ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved By AICTE, New Delhi, & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

(Inclusion under section 2 (f) and 12 (B) of the UGC Act 1956)
Elambalur-Perambalur-621220

Department of Mechanical Engineering

OML 351 INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Submitted by
Dr.S.SELVAKUMAR
PROFESSOR & HOD
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vision

To produce professional mechanical engineers with moral values to the society.

Mission:

M1: To impart the quality technical knowledge through innovative teaching learning
process, state of art infrastructure and faculty competence.

M2: Encourage students and faculty to engage in ground-breaking research and

innovative projects in association with Industry.

M3: To cultivate employable skills through organizing curricular and co-curricular

activities to meet the societal and industrial needs.
OML351 INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING LTPC 3003

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The main learning objective of this course is to prepare the students for:
• Understanding the basic importance of NDT in quality assurance.
• Imbibing the basic principles of various NDT techniques, its applications, limitations, codes and
standards.
• Equipping themselves to locate a flaw in various materials, products.
• Applying apply the testing methods for inspecting materials in accordance with industry
specifications and standards.
• Acquiring the knowledge on the selection of the suitable NDT technique for a given application

UNIT -I INTRODUCTION TO NDT & VISUAL TESTING 9

Concepts of Non-destructive testing-relative merits and limitations-NDT Versus mechanical testing, Fundamentals of Visual
Testing – vision, lighting, material attributes, environmental factors, visual perception, direct and indirect methods – mirrors,
magnifiers, boroscopes and fibroscopes – light sources and special lighting.

UNIT- II LIQUID PENETRANT & MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING 9

Liquid Penetrant Inspection: principle, applications, advantages and limitations, dyes, developers and cleaners, Methods &
Interpretation. Magnetic Particle Inspection: Principles, applications, magnetization methods, magnetic particles, Testing
Procedure, demagnetization, advantages and limitations, – Interpretation and evaluation of test indications.

UNIT -III EDDY CURRENT TESTING & THERMOGRAPHY 9

Eddy Current Testing: Generation of eddy currents– properties– eddy current sensing elements, probes, Instrumentation, Types
of arrangement, applications, advantages, limitations – Factors affecting sensing elements and coil impedance, calibration,
Interpretation/Evaluation. Thermography- Principle, Contact & Non-Contact inspection methods, Active & Passive methods,
Liquid Crystal – Concept, example, advantages & limitations. Electromagnetic spectrum, infrared thermography- approaches, IR
detectors, Instrumentation and methods, applications.

UNIT- IV ULTRASONIC TESTING & AET 9

Ultrasonic Testing: Types of ultrasonic waves, characteristics, attenuation, couplants, probes, EMAT. Inspection methods-pulse
echo, transmission and phased array techniques, types of scanning and displays, angle beam inspection of welds, time of flight
diffraction (TOFD) technique, Thickness determination by ultrasonic method, Study of A, B and C scan presentations,
calibration. Acoustic Emission Technique – Introduction, Types of AE signal, AE wave propagation, Source location, Kaiser
effect, AE transducers, Principle, AE parameters, AE instrumentation, Advantages & Limitations, Interpretation of Results,
Applications.

UNIT- V RADIOGRAPHY TESTING 9

Sources-X-rays and Gamma rays and their characteristics-absorption, scattering. Filters and screens, Imaging modalities-film
radiography and digital radiography (Computed, Direct, Real Time, CT scan). Problems in shadow formation, exposure factors,
inverse square law, exposure charts, Penetrameters, safety in radiography.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
After completion of this course, the students will be able to
CO-1: Students will be able to understand the basic concepts of different types of Non – Destructive Testing methods.
CO-2: To study about the process of Surface Testing Methods (LPT & MPT).
CO-3: To analyze about the structural characterization of materials in thermography methods and eddy current test.
CO-4: To learn about the Sub Surface Testing methods (UT & AE)
CO-5: To examine the internal structure of the components by Radiography Testing methods (RT)
 TEXT BOOKS:
1. Baldev Raj, T. Jayakumar and M. Thavasimuthu, Practical Non Destructive Testing, Alpha Science International Limited, 3rd
edition, 2002.
2. J. Prasad and C. G. K. Nair, Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials, Tata McGraw Hill Education, 2nd edition,
2011. 3. Ravi Prakash, “Non-Destructive Testing Techniques”, 1st revised edition, New Age International Publishers, 2010

REFERENCES:
1. ASM Metals Handbook, V-17, "Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control", American Society of Metals, USA, 2001.
2. Barry Hull and Vernon John,"Nondestructive Testing", Macmillan, 1989.
3. Chuck Hellier, “Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation”, Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
4. Louis Cartz, "Nondestructive Testing", ASM International, USA, 1995.

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2
CO2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO3 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO4 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO5 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Avg 2.8 1.6 1.8 2.2 2 2 2 1.8 2
 ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(Inclusion under section 2f and 12b of the UGC Act 1956)
ELAMBALUR, PERAMBALUR -621 220
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OML351- INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2 MARK QUESTION & ANSWERS
UNIT- I INTRODUCTION TO NDT & VISUAL TESTING

1. List out the various physical properties of materials used in NDT?

Heat Transfer, Magnetism, Electrical induction, Ultrasound frequency, Radiographic and
Acoustics

2. What do you mean by Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)?

Inspecting or testing the materials and components in such a way that allows the materials or
components without changing or destroying their usefulness.

3. What is purpose of NDT inspection?

It is used to find out the size and locate surface and surface flaws and defects.

4. Give the importance of using NDT.

Material or parts which fail to achieve the design requirements or projected life due to undetected
defects may require expensive repair or early replacements.

5. Give the reason for using NDT methods for inspection.

1. Accident prevention and reduce costs.
2. To improve product reliability.
3. To determine the acceptance to a given requirement.
4. To give the information on repair criteria.

6. List out the merits of NDT methods.

1. 100% testing on actual components are possible.
2. Repeated checks over a period of time is possible.
3. Very little preparation is sufficient.
4. Most test methods are rapid.

7. List out limitations of NDT methods..

1. Measurements are indirect.
2. Usually qualitative measurements.
3. Skilled judgment and experience is required.

8. What are discontinuities?

Discontinuity is defined as an imperfection or interruption in the normal physical characteristics
or structure of an object (crack, porosity, in homogeneity, etc.)

9. What are the tests to be mechanical conducted for material.

Impact Test, Hardness Test, Toughness test, Load Test, Brittleness Test, Fatigue Test.

10. Give the basic elements requirement for NDT

 1. A probing medium.
2. Modification of probing medium.
3. A sensitive detector.
4. A means of indicating or recording or the detectors signal.

11. What are the common NDT methods usually involved?

1. Visual Test. 2. Liquid penetrant test 3.Magnetic particle test 4. Eddy current test
5. Ultrasonic test 6.Radiographic test.

12. List out the scientific techniques available for enabling material characterization.
1. Macroscopic Observation.
2. Microscopic Observation.
3. Optical microscopy.
4. Electron microscopy.
5. Diffraction technique (X ray)
6. Spectroscopic techniques.

13. What are the defects that can be detected by unaided visual inspection?
1. General condition of the components.
2. The response of crack.
3. The surface porosity.
4. Potential source of mechanical weakness. (Sharp notches, misalignments)

14. Give any two reasons for using Optical Aids for visual inspection.
1. To magnify the defect that cannot be detected by unaided eye.
2. To permit visual checks or areas not accessible to the unaided eye.

15. Describe the function of Microscope:

An optical microscope is a combination of lenses used to magnify the image of a small object.
The object is placed close to the lens to obtain as high a magnification as possible.

16. Describe the function of Boroscope:

To inspect the inside of a narrow bore, tube or chamber.
It consists of a precision built in illumination system having a complex arrangement of prism and
plain lenses through which light is passed to the observer with maximum efficiency.

17. Describe the function of Endoscope:

It is like a boroscope except that it has a superior optical system and a high intensity light source,
various viewing angles can be used.
It is available in diameter down to 1.7mm and length from 100 to 1500mm.

18. Describe the function of Telescope:

It is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable distance from the eye. It is
particularly useful for providing visual examination of the surface which is otherwise in
accessible.

19. List out the application of NDT.

1. Inspecting plant system / components for any leakage.
2. Misalignment of parts in the equipment.
3. For inspecting the weldments, repaired weldments.
4. Minute discontinuities with the help of optical aids.
20. List out the advantages of NDT methods.
1. In expensive.
2. Highly portable.
3. Immediate results.
4. Minimum skill is required.
5. Minimum part preparation.

21. What are the disadvantages of using NDT methods?

1. Surface discontinuities only
2. Misinterpretation of surfaces
22. Compare Mechanical testing and Non Destructive testing.

Mechanical Testing Non Destructive testing

In service inspection is not In service inspection is possible

possible

Measure only one or few NDT can measure many

properties properties of interest

100% testing an object is not 100% testing an actual object is

possible possible

23. What are the advantages and limitations of visual inspection?

Advantages: Widely used, Simple and fast, Accepted standard ASTM 02563, Can pick up a range
of defects, Good for obvious manufacturing flaws

Limitations: Inspector should require training and experience, Must have a good vision, Internal
defects can be not identified, No permanent records, Adequate time require for inspection
 ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(Inclusion under section 2f and 12b of the UGC Act 1956)
ELAMBALUR, PERAMBALUR -621 220
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OML351- INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2 MARK QUESTION & ANSWERS
UNIT- I I LIQUID PENETRANT & MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
1. What are the principal methods available in Penetrant Tests?
 Water washable method.
 Post Emulsifiable method
 Solvent Removal method.

2. Give the properties of Penetrants:

 Spread over the surface easily.
 Should remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface.

3. List the types of Penetrants:

 Visual Penetrant Test.
 Fluorescent Penetrants.

4. What do you mean by visible Penetrants?

It contains a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background.

5. What do you mean by Fluorescent Penetrants?

It contains dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to UV radiation.

6. What is the role of developers in LPT?

The role is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of the defects and spread it out on the surface of
the part.
7. What are the various forms of developers?
Dry powder, Water soluble, Water Suspendable, Nonaqueous type: Fluorescent, Visible dye

8. Give the merits and demerits of Dry Developers:

Merits: 1. Indication tends to remain brightness.
2. Easy to apply.
Demerits: 1.Does not form contrast background.
2. Difficult to assure entire part surface has been coated.

9. Give the merits and demerits of Suspendable Developers:

Merits: 1.Ease of coating entire part.
2. Indications are bright.
3. White coating of good contrast can be produced.
Demerits: Indications weaken and become diffused after some time.

10. Give the merit and demerits of Non aqueous Developers:

Merits: 1.Easy to apply.
2. White coating of good contrast can be produced.
3. Indications show up rapidly.
4. Provides highest sensitivity.
11. What are the advantages of Liquid Penetrant testing?
Small discontinuities can be detected, Inspection of large areas, Suitable for complex shapes,
Portable and low cost

12. Define capillary action?

Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in small openings without the assistance of external
forces like gravity.

13. List out the methods applied for penetrant?

Brushing, Dipping, Immersion, Spraying

14. Define Wettability?

The important property that affects the ability of a penetrant to penetrate an opening is that of
Wetability. Wettability is a characteristic of a liquid and its response to a surface.

15. What is Black light?

Black light is the light in the electromagnetic magnetic spectrum with a wavelength between
1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400nm).

16. How the magnetic materials are classified?

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic

17. Define dwell and development time?

Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. The
developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the
extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is usually a
minimum of 10 minutes.

18. What is bleed-out?

The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out.

19. What is Dye contrast ratio?

Contrast Ratio —A property of a digital display system defined as the ratio of the luminance of the
brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the system is capable of
producing

20. List out the important properties of developers.

Viscosity, Surface Tension, Wetting ability, Specific gravity, Volatility, Flash Point, Solubility,
Ability to spread or creep.

21. What is flux leakage field?

Flux is the presence of a force field in a specified physical medium, or the flow of energy through a surface.

22. What do you mean by Magnetic Particle Test?

It uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particle (Iron fillings) to detect flaws in parts. The part
must be a ferromagnetic material.
23. Define Magnetism:
The concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and known as dipole.
The term magnetic field describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy within that
volume.
24. List out the Magnetization Methods:
1. Magnetization using a magnet.
2. Magnetization using an Electromagnet.
3. Contact current flow method.
4. Using a threading bar.
The object is placed close to the lens to obtain as high a magnification as possible.

25. What are the properties of Magnetic particles?

1. High magnetic permeability – More attracts.
2. Low retentivity- Easy removal.

26. How do you classify magnetic particles?

1. Dry magnetic particles.
2. Wet magnetic particles.

27. How the demagnetization is carried out for the parts after inspection?
1. By heating the part approximately to 700 deg.
2. The part is placed in the field of an AC coil and withdrawn slowly to about 1.2 to 2m away.

28. List out the advantages Particle of Magnetic Testing:

1. Sensitive to small discontinuities.
2. Minimum surface preparation.
3. Immediate results can be obtained.
4. Low cost.
5. Moderate skill is enough.
6. Indications are produced directly on the surface.

29. List out the advantages of Magnetic particle Testing:

1. Only surface defects can be detected.
2. Part preparation is required.
3. Relatively small area can be inspected at a time.
4. Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.
5. Parts require demagnetization after conducting tests.

30. Describe Magnetic force.

Magnetic force is a consequence of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of
nature. It occurs whenever objects interact in which there is charge in motion.

As per Lorentz Force Law, the Magnetic force (F)=qv*B

Where q-fixed amount of charge, v-constant velocity, B-uniform magnetic field

31. What is Magnetic saturation?

Magnetic materials, saturation is the state reached when an increase in applied external magnetic
field H cannot increase the magnetization of the material further, so the total magnetic flux
density B more or less levels off.

32. What is the function of Gauss meter?

A Gauss Meter can measure the direction and the intensity of small (relatively) magnetic fields.
33. Write the use of “Pie-gauge”?
Pie Gauge is used to indicate the direction of magnetic field. It is a non-quantitative device and not
quantitative indicator of field strength.

34. What is coercive force?

The opposing magnetic intensity that must be applied to a magnetized material to remove the
residual magnetism.

35. Define Magnetization?

The magnetization of a material may be defined as the net magnetic moment per unit volume of
the material.
 ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(Inclusion under section 2f and 12b of the UGC Act 1956)
ELAMBALUR, PERAMBALUR -621 220
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OML351- INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2 MARK QUESTION & ANSWERS
UNIT- I I I E D D Y C U R R E N T T E S T I N G & T H E R M O G R A P H Y

1. Give the principle of Eddy Current Testing.

 An electric current is made to flow in a coil produces an alternating magnetic field around it.
 This coil when brought close to the electrically conducting surface of a metallic material to be
tested induces an eddy current flow in the material due to electromagnetic induction.
 The presence of any defect or discontinuity in the material disturbs the eddy current flow which
will be detected.

2. How eddy current is produced?

Eddy current is produced by the way of electromagnetic induction

3. What are the limitations of eddy current testing?

 Only conductive materials can be inspected  Surface finish and roughness may interfere
 Surface must be accessible to the probe  Depth of penetration is limited
 Skill and training is required

4. What are the different types of Probes used in Eddy Current Testing?
Focused Pencil type, Spring loaded absolute probe, Deflection type, Encircling probe, Bobbin type.

5. What are the different types of Instrumentation system available in ECT?

Step function excitation at constant voltage of a single absolute coil. Two-part reflection type.

6. What are the applications of ECT?

 To scan the open surface cracks on welds and heat affected zones.
 To detect and quantify corrosion on the inside of thin metal such as aluminum air craft skin.
 To check the discontinuities (Cracks, Inclusions and Flaws)
 To check the thickness of coatings.
 On line testing of Wires, Rods and Tubes.
 To check the strength and Hardness.

7. What are the advantages of using ECT?

 Sensitivity to surface defects.  Most suitable for automated plants
 Can detect defects in multilayer manufacturing uniform parts.
structures up to 14 layers.  Portability. Equipment is very small and light
 Accurate conductivity measurements. weight less than 2 kgs.
 Inspection is rapid.
8. What are the limitations of ECT?
Only electrically conductive materials can be inspected.
It will not detect defects parallel to surfaces. (The flow of eddy current is parallel to the surfaces)
Signal interpretation is required. Careful interpretation of signal is needed to distinguish between
relevant and non-relevant indications.
No permanent record, unless it is automated.

9. Define Thermography.
It is a method of inspecting Electrical and Mechanical equipment by obtaining heat distribution
pictures.

10. Give the application of Thermography.

Inspection of Electrical equipments.
Inspection of Mechanical equipments.
Inspection of Refractory lined structures.

11. What are the basic principles involved in thermography NDT?

Flow of heat from the surface of a solid body is affected by internal flaws such as disbands, voids or
inclusions.

Heat Transfer, Wavelength of Infrared, Emissivity,

12. List any four applications of Thermography.

 Condition monitoring,
 Quality inspection in metal or non-metal materials such as alloys or composites
 Pressure vessel and pipelines fault inspection
 Electronic devices investigation

13. Write down the various Infrared detectors?

 Pyroelectric detectors
 Bolometer  Thermopile
 Thermocouple  Photoconductive detectors

14. Give the application of Thermography in Electrical systems.

Fault findings in Fuse boards, Distribution boards, Bus bar systems, Control panels,
High and Low voltage systems, UPS, Battery systems, PLC, Motor controls and Transformers.

15. Give the application of Thermography in Mechanical systems.

Fault findings in Misalignment and component looseness, bearing defects, Cracks,
Internal Flaws, Improper Lubrication, Refractory and Insulation faults.

16. What are the advantages of Non-Contact Thermal measurements?

Target in Motion, Target electrically hot, current conducting Equipment, Component present in
Hazard to personnel, Target Fragile, Target temperature Changing, Target remote.
17. What are the methods available for checking in Thermography?
Contact: Liquid Crystal Thermography.
Remote: Infrared Thermography.
Remote: Radio Thermography.

18. What is meant by Infrared Thermography?

Infrared Thermography is equipment or method which detects infrared energy emitted from object,
converts it into temperatures and displays images of temperature distributions.

19. What do you mean by contact Infrared Thermography?

It is the method which is based on the properties of liquid crystals to change the colour depending
upon the temperature.

20. List out the advantages of Infrared Thermography.

 It is a non-contact type technique.
 Fast, reliable and accurate output.
 A large surface area can be scanned in less time.
 Capable of catching moving targets in real time.
 Presented in visual and digital form.
 Require very little skill for monitoring.
 Used to detect objects in dark area.
 Used to measure or observe in inaccessible or hazardous for other methods.

21. What do you mean by Liquid Crystal Thermography (LCT)?

Thermographic Liquid Crystals (TLC) are materials that change their reflected colour as a function of
temperature when illuminated by white light.

22. List out the Liquid Crystal types.

Liquid Crystal types are 1. Encapsulated 2. Unencapsulated.

23. List out the characteristics of Infrared.

It is not visible as its wave length is longer than the visible light.
It has a characteristic of heating an object. Therefore it is called as Heat Ray.
It can travel through vaccum.

24. What are the measurements carried out by using Infrared?

Temperature Measurements, Stress measurements, Moisture measurements, Film thickness
measurements.

25. What are active and passive thermographic methods?

Thermography can be split into two distinct types, passive and active. Passive thermography uses the
natural temperature of a part to create and image, while active thermography involves heating the
surface of an object and then observing the heat decay as it cools.
 ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(Inclusion under section 2f and 12b of the UGC Act 1956)
ELAMBALUR, PERAMBALUR -621 220
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OML351- INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2 MARK QUESTION & ANSWERS
UNIT- I V U L T R A S O N I C T E S T I N G & A C O U S T I C E M I S S I O N T E S T I N G

1. What do you mean by Ultrasonic Test (UT)?

Ultrasonic test uses high frequency sound waves to conduct examinations and make measurements.

2. Give the principles of Ultrasonic Tests:

A pulse echo UT inspection system consists of several functional units such as Pulser, Receiver, Transducer
and a display device. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the material in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity in the wave path, a part of the energy will be reflected from the flaw
surface and it is displayed.

3. Classify the types of waves in UT Tests:

Longitudinal waves and Shear waves and Surface waves.

4. Give the properties of Acoustic waves:

The wave length is directly proportional to the velocity of the wave.
Inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave.

5. Write down the meaning of Attenuation:

The combined effect of scattering and absorption of waves is called attenuation.
6. What is meant by Couplant?
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of Ultrasonic energy from the
transducer into the test specimen.

7. What is signal filtering?

Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted frequencies from the receiver
signal. While the correct filter settings can significantly improve the visibility of a defect signal, incorrect
settings can distort the signal presentation and even eliminate the defect signal completely.

8. What is Band Pass filter?

A 'Band Pass Filter' (BPF) is a combination high pass filter and low pass filter.

9. What is the principle of Ultrasonic testing?

Ultrasonic testing is based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested.
10. List out the different type of waves.
 Longitudinal waves  Surface waves
 Shear waves  Plate waves

11. What are cross talk echoes?

The interference caused during the transfer of sound from the transmitter to the receiver on the display due to
high gain adjustments. It is called as Cross talk echoes.

12. List out the UT methods used for Inspection and measurements:
Normal Beam Pulse-echo method, Normal Beam through Transmission, Angle Beam Pulse-echo method and
Angle Beam through Transmission.
13. Write the common formats available for the Data Transmission in UT tests:
The common formats are A Scan, B Scan and C Scan presentations.

14. Name the Standard calibration blocks used for UT:

IIW – International Institute of Welding.
AWS – American Welding Society.

15. List the applications of UT:

 Weldment Testing.
 Bar, Rods, Sheets, Pipes and Rails Testing.
 Crack detection and Corrosion Testing.
 Plant and Machinery checking.

16. List out the advantages of UT.

 Sensitive to both surface and sub-surface discontinuities.
 The depth penetration for flaw detection superior to other NDT methods.
 It is highly accurate.
 Minimum part preparation is required.
 Instantaneous results can be obtained.
 Detailed images can be produced without automated system.
 Non-hazardous to operators.
 Highly portable.

17. List out the disadvantages of UT:

 Surface must be accessible to transmit sound.
 Skill required than other methods.
 Materials that are rough, irregular shape are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high
signal noise.
18. Define Kaiser Effect?
The Kaiser effect which was first investigated by Joseph Kaiser describes the phenomenon that a material
under load emits acoustic waves only after a primary load level is exceeded.
19. Discuss the Felicity effect?
The Felicity effect is an effect observed during acoustic emission in a structure undergoing repeated
mechanical loading.

20. Define Acoustic Emission Test:

Acoustic Emission is defined as the class of phenomenon whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the
rapid release of energy from localized source.

21. List out the common ways in which AE signals can be processed:
Counting, Energy analysis, Amplitude analysis and Frequency analysis.

22. Give the applications of AE tests:

 Inspection during proof testing and on line monitoring of pressure vessels.
 Leakage detection and locations.
 Investigating process like fatigue, stress and corrosion.
 Monitoring underground pipelines and on line welds monitoring.

--------*****--------
 ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(Inclusion under section 2f and 12b of the UGC Act 1956)
ELAMBALUR, PERAMBALUR -621 220
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OML351- INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2 MARK QUESTION & ANSWERS
UNIT- V R A D I O G R A P H Y TESTING

1. Give the properties of X rays and Gamma rays:

They are not detected by human senses (cannot by heard, seen, felt etc)
They travel in straight line at the speed of the light.
Their path cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They pass through matter until they have a change to encounter with an atomic particle.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.

2. Illustrate the principles of Radiography:

This technique make use of the ability of short wave length of electromagnetic radiations such as X ray
and Gamma rays to penetrate objects. The shorter the wave length the greater is the penetrating power.
The radiation that enters through the material, some being absorbed in the material itself and amount
of absorption is a function of the density and thickness of the materials.

3. What do you mean by attenuation?

When X ray or Gamma rays are directed into an object, some of the photons interact with the particles
of the matter and their energy can be absorbed or scattered. This absorption and scattering is called
Attenuation.

4. What do you understand by Radiographic film?

It is a similar to photographic film. In that there is a central carrier called the film base that is made of
a thin sheet of polyester type material. This is normally transparent and serves only as the carrier for
the chemically reactive material that form emulsion. When radiation strikes the emulsion a change
takes place in the emulsion. This change is referred to as the latent image. Latent simply means “not
available or hidden”

5. List out the various class of films and its characteristics:

Various classes are Class I Extra fine grain, High contrast, Slow speed.
Class II Fine grain, High contrast, Medium speed.
Class III High speed
Class IV Fluorescent screens

6. What is meant by intensifying screens?

The use of thin screen/foils made out of heavier material has been found to produce intensification.
When films X or Gamma rays radiation of 70 kv and above. The screen helps to cut down the exposure
time by utilizing more effective the radiation reaching the film.

7. List out the general rules for optimum results in Radiography?

Source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable. Idle source will be a point source.
Source to object distance should be as large as possible.
The film should be in close contact with the object.
Source location should be such that radiation passes through the object thickness.
8. Define Radiographic Image Density:
After taking a radiographic image of a part and processing the film, the resulting darkness of the film
will vary according to the amount of radiation that has reached the film through the test object. The
darker areas indicates more exposure and lighter areas indicates less exposure. The term Radiographic
Image Density is a measure of the degree of film darkening.

9. What do you understand by Radiographic contrast?

Radiographic contrast is the differences in photographic density in a radiograph. It has two main
contributors. One is the Subject contrast and another one is Film contrast.

10. What do you mean by Penetrameter?

A Penetrameter or Image Quality Indicator (IQI) is a gauge used to establish radiographic technique or
quality level. To get this, IQI must be made up of material radiographically similar to the material
being radiographed. The identifying number in the penetrometer are in thousands of an inch.

11. List out the types of Penetrometers:

The variety of penetrometer designs have suggested, some of the most common are Step type, Wire
type and Plaque type.

12. Give short notes on Step type penetrometer

This type of penetrometer is essentially a step wedge having 4 or 5 steps. The thickness of these steps
increases either in geometric or arithmetic progression. The following are the some of the pentrameter
uses 1. Bureau of Indian Standard – BIS 3657. 2.ANFOR –FRNCH - IQI – 304 and 3.ISO (Similar to
ANFOR)

13. Give short notes on Wire type Pentrameter:

Among the Wire type penetrometers. DIN wire type penetrometer are most common.
These are available in two types.
1.DIN – 54109 – It consists of a series of equidistance parallel wire whose diameter
increases in geometric progression.
2.DIN – 54110 – It consists of 4 indicators each having series of equidistance parallel
wire whose diameter increases in arithmetic progression.

14. Define inverse square law.

The intensity of the radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

15. What do you mean by Fluoroscopy?

The term Fluoroscopy is synonymous with real time radiography and electron radiography.
Basic equipment for conventional fluoroscopy consists of a source of radiation, a fluoroscopic
conversion screen, mirror and a viewing port,
To get the basic real time image an object is placed between the source of radiation and fluoroscopic
screen that converts the transmitted radiation into visible lights.

16. State any two advantages of fluoroscopy.

Real-time visualization: The ability to observe moving structures in real-time is invaluable in
interventional procedures and dynamic evaluations.
Guidance and precision: Fluoroscopy provides live guidance during minimally invasive procedures,
enhancing accuracy and reducing complications.
17. List out the advantages of Radiography:
 Both surface and internal discontinuities  Very minimal or no part preparation is
can be detected. required.
 Significant variations in composition can be  Permanent test record is obtained.
detected.  Good portability especially for Gamma ray
 It has a very few material limitations. sources
 Can be used for inspecting hidden areas.
18. List out the disadvantages of Radiography:
Hazardous to operator and other nearby personnel.
High degree of skill is required.
The equipment is relatively costs.
The process is generally slow.
Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.

19. What are factors involved in health safety issues in Radiography?

Type of radiation involved.
Size of dose received.
Rate at which the dose received.
Part of the body exposed.
The age of the individuals.

20. What is radiography latent image?

Radiography Latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive
material such as photographic film.

21. Choose the meaning of Compton scattering?

Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. It results in a
decrease in energy (increase in wavelength) of the photon (which may be an X-ray or gamma ray
photon), called the Compton Effect.

22. How Xero radiography differs from film radiography?

Xeroradiography is a type of X-ray imaging in which a picture of the body is recorded on paper rather
than on film.
X-ray film displays the radiographic image. It is made up of several layers. The emulsion layer is the
layer that produces the latent image.

23. What is meant by intensifying screens?

Intensifying screens are used in the x-ray cassette to intensify the effect of the x-ray photon by
producing a larger number of light photons.

24. What is the use of high density fillers in X-ray Radiography?

High-density fillers in X-ray radiography are used to enhance the contrast of images, making it easier
to distinguish between different structures and materials. Improved Visualization, Detection of
Abnormalities, Guidance for Procedures, and Assessment of Function.

25. List out different types of X-ray filtration.

Inherent filtration, Added filtration, Bow-tie filter, Compensating filter and wedge filter