மனனோன்மணியம் சுந் தரனோர் பல் கலலக் கழகம்

MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

TIRUNELVELI-627 012
த ொலைநிலைத ொடர் கல் வி இயக்ககம்

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE AND

CONTINUING EDUCATION

B.Sc. (Allied Mathematics)

I YEAR

ALGEBRA AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Sub. Code: JEMA11 (For Private Circulation only)

 B.Sc. (Allied Mathematics) –I YEAR

JEMA11 - ALGEBRA AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

SYLLABUS

Unit-I:
Theory of Equations – Formation of Equations – Relation between
roots and coefficients – Reciprocal equations.
Unit-II:
Transformation of Equations – Approximate solutions to equations
– Newton’s method and Horner’s method.
Unit-III:
Matrices – Characteristic equation of a matrix – Eigen values and Eigen
vectors – Cayley Hamilton theorem and simple problems.
Unit-IV:
Differential equation of first order but of higher degree – Equations
solvable for 𝑝, 𝑥, 𝑦 – Partial differential equations – formations – solutions –
Standard form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅.
Unit-V:
Laplace transformation – Inverse Laplace transform.

Recommended Text:
1. Dr.S. Arumugam & Isaac – Allied Mathematics Paper – I, New
Gamma Publishing House (2012), Palayamkottai.

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 JEMA11 - ALGEBRA AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

CONTENTS

UNIT-1

1.1 Theory of Equations 5

1.2 Formation of Equations 5
1.3 Relation between roots and coefficients 9
1.4 Reciprocal equations 16

UNIT-2

2.1 Transformation of Equations 23

2.2 Approximate solutions to equations 27
2.3 Newton’s method 27
2.4 Horner’s method 33

UNIT-3

3.1 Matrices 35
3.2 Characteristic equation of a matrix 37
3.3 Cayley Hamilton theorem and simple problems 40
3.4 Eigenvalues and Eigen vectors 45

UNIT-4

4.1 Differential equation of first order but of higher degree 47

4.2 Differential Equations which are solvable for 𝑝 47
4.3 Differential Equations which are solvable for 𝑦 50
4.4 Differential Equations which are solvable for 𝑥 52
4.5 Partial differential equations 55

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 4.6 Formations and solutions of partial differential equations 56
4.7 Standard form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 58

UNIT-5

5.1 Laplace transformation 61

5.2 Inverse Laplace transform 68

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Unit-I:
Theory of Equations – Formation of Equations – Relation between roots
and coefficients – Reciprocal equations.

1.1 THEORY OF EQUATIONS

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study about polynomial function and various methods to
find out the roots of polynomial equations. ‘Solving equations’ was an important problem
from the beginning of study of Mathematics itself. The notation of complex numbers was
first introduced because equation like 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in the set of real
numbers. The “fundamental theorem of algrbra” which states that every polynomial of
degree ≥ 1 has atleast one zero was first proved by the famous German Mathematician
Karl Fredrich Gauss. We shall look at polynomials in detail and will discuss various
methods for solving polynomial equations.

1.2. FORMATION OF EQUATIONS:

Definition-1.2.1:

A function defined by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎0 ≠ 0 is a non-

negative integer and 𝑎𝑖 (𝑖 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛) are fixed complex numbers is called a
polynomial of degree 𝒏 in 𝑥. Then numbers 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are called coefficients of 𝒇.

If 𝛼 is a complex number such that 𝑓(𝛼 ) = 0, then 𝛼 is called zero of the

polynomials.

Theorem: 1.2.2 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra):

Every polynomial function of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has at least one zero.

Remark: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that if 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ,

where 𝑎0 ≠ 0 is the given polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1, then there exists a complex
number 𝛼 such that 𝑎0 𝛼 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝛼 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 = 0.

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 We use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, to prove the following result

Theorem: 1.2.3:

Every polynomial function of degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 and only 𝑛 zeros.

Proof:

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎0 ≠ 0 be a polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1.

By fundamental theorem of Algebra, 𝑓(𝑥 ) has at least one zero, let 𝛼1 be that zero.

Then (𝑥 − 𝛼1 ) is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥 ).

Therefore, we can write:

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )𝑄1 (𝑥 ), where 𝑄1 (𝑥) is a polynomial function of degree 𝑛 − 1.

If 𝑛 − 1 ≥ 1, again by fundamental theorem of Algebra, 𝑄1 (𝑥 ) has at least one zero, say

𝛼2 .

Therefore,

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 )𝑄2 (𝑥 ), where 𝑄2 (𝑥) is a polynomial function of

degree 𝑛 − 2.

Repeating the above arguments, we get

𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )𝑄𝑛 (𝑥), where 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥 ) is a polynomial

function of degree 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 0, i.e., 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥 ) is a constant.

Equating the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑛 on both sides of the above equation, we get 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 .

Therefore,

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ).

If 𝛼 is any number other than 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 , then 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝛼 is not a zero of 𝑓(𝑥 ).

Hence 𝑓(𝑥 ) has 𝑛 and only 𝑛 zeros, namely 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 .

Therefore, every polynomial equation of degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 and only 𝑛 roots.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1. Form the equation with rational coefficients one of whose roots is √2 + √3.

Solution:

Let 𝑥 = √2 + √3.

Therefore, 𝑥 − √2 = √3.

Squaring both sides, we get, 𝑥 2 − 2√2𝑥 + 2 = 3.

∴ 𝑥 2 − 1 = 2√2𝑥.

Squaring both sides again, we get, 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 = 8𝑥 2 .

∴ 𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 1 = 0, which is the required equation.

Problem 2. Solve the equation 𝑥 4 − 14𝑥 3 + 46𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 9 = 0 given that 5 − √22 is a
root.

Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 14𝑥 3 + 46𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 9.

Since 5 − √22 is a root, 5 + √22 is also a root.

∴ 𝑥 − 5 − √22 and 𝑥 − 5 + √22 are factors of 𝑓(𝑥).

∴ (𝑥 − 5 − √22)(𝑥 − 5 + √22) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

(ie) (𝑥 − 5)2 − 22 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

(ie) 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

By actual division, we get,

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) (verify)

= (𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)

∴ The four roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are 5 + √22; 5 − √22; 3 and 1.

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Problem 3. If one root of the equation 2𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 38𝑥 − 39 = 0 is 2 − 3𝑖. Solve the
equation.

Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 38𝑥 − 39.

Since 2 − 3𝑖 is a root of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0, we have 2 + 3𝑖 is also a root of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

∴ 𝑥 − (2 − 3𝑖) and 𝑥 − (2 + 3𝑖) are two factors of 𝑓(𝑥).

∴ [(𝑥 − 2) + 3𝑖][(𝑥 − 2) − 3𝑖] is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

(ie) (𝑥 − 2)2 + 9 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

(ie) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 13 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

The remaining factor is got by actual division as 2𝑥 − 3

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∴ The roots of are 2 − 3𝑖; 2 + 3𝑖 and 2.

Problem 4. Solve 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 77 = 0 given that one root is −2 + 𝑖√7.

Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 77.

Since −2 + 𝑖√7 is a root, −2 − 𝑖√7 is also a root.

∴ (𝑥 + 2 − 𝑖 √7) and (𝑥 + 2 + 𝑖√7) are factors of 𝑓(𝑥).

∴ (𝑥 + 2 − 𝑖 √7)(𝑥 + 2 + 𝑖√7) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

(ie) (𝑥 + 2)2 + 7 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

(ie) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 11 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

By actual division, we get,

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 11)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7) (verify)

= (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 11)(𝑥 − 2 − 𝑖√3)(𝑥 − 2 + 𝑖√3)

∴ The roots are −2 + 𝑖√7; −2 − 𝑖 √7; 2 − 𝑖√3 and 2 + 𝑖√3.

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EXERCISES:

1. Form the equation of the lowest degree with rational coefficients whose roots are

(i) 1 + √2 and 3.

(ii) 3 + √5 and 1.

(iii) 4√3 and 5 + 2𝑖.

(iv) √3 + 𝑖√2.

2. Solve the equation 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 15 = 0 if √3 and 1 − 2𝑖 are two of its roots.

3. Solve the equation 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 37𝑥 − 35 = 0 given that 3 + √2 is a root.

4. Solve the equation 3𝑥 3 − 23𝑥 2 + 72𝑥 − 70 = 0 given that 3 + √−5 is one root.

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5. Solve 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 3 = 0 given that 2 (3 − √5) is a root.

6. Solve 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 35 = 0 given that 2 − √3𝑖 is a root.

1.3. RELATION BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS:

Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛

Then 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛−1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )

= 𝑎0 [𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 (𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 ) + 𝑥 𝑛−2 (𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 +

𝛼3 𝛼4 + ⋯ ) − 𝑥 𝑛−3 (𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼4 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼4 + ⋯ ) + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 … 𝛼𝑛 ]

Equating coefficients of corresponding power of 𝑥 on both sides, we get,

(−1)1 𝑎0 ∑ 𝛼1 = 𝑎1

(−1)2 𝑎0 ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 = 𝑎2

(−1)3 𝑎0 ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 = 𝑎3

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 …………………………

…………………………

(−1)𝑛 𝑎0 ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 … 𝛼𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛

Rewriting the above relations, we have

𝑎
𝑆1 = ∑ 𝛼1 = (−1)1 (𝑎1 )
0

𝑎
𝑆2 = ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 = (−1)2 (𝑎2 )
0

𝑎
𝑆3 = ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 = (−1)3 (𝑎3 )
0

……………………………..

……………………………..

𝑎
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 … 𝛼𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 ( 𝑎𝑛 )
0

where 𝑆𝑖 denotes the sum of the products of roots taken 𝑖 at a time.

In particular, if a quadratic equation

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has roots α and β.

𝑏 𝑐
Then 𝑆1 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 and 𝑆2 = 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎.

If a cubic equation

𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 has roots α, β and γ

Then

𝑏
𝑆1 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = − 𝑎

𝑐
𝑆2 = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 =
𝑎

𝑑
𝑆3 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝑎.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑝1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑝2 𝑥 𝑛−2 − ⋯ (−1)𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 0,

find the value of (1 + 𝛼1 )(1 + 𝛼2 ) … (1 + 𝛼𝑛 ).

Solution:

For the given equation, we have,

∑ 𝛼1 = 𝑝1

∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 = 𝑝2

∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 = 𝑝3

……………………………..

……………………………..

𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 … 𝛼𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛

Now,

(1 + 𝛼1 )(1 + 𝛼2 ) … (1 + 𝛼𝑛 ) = 1 + ∑ 𝛼1 + ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 + ∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 … 𝛼𝑛

= 1 + 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛 .

Problem 2.

If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0, find the value of

𝛼 𝛼𝛽 𝛼
(i) ∑( ) (ii) ∑( ) (iii) ∑( )
𝛽𝛾 𝛾 𝛽+𝛾

1 𝛽 𝛾
(iv) ∑( ) (v) ∑( + ) (vi) ∑ 𝛼3
𝛽+𝛾 𝛾 𝛽

Solution:

We have ∑ 𝛼 = 0 …………… (1)

∑ 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎………….. (2)

𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 𝑏…………… (3)

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 𝛼 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
(i) ∑( ) = + +
𝛽𝛾 𝛽𝛾 𝛾𝛼 𝛼𝛽

𝛼2 +𝛽2 +𝛾 2
= 𝛼𝛽𝛾

(∑ 𝛼)2−2(∑ 𝛼𝛽)
= 𝛼𝛽𝛾

−2𝑎
=− (by using (1) and (2))
𝑏

𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽 𝛽𝛾 𝛾𝛼
(ii) ∑( ) = + +
𝛾 𝛾 𝛼 𝛽

(𝛼𝛽)2+(𝛽𝛾)2 +(𝛾𝛼)2
= 𝛼𝛽𝛾

∑ 𝛼 2 𝛽2
= 𝛼𝛽𝛾

(∑ 𝛼𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽𝛾(∑ 𝛼)
=
𝛼𝛽𝛾

𝑎2
= (by using (1), (2) and (3))
𝑏

𝛼 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
(iii) ∑( ) = 𝛽+𝛾 + 𝛾+𝛼 + 𝛼+𝛽
𝛽+𝛾
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
= 𝛽+𝛾 + 𝛾+𝛼 + 𝛼+𝛽
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
= −𝛼 + −𝛽 + −𝛾 (by using (1))

= −3

1 1 1 1
(iv) ∑( ) = 𝛽+𝛾 + 𝛾+𝛼 + 𝛼+𝛽
𝛽+𝛾
1 1 1
= −𝛼 + −𝛽 + −𝛾 (by using (1))
𝛼𝛽+𝛽𝛾+𝛾𝛼
= −( )
𝛼𝛽𝛾
𝑎
= − 𝑏 (by using (2) and (3))

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 𝛽 𝛾 𝛽 2 +𝛾 2
(v) ∑( + ) = ∑( )
𝛾 𝛽 𝛽𝛾

𝛽2 +𝛾 2 𝛾 2 +𝛼2 𝛼2 +𝛽2
= + +
𝛽𝛾 𝛾𝛼 𝛼𝛽

𝛼(𝛽2 +𝛾 2 )+𝛼(𝛾 2+𝛼2 )+𝛼(𝛼2 +𝛽2 )

= 𝛼𝛽𝛾

𝛼2 β+𝛼2 γ+𝛽2 𝛾+𝛽2 𝛼+𝛾 2 𝛼+𝛾 2𝛽

= 𝛼𝛽𝛾
∑ 𝛼2𝛽
= ………………. (4)
𝛼𝛽𝛾

Now, multiplying equation (1) and (2), we get,

(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 ) = 0
(ie) ∑ 𝛼 2 𝛽 + 3 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 0
∴ ∑ 𝛼 2 𝛽 = −3 𝛼𝛽𝛾
∴ From (4), we get,
𝛽 𝛾 −3 𝛼𝛽𝛾
∑( + ) = = −3
𝛾 𝛽 𝛼𝛽𝛾

(vi) ∑ 𝛼3 = 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 + 𝛾 3
= (∑ 𝛼)3 − 3(∑ 𝛼𝛽)(∑ 𝛼)
= 0 (by using (1) and (3))

Problem 3.

If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the value of

𝛽+𝛾+𝛿−𝛼
∑( ).
2𝛼2

Solution:

We have ∑ 𝛼 = 0 …………… (1)

∑ 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 ………….. (2)

∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −𝑏 …………… (3)

𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = 𝑐 ……………..(4)

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Now,

𝛽+𝛾+𝛿−𝛼 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾+𝛿−2𝛼
∑( ) = ∑( )
2𝛼2 2𝛼2

0−2𝛼
= ∑ ( 2𝛼2 ) (by using (1))

1
= − ∑ (𝛼 )

1 1 1 1
= − [𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿 ]

βγδ+𝛼γδ+𝛼βδ+𝛼βγ
= −[ ]
𝛼βγδ

∑ 𝛼βγ
= − 𝛼βγδ

𝑏
= − (− 𝑐 )
𝑏
=𝑐 (by using (3))

Problem 4.

Show that the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 will have one root twice another if

343𝑟 2 + 36𝑞 3 = 0.

Solution:

Let the roots be 𝛼, 2𝛼, 𝛽.

∴ 𝑆1 = 𝛼 + 2𝛼 + 𝛽 = 0

(ie)., 𝛽 = −3𝛼 ………….. (1)

𝑆2 = 2𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 𝛽 = 𝑞

(ie)., 2𝛼 2 + 3𝛼𝛽 = 𝑞 ………….. (2)

Using (1) in (2), we get, −7𝛼 2 = 𝑞 ………….. (3)

Also, 𝑆3 = 2𝛼 2 𝛽 = −𝑟

∴ 6𝛼 3 = 𝑟 (by using (1))

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 𝑟
∴ 𝛼3 = 6 ………….. (4)

From (3), we get,

−73 𝛼 6 = 𝑞 3 ………….. (5)

𝑟2
Using (4) in (5), we get, −343 (36) = 𝑞 3

(ie)., 343𝑟 2 + 36𝑞 3 = 0.

EXERCISES:

1. If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0, find the value of

1 𝛼 1
(i) ∑( ) (ii) ∑( ) (iii) ∑( )
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽

(iv) ∑ 𝛼2 (v) ∑ 𝛼2 𝛽 (vi) ∑ 𝛼 2 𝛽𝛾

(vii) ∑ 𝛼 2 𝛽2 (viii) ∑ 𝛼3 (ix) ∑ 𝛼4

𝛼 𝛽
(vii) ∑( + ) (viii) (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)(𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿)(𝛾 + 𝛿 + 𝛼)(𝛿 + 𝛼 + 𝛽).
𝛽 𝛼

2.If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0, find the value of

(1 + 𝛼 2 )(1 + 𝛽 2 )(1 + 𝛾 2 ).

3. Solve the equation 4𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 + 18 = 0, given that the roots are in arithmetic

progression.

4. If the sum of two roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0 equals the sum

of the other two prove that 𝑝3 + 8𝑟 = 4𝑝𝑞.

5. If the product of two roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0 is equal to the

product of the other two show that 𝑟 2 = 𝑝2 𝑠.

6. Solve the equation 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3 = 0 given that the root is double the other one.

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1.4. RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS:

In this section, we discuss the method of solving a class of equation called

reciprocal equations.

Definition-1.4.1:

The equation 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 is called reciprocal equation (R.E) if whenever 𝛼 is a root

1
of the equation, 𝛼 is also a root.

1 1 1 1
Thus if 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of a R. E, then the numbers , , ,…,𝛼
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝑛

are the same as 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 in some order.

Examples:

(i)𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 is a R. E and its roots are −1, −1.

1
(ii) 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0 is a R. E and its roots are 2, 2.

1
(iii) 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 is a R. E and its roots are −2, − 2 , 1 .

Theorem-1.4.2:

1 1 1 1
If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0, then 𝛼 , 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 are the roots of
1 2 3 𝑛

1
𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0.

Proof:

Since 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0, we have 𝑓(𝛼𝑖 ) = 0.

1
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥).

1 1 𝑛 1 1 1 1
Then, 𝑔 (𝛼 ) = (𝛼 ) 𝑓 (𝛼𝑖 ) = 0 and hence 𝛼 , 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 are the roots of 𝑔(𝑥 ).
𝑖 𝑖 1 2 3 𝑛

Hence the result.

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
Remark:

1
If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 is a R. E then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 both has the same roots.

Theorem-1.4.3:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 0 is a R.E if and only if 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 = ± 𝑎𝑟 (0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛).

Proof:

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

1 1 𝑛 1 𝑛−1
Hence 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 [𝑎0 (𝑥) + 𝑎1 (𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ]

= 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 .

Now,

1
Suppose 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 is a R. E. Then 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 both have the same

roots and hence the corresponding coefficients of the two equations are proportional.
𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛
∴ =𝑎 =⋯= =⋯= = 𝑘.
𝑎𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑎0

𝑎 𝑎𝑛
Since 𝑎 0 = = 𝑘, we get 𝑘 2 = 1 so that 𝑘 = ±1.
𝑛 𝑎0

𝑎𝑟
∴ = ±1 and hence 𝑎𝑟 = ± 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 .
𝑎𝑛−𝑟

Conversely, suppose that 𝑎𝑟 = ± 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 .

1
Then the equation 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 are same and hence 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0 is a R. E.

Definition-1.4.4:

A R. E 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 0 is said to be of first type if 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 =

𝑎𝑟 and is said to be of second type if 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 = − 𝑎𝑟 .

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
Remark:

1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 is a R. E of first type iff 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥) and is a R. E of second type iff
1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥).

Definition-1.4.5:

A R. E 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 is called a standard reciprocal equation (S. R. E) if it is of

first type and the degree of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is even.

Examples:

(i) 4𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 3 + 33𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4 = 0 is a S. R. E.

(ii) 6𝑥 5 + 11𝑥 4 − 33𝑥 3 − 33𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6 = 0 is a R. E of first type and odd

degree.

(iii) 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0 is a R. E of second type and odd degree.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Show that 4(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)3 = 27𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1)2 is a standard reciprocal equation.

Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)3 − 27𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1)2 .

3
1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
Now, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4 ((𝑥) − 𝑥 + 1) − 27 (𝑥) (𝑥 − 1)

4(1−𝑥+𝑥 2)3 27(1−𝑥)2

= −
𝑥6 𝑥4

1
∴ 𝑥 6 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4(1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )3 − 27𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥)2

= 𝑓(𝑥).

Also, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is of degree 6.

∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is a S. R. E.
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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
Problem 2.

Solve 4𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 3 + 33𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4 = 0.

Solution:

Given 4𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 3 + 33𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4 = 0 ……………..(1)

The given equation is a S. R. E.

Dividing the equation by 𝑥 2 and regrouping, we get,

1 1
4 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 ) − 20 (𝑥 + 𝑥) + 33 = 0 ……………..(2)

1
Put 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑦

Hence,

1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2.

∴ (2) becomes 4(𝑦 2 − 2) − 20𝑦 + 33 = 0

(ie)., 4𝑦 2 − 20𝑦 + 25 = 0

(ie)., (2𝑦 − 5)2 = 0

5 5
∴ 𝑦 = 2 , 2.

Now,

1 5
𝑥+𝑥 =2 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0

⇒ (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 ,2

1 1
∴ The roots of (1) are 2, 2 , 2, 2 .

Problem 3.

Solve 6𝑥 5 + 11𝑥 4 − 33𝑥 3 − 33𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6 = 0.

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Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 6𝑥 5 + 11𝑥 4 − 33𝑥 3 − 33𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6 = 0. ……………..(1)

This is a R. E of first type and of odd degree.

Hence 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥 ).

By actual division, we get,

𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 1)(6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 38𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6) = 0.

Now,

(6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 38𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6) = 0 is a S. R. E.

Dividing by 𝑥 2 and regrouping, we get,

1 1
6 (𝑥 2 + ) + 5 (𝑥 + ) − 38 = 0 ……………..(2)
𝑥2 𝑥

1
Put 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑦

Hence,

1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2.

∴ (2) becomes 6(𝑦 2 − 2) + 5𝑦 − 38 = 0

(ie)., 6𝑦 2 + 5𝑦 − 50 = 0

(ie)., (3𝑦 + 10)(2𝑦 − 5) = 0

10 5
∴ 𝑦=− and 𝑦 = 2.
3

Now,

1 10
Taking 𝑥 + 𝑥 = − 3

⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 3 = 0

⇒ (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 0

1
⇒ 𝑥 = −3, − 3

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 1 5
Taking 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0

⇒ (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 ,2

1 1
∴ The roots of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0 are −1, − , −3, 2, .
3 2

Problem 4.

Solve 2𝑥 5 − 15𝑥 4 + 37𝑥 3 − 37𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 2 = 0.

Solution:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 5 − 15𝑥 4 + 37𝑥 3 − 37𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 2 = 0. ……………..(1)

This is a R. E of second type and of odd degree.

Hence 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥 ).

By actual division, we get,

𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 2) = 0.

Now,

(2𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 2) = 0 is a S. R. E.

Dividing by 𝑥 2 and regrouping, we get,

1 1
2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 ) − 13 (𝑥 + 𝑥) + 24 = 0 ……………..(2)

1
Put 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑦

Hence,

1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2.

∴ (2) becomes 2(𝑦 2 − 2) − 13𝑦 + 24 = 0

(ie)., 2𝑦 2 − 13𝑦 − 20 = 0

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 (ie)., (2𝑦 − 5)(𝑦 − 4) = 0

5
∴ 𝑦 = 4 and 𝑦 = 2.

Now,

1
Taking 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0

4±√16−4
⇒ 𝑥= 2

4±√12
⇒ 𝑥= 2

⇒ 𝑥 = 2 ± √3

⇒ 𝑥 = 2 + √3 and 𝑥 = 2 − √3

1 5
Taking 𝑥 + = ⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑥 2

⇒ (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 ,2

1
∴ The roots of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0 are 2 + √3 , 2 − √3, 2, .
2

EXERCISES:

1. Solve 3𝑥 6 + 𝑥 5 − 27𝑥 4 + 27𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0.

2. Solve 2𝑥 7 − 𝑥 6 − 3𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0.

3. Solve 𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 3 + 26𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 1 = 0.

4. Solve 6𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 − 43𝑥 3 + 43𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0.

5. Solve 𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 4 + 13𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 1 = 0.

6. Solve 𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1 = 0.

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Unit-II:
Transformation of Equations – Approximate solutions to equations
– Newton’s method and Horner’s method.

2.1 TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS

Introduction:

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 ,

𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. We form a new equation whose roots are some functions of roots of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0.

This formation of new equation is known as transformation of equations.

2.1.1 Formation of the equation whose roots are 𝒌 times the roots of

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎, (𝒌 ≠ 𝟎):

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0 then the equation whose roots are

𝑥
𝑘𝛼1 , 𝑘𝛼2 , 𝑘𝛼3 , … , 𝑘𝛼𝑛 where 𝑘 ≠ 0 is given by 𝑓 (𝑘) = 0. …………………(1)

𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑥
(ie)., (𝑘) + 𝑎1 (𝑘) + 𝑎2 ( 𝑘 ) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑘) + 𝑎𝑛 = 0

1
∴ (𝑘 𝑛) [𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑘𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑘 2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑘 𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 ] = 0

𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑘𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑘 2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑘 𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

Hence the new equation is obtained by multiplying the successivecoefficients of the

given equation (from the left) by 1, 𝑘, 𝑘 2 , … , 𝑘 𝑛 respectively.

Note:

Putting 𝑘 = −1 in (1) we get the equation whose roots are −𝛼1 , −𝛼2 , −𝛼3 , … , −𝛼𝑛 as

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)𝑛 + 𝑎1 (−𝑥)𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 (−𝑥)𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) + 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Transform the equation 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 = 0 into the equation whose roots are

multiplied by 10.

Solution:

The required equation is got by multiplying the successive coefficients 1,3,1, −4 by

1, 10, 102 , 103 respectively.

Hence the required equation is 𝑥 3 + 30𝑥 2 + 100𝑥 − 4000 = 0.

Problem 2.

Form the equation whose roots are negative of the roots of 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 = 0.

Solution:

The required equation is 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 0.

∴ It is given by (−𝑥)3 − (−𝑥 )2 + (−𝑥) − 4 = 0.

(ie)., 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4 = 0.

2.1.2 Formation of the equation whose roots are diminished by 𝒉:

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 then the equation whose roots are
𝛼1 − ℎ, 𝛼2 − ℎ, 𝛼3 − ℎ, … , 𝛼𝑛 − ℎ is given by 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 0. …………………(1)

(ie)., (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑎𝑛 = 0

∴ 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 = 0 where 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 are

constants to be determined. The coefficients 𝑏𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛−1 , 𝑏𝑛−2 , … , 𝑏1 (in this order) are the
reminders obtained by dividing 𝑓 (𝑥 ) by 𝑥 − ℎ in succession 𝑛 times.

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Note:

To increase the roots of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) by ℎ we diminish the roots of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) by −ℎ.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Diminish the roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 100 = 0 by 4.

Solution:

4 1 1 1 − 100

4 20 84

1 5 21 − 𝟏𝟔

4 36

1 9 57

𝟏 𝟏𝟑

∴ The transformed equation is 𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 + 57𝑥 − 16 = 0

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Problem 2.

Increase the roots of the equation 4𝑥 5 + 13𝑥 2 + 57𝑥 − 10 = 0 by 2.

Solution:

Here we diminish the roots by −2.

−2 4 0 −2 0 7 −3

−8 16 − 28 56 − 126

4 −8 − 14 − 28 63 − 𝟏𝟐𝟗

−8 32 − 92 240

4 − 16 46 − 120 𝟑𝟎𝟑

−8 48 − 188

4 − 24 94 − 𝟑𝟎𝟖

−8 64

4 − 32 𝟏𝟓𝟖

−8

𝟒 − 𝟒𝟎

∴ The transformed equation is 4𝑥 5 − 40𝑥 4 + 158𝑥 3 − 308𝑥 2 + 303𝑥 − 129 = 0

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
EXERCISES:

1. Multiply the roots of the equation 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0 by 4.

2. Multiply the roots of the equation 3𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2 = 0 by 3.

1
3. Multiply the roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 by 2.

4. Find the equation whose roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the roots
of the equations.

(i) 𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 5 = 0.

(ii) 𝑥 10 + 12𝑥 8 + 40𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 + 20 = 0.

5. Diminish the roots of 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 = 0 by 3.

6. Diminish the roots of 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 = 0 by 2.

2.2 APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS TO EQUATIONS

In this section we describe two methods, due to Newton and Horner, for finding
approximate values of the irrational roots of equation of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 where 𝑓(𝑥) is
a polynomial. Throughout this section we are only concerned with positive roots.

To find the negative roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, we find the positive roots of 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0.

Note:

Suppose a single unrepeated root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 lies in the interval (𝑎, 𝑎 + 1) then 𝑎
can be located by using the condition that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑎 + 1) are of opposite signs.

2.3 NEWTON’S METHOD:

Suppose that the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 has a single unrepeated root in an interval (𝛼, 𝛽)
where 𝛽 − 𝛼 is small. Hence 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝛼, 𝛽).

Now, let 𝛼1 = 𝛼 + ℎ be the exact value of the root.

𝑓(𝛼 + ℎ) = 0.

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Hence by Taylor’s expansion we have

ℎ ℎ2
𝑓 (𝛼 ) + 1! 𝑓 ′ (𝛼 ) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝛼 ) + ⋯ = 0.
2!

Omitting ℎ2 and higher power of ℎ we get 𝑓(𝛼 ) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝛼 ) = 0.

𝑓(𝛼)
∴ ℎ=−
𝑓′ (𝛼)

𝑓(𝛼)
∴ 𝛼1 = 𝛼 − 𝑓′ (𝛼) is an approximate value of the root.

By repeating this process, the approximation can be carried out to any required degree
of accuracy.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Show that 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0 has only one real root and calculate it correct to two places
of decimals.

Solution:

Since there is only one change of sign there cannot be more than one positive root.

Further changing 𝑥 to −𝑥 the equation becomes −𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 1 = 0.

(ie)., 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0.

This equation has no change of sign. Hence it has no negative root.

Since the imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs the given equation has two
imaginary roots and only one real root.

Now,

We find the real root by Newton’s method approximately to two places of decimals.

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 1.

Since 𝑓 (0) = −1 < 0 and 𝑓(1) = 3 > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1 (first
approximation).
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Let 0 + ℎ be the actual value of the root.

𝑓(0)
∴ ℎ ≈ − 𝑓′ (0).

Now,

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 3.

∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 3.

1
∴ ℎ ≈ 3 ≈ 0.3.

Hence the root is 0 + 0.3 ≈ 0.3 (second approximation).

For third approximation, let the root be

𝑓(0.3)
0 + ℎ1 where ℎ1 ≈ − 𝑓′ (0.3).

(0.3)3 +3(0.3)−1
ℎ1 ≈ .
3(0.3)2+3

≈ 0.022.

∴ The root is ≈ 0.3 + 0.022.

≈ 0.32 (up to two places of decimals).

Problem 2.

Find correct to 2 places of decimals the root of the equation 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 that lies
between 1 and 2.

Solution:

We use Newton’s method to find the approximate value of the root.

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 1

Since the required root lies between 1 and 2.

𝑓(1)
Let 1 + ℎ be the actual value of the root where ℎ ≈ − 𝑓′ (1).

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Now,

𝑓 (1) = −1.

Also,

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3 − 3.

∴ 𝑓 ′ (1) = 1.

−1
∴ ℎ ≈ − ( 1 ) = 1.

∴ ℎ is not small compared to the integral part of the root 1.

∴ We find the value of root still closer to 1.

We observe that 𝑓(1.3) < 0 and 𝑓(1.4) > 0. (verify)

Hence the root is lies between 1.3 and 1.4.

Let 𝛼1 = 1.3 + ℎ1 be the actual value of the root.

𝑓(1.3)
∴ ℎ1 ≈ − 𝑓′ (1.3)

−0.0439
= −( ).
5.788

≈ 0.008.

∴ 𝛼1 + ℎ1 ≈ 1.3 + 0.008

≈ 1.31. (up to two places of decimals).

∴ The root is ≈ 1.31. (up to two places of decimals).

Problem 3.

Obtain by Newton’s method the root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 that lies between 1
and 2.

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Solution:

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 1

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 − 3.

Since the required root lies between 1 and 2,

𝑓(𝛼)
let it be 𝛼 + ℎ = 1 + ℎ, where ℎ ≈ − 𝑓′ (𝛼).

𝑓(1)
∴ ℎ ≈ − 𝑓′ (1).

Since 𝑓 ′ (1) = 0, we take another closer value of 𝛼 = 1 than 1.

We observe that 𝑓 (1.5) = −0.125 < 0 and 𝑓(2) = 3 > 0. (verify)

Hence the root is lies between 1.5 and 2.

Let 1.5 + ℎ1 be the actual value of the root.

𝑓(1.5)
∴ ℎ1 ≈ − 𝑓′ (1.5)

−0.125
= −( ).
3.75

≈ 0.033.

∴ 𝛼 + ℎ1 ≈ 1.5 + 0.033

≈ 1.533.

Up to next order approximation the root is

𝑓(1.533)
= 1.533 + [− 𝑓′ (1.533)]

≈ 1.5327. (verify)

≈ 1.53. (up to two places of decimals).

∴ The root is ≈ 1.53. (up to two places of decimals).

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Problem 4.

Find the negative root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 correct to two places of decimals.

Solution:

Let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5

We find the positive root of 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 0.

(ie)., 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0.

(ie)., 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0.

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 5.

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 − 2.

We observe that 𝑓 (2) = −1 < 0 and 𝑓 (3) = 16 > 0. (verify)

Hence the root is lies between 2 and 3. (first approximation).

Let the actual value of the root be 2 + ℎ,

𝑓(2)
where ℎ ≈ − 𝑓′ (2).

23 −4−5
= 322 −2

1
= 10

= 0.1.

∴ The root is 2.1 (second approximation).

For third approximation, let the root be

𝑓(2.1)
2.1 + ℎ1 where ℎ1 ≈ − 𝑓′ (2.1).

9.261−4.2−5
ℎ1 ≈ − .
3(2.1)2

0.061
≈ − 11.23

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 ≈ −0.0054.

∴ The positive root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is 2.09. (up to two places of decimals).

Hence, the negative root of 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 is −2.09. (up to two places of decimals).

2.4 HORNER’S METHOD:

Horner’s method is the most convenient way of finding approximate values of the
irrational roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 where 𝑓(𝑥) is the polynomial. The root is
calculated in decimal form and the figures of the decimal are obtained in succession. We
describe below the steps to be followed.

Step I:

Consider the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. Suppose this has a single root 𝛼 is the interval
(𝑎, 𝑎 + 1) where 𝑎 is a positive integer. Then a can be located by using the condition that
𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓 (𝑎 + 1) are of opposite signs.

Step II:

Suppose the exact value of the root is 𝑎. 𝑎1 𝑎2 … Diminish the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 by 𝑎.
Then we get the transformed equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 having 0. 𝑎1 𝑎2 … as a root.

Step III:

Multiply the roots of 𝑓1 (𝑥 ) = 0 by 10 and we obtain the transformed equation

𝑓2 (𝑥 ) = 0 having 𝑎1 . 𝑎2 𝑎3 … as a root.

Step IV:

By inspection we locate the root by finding two consecutive integers 𝑏 and 𝑏 + 1

such that 𝑓2 (𝑏) and 𝑓2 (𝑏 + 1) are of opposite signs. Then 𝑏 = 𝑎1 is the first decimal in the
root making 𝑎. 𝑎1 as the first approximation of the root.

Repeat this process (steps I to IV) as many times as needed to get the roots of
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 to any desired number of decimal places.

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 34
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Unit-III:
Matrices – Characteristic equation of a matrix – Eigenvalues and Eigen vectors–
Cayley Hamilton theorem and simple problems.

3.1 MATRICES

Introduction:
A matrix is a collection of numbers arranged in the form of a rectangular array.
Such arrays occur in various branches of pure and applied Mathematics. For example, the
coefficients of a system of simultaneous linear equations can be represented as a matrix.
In this chapter we introduce the basic concepts for matrices and discuss problems such
as consistency of a system of simultaneous linear equations and eigen value problems.

The reader is familiar with the basic concept of matrices, matrix addition, matrix
multiplication and rank of a matrix. In this section we briefly recall the basic concepts.

A 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 is an array of 𝑚𝑛 numbers 𝑎𝑖𝑗 where 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 arranged in

𝑚 rows 𝑛 columns as follows.

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

( 𝑎21.
..
𝑎22. …
..
𝑎23. )
..
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

We shall denote this matrix by the symbol (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ). If 𝑚 = 𝑛 then 𝐴 is called a

𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 of order 𝑛.

We define the addition of two 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) by

𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ).

We note that we can add two matrices if and only if they have the same number of
rows and columns.

A square matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is said to be 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all 𝑖, 𝑗.

A square matrix 𝐴 is said to be 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 if the determinant of the matrix, |𝐴| = 0.

𝐴 is called a 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 matrix if |𝐴| ≠ 0.

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 Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix and let (𝐴𝑖𝑗 ) denote the co-factor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . Then the
transpose of the matrix (𝐴𝑖𝑗 ) is called the 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 or 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 of the matrix 𝐴 and
denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴. Thus the (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ entry of 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 is 𝐴𝑖𝑗 .

If 𝐴 is a square matrix and |𝐴| ≠ 0, then the 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 of 𝐴 is given by

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 = .
|𝐴|

Problem 1.

Compute the inverse of the matrix

2 −1 1
𝐴 = (−15 6 −5).
5 −2 2

Solution:

2 −1 1
|𝐴| = |−15 6 −5| = −1 (verify)
5 −2 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
Since |𝐴| ≠ 0, 𝐴−1 exists and is given by 𝐴−1 = .
|𝐴|

Now,

𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴31

we find 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴32 )
𝐴13 𝐴23 𝐴33

where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 (𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2,3) are the cofactors of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .

6 −5|
𝐴11 = | = 2;
−2 2

−15 −5|
𝐴12 = | = 5;
5 2

−15 6 |
𝐴13 = | = 0;
5 −2

−1 1
𝐴21 = | | = 0;
−2 2

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 2 1
𝐴22 = | | = −1;
5 2

2 −1
𝐴23 = | | = −1;
5 −2

−1 1
𝐴31 = | | = −1;
6 −5

2 1
𝐴32 = | | = −5;
−15 −5

2 −1
𝐴33 = | | = −3;
−15 6

2 0 −1
Hence 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (5 −1 −5)
0 −1 −3

−1
1 2 0 −1 −2 0 1
𝐴 = ( ) (
5 −1 −5 = −5 1 5)
−1
0 −1 −3 0 1 3

EXERCISES:

1 0 0
1.Compute the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = (0 0 1).
0 1 0

1 2 3
2.Compute the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = ( 0 −1 4).
−2 2 1

2 2 −3
3.Compute the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = (−3 2 2 ).
2 −3 2

3.2 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION OF A MATRIX:

Definition- 3.2.1:

The equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0, is called the 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of the matrix 𝐴.

Note:
1. Solving |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0, we get 𝑛 roots for 𝜆 and these roots are called
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 of the matrix 𝐴.

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2. Corresponding to each value of 𝜆, the equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋 has a non-zero solution vector
𝑋.

If 𝑋 , be the non-zero vector satisfying 𝐴𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋, when 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑟 , 𝑋𝑟 is said to be the

latent vector or eigen vector of a matrix 𝐴 corresponding to 𝜆𝑟 .

3.2.2 CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL:

The determinant |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | when expanded will give a polynomial, which we call as
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 of matrix 𝐴.

Working rule to find characteristic equation:

For a 3 x 3 matrix:
Method 1:
The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0.

Method 2:
Its characteristic equation can be written as 𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆1 = 0,
where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
𝑆3 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

For a 2 x 2 matrix:
Method 1:
The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0.

Method 2:
Its characteristic equation can be written as 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0,

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

1 2
Find the characteristic equation of the matrix ( )
0 2

Solution:

1 2
Let 𝐴 = ( ).
0 2

Its characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0,

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

Now,
𝑆1 = 1 + 2 = 3.
𝑆2 = 1(2) – 2(0) = 2.
Therefore,
the characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0.

Problem 2.

8 −6 2
Find the characteristic equation of the matrix (−6 7 −4)
2 −4 3

Solution:

8 −6 2
Let 𝐴 = (−6 7 −4).
2 −4 3

Its characteristic equation is 𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆1 = 0,

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
𝑆3 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

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Now,
𝑆1 = 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
7 −4 8 2 8 −6
𝑆2 = | |+| |+| |.
−4 3 2 3 −6 7
𝑆3 = 8(5) + 6(−10) + 2(10)
= 40 − 60 + 20
= 0.
Therefore,
the characteristic equation is 𝜆3 − 18𝜆2 + 45𝜆 = 0.

Problem 3.

3 1
Find the characteristic polynomial of the matrix ( )
−1 2

Solution:

3 1
Let 𝐴 = ( ).
−1 2

Its characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0,

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

Now,
𝑆1 = 3 + 2 = 5.
𝑆2 = 3(2) – 1(−1) = 7.
Therefore,
the characteristic polynomial is 𝜆2 − 5𝜆 + 7.

3.3 CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM AND SIMPLE PROBLEMS:

Statement:
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation

40
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Uses of Cayley-Hamilton theorem:
(1) To calculate the positive integral powers of 𝐴.
(2) To calculate the inverse of a square matrix 𝐴.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

1 −2
Show that the matrix ( ) satisfies its own characteristic equation.
2 1

Solution:

1 −2
Let 𝐴 = ( ).
2 1

Its characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

Now,
𝑆1 = 1 + 1 = 2.
𝑆2 = 1 − (−4) = 5.
Therefore,
the characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 5 = 0.
To prove: 𝐴2 − 2𝐴 + 5𝐼 = 0.
1 −2 1 −2
𝐴2 = 𝐴(𝐴) = ( )( )
2 1 2 1
−3 −4
=( )
4 −3
−3 −4 2 −4 5 0
∴ 𝐴2 − 2𝐴 + 5𝐼 = ( )−( )+( )
4 −3 4 2 0 5
0 0
=( ).
0 0
Therefore,
the given matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

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Problem 2.

1 0
If 𝐴 = ( ) write 𝐴2 in terms of 𝐴 and 𝐼, using Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
0 5

Solution:

Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies its own
characteristic equation.

The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

Now,
𝑆1 = 6.
𝑆2 = 5.
Therefore,
the characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 5 = 0.
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 5𝐼 = 0.
(ie)., 𝐴2 = 6𝐴 − 5𝐼.
Problem 3.

2 −1 2
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find 𝐴4 and 𝐴−1 when 𝐴 = (−1 2 −1).
1 −1 2
Solution:

2 −1 2
Let 𝐴 = (−1 2 −1).
1 −1 2

The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is 𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆1 = 0,

where
𝑆1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
𝑆2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
𝑆3 = Determinants of 𝐴 = |𝐴|.

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Now,
𝑆1 = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
𝑆2 = 3 + 2 + 3.
=8
𝑆3 = 2(3) − 1 − 2
= 3.
Therefore,
the characteristic equation is 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 8𝜆 − 3 = 0.

To prove: 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 3𝐼 = 0 ……………………….(1)

2 −1 2 2 −1 2
𝐴2 = 𝐴(𝐴) = (−1 2 −1) (−1 2 −1)
1 −1 2 1 −1 2

7 −6 9
= (−5 6 −6)
5 −5 7

7 −6 9 2 −1 2
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 (𝐴) = (−5 6 −6) (−1 2 −1)
5 −5 7 1 −1 2

29 −28 38
= (−22 23 −28)
22 −22 29

Now,
𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 3𝐼
29 −28 38 42 36 54 16 −8 16
= (−22 23 −28) − (−30 36 −36) + (−8 16 −8)
22 −22 29 30 −30 42 8 −8 16
3 0 0
− ( 0 3 0)
0 0 3
0 0 0
= (0 0 0).
0 0 0
=0
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To find 𝑨𝟑 :
(1)⇒ 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 3𝐼 = 0
⇒ 𝐴3 = 6𝐴2 − 8𝐴 + 3𝐼
Therefore,
𝐴4 = 36 𝐴2 − 48 𝐴 + 18 𝐼 − 8 𝐴2 + 3 𝐴
= 28 𝐴2 − 45 𝐴 + 18 𝐼
Hence,
7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
4
𝐴 = 28 (−5 6 −6) − 45 (−1 2 −1) + 18 (0 1 0)
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1

196 −168 252 90 −45 90 18 0 0

= (−140 168 −168) − (−45 90 45) + ( 0 18 0)
140 −140 196 45 −45 90 0 0 18

124 −123 162

= (−95 96 −123)
95 −95 124

To find 𝑨−𝟏 :
Multiplying (1) by 𝐴−1 , 𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 8𝐼 − 3𝐴−1 = 0
⇒ 3𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 8𝐼

7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
⇒ 3𝐴−1 = (−5 6 −6) − 6 (−1 2 −1) + 8 (0 1 0)
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1

7 −6 9 12 −6 −12 8 0 0
= (−5 6 −6) + ( 6 −12 6 ) + ( 0 8 0)
5 −5 7 −6 6 −12 0 0 8

3 0 −3
=(1 2 0)
−1 1 3

3 0 −3
1
⇒ 𝐴−1 = 3 ( 1 2 0)
−1 1 3

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EXERCISES:

1 2
1. Verify that 𝐴 = ( ) satisfies its own characteristic equation and hence find 𝐴4 .
2 −1

1 −1 4
2. Find 𝐴 −1
if 𝐴 = (3 2 −1), using Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
2 1 −1

1 2
3. If 𝐴 = ( ), find 𝐴𝑛 in terms of 𝐴.
0 2

3.4 EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS:

3.4.1 Eigen values and Eigen vectors of a real matrix:
Working rule to find eigen values and eigen vectors:
1. Find the characteristic equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0.

2. Solve the characteristic equation to get characteristic roots. They are called
𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.

3. To find the eigen vectors, solve [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ]𝑋 = 0 for different values of 𝜆.

Note:
1. Corresponding to 𝑛 distinct eigen values, we get 𝑛 independent eigen vectors
2. If 2 or more eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly
independent eigen vectors corresponding to the repeated eigen values.
3. If 𝑋𝑖 is a solution for an eigen value 𝜆𝑖 , then 𝑐𝑋𝑖 is also a solution, where 𝑐 is an arbitrary
constant. Thus, the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value is not unique but may
be any one of the vectors 𝑐𝑋𝑖 .

4. Algebraic multiplicity of an eigen value 𝜆 is the order of the eigen value as a root of the
characteristic polynomial (i.e., if 𝜆 is a double root, then algebraic multiplicity is 2)

5. Geometric multiplicity of 𝜆 is the number of linearly independent eigen vectors

corresponding to 𝜆.

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3.4.2 Non-symmetric matrix:
If a square matrix 𝐴 is non-symmetric, then 𝐴 ≠ 𝐴𝑇 .
Note:
1. In a non-symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are non-repeated then we get a linearly
independent set of eigen vectors

2. In a non-symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are repeated, then it may or may not be
possible to get linearly independent eigen vectors.
If we form a linearly independent set of eigen vectors, then diagonalization is possible
through similarity transformation

3.4.2 Symmetric matrix:

If a square matrix 𝐴 is symmetric, then 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 .
Note:
1. In a symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are non-repeated, then we get a linearly
independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors

2. In a symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are repeated, then it may or may not be
possible to get linearly independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors
If we form a linearly independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors, then
diagonalization is possible through orthogonal transformation

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Unit-IV:
Differential equation of first order but of higher degree – Equations solvable for
𝑝, 𝑥, 𝑦 – Partial differential equations – formations – solutions – Standard form
𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅.

4.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF FIRST ORDER BUT OF HIGHER DEGREE

The general form of differential equation of first order and higher degree is
𝑑𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑦 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑦 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑦
(𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑃1 (𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑃2 (𝑑𝑥 ) + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃𝑛 = 0.
𝑑𝑦
where each 𝑃𝑖 is a function of 𝑥 and y. If = 𝑝, then the general form reduces to
𝑑𝑥

𝑝𝑛 + 𝑃1 𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑃2 𝑝𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛−1 𝑝 + 𝑃𝑛 = 0.

Hence it also can be written as 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0. In this chapter we study following methods
of solving differential equation of first order and higher degree.

4.1.1 Method of solving differential equation of the form 𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒑) = 𝟎.

1. Differential equations which are solvable for 𝑝.
2. Differential equations which are solvable for 𝑥.
3. Differential equations which are solvable for 𝑦.
4. Clairaut’s differential equations.
5. Lagrange’s differential equations.

4.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WHICH ARE SOLVABLE FOR 𝒑:

Suppose we can write the differential equation 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 of degree 𝑛 in the

form
(𝑝 − 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦))(𝑝 − 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦))(𝑝 − 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦)) … (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0 ………………….(1)
Now,
comparing each factor with zero we get (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0, where 𝑖 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛.,
which is linear differential equation. Suppose solution of (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0 is given by
𝐹𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐𝑖 )) = 0, where 𝑐𝑖 is an arbitrary constant. Instead of taking different 𝑐𝑖 ’s in the

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general solution of (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0 if we take only one 𝑐 in all, then it makes no
difference in general solution. Therefore, general solution (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0 will be
𝐹𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐)) = 0. Then general solution of equation (1) is given by
𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐 )𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐 ) … 𝐹𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐 ) = 0. Thus, differential equation of 𝑛 degree and first
order having linear factor 𝑝 − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 are known as 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Solve: 𝑥𝑦𝑝3 + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 )𝑝2 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑝 = 0.

Solution:

The given differential equation is of degree 3 and therefore it has three linear factors.

𝑝[𝑥𝑦𝑝2 + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 )𝑝 − 2𝑥𝑦] = 0.

𝑝[𝑥𝑦𝑝2 + 𝑥 2 𝑝 − 2𝑦 2 𝑝 − 2𝑥𝑦] = 0.

∴ 𝑝(𝑥𝑝 − 2𝑦)(𝑦𝑝 + 𝑥) = 0.

Comparing these three linear factors with zero, we get,

1. 𝑝 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑐 = 0.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2. 𝑥𝑝 − 2𝑦 = 0 ⇒ =2 .
𝑦 𝑦

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 2 .
3. 𝑦𝑝 + 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 0.
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑐 = 0.

Therefore, the general solution is given by multiplying these three solutions of linear
factors of given equation.

∴ (𝑦 − 𝑐)(𝑦 − 𝑐𝑥 2 )(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑐) = 0, which is a general solution.

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Problem 2.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
Solve: 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 .

Solution:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
The given differential equation is − = − …………………….(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Put 𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 in (1),

1 𝑥 𝑦
we get, 𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝑦 − 𝑥

𝑦 𝑥
∴ 𝑝2 + 𝑝 (𝑥 − 𝑦) − 1 = 0.

𝑦 𝑥
∴ (𝑝 + 𝑥 ) (𝑝 − 𝑦) = 0.

Now,

Comparing these three linear factors with zero, we get,

𝑑𝑦 𝑦
1. + 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑑 (𝑥𝑦) = 0
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
2. − 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑐.

Thus, the general solution can be obtained by multiplying the general solutions of the
linear factors of given differential equation.
∴ (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑐 )(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑐) = 0, which is a general solution.

EXERCISES:

1. Solve 𝑝2 − (𝑥 + 3𝑦)𝑝 + 2𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 0.

2. Solve 𝑝2 − 7𝑝 + 10 = 0.

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3. Solve 𝑝(𝑝 + 𝑦) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦).

4. Solve 𝑦𝑝2 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑝 − 𝑥 = 0.

5. Solve 𝑝3 + 2𝑥𝑝2 − 𝑦 2 𝑝2 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑝 = 0.

4.3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WHICH ARE SOLVABLE FOR 𝒚:

If the differential equation of the form 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 can be written as
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑝) = 0, then it is said to be 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦. In order to solve these types of
differential equation we differentiate with respect to 𝑥,
we get,
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑝 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑑𝑥 ) ………………….(2)

which is in variable 𝑝 and 𝑥. Hence its solution is given by 𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑐) = 0. By eliminate 𝑝

from equation (2) and 𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑐) we get function ф(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) which will be the general
solution of the given differential equation. If it is not possible to eliminate 𝑝, then general
solution can be obtained by taking 𝑥 = 𝐹1 (𝑝, 𝑐) and 𝑦 = 𝐹2 (𝑝, 𝑐), where 𝑐 is an arbitrary
constant. Let us see following examples to understand this method.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Solve: 𝑥𝑝2 − 2𝑦𝑝 + 𝑎𝑥 = 0.

Solution:

The given differential equation is 𝑥𝑝2 − 2𝑦𝑝 + 𝑎𝑥 = 0 …………………….(1)

Here,

1 1 𝑎𝑥
𝑦 = 2 𝑥𝑝 + 2 .
𝑝

By differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get,

𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑝
= 2 𝑝 + 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑝 − 2𝑝2 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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 1 1 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑎
∴ 𝑝 = 2 𝑝 + (2 𝑥 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑝.

𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑝 𝑎
∴ 𝑝 = (𝑥 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝.

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
⇒ 𝑝3 − 𝑝2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑝 = 0.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑝
∴ (𝑝3 − 𝑎) (𝑝 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ) = 0.

𝑑𝑝
𝑝 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 or 𝑝3 − 𝑎 = 0.

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
∴ = ⇒ log 𝑝 = log 𝑥 + log 𝑐.
𝑝 𝑥

∴ 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑥.

1 1 𝑎𝑥
Now, substitute 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑥 in 𝑦 = 2 𝑥𝑝 + 2 ,
𝑝

we get,
1 1 𝑎
𝑦 = 2 𝑐𝑥 2 + 2 𝑐 , which is a general solution.

Problem 2.

Solve: 𝑥 + 2(𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝) + 𝑝2 = 0.

Solution:

The given differential equation can be in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).

Therefore, it is solvable for 𝑦.

Given 𝑥 + 2(𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝) + 𝑝2 = 0. …………………….(1)

(1) ⇒
1 1
𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 + 2 𝑝2 .

By differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get,

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
= 𝑝 = 2 + 𝑝 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑝 1
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑝) 𝑑𝑥 + 2 = 0.

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Now,

Put 𝑥 + 𝑝 = 𝑢,

we get,

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑢
1 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
∴ 𝑢 = (𝑑𝑥 − 1) + = 0.
2

𝑑𝑢 2𝑢−1
∴ = .
𝑑𝑥 2𝑢

2𝑢
⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥.
2𝑢−1
1
∴ ∫ (1 + 2𝑢−1) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐.
1
𝑢 + 2 log (2𝑢 − 1) = 𝑥 + 𝑐.

1
𝑥 + 𝑝 + + 2 log (2𝑥 + 2𝑝 − 1) = 𝑥 + 𝑐.

1
2𝑝 + + 2 log (2𝑥 + 2𝑝 − 1) = 𝑐.

2𝑥 + 2𝑝 − 1 = 𝑒 2𝑝−𝑐 .

1
𝑥 = 2 𝑒 2𝑝−𝑐 + 1 − 𝑝.

Here, we cannot eliminate 𝑝 from above equation.

Hence,
1 1 1
the general solution can be obtained from 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 + 2 𝑝2 and 𝑥 = 2 𝑒 2𝑝−𝑐 + 1 − 𝑝.

4.4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WHICH ARE SOLVABLE FOR 𝒙:

If the differential equation of the form 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 can be written as 𝑥 =
𝑓 (𝑦, 𝑝) = 0, then it is said to be 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 . In order to solve these types of
differential equation we differentiate with respect to 𝑦,
we get,
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
= 𝑝 = 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑝 = 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑑𝑦 ) ………………….(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

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which is in variable 𝑝 and 𝑦. Hence its solution is given by 𝑔 (𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑐 ) = 0. By eliminate 𝑝
from equation (3) and 𝑔 (𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑐), we get, function ф(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) which will be the general
solution of the given differential equation. If it is not possible to eliminate p, then general
solution can be obtained by taking 𝑥 = 𝐹1 (𝑝, 𝑐) and 𝑦 = 𝐹2 (𝑝, 𝑐), where 𝑐 is an arbitrary
constant. Let us see following examples to understand this method.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Solve: 𝑦 2 𝑝2 − 3𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦 = 0.

Solution:

Given 𝑦 2 𝑝2 − 3𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦 = 0.

1 𝑦
The given differential equation is of the form 𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑦, 𝑝), where 𝑓 (𝑦, 𝑝) = 3 (𝑝 + 𝑦 2 𝑝).

By differentiating with respect to 𝑦, we get,

𝑑𝑥 1 1 𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
3 =3 = − + 2𝑦𝑝 + 𝑦 2 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

2 𝑦 𝑑𝑝
∴ 2𝑦𝑝 − 𝑝 + (𝑦 2 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0.

𝑑𝑝
2𝑝(𝑦𝑝2 − 1) + 𝑦(𝑦𝑝2 − 1) 𝑑𝑦 = 0.

𝑑𝑝
(𝑦𝑝2 − 1) (2𝑝 + 𝑦 ) = 0.
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑝
We ignore 𝑦𝑝2 − 1 = 0, we get and consider 2𝑝 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0.

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑦
∴ +2 = 0.
𝑝 𝑦

Then,

log 𝑝 + 2 log 𝑦 = log 𝑐.

∴ 𝑝𝑦 2 = 𝑐

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 𝑐
⇒ 𝑝 = 𝑦2.

Hence,
substitute value of 𝑝, we get 𝑦 3 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 = 0, which is a general solution.

Problem 2.

1
Solve: 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑝.

Solution:

1
Given 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑝.

It is easy to see that this differential equation is solvable for x.

By differentiating with respect to 𝑦,

we get,
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝
= 𝑝 = 𝑑𝑦 − .
𝑑𝑦 𝑝2 𝑑𝑦

1 1 𝑑𝑝
∴ = (1 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑑𝑦 .
𝑝

𝑝2 −1
⇒( ) 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑦.
𝑝

1
∴ ∫ (𝑝 − 𝑝) 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑐.

Hence,

𝑝2
𝑦= − log 𝑝 + 𝑐, where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.
2

Here,
it is difficult to eliminate 𝑝.
Therefore,
1 𝑝2
general solution can be obtained by taking 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑝; 𝑦 = − log 𝑝 + 𝑐.
2

EXERCISES:

1. Solve 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑝)𝑥 + 𝑝2 .

2. Solve 𝑥𝑝 − 𝑦 + √𝑥.

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3. Solve 𝑦 = 2𝑝 + 3𝑝2 .

4. Solve 𝑦+𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝2 𝑥 4 .

5. Solve 𝑦 2 𝑝2 − 3𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦 = 0.

4.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

Definition-4.5.1:
When a differential equation contains one or more partial derivatives of an
unknown function of two or more variables (independent); then it is called a
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Note:
1. We consider, generally 𝑥 and 𝑦 as independent variables and 𝑧 as dependent
variable.

(ie)., 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).

2. We denote partial derivatives of first and higher orders as

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑧
, , , ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
For which symbols 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑡, 𝑠 respectively will be used in this topic.
(ie).,
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧
= 𝑝, = 𝑞, = 𝑟, = 𝑠, =𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2

Definition-4.5.2:

The 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 of a partial differential equation is defined as the order of the highest partial
derivative occurring in it and 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 is defined as the exponent of the highest order
partial derivative.

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Definition-4.5.3:

A partial differential equation is said to be 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 if the dependent variable and its
partial derivatives occur only in first degree and are not multiplied together in the
differential equation. Otherwise, the equation is called 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 differential
equation.

Examples:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
1. −5 = 2𝑧 + sin (𝑥 − 2𝑦);
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

order = 1, degree = 1 and it is linear.

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
2. 𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑦;

order = 1, degree = 1 and it is non-linear.

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
3. (𝑥 2 − 𝑧 2 ) 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑦 = −3𝑥𝑦;

order = 1, degree = 1 and it is non-linear.

𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
4. 5 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 + 3 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0;

order = 2, degree = 1 and it is linear.

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
5. 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 + 5 𝜕𝑦 = 2𝑦;

order = 1, degree = 1 and it is non-linear.

4.6 FORMATIONS AND SOLUTIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

In general, there are two ways for derivation of partial differential equations.
(i) By eliminating arbitrary constants from the given relation between
variables.

(ii) By eliminating arbitrary functions from the given relation between

variables.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

𝑧 = (2𝑥 + 𝑎)(2𝑦 + 𝑏).

Solution:

Given 𝑧 = (2𝑥 + 𝑎)(2𝑦 + 𝑏) ……………………..(1)

Differentiate partially w.r.to 𝑥 and w.r.to 𝑦,

we get,

𝜕𝑧
= (2𝑦 + 𝑏)(2 + 0) ……………………………… (2)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧
and 𝜕𝑥 = (2𝑥 + 𝑎)(2 + 0) ………………….…………… (3)

Multiply (2) and (3); we get,

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= (2𝑦 + 𝑏)(2𝑥 + 𝑎)(2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

⇒ 𝑝𝑞 = 4𝑧,

which is the required partial differential equation.

Problem 2.

Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 .

Solution:

Given 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ……………………..(1)

Differentiate partially w.r.to 𝑥 and w.r.to 𝑦,

we get,

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 𝜕𝑧
=𝑎 ……………………………… (2)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧
and 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑏 ………………….…………… (3)

Put these values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in (1); we get,

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 3 𝜕𝑧 3
𝑧 = 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑦 + (𝜕𝑥) + (𝜕𝑦) .
𝜕𝑦

⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 + (𝑝)3 + (𝑞 )3,

which is the required partial differential equation.

EXERCISES:

1. Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎𝑏.

2. Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + (2 − 𝑎)𝑦 + 𝑏.

3. Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

1 1
𝑧 = 3 𝑎𝑥 3 + 3 𝑎𝑦 3 .

4. Form partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from the relation

𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 2 + 𝑏2 .

4.7 STANDARD FORM 𝑷𝒑 + 𝑸𝒒 = 𝑹.

Definition-4.7.1 (𝑳𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆’𝒔 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏):

A partial differential equation of the form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 where 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are
functions of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 (which is of first order and linear in 𝑝 and 𝑞) is known as
𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒’𝑠 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

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Working Method to solve 𝑷𝒑 + 𝑸𝒒 = 𝑹:
Step 1:
Write given equation in the form of 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 and find 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅.
Step 2:
Write Lagrange’s auxiliary equations.
Step 3:
Find two independent solutions 𝑢 = 𝑎 and 𝑣 = 𝑏 of equations given in step-2.
Step 4:
Write 𝑓 (𝑢, 𝑣) = 0, which is general solution (integral) of the given equation.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1.

Solve 𝑝 + 𝑞 = cos 𝑥.

Solution:

Given 𝑝 + 𝑞 = cos 𝑥. ……………………..(1)

Compare it with 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅.

Here 𝑃 = 1, 𝑄 = 1, 𝑅 = cos 𝑥.

∴ Auxiliary (subsidiary) equation are

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = cos 𝑥 ……………………….(2)
1 1

Taking first two members of (2), we get,

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦

Integrating, 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑎 or 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑎 ……………………………(3)

Now,

Taking first and last members of (2), we get,

cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧

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Integrating, sin 𝑥 = 𝑧 + 𝑏 or sin 𝑥 − 𝑧 = 𝑏 ……………………………(4)

Thus from (3) and (4), we get,

𝑢 = 𝑎 and 𝑣 = 𝑏,

where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = sin 𝑥 − 𝑧.

∴ The general solution of given equation is

𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑦, sin 𝑥 − 𝑧) = 0

(or) sin 𝑥 − 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑦), where 𝑓 is any arbitrary function

EXERCISES:

1. Solve 𝛼𝑝 + 𝛽𝑞 = 𝛾.

2. Solve 6𝑝 + 7𝑞 = 8.

3. Solve 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑥.

4. Solve 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞 = 5𝑧.

5. Solve 𝑥 2 𝑝 + 𝑦 2 𝑞 = 𝑧 2 .

6. Solve 𝑦𝑧𝑝 + 𝑧𝑥𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦.

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Unit-V:
Laplace transformation – Inverse Laplace transform.

5.1 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION:

Introduction:

In this chapter we introduce the concept of Laplace transform of a function 𝑓(𝑥)

and see how it is useful to solve certain types of differential equations. We note that the
operation of differentiation transforms a function 𝑓(𝑥) onto its derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). If we use
𝐷 to denote differentiation then the transformation can be written as 𝐷 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).

Similarly, integration can be thought of a transformation given by

𝑥
𝐼[𝑓 (𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

Both these transformations operate on functions to produce another function. A

general transformation 𝑇 of functions is said to be 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 if

𝑇[𝛼𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝛼𝑇[𝑓(𝑥 )] + 𝛽𝑇[𝑔(𝑥)]

for all admissible functions 𝑓, 𝑔 and scalars 𝛼, 𝛽. We notice that differentiation and
integration are linear operators.

We now introduce another operator on functions known as 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚.

Definition-5.1.1:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined on[0, ∞). The 𝑳𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑳 is defined by
∞
𝐿[𝑓 (𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑠)
0

The Laplace transform 𝐿 acts on any function 𝑓(𝑥) for which the above integral exists.

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Note-1:

𝐿 is a linear operator.

Proof:

For,
∞
𝑇[𝛼𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑥 )] = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 [𝛼𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

∞ ∞
= 𝛼 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝛽 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

= 𝛼𝐿 [𝑓(𝑥 )] + 𝛽𝐿[𝑔(𝑥 )]

Note-2:

1 𝑠
𝐿[𝑓(𝑎𝑥 )] = 𝑎 𝐹(𝑎).

Proof:

By definition,
∞
𝐿[𝑓 (𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑠)
0

∞
∴ 𝐿 [𝑓(𝑎𝑥 )] = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓 (𝑎𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

Put 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦.

Hence,

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = .
𝑎
𝑠
1 ∞
∴ 𝐿[𝑓(𝑎𝑥 )] = 𝑎 ∫0 𝑒 −(𝑎)𝑦 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

1 𝑠
= 𝑎 𝐹(𝑎).

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SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem-1.

𝛤(𝑛+1)
Prove that 𝐿(𝑥 𝑛 ) = .
𝑠 𝑛+1

Proof:
∞
𝐿[𝑥 𝑛 ] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0

Put 𝑠𝑥 = 𝑦.

Hence,

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = .
𝑠

1 ∞ 𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐿[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑎 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑦 ( 𝑠 ) ( 𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑦

1 ∞
= 𝑠 𝑛+1 ∫0 𝑦 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦.

𝛤(𝑛+1)
= . (by definition of Gamma function)
𝑠 𝑛+1

Result:

𝛤(𝑛+1) 𝑛!
1. 𝐿[𝑥 𝑛 ] = = 𝑠 𝑛+1 (where 𝑛 is a positive integer)
𝑠 𝑛+1
1
2. 𝐿[1] = 𝑠
1
3. 𝐿[𝑥] = 𝑠 2
2
4. 𝐿[𝑥 2 ] = 𝑠 3
3
𝛤( )
2
5. 𝐿(√𝑥) = 𝑠 3/2
1 1
𝛤( )
2 2
= 𝑠 3/2

√𝜋
= 2𝑠 3/2 .

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Problem-2.

1
Prove that 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠−𝑎 if 𝑠 − 𝑎 > 0.

Proof:
∞
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∞
= lim ∫0 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚→∞

𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑥 𝑚
= [− ]
(𝑠−𝑎) 0

𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑚 1
= [− (𝑠−𝑎)
+ 𝑠−𝑎 ]

1
= 𝑠−𝑎 if 𝑠 − 𝑎 > 0.

Problem-3.
𝑠
Show that 𝐿[cos 𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠 2+𝑎2

Proof:
∞
𝐿[cos 𝑎𝑥 ] =Real part of ∫0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

=Real part of 𝐿(𝑒 𝑖 𝑎𝑥 )

1
=Real part of (𝑠−𝑎𝑖)

𝑠+𝑎𝑖
=Real part of (𝑠 2+𝑎2 )

𝑠
= 𝑠 2 +𝑎2 .

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Problem-4.
𝑠
Show that 𝐿[cos ℎ𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠 2 −𝑎2

Proof:

𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝐿[cos ℎ𝑎𝑥] = 𝐿 ( )
2
1 1
= 2 𝐿(𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ) + 2 𝐿(𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 )

1 1
= 2(𝑠−𝑎) + 2(𝑠+𝑎)

𝑠
= 𝑠 2−𝑎2 .

Problem-5.

Show that 𝐿[𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] = 𝑠𝐿[𝑓(𝑥 )] − 𝑓(0).

Proof:
∞
𝐿[𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

𝑚 𝑚
= {[𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝑠𝑚 ] − ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)(−𝑠)𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 }
0
𝑚
= {[𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝑠𝑚 − 𝑓(0)] − 𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 }

𝑚
= −𝑓 (0) + 𝑠 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

= 𝑠𝐿[𝑓(𝑥 )] − 𝑓(0).

Problem-6.

Show that 𝐿[𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)] = 𝑠 2 𝐿[𝑓 (𝑥 )] − 𝑠𝑓 (0) − 𝑓 ′ (0).

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Proof:

𝐿[𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)] = 𝐿[𝑔′ (𝑥)] where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

= 𝑠𝐿[𝑔(𝑥 )] − 𝑔(0) (by previous problem)

= 𝑠𝐿[𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] − 𝑓 ′ (0)

= 𝑠[𝑠𝐿[𝑓(𝑥 )] − 𝑓(0)] − 𝑓 ′ (0)

= 𝑠 2 𝐿[𝑓(𝑥 )] − 𝑠𝑓 (0) − 𝑓 ′ (0).

Note:

In general,

𝐿[𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥)] = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐿[𝑓 (𝑥 )] − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′′ (0) − ⋯ − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0).

Problem-7.

Find the Laplace transform of 𝑡 2 + cos 2𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑡.

Solution:

𝐿[𝑡 2 + cos 2𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑡] = 𝐿(𝑡 2 ) + 𝐿(cos 2𝑡 cos 𝑡) + 𝐿(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑡)

2 1 1
= 𝑠 3 + 𝐿 [2 (cos 3𝑡 + cos 𝑡)] + 𝐿 [2 (1 − cos 4𝑡)]

2 1 1
= 𝑠 3 + 2 [𝐿(cos 3𝑡) + 𝐿(cos 𝑡)] + 2 [𝐿(1) − 𝐿(cos 4𝑡)]

2 1 1
= 3
+ [𝐿(cos 3𝑡) + 𝐿(cos 𝑡)] + [𝐿(1) − 𝐿(cos 4𝑡)]
𝑠 2 2

2 1 𝑠 𝑠 1 1 𝑠
= + [ + ] + [ − ]
𝑠3 2 𝑠2 + 9 𝑠2 + 1 2 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 16

Problem-8.

Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥.

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Solution:

𝑑
𝐿(𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 ) = − 𝑑𝑠 𝐿(𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥)

𝑑
= − 𝑑𝑠 𝐹(𝑠 + 1),

𝑠
where 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐿(cos 𝑥 ) = .
𝑠 2+1

Now,

𝑠+1
𝐹(𝑠 + 1) = (𝑠+1)2 +1

𝑠+1
=
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
𝑑 𝑠+1
∴ 𝐿(𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 ) = − 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2+2𝑠+1)

𝑠 2+2𝑠
= (𝑠 2+2𝑠+2)2 . (verify)

Problem-9.

Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥 2 cos ℎ 𝑎𝑥.

Solution:

2
𝑑2
𝐿(𝑥 cos ℎ 𝑎𝑥) = 2 𝐿(cos ℎ 𝑎𝑥)
𝑑𝑠

𝑑2 𝑠
= 𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠 2−𝑎2 )

𝑑 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
=− [ ]
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )2

2𝑠(𝑠 2 + 3𝑎2
=
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )3

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Problem-10.

Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 .

Solution:

𝑑2
𝐿[𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 ] = (−1)2 [𝐿(𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 )]
𝑑𝑠 2

𝑑2 1
= 𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠+𝑎)

𝑑 −1
= 𝑑𝑠 [(𝑠+𝑎)2]

2
= (𝑠+𝑎)3.

EXERCISES:

1
1. Prove that 𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠+𝑎 if 𝑠 + 𝑎 > 0.
𝑎
2. Show that 𝐿[sin 𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠 2+𝑎2 .
𝑎
3. Show that 𝐿[sin ℎ𝑎𝑥 ] = 𝑠 2−𝑎2

4. Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥 2 𝑒 −4𝑥 .

5. Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥.
6. Find the Laplace transform of 𝑥 cos 2𝑥.

5.2 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM:

Definition-5.2.1:

When 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous and 𝐿[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐹(𝑠), we have 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝐿−1
is called the 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is called the
𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 of 𝐹(𝑠).

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Results:

1
1. 𝐿−1 [ 𝑠 ] = 1
1
2. 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2] = 𝑥
1
3. 𝐿−1 [𝑠−𝑎 ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
1
4. 𝐿−1 [𝑠+𝑎 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑎
5. 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2+𝑎2 ] = sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑠
6. 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2+𝑎2 ] = cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
7. 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2−𝑎2 ] = sin ℎ 𝑎𝑥
𝑠
8. 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2−𝑎2 ] = cos ℎ 𝑎𝑥
1
9. 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−𝑎)2 ] = 𝑥𝑒 𝑎𝑥

Note:

Since 𝐿 is linear, 𝐿−1 is also linear.

Problem-1.

Show that 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)].

Proof:

Let 𝐿[𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝐹(𝑠).

Then,

we know that, 𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎).

Hence,

𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)].

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Problem-2.

1 𝑥
Show that 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝜆𝑠)] = 𝜆 𝐹 (𝜆 ).

Proof:

1 𝑠
We know that, 𝐿[𝑓(𝑎𝑥 )] = 𝑎 𝐹 (𝑎).

1 𝑠
𝐿−1 [𝑎 𝐹 (𝑎)] = 𝑓 (𝑎𝑥 ).

1
Put 𝑎 = 𝜆.

𝑥
Then, we have 𝐿−1 [𝜆𝐹(𝜆𝑠)] = 𝐹 (𝜆 ).

Hence,

1 𝑥
𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝜆𝑠)] = 𝜆 𝐹 (𝜆 ).

Problem-3.

Show that 𝐿−1 [𝐹 ′ (𝑠)] = −𝑥𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)].

Proof:

We know 𝐿[𝑥𝑓 (𝑥)] = −𝐹 ′ (𝑠).

∴ 𝐿−1 [𝐹 ′ (𝑠)] = −𝑥𝑓(𝑥)

= −𝑥𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)].

Problem-4.

1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of (𝑠+3)2+25.

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Solution:

1 1
𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 −3𝑥 −1
𝐿 [ ]
(𝑠 + 3)2 + 25 𝑠 2 + 52

1 5
= 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝐿−1 [ 2 ]
5 𝑠 + 52

1
= 𝑒 −3𝑥 sin 5𝑥
5

Problem-5.
𝑠
Find the inverse Laplace transform of (𝑠+2)2.

Solution:

𝑠 𝑠+2−2
𝐿−1 [(𝑠+2)2 ] = 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+2)2]

1 1
= 𝐿−1 [ ] − 2𝐿−1 [ ]
𝑠+2 (𝑠 + 2)2

1 1
= 𝑒 −2𝑥 [ 𝑠 ] − 2𝑒 −2𝑥 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2]

= 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑥

= 𝑒 −2𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥).

Problem-6.

𝑠+1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑠 2+2𝑠+2.

Solution:

𝑠+1 𝑠+1
𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1
[ ]
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 1)2 + 1

𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝐿−1 [ 2 ]
𝑠 +1

= 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥.

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Problem-7.
𝑠
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑎2 𝑠 2+𝑏2 .

Solution:
𝑠 𝑠
= 𝑏 2
𝑎 2 𝑠 2+𝑏2 𝑎 2 [𝑠 2+( ) ]
𝑎

𝑠 1 −1 𝑠
𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿 [ ]
𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑎2 2 𝑏 2
𝑠 + (𝑎 )

1 𝑏𝑥
= 2
cos ( )
𝑎 𝑎

Problem-8.

1
Find 𝐿−1 (𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)).

Solution:

1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2) = 𝑠 + (𝑠+1) + (𝑠+2).

1 1
We can prove 𝐴 = 2 , 𝐵 = −1 and 𝐶 = 2.

1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
= 2𝑠 − (𝑠+1) + 2(𝑠+2)

1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence, 𝐿−1 (𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)) = 2 𝐿−1 ( 𝑠 ) − 𝐿−1 (𝑠+1) + 2 𝐿−1 (𝑠+2)

1 1 1 1
= (1) − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝐿−1 ( ) + 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝐿−1 ( )
2 𝑠 2 𝑠

1 1
= − 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
2 2

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EXERCISES:

𝑠+3
1. Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑠 2+2𝑠+10.
1
2. Find the invers Laplace transform of 𝑠(𝑠+𝑎).
𝑠
3. Find the invers Laplace transform of (𝑠 2−1)2 .
𝑠+𝑎
4. Find the invers Laplace transform of (𝑠 2+4𝑠+5)2
𝑠 2−𝑠+2
5. Find 𝐿−1 (𝑠(𝑠−3)(𝑠+2)).

Study Learning Material Prepared by

Dr. I. VALLIAMMAL, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,Tirunelveli-12,
Tamil Nadu, India.

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