01/12/2017 NPTEL :: Mechanical Engineering - Tribology

Module 6 : Application of Tribology

Journal Bearings

Bearings are needed to support the relatively moving components. Journal bearings support the cylindrical
rotating shaft. Journal bearing are designed based on lubricant and lubrication mechanisms in following
categories :

Fig. 6.74: Squeeze film lubrication.

Fig. 6.73: Dry bearing impreganated with solid lubricants.

.........................(a) Hydrodynamic ................................ (b) Hydrostatic

Fig. 6.75: Journal bearing.

Dry bearings :

These bearings are made of self lubricated solid lubricant materials. Bearings operate dry or with limited
lubrication and experience solid to solid contact, which means relatively high friction compared to full fluid film
bearings..

For low temperature application, following materials can be utilized.

• Polymers: Thermoplastics --> PTFE, nylon, acetal resin.

• Thermosetting --> Phenolics, polyesters, and polyimides.

Following four material parameters/properties play important role in choosing material for dry bearings.

• Maximum Temperature – Softening.

• PV limit– Heat generation, Wear rate.

• Maximum Pressure(P)

• Maximum velocity (V)

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Most commonly used materials for dry bearings are listed in Table 6.23, along with the above four properties.

Table 6.23: Materials for dry bearings.

Maximum temperature above which physical deterioration or abnormal softening happens is to be avoided.

PV Approach :

For a given coefficient of friction, the PV product gives a measure of frictional heating and temperature rise. PV
values also gives a measure of wear rate. Material worn away is approximately proportional to the normal load
and distance travelled. P is simply the total force divided by the bearing area. In dry bearings, actual contact
between two rubbing surfaces occurs at sufficient high asperities. Actual area of contact depends on the yield
pressure of soft material. This imposes a limit on the applied pressure and relative speed between two surfaces.
Further, there is a limit for heat dissipation from those surfaces. Product of loading pressure, sliding speed and
coefficient of friction identifies the rate energy release at the bearing surface. Since non-fluid film bearings are
limited in their ability to dissipate heat, the P-V approach is often employed to design dry bearing.

• PV factor : Limiting ‘PV’ above which wear increases rapidly either as a consequence of thermal effects or of
stresses approaching to elastic limit, is known as PV factor. Bearing design based on PV factor is termed as PV
approach.

• EX : A shaft running at 1000 rpm is supported on a porous bearing. Shaft dia = 1 inch and L/D = 1. Applied
load = 1200 lbf.

- Velocity limit is 1180 ft/min.

- Pressure limit is 2000 psi.
- PV limit is 110,000 psi-ft/min.

Fig. 6.76: PV approach.

• Calculation of average pressure = 1200/(1*1) psi (8.273709 MPa) --> bearing is safe.

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• Calculation of velocity = π.D.N. = 3.14*(1/12)* 1000 = 261 ft/min (1.326 m/s) --> bearing is safe.

• Calculation of PV limit = 1200 psi * 261 = 313,000 psi-ft/min --> bearing will fail.

This example illustrates that bearing may be safe from pressure and velocity point of view but may fail due to
limited temperature dissipation.

Estimating bearing life: Bearing life may be evaluated based on the volume worn out from bearing surface,
which can be estimated using.

Volume of wear = specific wear rate * Applied load * distance of sliding.

ν = kWd

=> h = kPVt.

Wear constant k can be considered based on the material used, as shown in Table 6.24.

Table 6.24: Wear factor & friction coefficient.

EX : Estimate wear of 10mm long Nylon bushing supporting a 10-mm diameter and 5 kg shaft running at 900
rpm.

Wear factors for polymeric bearings :

Velocity, V = Π * D * N/60 => V = 0.47124 m/s.

Pressure, p = W/(L * D) => 490500(N/m2).

Wear volume as per Archard`s equation

On substituting values of k for Nylon material from Table 6.24.

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This value is too high. Wear can be reduced by appropriate filler in nylon with such material wear thickness.

h = (0.24/4)0.32 ≈ 0.2 mm it is acceptable.

Table 6.25: Bearing materials.

Table 6.24 lists few materials that can be used under dry conditions. It is interesting to note that velocity limit
for iron copper is the lowest, while PV is the highest for same materials.

Fig. 6.77: Porous bearing.

Porous bearings :

Porous bearing may be treated as starved bearings. These bearings are modified form of “hydrostatic bearings
with orifice compensators”. Oil flows due to capillary action through the pores in the unloaded region. The oil
flows back through pores in the loaded part of bearing shell. These bearings work satisfactory for light load and
moderate speed. Porus bearing are of powdered metals(Fig. 6.77) which are pressed in dies. After compression,
they are sintered at a high temperature in a reducing atmosphere. Sintering causes powdered metal to fuse into
a strong compact. After sintering, bearings may be submerged in oil for impregnation. Voids may vary from 16%
up to 36% of the volume of the bearing. Bearings are finish-sized in punch press to close tolerances.

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Fig. 6.78: PV approach for porous bearing.

These bearings are often known as economic mean to feed lubricant to the bearing. It is interesting to note that
Costporous-bearing > Costlubricated-bearing, but overall cost of bearing + lubricant + lubrication system may be
higher than the cost of dry bearing. Operating temp puts a limit on working of porous bearing as heat is
dissipated through bounding solids and cause deterioration of mineral oils. Therefore these bearings are
recommended for small electric motors, household appliances, automotive accessories, etc.

Hydrostatic Bearings
If pressurized lubricant is supplied continuously (without interruption), separation between bearing surfaces with
an adequate film thickness can be maintained even when speed is nil. Poor lubricants such as air, water and
liquid metals are usable. Oil film thickness varies as inverse of cube root of load. Design of hydrostatic bearings
commonly involve more complex lubrication systems, and requires specialized design and application practices.
High pressure supply, reliability & life of high pressure oil lines are always in doubt.

Fig. 6.79: Hydrostatic bearing with orifice compensators.

Advantages of hydrostatic Bearing :

• Completely elimination of wear.

• Reduction in coefficient of friction may be 1/100 to 1/500.

• High stiffness.

• h α W-1/3

• Good for starting, stopping. Best for heavy load and extremly low speed.

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Fig. 6.80: Hydrostatic lift.

Estimating load capacity :

If the pressure and quantity of flow rate are in correct proportions, the shaft whether it is rotating or not, will be
raised and supported by an oil film. This arrangement of shaft(Fig. 6.80) support shows as θ increases the oil
film pressure decreases. Here the film thickness h is not constant, but depends upon the angular position θ and
eccentricity of journal in the bearing. When the shaft has settled in the bearing and has made metal to metal
contact, the eccentricity ratio is equal to 1.0. When the shaft and bearing are concentric, the eccentricity ratio
(ε) is zero. Assume a shaft of radius r being floated in a bearing of radius R by oil, pumped through a slot at
pressure PS, with;

where ε = e/Cr. On substituting

On - integrating;

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where D is integration constant

Pressure P acts on area r.dθ.b and vertical component of force P.r.dθ.b.cos θ will balance the applied load W :

Fig. 6.81 shows variation in load capacity of hydrostatic bearing on varying eccentricity ratio.

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Fig. 6.81: Load versus eccentricity ratio.

Fig. 6.82: Multipocket bearing.

Negative value of eccentricity ratio describes the journal position when it is above bearing center. This may be
the case with double acting journal bearing or multi-pad journal bearings as shown in Fig. 6.82.

Ex: A 101.6 mm diameter journal rests in a bearing of diameter 101.9 mm. Lubricant of 30 mPa.s is supplied
under pressure through a groove at the lowest point of the bearing. Length of bearing is 152.4 mm and applied
load is 16 kN. What inlet pressure and flow rate are needed to raise the journal by 0.0508 mm.

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Hydrodynamic journal bearings

Low cost, simple manufacturing, negligible wear and very low coefficient of frictions are main features of
hydrodynamic journal bearings. Two journal bearings, made of solid rubber and lubricated by sea water are
shown in Fig. 6.83. These bearings are known as long bearing as length to diameter ratio is greater than two.
These bearings are full (3600) cylindrical bearings. In practice nearly half bearing supports the loads. To
understand this we fabricated journal bearing made of acrylic material as shown in Fig. 6.84. We could observe
the lubricated and cavilated regions of the bearing. Two sketches of observed region is provided in Fig. 6.85.

Fig. 6.83: Long journal bearing.

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Fig. 6.84: Acrylic journal bearing with temp measuring copper rivets.

Fig. 6.85(a): Journal bearing with cavitation.

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Fig. 6.85(b): Cavitated journal bearing.

A simplified solution to analyze a journal bearing, based on half Sommerfeld boundary condition is given in table
6.25.1.

Table 6.25.1: Journal bearing design table.

Here, C is radial clearance (m), F is fluid force, D is journal diameter (m), ns is journal rotational speed(rps),and
Λ is length to diameter ratio. Here fric is friction force, L is length (m), ρ is oil density (kg/m3), Co is specific
heat of lubricant (J/kg.K), θ is circumferential coordinate, R is radius (m), U is velocity in m/s, ΔT is temperature
rise, κ is temperature coefficient (1/0C), Q is oil flow (cubic-meter/sec), W is power loss (Watts), Φ is attitude

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angle (radians) and μ is average viscosity of lubricant (Pa.s). The design of journal bearing is an inverse
problem, where for a given load and speed, the eccentricity ratio and attitude angle are determined. The angle
between the load line and line passing through bearing and journal centers is known as the attitude angle. The
attitude angle is a representative of bearing stability. Larger the attitude angle, lesser is the stability of bearing.
To solve bearing-inverse problem, initial guess of eccentricity ratio and attitude angle are made, and an iterative
procedure is used to match the given load using;

Finite difference mass conserving algorithm :

The eccentric position of journal in a hydrodynamic bearing forms a converging-diverging clearance space. Due
to unavailability of sufficient liquid lubricant, liquid-streamers separated by gas/vapor space are formed in the
divergent clearance space, as indicated in (Fig. 6.85(b)). This “cavitation” phenomenon cannot be appropriately
predicted using the Reynolds equation alone, or associating it with Gumbel/Reynolds boundary condition. For
example; using Gumbel conditions, to predict the bearing performance simply neglects the cavitated zone, does
not account recirculating flow (as shown in below Fig. 6.85(c)), and assumes only half bearing.

Fig. 6.85(c): Recirculation of lubricating oil.

Such assumption predicts load capacity reasonably well (as cavitated pressure does not contribute to load
carrying capacity), but suffers inaccuracy in predicting oil flow and power loss. Therefore, there is a need for a
universal equation that describes both the full film and cavitation regions to their full extent, such as:

where β is bulk modulus (Pa), Pc is cavitation pressure (Pa),

....Eq.(6.2)

The value of g = 1 makes Eq.(6.2) an elliptic partial differential equation (PDE), while makes Eq.(6.2) a
hyperbolic PDE. A robust convergent solution needs a central-finite-difference-scheme for elliptical PDE, and
upwind-finite-difference scheme for hyperbolic PDE. This can be achieved by adopting a type difference scheme,
such as:

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....Eq.(6.3)

....Eq.(6.4)

Substituting Eq.(6.3 - 6.4) in Eq.(6.2) provides Eq.(6.5) with θ as unknown : f(θ) = 0.

....Eq.(6.5)

Values of θ can be evaluated using Newton iterative scheme :

where θ* is the available value of θ. The Newton method provides rapid convergence if initial guess of the
unknown is in the neighborhood of real solution. Here the analytical approach, discussed in previous section,
helps to determine reasonably good initial approximation. The oil leakage and power loss can be evaluated by
using the following expressions :

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Locating Journal Position :

In hydrodynamic journal bearing, positions of journal floats and gets located based on operating parameters(i.e,
load, speed, viscosity etc). Fig. 6.86 shows three positions of journal in bearing. First positive is corresponding to
negligible load and relatively high speed. In this situation, journal center coincides (ε = 0) with bearing center.
Third position corresponds to high load and negligible speed. In middle position, speed and load are measurable.
To find ε and Φ, numerical solution of Reynolds equation and integration of fluid pressure over effective area are
required.

Fig. 6.86: Locations of journal in bearing.

How bearing gets lubricant ?

Effective full film (hydrodynamic) lubrication can be achieved by continously feeding lubricant (as pressure
greater than ambient pressure) through oil groove arrangement as shown in Fig. 6.87. In other words, bearings
are provided with feed hole and oil grooved to get lubricant.

Fig. 6.87: Hole and groove arrangement in bearing.

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Fig. 6.88: Partial oil groove.

Fig. 6.89: Oil supply path.

Oil can be supplied to journal bearing by oil hole(Fig. 6.89), partial groove(Fig. 6.88) or full groove(Fig. 6.87)
arrangement depends on required quantity of oil and load direction. If applied load changes its direction then
partial to full groove arrangement is essential to avoid starvation.

Flow rate under supply pressure Ps in bearing with oil hole(dh)[1] :

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Flow rate under supply pressure Ps and lubricating full oil groove[1] :

Flow rate under supply pressure Ps and partial groove(Fig. 6.68)[1] :

Designing journal bearings :

Bearing is designed with bearing clearence(c) and length(L) which often is decided based on bearing bore dia(D).
Increasing bearing length increases load capacity of the bearing. Upper limit on bearing length is decided based
on space limitation. Increasing radial clearence decreases load capacity and increases lubricant flow rate.
Pressure P, developed in bearing depends on geometric, lubricant and operating parameters. Developed fluid
pressure should not exceed the permissible value for bearing material(table 6.26).

Table 6.26: Bearing materials.

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Pressure Estimation :

In earlier module advantages of hybrid approach were detailed. In the present case fluid pressure is estimated
using hybrid approach.

Fig. 6.90: Long static bearing.

Fig. 6.91: Short static bearing.

P∞ is fluid pressure estimated by long bearing approximation(Fig. 6.90) and P0 is fluid pressure estimated by
short bearing approximation(Fig. 6.91).

Geometric Configuration of Journal Bearing :

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Fluid film thickness for geometry sketched in Fig. 6.92 is expressed as;

Fig. 6.92: Fluid film in journal bearing.

Deriving fluid film pressure considering short static bearing approximation :

On first integration and using symmetry condition dP/dz = 0 at z = 0.

Load capacity of short journal bearing :

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Fig. 6.93: Load distribution.

Resultant load

Attitude angle :

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Fig. 6.94: Attitude angle vs eccentricity ratio for short bearing.

Friction force :

In hydrodynamic bearing friction depends on fluid shearing.

Oil flow :

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• Flow due to velocity & feed pressure.

• Circumferential flow.

Above expression is based on Gumbel boundary condition and assumption that lubricant is partially recirculated
back (Fig. 6.95) in bearing.

On neglecting pressure gradient

QH = (U/2)c(1 + ε - 1 + ε)L.

or QH = U c ε L.

Mass flow rate, m = ρ U c ε L.

Fig. 6.95: Oil flow in journal bearing.

Temperature Rise :

Friction, due to shear of lubricant film, generates heat (F * U)) in lubricant oil and increases the temperature of
lubricant. Assuming that total generated heat is carried by the oil flowing through bearing.

Rate of heat generated = Rate of heat convected by oil flow.

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Design of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing :

1. Guess eccentricity ratio.

2. Calculate load capacity, friction force, temperature rise.

3. Modify lubricant viscosity using η = ηin e-β Δt.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 so that average viscosity and load converge.

Example : Determine the minimum film thickness, maximum pressure, coefficient of friction for a hydrodynamic
journal bearing, which supports a 600 N laod at rotational speed of 2000 rpm. The shaft dia. is 40 mm. Assume
bearing length = 10 mm, oil viscosity at room temperature (300C) = 15 mPa.s, β = 0.029, and radial clearance
20 μm.

Given : U = 4.19 m/s. Factor 1 = U * L3 * π * 0.25/(c2) = 8227 m2/s, Factor 2 = 2 * U * L * R * (π/c). These
factors remain constant and do not change over iterations.

Load

STEP 1: Assume ε = 0.5 -> W = 118 N. This load capacity is very less.

assume ε = 0.75 -> W = 562 N.

STEP 2: Assume ε = 0.8 -> W = 900 N, F = 6.58 N, Δt = 8.650C.

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STEP 3: Modify viscosity using η = ηin e-β Δt at Δt = 8.650C,

η = 0.0117.

STEP 4: For ε = 0.8 -> W = 703 N, F = 5.13 N, Δt = 6.750C,

η = 0.0123.

Now it is preferable to decrease ε. Let us assume ε = 0.78 and Δt = 70C

W = 599.1 N, F = 5.13 N,

Δt = 6.920C, η = 0.0122.

Answer ε = 0.78.

Φ = 32.20 using tan Φ = (π/4)[√(1 - ε2)/ε].

Minimum film thickness, hmin = c(1 - ε)

hmin = 20(1 - 0.78) => hmin = 4.4 micron.

On checking lubrication regime Λ = hmin/√(R2q1 + R2q2).

If Rq1 and Rq2 are approximately 0.4 μm, bearing operates in hydrodynamic regime.

Example : Same data which were defined in previous example, but bearing length = 20 mm.

STEP 1: Assume ε = 0.5 -> W = 943 N; Assume ε = 0.45 -> W = 741 N.

STEP 2: For ε = 0.45 -> F = 8.84 N, Δt = 10.330C.

STEP 3: Modify viscosity using η = ηin e-β Δt at Δt = 10.330C.

η = 0.0111.

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STEP 4: For ε = 0.45 -> W = 548 N, F = 6.6 N, Δt = 8.00C, η = 0.0119. W = 588 N, F = 7 N, Δt = 8.20C.

STEP 5: For ε = 0.46 -> W = 606 N, F = 6.94.

Answer ε = 0.45.

Φ = 57.30 tan Φ = (Π/4) [√(1 - ε2)/ε.

pmax = 13 bar.

μ = F/W = 7/600 => μ = 0.0117.

This pressure and μ are higher than those estimated for 50% length of bearing.

pmax = 7.24 bar.

μ = F/W = 5.13/600 => μ = 0.0086.

Three examples of journal bearing were used to illustrate the accuracy of hybrid bearing approach. Design
procedure suggested in previous two examples can be used with hybrid pressure expression in place of pressure
by short bearing approximation.

Example 1 :

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Example 2 :

Example 3 :

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References :

1. Martin F A and Lee C S, “Feed pressure flow in plain journal bearings” ASLE Transactions, 26 (3), 381-392,
1983.

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