0.A.): Substance which oxidises others and itself gets reduced. Reducing Agent (RA): Substance which reduces others and itself gets oxidised. Disproportionation reactions: The redox reaction in which an element from the same oxidation state ch inges {0 two different oxidation states (one lower and other higher). For an element to undergo, disproportionation reactions, its oxidation state should be between its maximum and minimum) oxidation state ‘VMC | Summary | Chemistry Paget Class-XI| Stoichiometry:Vidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 10. uu. 12. 1s. ‘molar mass uivalent mass is calculated as = POSE MSS _ a 1ny oF valency factor ng = Number of electron lost or gained by one mole of .A. or R.A. in balanced ionic half reaction. Bx: HyC204 > 200. + 2H" +27 90 ny = 2.8 a 1 = 2 Ei,c.0, => Equivalent weight of a compound undergoing disproportionation: Let a compound ‘A’ contains an ion ‘X undergoing disproportionation. Effective molecular weight of A Equivalent weight of A Number of e transfer To! Oxidat where Effective molecular weight of A = i weightof Ain |, / Total weight of A in on half reaction (Re on half reaction Some compounds act as Acids and RA or OA in separate experiments. 2 > as acid (n 7) NOs ie : NaHCO. + as RA (ny = 2) + as OA (ny = 1, 3.6.8) + as RA (ny = 2) ) acid (ny = 1) 1.0.04 Analysis based on mole concept: First we have to create a chemical equation and then balance it, And then proceed as per the given problem, using mole concept. Concept of gram equivalents: In the method of gram-equivalents (milli-equivalents), there is no need to balance a redox rea mn, In a chemical reaction, equivalents oF milliequivalents of the rea in equal amount to give the same number of equivalents or milliequivalents of the products separately. Titration using potassium permanganate (KKMnO4): Strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium, self Indicator. For acidification, H:S01 is generally used and use of HCl is avoided as KMnOs oxidises HCL to Ch gas, Titration using potassium dichromate: Strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium, external redox indicators (ex. diphenylamine) are Kcr Kano. Note: Reactions of KMn0, and KeCr,0; are given in revision shect of d & Block elements chapter. ed in titrations, For acidification, Ha50. HCl can be used as does not oxidize HCI at room temperature. KiCrO> is less powerful oxidizing agent than Iodometric titration: It is carried out in two steps. this titration is used to determine the strength or the concentration of an oxidising agent. PF +O.A, + Ip + Product Oxidising agent oxidises to I, eq. of oxidising agent = geq. of ls ‘The iodine liberated is then titrated with standard hypo solution (NasS:0.) 2 2 +8,03° +r +8402 6¢q. of ¢9. of $ 03° 80. geq. of O.A. = geq. of = seq. of $03 lodimetric tit tion: It is carried out in a single step, it is used to determine the strength or the once! hb ation of a reducing agent, which is direetly titrated w 1, +RA. oT + Product Both jodometric and iodimetric titrations are carried out in an acidic medium only, as fe will undergo disproportion reaction in basic medium. Vo ne strength of H, 11. 2x molarity or 5.6 normality VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page2 ‘Class-X | Stoichiometry-IVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Chapter 9: The Solid State @ ) Sree Crystalline solids have long range order ie.: the co tituent particles are arranged in a regular fashion and this symmetrical arrangement extends throughout the erystal length. Such solids a © Anisotropic while amorphous solids are isotropic in nature Nature of solids Examples Amorphous solid’s Glass, rubber, plastics and artificial polymers. e Covalent / Network solids | Graphite, diamond. silicon etc Molecular solids C03, CCl,. Ip{non - polar); SO, HCI, NH (polar): H,O(H - bonded) etc, Ionic solids NaCl, MgO, ZnS, CaF. ete. Metallic solids Fe, Cu, Ag, Mg, etc A unit cell is the smallest repeating structural unit of the crystalline solid. Bravais predicted that there are only 14 unit cells that e: jst in nature. Those 14 unit cells belongs to 7 crystal stems (CTORHMT ; Cubic , Tetragonal , Orthorhombic , Rhombohedral , Hexagonal , Monoclinic, Triclinie) ‘The relation between the edge length (a) and the radius of atom (r) forming cubic lattice are as follows, 1, BOC: YBa =4r; BCC: Ye Pe F& HCP sa =2r, Height ( for HCP) ‘The ratio of volume occupied by the effective atoms to the volume of the unit cell is called packing fraction. Its values for various unit cells are SC = 0.52, BCC = 0.68, FCC & HCP = 0.74. Density (p} of eubie crystal is calculated using the relation ZeM where Z = number of effective atoms/rank of lattice, M= Atomic mass, Nq = Avogadro's number and a = Edge length. ‘Tetrahedral & octahedral voids are present only in closest packed structures, The effective number of octahedral voids in a v it cell is equal to the effective number of atoms in the unit cell & effective number of tetrahedral voids is equal to double the number of effective atoms in the tnit cell, In a fee unit cell tetrahedral voids are located along the body diagonal (2 each on the four body diagonals); and 1 the octahedral voids are loc (ed at the body centre (1) and the edge centres | 12«— =3 |. 7 The sum of radius of the fom of host lattice (,) and the radius of atom occupying void (7,) OF £4(0)) is given by For octahedral void, ty, + Fj) = = & for tetrahedral void, ty + rq) 2 4 Limiting radius ratio is defined as the ratio of cation {o anion radius. It is def cation is in contact with anions and bigger ions (generally anions) are also in contact with each other. ‘VC | Summary | Chem Page 1 (lass-Xil | The Solid StateVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 10. uu. 12, 1s. Radius ratio depends on the co-ordination number. The limiting radius ratio for the various co-ordination numbers are CN =8 (Triangular planar) = 0.155 CIN =4 (Tetrahedral) : 0.225, CN «4 (Square planar) : 0.414 CN = 6 (Octahedral) : 0.414 CN=8 (BCC): 0. CN= 12 (ideal FCC) :1 lattice has 2 major defects. Schottky defect occurs due to the cation-anion pair vacancy, which decreases the density of crystal. Frenkel defect occurs when an ion leaves its lattice site and fits into an interstitial space. Due to Frenkel defect, density of crystal remains unaffected. AgBr shows both defects, In case of ferromagnetic solids (a) magnetic moments of all domains got aligned along same direction to create a permanent magn eg. Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Gd and CrOy ete. In case of antiferromagnetic solids (b) magnet nt is noment of the domains got aligned in opposite directions such that net magnetie mon zero. E.g., MnO, FeO, Fe,0z, NiO etc. Ferrimagnetic solids (c) has lower magnetic moment than ferromagnetic e.g, FegOy @O®OO®®® @OODO®® - O®OOO® Is interesting to learn that transition metal oxides show n THO, CrO, and ReOy, behave like metals. Rhe dl MFe,0, types of ferrites ete. ed differences in electrical properties, m oxide, ReOy, is like metallic copper in its ance. Cert conductivity and appe: other oxides like VO, VO, VO3, and TIO, show metallic or ing properties depending on temperature VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 2 Class-Xil | The Solid StateVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Chapter 10: Theory of Solutions Out of all the concentration terms, the ones in which volume of solution is involved changes with temperature, Molality remains unchanged while molarity d ases by small rise in temp (assuming negligible evaporation losses) Vapour pressure of a liquid at a given temperature is the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid when the vapours are in equilibrium with the liquid. On adding a non-volatile solute, the vapour pressure of the solution comes less than that of the pure solvent Henry's Law: It states that “the partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p) is directly proport to the mole fraction of the gas (7) in the solution” and is expressed as p = Ky Where Ky, Henry's law constant. The Law is applicable for gases which are not highly soluble in a given solvent. According to Raoult's law, for a solution of non ~ volatile solute in volatile solvent; P Peotution = YsoiventPeotvent: Hf both solute & solvent are volatile, then Py = zaPq + tpPi- ‘The ideal solution for a non-volatile solute is a dilute solution, For a volatile solute, it is a solution in which solute-solute forces are equal to solvent-solvent forces which in turn are equal to sokute-solvent forces. Colligative properties: pep @ Wettreameding ctigqenarpimitnrla tient Ears P © ation of boiling point is given by ATy, = Kymgyg = iK,Myyeq, {m = molality rrZ Martz Ge + ae [000 gepauy ” T0008 ar (©) Depression in freezing points given by AT; 1K,mco = molality PMP 1000 Lfysion 1000 AH gyn (Osmotic presoure x= CRT ‘Van't Hoff factor () = ~~ * *Perimentsl coligathe property. Value of theoretical coligative propery For solutes that dissociate 1>1 and for those that ansoctate{< 1. i Aasersoe of wise na ta Q-a)y+= 7 6 Diewsintinscteohie (Aly #0 1 MC | Summary | Chemistry Page 1 Class-Xil | Chemical KineticsVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Non-Ideal solutions fosohation Vapour pressure Aapour presmure Je ‘of soktion Figure The vapour pressures of {hwo component systems as a function of composition (a) sohution the shows positive deviation from Raoult’s law and (b) a solution that shows negative s=0 Mole fraction deviation from Raoults law. ) Forms minimum boiling Forms maximum boiling azeotrope azeotrope Ex: Bihanol-water mixture Water-nitrie acid mix {9516 ethanol by volume] [689% HNOs mass} AH pig > 0 AHpig <0 Wane * 0 Ven ASpig > O AS ig > 0 VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 2 Class-Xil | Chemical KineticsVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 10. Chapter 11: Chemical Kinetics ‘The rate of a chemical reaction is the change in the concentration of reactants or products over time. ‘The rate is not constant but varies continuously as concentration changes. Fora reaction aA -+ bB Talal _ 1 dB} Rate of reaction = -— ad bat ‘The rate law expresses the relationship of the rate of a reaction to the rate constant (k) and. the ration of the reactants raised to appropriate power. The k value for a given reaction changes only with temperature ov law. The rate law and the reaction order can be determined experimentally only and not using the I reaction order is the sum of the powers to which reactant concentrations are raised in the rate stoichiometry of the reaction, erty en For nth order reaction, ty/2 = “(n= 0.1) o tayo «[Aly (nk fa Integrated rate law of zero order reaction A+ Products is [Ag ~ A\]= kt Half-life of zero ord r Ao ha oe ‘The integrated form of a first ortier reaction A > Products is given by k ‘The half-life of a first ord at b Ses pe hale ofa first order reaction is given by ty ,9 = 222% ia ‘The rate constant and activation energy arc related by Arrhenius equation, as k = Ac Pa/®T ky Eft 1 ‘The variation of rate constant at two different temperatures is given by In=2- Ea) 2 | op x RI ky Ey fi logig = | 810% 2.309R| Ty A catalyst speeds up a reaction cither by increasing value of A or by lowering the value of E, or by doing both. k, ‘Temperature coefficient CgHy2%p +CpH12% 11. According to the collision theory for bimolecular reactions rate of a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction also depends open the collision frequency and ori nation of particles at the time of impact of energetic particles. VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page2 Class-Xil | Chemical KinetiesVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 10. un 12, Chapter 12: Electrochemistry Electrolysis is the process in which electrical energy is converted into ch fons) migrate to cathode (-ve electrode) and get reduced & anions (-ve fons) migrate to anode (#ve electrode) and get oxidized. Sometimes the anode itself may be oxidized if i is a reactive electrode al energy. Cations (+e ‘The reduet n of cations is based on the standard reduction potentials provided all ions have 1M concentration, which follows the order 2. 2 Mg?* < al <2n?* Fe sn2* < Pb? cH < Cu! 203 <(Fe » Fe?) < Hg,2* < Ag* < Aue? For anions the oxidation is based on standard oxidation potentials provided they are at 1M er SO,2- a 1000 Molar conductance Ay, =~" | ‘ClorM) concentration of electrolyte in terms of molarity}. Here «is in semhM in 2? mol”! ol/L and Ap in S 1000 % x Equivalent conductance Acq Here « in Sem”! and N in eq/L. Page 1 Class-Xil | ElectrochemistryVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Factors affecting electrolytic cond (a) Nature of electrolyte: Conductance of strong electrolyte > Conductance of weak electrolyte ©) Temperature: Electrolytic conductance decreases on increasing temperature. (€) Effective size of ions: Conductance decreases as effective size of ion increases, ance increases on increasing temperature and metallic In aqueous medium, effective size (aq) > Na (aq) > K* (aq) > Rb" (aq) > €s*(aq) So, conductance Li*faq) < Na*{aq) < K*{aq) < Rb* (aq) < (aa) In molten state, size Li*() Na*()> KU > RD‘) > C840 (4) Effect of dilution; Conductance, molar conductance, equivalent conductance increases on dilution while specific conductance decreases on dilttion. Kohlrausch’s law of independent migration of ions: As per Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions “At infinite dilution, when dissociation is complete, each fon makes a definite contribution towards molar conductance of the electrolyte irrespective of the nature of the ion with which it associated and the value of molar conductance at infinite dilution for any electrolyte is the sum of contribution of its constituent ions, Le., dilution, the conductance of any ion is independent of its association with the other ion in the inions and cations". As per Kohlrauseh’s law, at infinite electrolyte ie. A;,(K") will be same in infinitely diluted solution of KCI or KBr or KNO), Ferner, Aor Roget, ABB)? B= conta i For a weak electrolyte, (CH,COOH = CH,COO” +H"), 0 yi, ar Electrolyte for electrolysis ‘Anode product/s cathode product/s Cw Nacl(aq)(Brine solution) nd) he (using PL electrode) (using PL electrode} hw Nats) NaCl! (molten) (using Pt electrode) (sing PL electrode} ©; cul uso, (aq) ie) fs) {using Pt electrode) (using Pt electrode} CuSO, (aq) cu aq) cu (electrolytic refining) {using Cu electrode) (using Cu electrode) ® T@) Hy SO 4laq) One 2a (using Pt electrode) (using Pt electrode} cone, 180, (aq) HaS208 ho (using Pt electrode) (using Pt electrode) ‘YMC | Summary | Chemistry Page2 Glass-Xil | ElectrochemistryVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success Chapter 13: Surface Chemistry ‘Types of Adsorption: 8, No. Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption A It fs caused by Intermolecular van der | 1 1, caused by chemical bond formation. ae “ “ exhibit chemi-sorption, ip |code onthe sure arc, Wrasse [k ako depends on the sure ara. withthe nreage of utc ea increase withthe rege of we X _ \epl/n; At low pressure, x/m varies linearly with p x 1 or, log~ = logk + —logp This is called Freundlich adsorption isotherm. ‘Types Colloidal Solutions: (A) Classification on the basis on the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium Disperse phase Dispersion medium Common name Example Solid Solid Solid sol Alloys ‘Solid | Liquid Sol Au sol ‘Solid | Gas Aerosol ‘Smoke Liquid | Solid Gels Cheese, Gelly Liquid | Liquid Emulsion Milk Liquid Liquid acrosot Mist, Cloud Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone Gas Liquid Foam Soap lather VMC | Summary | Cher Page 1 Class-Xil | Surface ChemistryVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success e ation on the basis of interaction between different phases: Property Lyophilic Sols Lyophobie Sols Surface tension Lower than that of the medium, | Same as that of the medium. Much higher than that of the Viscosity han ‘Same as that of the medium, Reversibility Reversible Irreversible Stability, More stable Less stable Particles can't be detected even | Particles can be detected under Visibility under ultramicroscope ultyamicroscope Particles may migrate in either | Particles migrate either towards Migration, direction or do not migrate in an | eathode or anode in an electric electric eld. fete, ‘On adding small quantity of electrolyte, coagulation takes place. Addition of sn the electrolyte has little effect. Action of electrolyte Hydration. Extensive hydration takes place. | No hydration takes place. (©) Classification on the basis of the particles of the dispersed phase Multimolecular Colloids Macromolecular Colloids Associated Colloids They arc formed by the | They are molecules of large | They are formed by the aggregation of a large number oe = size, eg, polymers like | aggregation of lange number of atoms oF molecules: generally | ber, nylon, starch. | of ions in cone, solution proteins, ete e.g, soap sol. have diameters less than Inm, e.g. Sols of gold, sulphur. ‘Their molecular masses are not | They have high molecular | Their molecular masses are very high. masses generally high, ‘Their atoms or molecules are ‘Their molecules contain They usually have vophobie held together by weak van der | [PY US both yophillic and ‘Wat's forces. !yophobie groups. ‘Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light by the colloidal particles present in a colloidal solution is known as ‘Tyndall effect and is caused by the scattering of blue part of light by the colloidal particles. ‘Tyndall effect is observed only when the following two conditions are satisfied (a) The diameter of the dispersed particles is not much smaller than the wavelength of the light used () The refractive indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium must differ greatly in magnitude. This condition is satisfied by lyophobie sols. The lyophilic sols show little or no ‘Tyndall effect as there is very small difference in the refractive indices of the dispersed phase Brown motion: It is caused by the uneven impaets of the particles of the dispersion medium on the colloidal particles. As the size of the particles increases, the probability of uneven impacts decreases and the Brownian movement becomes slow. When the dispersed particles acquire the dimensions of Suspension, no Brownian movement is observed. VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page2 ‘Class-Xil | Surface ChemistryVidyamandir Classes: Innovating For Your Success ‘This motion is independent of the nature of the colloid but depends on the size of the particles and the viscosity of solution. Smaller the size and lesser the viscosity, faster is the motion, The motion becomes Intense at high temperature. Brownian movement provides a direct demonstration of ccascless motion of molecules as postulated by Kinetic theory. It counters the force of gravity ac ig on colloidal particles and hence helps in providing. stability to colloidal sols by not allowing them to settle dow Positively charged: Fe(OH sol, (OH) Sol, AMOH): sol, dyes like methyle Negatively charged: AsiSs sol, Sb:S» sol, CdS sol, Au sol, Cu sol, Ag sol and a 1 blue and haemoglobin, 4d dyes like congo red, ‘The greater the valency of the flocculating ion dled, the greater is its power to ¢ \use precipitation, ‘This is known as Hardy-Schulze Rule In the coagulation of a negative sol, the floceulat AB* > Bat > ng power of Na’, Ba” and AP jons is in the order of Similarly, In the coagulation ofa postive sol, the Noceulation power of Ct. SO}. PO}. (FeICNIt is in the order of [Fe(CNJel*" > POY” > SO3~ > Ch VMC | Summary | Chemistry Page 3 Class-Xil | Surface Chemistry