1

UC- 13
PREPARE DETTIL DESIGN OF CIVIL
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
At the end of the session students will able to:-
 Plan for the detailed design of civil concrete structures
 Undertake the detailed design of civil concrete structures
 Finalise design processes of civil concrete structures
 Support and review the application of the design of civil concrete structures
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Introduction, Materials and Design Concepts

1.1 Introduction

Concrete is obtained by mixing aggregate, cement and water and some times admixtures
to obtain workable mixture. Concretes in a wide range of properties can be obtained by
appropriate adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials. Properties of
concrete depends on the amount and type of cement, on the amount of fine and coarse
aggregate, on water cement ratio, on curing of concrete and on temperature and
humidity during moulding.

Concrete has excellent formability, high fire and weather resistance, and high
compressive strength. On the other hand it is a relatively brittle material with less
tensile strength which prevents its economical use in structural members that are
subjected bending, shear and tension.

Steel is also one of the most important construction materials, which has high tensile
strength and much greater ductility and toughness. But it is susceptible to corrosion and
has low fire resistances.

Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material which can be formed in to

many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column to a slender
curved dome or shell. Reinforced concrete structures are obtained by combining
concrete, which is strong in compression and steel reinforcement, which is used primarily
to resist tensile forces.

Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final

location, or they may be pre-cast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the
construction site.

1.2 Materials

a) Reinforcing Steels

The most common types of reinforcement are hot-rolled round

deformed bars. The closely spaced rib shaped surface
deformations of the reinforcing bars provide a high degree of

Fig. 1.1 Types of deformed

reinforcing bars
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interlocking of the two materials (see Fig. 1.1).

Reinforcing bars varying in size 6 to 35mm in diameter are available in which most are
surface deformed except 6. Some bar sizes and areas for design purpose are given
below.

Diameter 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
(mm) et
Area 28 50 78.5 113 154 200 254 314 380 450 c.
2
(mm )

1.3 Design Procedure

There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to detailing and
quantity estimation.

Functional Planning: It is the development of a plan that will enable the structure to
fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. If the structure is a building,
for example, the designer must create a plan which is adapted to the site; which
provides a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.; which will
be aesthetically acceptable, and which can be built at a price the client is prepared to
pay.

Structural Planning: It is the planning of the structural scheme, arrangement of the

structural elements such as columns and beams to meet the functional planning.

Structural Analysis: It involves modeling the loads and the structural framework to
obtain internal forces and desired deflections.

Design: It involves proportioning the members of the structural system so that they will
be able to withstand, with an appropriate margin of safety, the forces which the
structural analysis has disclosed.

Loads
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One of the most important factors to be considered in design of structural member is

the assessment of the loads that the member must support or resist. Some of the most
common kinds of loads are:

Dead Loads: those which are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the
life time of the structure. Usually the major part of the dead load is the weight of the
structure itself.
Live loads/Imposed loads: these are gravity loads acting when the structure is in
service, but varying in magnitude and locations with respect to time. These are loads
assumed to be produced by the intended occupancy or use of the structures. Examples
of live loads are human occupants, furniture, stored goods in buildings and traffic loads
in bridges.
Wind Loads: All structures are subjected to wind load, but it is usually only those more
than three or four stories high for which consideration of wind is required. Wind exerts
pressure on the windward sides and suction on the leeward side, as well as either uplift
or downward pressure on the roof.
Earthquake loads: An earthquake consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions,
with the vertical motions usually having much the smaller magnitude. Since the
horizontal motion of the ground causes the most significant effect, it is that effect
which is usually thought of as earthquake load. Seismic forces may be found for a
particular structure by elastic or inelastic dynamic analysis, considering expected ground
accelerations, and mass, stiffness and damping characteristics of the structure.

Design Philosophies

Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength,

serviceability, and economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme
load conditions. The structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without
severe distress and damage during its lifetime.

Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its

appearance, maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load conditions,
deflection, vibration, permanent deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design
considerations associated with serviceability.
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Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design,
fabrication, erection, and maintenance processes of the structur
Table 1.1 Densities of Construction Materials
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Table 1.2 Flooring and Walling

Table 1.3 Design Working Life Classifications

Table 1.4 Categories of Building Areas

Catego Specific use Example
ry
A Areas for domestic Rooms in residential buildings and houses
and Residential Rooms and wards in hospitals
activities Bedrooms in hotels and hostels
Kitchen and toilets
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B Areas where people With the exception of areas defined

may congregate under category A, C, D and E
C Areas susceptible C1: Areas with tables, etc., e.g. areas
to overcrowding in schools, cafes, restaurants, dinning
halls, reading rooms, receptions etc.

C2: Areas with fixed seats, e.g. areas

in churches, theatres or cinemas,
conference rooms, lecture halls,
assembly halls, waiting rooms, etc.

C3: Areas without obstacles for moving

people, e.g. areas in museums,
exhibition rooms, etc and access areas
in public and administration buildings,
hotels, etc.

C4: Areas susceptible to overcrowding,

e.g. dance halls, gymnastic rooms,
stages, etc.

C5: Areas susceptible to overcrowding,

e.g. in buildings for public events like
concert halls, sport halls including
stands, terraces and access areas, etc.
D Shopping areas D1: areas in general retail shops, e.g.
areas in warehouses, stationery and
office stores, department stores, etc.
E Areas susceptible Areas for storage use including
to accumulation of libraries.
goods, including
access areas
Table 1.5 Imposed Loads on Floors in Buildings
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Note: The local concentrated load shall be considered to act at any point of the floor or
stairs and to have an application area comprising a square with a 50mm side.

Table 1.6 Traffic Areas in Buildings

Table 1.7 Imposed Loads on Garages and Vehicle Traffic Areas

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Table 1.8 Categorization of Roofs

Table 1.9 Imposed Loads on Roofs

Table 1.10 Horizontal Loads on Partition Walls and Barriers due to Persons

Chapter Two: Limit State Design

1.1 Introduction

The objective of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the
structure being designed will not become unfit for its intended purpose during its
expected life. When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended
use, it is said to have reached a limit state. The limit states for reinforced concrete
structures can be divided into three basic groups:
1. Ultimate limit states
2. Serviceability limit states
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3. Special limit states

Ultimate limit States

These involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Such a limit state
should have a very low probability of occurrence since it may lead to loss of life and
major financial losses. The major ultimate limit states are:

a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure when considered as a rigid

body. Such a failure would generally involve tipping or sliding of the entire
structure and would occur if the reactions necessary for equilibrium could not be
developed.
b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure, leading to partial or complete collapse.
It includes flexural failures, shear failures, direct compression or tension failures
and so on. The majority of this course deals with this limit state.
c) Progressive collapse: In some cases a minor localized failure may cause adjacent
members to be overloaded and fail, until the entire structure has collapsed. Since
such failures frequently occur during construction, the designer should be aware
of construction loads and procedures.
d) Formotion of plastic mechanism: A mechanism is formed when the reinforcement
yields to form plastic hinges at enough sections to make the structure unstable.
e) Instability due to deformations of the structure: This type of failure involves
buckling due to gravity load effects.
f) Fatigue: Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles may cause collapse
of part or all of a structure. Although, fatigue failure results from repeated
application of service loads, this has been listed as an ultimate limit state as it
leads to a structural collapse.

Serviceability limit states

These involve disruption of the functional use of the structures but not collapse. Since
there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can generally be
tolerated than in the case of an ultimate limit states. The major serviceability limit
states include:

a) Excessive deflections for normal service: Excessive deflections may cause

machinery to malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to damage to
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nonstructural elements or to changes in the distribution of forces. A minimum

depth is recommended for the control of deflection.
b) Excessive crack width: Although reinforced concrete must crack before the
reinforcement can act, it is possible to detail the reinforcement to minimize the
crack widths. Excessive crack widths lead to leakage through the cracks,
corrosion of the reinforcement, and gradual deterioration of the concrete. In
addition, wide cracks may be unsightly. Special detailing is required in structures
that must be watertight.
c) Undesirable vibrations: Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and lateral and
torsional vibrations of tall buildings may disturb the user.

Special limit states

a) Damages or collapses in extreme earthquakes

b) Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions
c) Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, particularly when exposed to
deicing compounds.

Limit State design Procedure

During design it is necessary to identify whether the ULS or SLS is the conical limit
state for a particular structure and base the design on this. Checks are then made to
ensure that all other relevant limit states are satisfied by the results produced.

Generally, in the design of reinforced concrete members (except in special cases such as
water retaining structures), it is usual to first ensure that the ULS is not exceeded (by
applying factor of safeties) and then to check that the relevant SLSs are satisfied.

General Design Equation

Consider the RC simply supported beam shown below. The applied loads cause bending
moments, which are directly obtained from the loads using the law of statics. The
bending moments, shear force, axial force, torsion, deflection, etc. are referred to as
load effects.

w
Design actions

Design action effects

(B.M.D)
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Fig. 2.1 Action and action effects

Fig. 2.2 shows flexural stresses acting on a beam cross-section and the internal couple
resulted from their resultants. The compressive and tensile stresses can be replaced by
their resultants, C and T, as shown below. The resulting couple is said to be an internal
resisting moment. The internal resisting moments when the cross section fails is
referred to as the moment capacity or moment resistance. The word resistance can also
be used to describe shear resistance or axial load resistance. The beam shown in Fig. will
safely support the loads if at every section the resistance of the member exceeds the
effects of the loads.

Internal couple
Stresses

Fig. 2.2 Internal resisting moment

Accordingly, the structure or structural elements shall be verified by the following

equations.

Verifications of Static Equilibrium and Strength, Ultimate Limit State

1) When considering a limit state of static equilibrium or of gross displacement of

the structure as a rigid body, it shall be verified that:

Ed,dst  Ed,stb

where Ed,dst is the design value of the effect of destabilizing actions;

Ed,stb is the design value of the effect of stabilizing actions.

2) When considering a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation of a section,

member or connection it shall be verified that:

Ed  Rd
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Where Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as internal force,
moment or a vector representing several internal forces or moments;
Rd is the corresponding design resistance, associating all structural
properties with the respective design values.

Verification of Serviceability, Serviceability Limit States

It shall be verified that:

Ed  Cd
Where Cd is a nominal value or a function of certain design properties of materials
related to the design effects of actions considered; and
Ed is the design value of the action effect (e.g. displacement, acceleration),
determined on the basis of one of the combinations defined for serviceability.

Grades of concrete:
Table 2.1 Grades of concrete
Class Permissible grades of concrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50
C60
II C5 C15 C20

Table 2.3 Grades of concrete and characteristic cylinder compressive strength f ck

Grades of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

The characteristic tensile strength of concrete may be determined from the

characteristic cylinder compressive strength by:
fctk = 0.21fck2/3

Partial Safety Factors

To safe guard the structure against unforeseen effects LSD make use of partial safety
factors for all the uncertainties and variables originating from different causes.

Partial Safety Factors for Materials (m)

The value of partial safety factor for material strength should account for the following
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parameter:
- Possibility of deviation of the strength of material
- Deviation of the sectional dimensions
- Accuracy of the calculation procedure
- Risk to life and economic consequences

There fore, in LSD the basic or characteristics strength of a material is modified by a

partial safety factor to give the design strength.

Hence the design strength of a material is given by:

fd = fk/m
where fk = characteristic strength of materials, (fck for concrete, fyk for reinforcing
steel)
fd = design strength for ULS (fcd or fyd)

Accordingly, the design strengths as per EBCS 2 are as follows:

Concrete in compression: fcd = (0.85fck) /c

Concrete in tension: fctd =fctk /c
Steel (in tension and compression):fyd = fyk / s
Where c and s are partial safety factors of concrete and steel respectively and are
given below

Table 2.4 Partial safety factors for materials

Class I works Class II works
Design situation Concrete Reinforcing Concrete Reinforcing
, c steel, s , c steel, s
Persistent and 1.50 1.15 1.65 1.20
Transient
Accidental 1.30 1.00 1.45 1.10

Partial Safety Factors for Loads (f)

In practice the applied loads may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the
following reasons:
- In accurate assessment of the effect of loading (calculation errors).
- Constructional inaccuracies (member sizes and building dimensions)
- Adverse modification of load effect in design assumption
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- Change of load due to level of usage

- Unforeseen stress redistribution

To allow for these, the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety
factors to give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit being considered.

The design load is given by:

Fd = f Fk
Where f is the partial safety factors for the action considered
Fk is the characteristic load
𝑃𝑑=1.35 𝐷𝐿+1.5 𝐿𝐿

Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure)

3.1 Introduction

Most reinforced concrete structures can be divided in to beams and slabs subjected primarily to flexure
(bending) and columns subjected to axial compression accompanied in most cases by flexure. Typical
examples of flexural members are the slab and beams shown in Fig. 3.1. The load P applied at point A
is carried by the strip of slab shown shaded. The end reactions from this slab strip load the beams at B
and C. the beams, in turn, carry the slab reactions to the columns at D, E, F, and G. The beam
reactions cause axial loads in the columns. The slab in Fig. 3.1 is assumed to transfer loads in one
direction and hence is called one way slab. If there were no beams, the slab would carry the load in
two directions. Such a slab is referred to as two-way slab. Two way slab action will be discussed in
chapter 7.

Fig. 3.1 One-way flexure

In this chapter the stress-strain curves for concrete and reinforcement as recommended by EBCS-2 are
used to develop flexural theory.

Analysis versus Design

Two different types of problems arise in the study of RC.

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1. Analysis: Given a cross-section, concrete strength, reinforcement size, location, and yield
strength, and compute the resistance or capacity.
2. Design: Given a factored load effects such as Msd, and select a suitable cross-section,
including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and so on.

Although both types of problems utilize the same fundamental principles, the procedure followed is
different in each case. Analysis is easier as all the decisions concerning reinforcement location, beam
size and so on have been made and it is only necessary to apply the strength calculation principles to
determine the capacity. Design, on the other hand, involves the choice of the beam sizes, material
strengths and reinforcement to produce a cross-section and structural system that can resist the loads
and moments which will be imposed on it. As the analysis problem is easier, most sections in this and
other chapters start with analysis to develop the fundamental concept and then move to consider
design.

The fundamental principles involved in the analysis and design of reinforced concrete beams are as
follows.

- At any cross section there exist internal forces which can be resolved in to components normal
and tangential to the section.
- The normal components are known as the bending stresses (tension on one side of the neutral
axis and compression on the other), and their function is to resist the bending moment at the
section.
- The tangential components are known as the shear stresses, and they resist the transverse or
shear forces.

3.2 Tension, Compression and balanced Failure

Depending on the amount of reinforcing steel in a beam, flexural failures may occur in
three different ways.

Tension failure

If the steel content of the section is small, the steel will reach the yield strength f yd
before the concrete reaches its maximum capacity. Such a beam is said to be under
reinforced. With further loading, the steel force remains constant at Asfyd and the
strains in the remaining compression zone of the concrete increases to such a degree
that crushing of concrete, the secondary compression failure, follow at a load slightly
larger than that which causes the steel to yield (i.e. Although failure is initiated by
yielding of tension steel, the steel does not fracture at the flexural strength of the
section unless the steel content is extremely small). Such yield failure is gradual and is
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preceded by visible signs of distress, such as the widening and lengthening of cracks and
the marked increase in deflection. In the final loading stages, the beam deflected
extensively and developed wide cracks. This type of behavior is said to be ductile
since the moment curvature or load-deflection diagram has a long plastic region. If a
beam in a building fails in a ductile manner, the occupants of the building have warning of
the impending failure and hence have an opportunity to leave the building before the
final collapse, thus reducing the consequence of collapse.

Compression failure

If the steel content of the section is large, the concrete may reach its maximum
capacity before the steel yields. Such a beam is said to be over reinforced. In such a
case the neutral axis depth increases considerably, causing an increase in the
compressive force. The flexural strength of the section is reached when the strain in
the extreme compression fiber of the concrete is approximately 0.0035. The section
fails suddenly in a brittle fashion with out warning of the failure as the widths of the
flexural cracks in the tension zone of the concrete are small, owing to the low steel
stress.

Compression failure through crushing of the concrete is sudden, of an almost

explosive nature, and occurs without warning.
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Balanced failure

At a particular steel content, the crushing of concrete and yielding of reinforcement

occur simultaneously. Such a beam has balanced reinforcement. This failure also
exhibits a brittle type of failure which marks the boundary between ductile tension
failure and brittle compression failure.

Thus it is good practice to dimension flexural members in such a manner that when
overloaded, failure would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than by crushing of
the concrete.

3.3. ANALYSIS OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE AT THE ULS

Two requirements are satisfied throughout the flexural analysis and design of reinforced concrete
beams and columns:

1. Stress and strain compatibility: The stress at any point in a member must correspond to the
strain at that point
2. Equilibrium: Internal forces must balance the external load effects
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3.4. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE AT ULS

3.4.1. INDICATIVE STRENGTH CLASSES FOR DURABILITY
The choice of adequately durable concrete for corrosion protection of reinforcement and protection of
concrete attack requires consideration of the composition of concrete. This may result in a higher
compressive strength of the concrete than is required for structural design. The relationship between
concrete strength classes and environmental classes (Table 2-1) may be described by indicative
strength classes.
Table 2-1 – Indicative strength classes

3.4.2. CONCRETE COVER

It is necessary to have cover (concrete between the surface of the slab or beam and the reinforcing bars)
for four primary reasons:
1. To bond the reinforcement to the concrete so that the two elements act together. The efficiency
of the bond increases as the cover increases.
2. To protect the reinforcement against corrosion.
3. To protect the reinforcement from strength loss due to overheating in the case of fire.
4. Additional cover sometimes is provided on the top of slabs, particularly in garages and
factories, so that abrasion and wear due to traffic will not reduce the cover below that required
for structural and other purposes.

The concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement closest to the nearest
concrete surface (including links and stirrups and surface reinforcement where relevant) and the nearest
concrete surface.

Concrete cover according to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2

The nominal cover is defined as a minimum cover, Cmin plus an allowance in design for deviation, :
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is an allowance which should be made in the design for deviations from the minimum
cover. It should be taken as 10 mm, unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality
assurance system, in which case it is permitted to reduce c dev to 5 mm.

1. Minimum cover for bond, c min,b

The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than the bar diameter, unless the
aggregate size is over 32 mm. if the aggregate size is over 32 mm, c min,b should be increased by 5mm.
2. Minimum cover for durability
EC-2 leaves the choice of C min,dur to countries, but gives the following recommendation:
The value of C min,dur depends on the “structural class”, which has to be determined first. If the specified
service life is 50 years, the structural class is defined as 4. The “structural class” can be modified in
case of the following conditions:
The service life is 100 years instead of 50 years
The concrete strength is higher than necessary
Slabs (position of reinforcement not affected by construction process)
Special quality control measures apply
The finally applying service class can be calculated with Table 4.3 N but the recommended minimum
structural class is 1.
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3. Minimum cover for fire resistance

Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal axis distance, see fig. this is
the distance from the center of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. The designer should
ensure that
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Table 2-3 – Minimum dimensions and axis distances for continuous beams made with reinforced and
prestressed concrete
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3.6.3. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM AREA OF REINFORCEMENT

Minimum and Maximum area of reinforcement according to EN 1992-1-1-2004
The area of longitudinal tension reinforcement should not be taken as less than, As, min

Where:
 bt - denotes the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in compression,
only the width of the web is taken into account in calculating the value of b t .
 f ctm -should be determined with respect to the relevant strength class according to Table 3.1. of
Eurocode

The cross-sectional area of tension or compression reinforcement should not exceed A s,max outside lap
locations.
The value of As, max for beams for use in a country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value is 0.04 A c.

3.6.4. SPACING OF BARS

Spacing of bars according to EN 1992-1-1-2004
The clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel bars or horizontal layers of parallel
bars should be not less than

Where dg is the maximum size of aggregate

The recommended values of k1 and k2 are 1 and 5 mm respectively

3.6.5. DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM SECTIONS

Clause 5.5 in EN 1992-1-1 give limits to the neutral axis depth at the ultimate limit state as a function of the
amount of redistribution carried out in the analysis.

Where:
δ-
Xu- is the depth of the neutral axis at the ultimate limit state after redistribution u x

The values of , , , and for use in a country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended value is
K1, k 2, k 3, k 4.
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3.6.5.2. Design procedure

The general procedure for the design of singly reinforced beams according to EN 1992-1-1 using Design
Chart is as follows.

 Step 1: Take a strain distribution that results a ductile failure

 Step 2: Use equilibrium of forces to estimate the value of Kx

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Solving the above quadratic equations results the value of K x

 Step 3: If Kx < k x,lim , then compression reinforcement is not required and

If Kx > k x,lim, then compression reinforcement is required and the section is

designed as a double reinforced section.

 Step 4: Check the minimum and maximum area of reinforcement

Shear reinforcement

CRd,c = 0.18/rc

VRd,c > VED no need of designing shear reinforcement(use minimum shear

reinforcement)
 28

VRd,c < VED design shear reinforcement

2.6.6. DESIGN OF DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS

The general procedure for the design of doubly reinforced beams according to EN 1992-1-1 is using
design chart is as follows.

 Step 1: Take a strain distribution that results a ductile failure

 Step 2: Assume the section as having two part

 Step 3: Use equilibrium of forces to estimate the area of tension and compression reinforcement.
 29

 Step 4: Check the minimum and maximum area of reinforcement

 30

3.7. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLAB SYSTEM

3.7.1. INTRODUCTION
Slabs are surface plane elements that bear loads transverse to their plain. Most of the times, slabs are
statically indeterminate elements that consequently redistribute the stresses applied to them. This ability
makes them highly secure against bending and shear failure.

Figure 2-15 Types of slabs based on their load transfer mechanism

1. One-way slabs: They are those either supported on the two out of four opposite sides or the longer span
to short span ratio is at least equal to 2.
2. Two-way slabs: They are those supported on all four sides and the longer span to short span ratio is
less than 2.
3. Cantilever slabs: They are those with a fixed support on only one out of four sides
 31

In the design and analysis of one way slab systems a 1m strip of slab along the load transverse direction is
considered as shown below.
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3.7.2. ANALYSIS OF ONE-WAY SLABS

For one-way slab sections with under both a negative and positive bending moment follows the procedures
analysis of rectangular sections discussed in section 2.5.1.3and 2.5.2. The only exception is that the width
of the slab considered is 1m as previously pointed out.

2.7.3. DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLAB

2.7.3.1. Concrete cover
The cover requirement for bond and durability are the same for that of beam requirements discussed in
section 2.6.1.
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But for fire resistance the minimum dimension and cover requirements are given in EN 1992-1-2:2004 table
5.8.

2.7.3.2. Minimum and Maximum area of reinforcement (Flexural reinforcement)

For the minimum and the maximum steel percentages in the main direction sections 2.6.3 apply.
Secondary transverse reinforcement of not less than 20% of the principal reinforcement should be provided
in one way slabs. In areas near supports transverse reinforcement to principal top bars is not necessary
where there is no transverse bending moment.

The spacing of bars should not exceed Smax,slabs.

Note; The value of smax,slabs for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended
value is:
 for the principal reinforcement, 3h ≤ 400 mm, where h is the total depth of the slab;
 for the secondary reinforcement, 3,5h ≤ 450 mm .

In areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum moment those provisions become respectively:
 34

 for the principal reinforcement, 2h ≤ 250 mm

 for the secondary reinforcement, 3h ≤ 400 mm.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF COLUMNS

4.1. INTRODUCTION
A column is a vertical structural member transmitting axial compression loads with or without moments.
The cross sectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably less than its height. Column support
mainly vertical loads from the floors and roof and transmit these loads to the foundation.

Columns may be classified based on the following criteria:

a. Classification on the basis of geometry; rectangular, square, circular, L-shaped, T-shaped, etc.
depending on the structural or architectural requirements.
b. Classification on the basis of composition; composite columns, in-filled columns, etc.
c. Classification on the basis of lateral reinforcement; tied columns, spiral columns.
d. Classification on the basis of manner by which lateral stability is provided to the structure as a whole;
braced columns, un-braced columns.
e. Classification on the basis of sensitivity to second order effect due to lateral displacements; sway
columns, non-sway columns.
f. Classification on the basis of degree of slenderness; short column, slender column.
g. Classification on the basis of loading: axially loaded column, columns under uni-axial moment and
columns under biaxial moment

4.2. TIED/SPIRAL COLUMNS

a) Tied Columns: Columns where main (longitudinal) reinforcements are held in position by separate ties
spaced at equal intervals along the length. Tied columns may be, square, rectangular, L-shaped, circular or
any other required shape. And over 95% of all columns in buildings in non-seismic regions are tied columns

b) Spiral Columns: Columns which are usually circular in cross section and longitudinal bars are wrapped
by a closely spaced spiral.
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4.8.4. DETAILING RULES FOR COLUMNS ACCORDING TO ES EN 1992:2015

Longitudinal Reinforcement

 Bars should have a diameter of not less than min and the recommended value of  min is 8mm.

 The total amount of longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than and the recommended value
is , As, min
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