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Adaptive Leadership: Leading Through Complexity

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 Administration
International Studies in
Educational Administration

Journal of the Commonwealth

Council for Educational
Administration & Management

CCEAM
Volume 48 Number 1 2020
International Studies in Educational Administration by the Commonwealth Council for Educational
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International Studies in Educational Administration
Volume 48, No. 1, 2020

Contents
Editorial Note
DAVID GURR 1

Speak a Different Language: Reimagine the Grammar of Schooling

YONG ZHAO 4

Leadership of Special Schools on the Other Side

BRIAN J. CALDWELL 11

Inclusive Leadership During the COVID-19 Pandemic: How to Respond Within an Inclusion
Framework
ELAINE FOURNIER, SHELLEYANN SCOTT AND DONALD E. SCOTT 17

Leadership for Challenging Times

DAVID GURR AND LAWRIE DRYSDALE 24

Adaptive Leadership: Leading Through Complexity

RYAN DUNN 31

Leading With Empathy and Humanity: Why Talent-Centred Education Leadership is Especially
Critical Amidst the Pandemic Crisis
HENRY TRAN, SUZY HARDIE AND KATHLEEN M. W. CUNNINGHAM 39

Educational Inequality and the Pandemic in Australia: Time to Shift the Educational Paradigm
TERESA ANGELICO 46

A Policy Maker’s Guide to Practical Courses of Action for Current and Post COVID-19 Effects in
Liberian Schools
BOLUMANI SONDAH 54

Understanding Educational Responses to School Closure During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case for
Equity in Nigeria
IDOWU MARY MOGAJI 59
Home Education as Alternative to Institutional Schooling in Nigeria: Lessons From COVID-19
ADELEKE AYOBAMI GIDEON 66

The Role of Local Authorities in the English School System: Why Did the Coronavirus Pandemic
Subvert 30 Years of Neoliberal Policy?
IAN DEWES 72

Academic Integrity During COVID-19: Reflections From the University of Calgary

SARAH ELAINE EATON 80

Can Ghanaian Universities Still Attract International Students in Spite of COVID-19?

FESTUS NYAME AND EKUA ABEDI-BOAFO 86

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Work of University Administrators in Ghana

GEORGE KWADWO ANANE, PAUL KWADWO ADDO, ABRAHAM ADUSEI AND
CHRISTOPHER ADDO 93

Transitioning to Online Distance Learning in the COVID-19 Era: A Call for Skilled Leadership in
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
DARCIA ROACHE, DINA ROWE-HOLDER AND RICHARD MUSCHETTE 103
 ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020 | 31

Adaptive Leadership: Leading Through

Complexity
Ryan Dunn

Abstract: There is no doubt the COVID-19 pandemic significantly increased the complexity schools
are encountering. Complex environments lead to considerable ambiguity around what solutions might
be effective. Added to this, complexity can mean challenges may not be able to be solved with the
knowledge and skills that currently exist within an organisation. There is an inherent need to test ideas
and learn from early implementation. Organisations that work within complex environments often
utilise adaptive approaches as a response to uncertainty. This paper explores adaptive leadership as one
possible approach school leaders could consider during times of significant change. It explores how the
military cultivate adaptive practices to respond to complex environments as well as highlight key
principles and practices school leaders could consider leading an adaptive organisation.

Keywords: Adaptive leadership, adaptive challenges, adaptive mindset, team mental models

Our Current Context is Complex

A decade ago, Mulford and Edmunds (2010) described the Australian education context as a
complex, challenging and changing landscape, with schools being influenced by advances in
science and technology, changes in demography, globalisation, and pressures on the
environment. We can now add global pandemics to this list. Harris (2020) highlighted the
current predicament school leaders find themselves in by stressing ‘the evidence base on
school leadership practices within a pandemic is non-existent’ (para. 3), however she urged
schools that drawing upon the research literature would offer ‘some pointers, some ideas,
some reflections for those currently leading in schools and classrooms’ (para 3). Drysdale and
Gurr (2017) had previously outlined that in times of great change, complexity, and
uncertainty, school leaders are challenged to adapt and navigate their way through the tide
of internal and external forces to create the best positive outcome for students and the school
community. So, while we might be dealing with increased uncertainty and complexity in both
our professional and personal lives, there are specific practices we can consider to work
through the ambiguity.
32 | ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020

Heifetz and Laurie (1997) popularised the idea of two distinct types of improvement efforts
in any organisation: technical problems and adaptive challenges. A technical problem is one that
can be solved with existing knowledge and skills. However, not all school-based
improvement efforts should be approached as technical problems and some improvement
efforts are adaptive challenges. Adaptive challenges are when we are moving beyond what
we, as a school or individual, currently know, understand and do. While we might be able to
hypothesise a possible solution, we will still need to test and learn through iterative cycles to
reach a point where we establish a workable context specific solution (see Figure 1). By
definition, complex problems do not lend themselves to obvious solutions. It is necessary
therefore to consider how approaches and solutions are going to be developed. That is, the
organisational strategy for dealing with complexity.
The COVID-19 pandemic is a recent example of a global adaptive challenge for nations across
the globe. This incredibly complex problem meant we could not rely on implementing a
previously identified solution or response. The problem of how to influence the development
of complex situations towards favourable outcomes, and away from unfavourable ones, is
arguably at the core of most of the important and difficult challenges we currently face. As
nations across the world rapidly attempted to design solutions based on emerging evidence
and needs, it was often approached as an iterative testing and learning cycle. As new evidence
emerged, solutions were hypothesised, strategies were implemented, and evidence of
implementation and impact was sought. This cycle enabled a rapid response but also created
an environment where we knew things could change based on new emerging evidence.

Figure 1: Technical Problem and Adaptive Challenges: Two Different Approaches

 ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020 | 33

Leading Through Complexity

Adaptive practices are best suited to complex environments, like educational settings, where
there is a need to test and discover. Ideas and solutions may have been formulated in advance,
yet there is still a great deal of learning, reflection and understanding that is still required. In
this instance making a detailed linear plan will only make limited sense, because we know
things will most likely turn out differently when we begin learning from early
implementation. A clear goal is still necessary, but the pathway to achieve it will be difficult
to pre-determine with specificity. Think of a sailing ship heading north using Polaris, the
North Star, to guide its journey. The ship has a clear direction in mind but may veer in other
directions as needed to catch the wind that will most effectively move it in the proposed
northerly direction. The destination is clear, but a linear pathway is not the most effective to
take. An adaptive mindset understands that taking the first step is important, as by taking
that first step we then discover what the most appropriate second step could be. Research has
illustrated that adaptive practices, where school-based solutions are collaboratively designed,
implemented, and evaluated have benefits for teaching practice (Dunn, Hattie & Bowles
2019).
Adaptive approaches are capable of dealing with complexity, unpredictability and change.
These are all aspects educational leaders recognise are evident every day in their
improvement work, well before COVID-19. Initially, adaptive approaches developed and
gained traction as a way to respond to the complexity of large-scale software development
projects (Sutherland 2014), however they are now prominent and successfully used in many
organisations and a diverse range of industries. Adaptive leaders seek to mobilise knowledge
quickly, are responsive to contextual needs, and seek to empower their colleagues to act, even
when the path is unclear, and the journey might be messy. Due to this, an adaptive
organisation is able to respond swiftly to rapidly changing opportunities and demands as
they occur. Ultimately, making them efficient to be able to respond to the learning needs of
their students in an ever-changing context.

The Military, Complexity and Adaptive Teams

Theory on how complex systems function can provide insights into the nature of adaptation
and how it might operate at a team level. The military in Australia and the US for example,
have systematically developed more adaptive ways of working. While the strict rigid nature
we sometimes associate with the military might be true to a certain extent, it is also true the
military realise rigid adherence to rules and procedures can have catastrophic consequences
on the battlefield. They understand key contextual factors at the coalface should shape
decision making as the battlefield environment is complex. Soldiers need to know the rules
and procedure well enough to recognise when they may need to move outside of these and
adapt to the context specific situation. So, while the armed forces may not first appear to be a
34 | ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020

place that educational leaders could learn and develop parallel practices, it may actually be
fertile ground for the complexity we are experiencing.
The Australian Military considered adaptation in natural systems in an attempt to develop
general principles of adaptation. The idea was to look to nature for inspiration because nature
has solved countless complex problems through adaptation. Grisogono (2010) suggested
replacing the commonly used plan for military action Observe, Orient, Decide, Act developed
by American military strategist Col John Boyd with the Act, Sense, Decide, Adapt (ASDA)
model. Grisogono (2010) was attempting to ensure the language of the model was accessible
and recognisable to soldier-implementers, the shift to Adapt, while subtle, is important. ‘Act’
can be viewed as a repetitive activity, while Adapt explicitly recognises the need to change.
This approach assumes that the leader may not know what the perfect course of action is and
must do something to acquire information so that the team can adapt his or her actions to
correspond more directly with the context they are working within. This model has many
connections to how educators can conceptualise implementing evidence-informed
approaches in complex environments.
It should be noted that adaption may not be as intuitive as we might like to think it is. Often
the natural human desire is to ‘set and forget’. Humans tend to want to make decisions and
then move on to the next problem. This can work well in a complicated environment, but not
so well in a complex one (Green 2011). Furthermore, by developing a framework with
adaptation at the centre, we are intentionally attempting to circumvent or counteract
cognitive biases that invariably sneak into the decision-making processes. This is achieved by
forcing leaders and team members to continually test their assumptions and knowledge in
context specific environments. Brookfield (2003) discusses how transformative experiences
force us to confront the possibility that our assumptions may not actually fit. In this way,
teachers and leaders will voluntarily, albeit sometimes reluctantly, critically evaluate their
pre-conceived notions and practice.

Future Proofing Your School to Deal With Complexity: Cultivating

Adaptive Teaching Teams
Organisation and operational adaptability require cohesive teams. Teams that are able to
exhibit critical thinking, have comfort with ambiguity and decentralisation, a willingness to
accept prudent risk, and an ability to make rapid adjustments based on a continuous
assessment of the situation (Grisogono 2010). Recent research has advanced the notion we
can create shared mental models among team members as an underlying mechanism of
effective team processes and performance (Marks, Zaccaro & Mathieu 2000). Team mental
models are collective knowledge structures that enable team members to understand and
form expectations about other team members’ responsibilities, needs, and behaviours
(Mohammed, Klimoski & Rentsch 2000). They are established by taking the time to build the
way the team works to a point where team members begin to organise and interpret
 ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020 | 35

information in a similar manner. Teams will begin to become more adept at processes such
as communication, decision making, action and contextual awareness.
Marks et al. (2000) found that leaders who spent time establishing group norms around
interaction and routine ways of working, develop teams that have a sustained impact. Added
to this, and which is pertinent to the current pandemic, is team mental models and
communication processes strongly predicted performance when the teams encountered novel
complex problems. Adaptive teams with well-developed mental models are well-positioned
to perform in environments that present novel problems in which their responsibilities take
them into areas that may be different from their previous experience or technical solutions
they may have applied in the past. Team mental models provide teams with a common
framework from which to perceive, interpret, and respond to novel situations. Adaptive
teams are empowered to focus on the work they perceive as most important providing them
a higher level of agency and autonomy. The underlying premise is that being adaptive
enables teams to focus on the key challenges they have identified with a view to building an
effective solution through iterative testing and learning cycles.

Principles and Practices to Cultivate Adaptive Ways of Working and

Thinking
Many organisations are actively exploring methods in which they can become more adaptive
and nimble in their approach as a response to a rapidly changing and complex world. While
they might be drawing on similar guiding principles and approaches there is no one way this
looks in practice. Adaptive is both a framework and a capability that includes a set of
principles and practices. While working with school leaders over the past decade who have
sought to utilise adaptive ways of working, some key tenets to consider have become
apparent:
• Developing a mindset of acceptance. We need to accept the complexity of the
environment we are working within. As a leader we need to accept the ambiguity and
uncertainty, by doing this you can begin to understand that nothing remains static and
we are constantly evolving. This mindset allows you to deal with the unexpected,
because you accept this as a normal part of working within complexity.
• Develop the situation through action. Effective leaders understand that solutions are
being developed from an incomplete evidence base. There is inevitable uncertainty with
complex situations. As such, school leaders should be prepared to develop the situation
through action. An adaptive mindset understands that taking the first step is important,
as by taking that first step we then discover what the most appropriate second step could
be.
• Focus on teams, not individuals. An adaptive leader continually searches for
impediments that may be hindering growth of their teaching teams and endeavours to
solve these. An adaptive leader supports teaching teams to make rapid progress by
36 | ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020

assisting the team to self-organise and make decisions responsive to their context and
based on best evidence. This is achieved by exhibiting practices such as deep listening,
self-awareness and commitment to others. Studies undertaken by the MIT Centre for
Collective Intelligence (http://cci.mit.edu/) illustrate that although the intelligence of
individuals affects team performance, the team’s collective intelligence is more
important. They also suggest it is easier to change team behaviours rather than individual
behaviours as a driver for improvement.
• Design lean improvement processes. By keeping the process as lean as possible the aim
is to prototype a practice by minimising the required resources to rapidly discover if the
proposed practices are proving to be effective in your unique context (or not). This can
be thought of as a Minimal Viable Practice (MVP). An MVP is achieved by seeking
formative feedback on the new practice or approach you are prototyping. Don’t try to do
too much, work on some key areas and try to get them working before moving onto other
areas. By working in this way, you will see it can expedite the improvement process and
results are often realised much sooner
• Foster psychological safety. Psychological safety refers to an individual’s perception of
the consequences of taking an interpersonal risk or a belief that a team is safe for risk
taking in the face of being seen as ignorant, incompetent, negative, or disruptive. In a
team with high psychological safety, teammates feel safe to take risks around their team
members. They feel confident that no one on the team will embarrass or punish anyone
else for admitting a mistake, asking a question, or offering a new idea (Edmondson 2004).
This is expressed through specific behaviours such as encouraging teachers to express
opinions and ideas, promoting collaborative decision making, supporting information
sharing and teamwork, and being non-judgemental (Chen, Sharma, Edinger, Shapiro &
Farh 2011).

Leading With an Adaptive Mindset

Leading an organisation to become more adaptive requires developing specific personal skills
necessary to enhance adaptive performance, and it requires having in place attitudes and
collaborative structures that enable and foster adaptive performance. School leaders may
need to develop an adaptive stance; constantly looking for ways to test their knowledge about
the teaching and learning within their unique school context. The concept of complex
adaptive systems provides a valuable tool kit for understanding and addressing a broad
range of educational issues that are currently arising. There is no doubt that complexity has
always permeated the educational space, but there is also not doubt COVID-19 has
significantly increased the complexity and uncertainty.
An adaptive stance is both an intellectual stance that creates the preconditions for being
adaptive, and a particular pattern of decision making in complex situations (Grisogono &
Radenovic 2011). Operational adaptability is essential to developing situational
understanding and to be able to work through complex situations as they arise. While it is
 ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020 | 37

impossible to anticipate the precise dynamics of the future, cultivating adaptive teams should
enable schools to adapt quickly to rapidly changing conditions and seize upon previously
unforeseen opportunities. It would seem these are going to be critical attributes for every
organisation to consider as we continue down this road of increased uncertainty.

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38 | ISEA • Volume 48, Number 1, 2020

Author Details
Ryan Dunn
Melbourne Graduate School of Education
The University of Melbourne
Email: [email protected]

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