Solar Energy 228 (2021) 235–252

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Computational fluid dynamics based numerical study to determine the

performance of triangular solar air heater duct having perforated baffles in
V-down pattern mounted underneath absorber plate
Sachin Faujdar, Muskan Agrawal *
Mechanical Engineering Dept., Engineering College, Ajmer, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the current analysis, the effect of perforated baffles in V-down pattern as artificial roughness on the thermal
Triangular duct and hydraulic response of a solar air heater having equilateral triangular passage has been examined. A thorough
Eddy viscosity numerical investigation has been done using ANSYS FLUENT-19.0. Effect of change in roughness parameters,
Axial velocity
viz., baffle height (e) and open area ratio (β) on thermo-hydraulic performance has been explored. Flow Reynolds
Turbulent kinetic energy
Perforated baffles
number is systematically varied. Study reveals that upon varying the baffle height from 5 mm to 11 mm and open
area ratio from 20% to 29%, maximum heat transfer rate is attained at e = 9 mm and β = 20%, respectively. Axial
Velocity and Turbulence Kinetic Energy have been plotted for clear view of change in variables. Also, the cor­
relations have been developed for Nusselt number and Friction factor. The thermo-hydraulic performance factor
of proposed perforated baffle geometry has been observed to be 2.54 at e = 9 mm and β = 20%. Performance of
the SAH with suggested roughness is found to be advantageous than other type of roughness elements studied in
recent times.

Solar air heaters use the solar energy as a source to heat the incoming
1. Introduction air from its inlet by confining and absorbing it, using a glass glazing and
an absorber plate (AP). It’s a well-known fact that the development of
A nation’s development is fully dependent on energy consumption laminar sub-layer leads to inhibition of the heat transfer in a smooth air
and this factor can’t be overlooked, because it affects each commercial heater duct. Two methodologies can be exercised to augment the heat
division which has substantial capacity to save energy and which results transfer amongst the AP and air, first methodology can be executed by
in a great drop in carbon releases, whereas, empowering a nation in changing the heat transfer surface area and second can be executed by
meeting the growing demand of energy. Almost 85% of rural households rising the convective heat transfer coefficient. First methodology leads
in India depend upon non-renewable sources for their cooking and to an increase in cost and space while, second methodology can be
heating needs and only 55% of them have access to electricity. India is implemented by means of attaching artificial roughness on AP. Artificial
facing a crunch in ascertaining a reliable, clean, affordable and sus­ roughness escalates the convective heat transfer by disturbing the
tainable form of energy for domestic needs like lighting, cooking, laminar sub-layer formation and encouraging the turbulent flow inside
heating, drying etc. for all its citizens. the duct, but it also comes out with high pressure drop penalty due to
India is evolving as the most anticipated platforms for solar energy as friction and hence, attaching the roughness on AP requires greater
it receives significant quantity of solar energy during most part of the pumping power (Agrawal and Tiwari, 2013; Dhiman and Tiwari, 1984;
year. Solar energy is a reasonable, green and sustainable resource which Dimri et al., 2019; YP Yadav, 1986).
can help in making the world a clean place. India is hastening in Various studies are present with various cross sections of the solar air
expansion and deployment of solar energy for attaining domestic pur­ heater (SAH) such as triangular, rectangular and square, to find the most
poses. Researchers are also appealed towards solar energy and fasci­ advantageous cross-section in terms of enhanced heat transfer coeffi­
nated to know more about it. cient and thermal efficiency. In this decade, several researchers have

Abbreviations: CFD, Computational fluid dynamics; SAH, Solar air heater; AP, Absorber plate; NNER, Nusselt number enhancement ratio; FFER, Friction factor
enhancement ratio; THPF, Thermo-hydraulic performance factor; TKE, Turbulent kinetic energy.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Agrawal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.09.006
Received 29 September 2020; Received in revised form 1 September 2021; Accepted 3 September 2021
Available online 27 September 2021
0038-092X/© 2021 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Faujdar and M. Agrawal Solar Energy 228 (2021) 235–252

Nomenclature ε dissipation rate, m2/s3

k turbulent kinetic energy, m2/s2
Dh hydraulic diameter, mm λ thermal conductivity, W m− 1 K− 1

d diameter of hole, mm μ dynamic viscosity, Pa*s

e baffle height, mm μt eddy viscosity, m2/s
H height of duct, mm ρ density of air, kg/m3
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 k υ kinematic viscosity, m2/s
l’ baffle length, mm
n number of circular holes Non-Dimensional Numbers
Pb baffle pitch, mm f friction factor
u air velocity, m/sec fs friction factor for smooth duct
W duct width, mm Nu Nusselt number
Nus Nusselt number for smooth duct
Greek Letters Pr Prandtl number
angle of attack, Re Reynolds number
○
α
β open area ratio, % St Stanton number

showcased their discoveries on various cross sectioned SAH using vari­ with 3 gaps. To find out the effect on augmentation of thermo-hydraulic
ety of roughness elements. performance, Saravanakumar et al. (Saravanakumar et al., 2019)
In an experimental study Baissi et al. (Baissi et al., 2020) incorpo­ considered SAH having arc shaped ribs along with fins and baffles. Re­
rated perforated and non-perforated delta-shaped vortex generators sults depicted a notable increment in energy and effective efficiency.
curved along the length as artificial roughness to give a boost to SAH In another study by Jain et al. (Jain et al., 2019b), it was claimed that
thermal performance and the thermal enhancement factor was claimed NNER was maximum with a value of 2.16 when the enrichment in heat
to be maximum with values 2.26 and 2.21 for perforated and non- transfer for AP with rectangular broken inclined ribs, as roughness, was
perforated baffles, respectively. In another experimental study by Jain explored using CFD. Fawaz et al. (Fawaz et al., 2018) led a numerical
et al. (Jain et al., 2019a), the thermal performance of artificially study to determine the heat transfer and flow behavior of SAH having V-
roughened SAH having ribs in arc shape with multiple gaps was baffles mounted on both upper and lower walls. On varying baffle
explored at constant heat flux on AP. Upon varying the flow and blockage ratio, baffle pitch ratio and Re, keeping angle of attack con­
roughness parameters, the study reported that the thermo-hydraulic stant, thermal enhancement factor was detected to be 0.78. The Nu and f
performance factor (THPF) was greatest with a value of 2.75. Kumar attributes of SAH with twisted rib mounted on AP, were presented by
et al. (Kumar et al., 2019b) presented an investigation for triangular Kumar and Layek (Kumar and Layek, 2018) and it was claimed that Nu
SAH to determine the effect of heat transfer and flow attributes having and f were 2.58 and 1.78 times, respectively, to that of smooth SAH. In
chamfered shaped ribs using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). another numerical study by Sahel and Benzeguir (Sahel and Benzeguir,
Relative roughness height, chamfer height ratio and aspect ratio for rib 2017), SAH having corrugation on upper wall and baffles mounted on
were taken as varying parameters, the study pointed out that THPF was lower wall, longitudinally, was analyzed to conclude the influence on
maximum with a value of 2.08 at Re = 17,100. On varying roughness heat transfer and friction factor behavior. Heating corrugated surface
and flow parameters, Qader et al. (Qader et al., 2019) observed THPF as ratio was the variable parameter, keeping blockage ratio of baffles
maximum at slant angle = 45⁰ and pitch = 20 mm on conducting a constant. THPF was claimed to be highest with a value of 2.7. In a nu­
numerical study on SAH having inclined fins underneath the AP. In merical study led by Menasria et al. (Menasria et al., 2017) on a
another study by Jain et al. (Jain et al., 2019c), the heat transfer per­ roughened rectangular SAH with rectangular baffles, THPF was affirmed
formance of SAH having ribs in arc shape with symmetrical gaps was with a value of 0.857 and the improvement in Nu and f was ascertained
analyzed experimentally by varying width gap and Reynolds number to be 2.16 and 15.95 times that of smooth SAH. Kumar et al. (Raj Kumar
(Re). Nusselt number (Nu) and friction factor (f) was declared as 3.66 et al., 2017) presented an exploration to determine the NNER and FFER
and 2.77 times to that of smooth duct, respectively, and THPF was of a roughened SAH having discretized broken V-pattern baffle.
declared to be highest at relative gap width = 4. In another investigation, Kumar et al. (Kumar et al., 2016) found out
Promvonge and Skullong (Promvonge and Skullong, 2019) examined the influence of using broken multiple V-type baffles as roughness on
the heat transfer attributes of SAH having perforated/punched rectan­ SAH having aspect ratio of 10, on heat transfer performance and opti­
gular wings (P-RW) attached underneath the AP. The study claimed that mum relative width. The thermal performance was revealed highest at a
the mounting of P-RWs could significantly enhance the Nu value con­ relative baffle width of 5, when the flow and roughness parameters were
trasted to the smooth AP. Nu and f for roughened SAH were pointed out systematically varied. The thermal and effective efficiency of SAH with
to be 3.91 to 5.52 times and 10.37 to 36.35 times, respectively, V-down baffles with perforation was computed by Chamoli and Thakur
enhanced than that found for smooth AP. THPF value of 2.01 was (Chamoli and Thakur, 2014) and on varying Re from 10,000 to 20,000,
affirmed to be highest for roughened SAH. Jain et al. (Jain et al., 2019d) the improvement in effective efficiency was claimed to be 78% of
indicated the effect of distinct perforated baffles in V pattern on air smooth duct SAH.
heater duct, to examine the effect on Nu, f and THPF. Nusselt number On examining various cross-sections (square (Kwankaomeng and
enhancement ratio (NNER), friction factor enhancement ratio (FFER) Promvonge, 2010), rectangular (Karwa et al., 1999; Sivakumar et al.,
and THPF were reported to be maximum with values 4.24, 14.73 and 2019; Kannan et al., 2021) and triangular (Kumar et al., 2018) of SAH
2.24, respectively. Kumar et al. (Kumar et al., 2019a) found out the duct, it can be derived that the triangular cross-sectional duct requires
effect on the thermal performance of a SAH having roughness in the less pumping power for fluid flow (Cebeci and Bradshaw, 1984). In spite
shape of arcs by varying the flow and roughness parameters. On of having advantage of requiring less pumping power for fluid flow,
implementing response surface methodology to improve the thermal triangular cross-sectioned SAH duct is not able to fascinate the re­
performance of SAH, it was pointed out that THPF was maximum with a searchers to examine its potential using various artificial roughness.
value of 3.85 at relative gap width = 1, relative gap position = 0.6 and On studying the research literature, it can be derived that the

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Table 1 (1) The flow is presumed to be steady, incompressible and fully

Properties of air being used as a working fluid. developed before it approaches the test section (Bensaci et al.,
S. No. Properties Value 2020).
(2) No-slip conditions at wall.
1 λ 0.024
5 (3) Air is assumed to be incompressible, non-reactive and its prop­
2 υ 1.48 * 10−
3 Pr 0.746 erties are constant throughout the duct irrespective of tempera­
ture as shown in Table 1.
(4) Fluid is entering the inlet at 300 K temperature (Jain et al.,
researchers continue investigating the approaches to accomplish higher 2019b).
thermo-hydraulic performance of SAH by offering various types of
roughness to create the flow turbulent near the AP which consequently
boosts the heat transfer. It is worth mentioning that on changing the
shape (circular (Kwankaomeng and Promvonge, 2010), square (Jain 2.1. Geometry modeling and discretization
et al., 2019b), rectangular (Boulemtafes-Boukadoum and Benzaoui,
2014) etc., type (rib (Misra et al., 2020; Singh Yadav and Kumar Thapak, 3-D geometrical model of SAH is developed using SOLIDWORKS
2014), dimple (Kumar, 2019), vortex generator (Bezbaruah et al., 2019), 18.0. Each side of equilateral triangular duct is taken to be 52 mm.
fin (Qader et al., 2019), baffles (Kumar et al., 2016) etc.) and pattern Geometrical domain has a total length of 1000 mm including inlet sec­
(transverse (Kumar and Layek, 2019), inclined (Aharwal et al., 2008), V tion of 300 mm, test section of 500 mm and remaining length of 200 mm
down (Jain and Lanjewar, 2019), arc (Ambade and Lanjewar, 2019) is for outlet section as displayed in Fig. 1. Lengths of inlet and outlet
etc.) of roughness elements, significant change in the value of Nu and f is section are greater than 5√W*H and 2.5√W*H, respectively, in
observed. But no such study is available which examines the influence of accordance with ASHRAE standards 93-2003 (Hill, 1974) which even­
perforated baffles in V-down pattern on thermal performance of trian­ tually, certifies that the air flow entering the test section will be fully
gular duct SAH. developed before it reaches the test section and implies smallest possible
In the present numerical study, Authors have provided a unique losses at the outlet section. The geometrical and baffle parameters
combination of perforated baffles in V-down pattern mounted under­ considered in this numerical study are shown in Table 2. To analyze the
neath the absorber plate of a triangular SAH duct. It is probable that this effect of baffles, seven different geometries have been developed taking
innovative and novel combination will be beneficial in terms of deliv­ baffle height (e) as variable parameter, having four values, ranging from
ering higher heat transfer rates, by creating greater turbulence in flow, 5 mm to 11 mm and keeping baffle pitch (Pb) = 28 mm and angle of
with minimum escalation in pumping power because of triangular duct. attack (α) = 30◦ , as constant. Each geometry has baffles with 3 circular
A comprehensive CFD scrutiny has been carried out to determine the
thermo-hydraulic performance of roughened duct using ANSYS Table 2
FLUENT-19.0. Further, the numerical outcomes from the present study Geometrical and operating parameters considered in model development and
are compared with recent similar types of studies carried out with numerical analysis.
different artificial roughness geometries. S. No. Geometrical and Roughness Parameters Value (s)

1 Inlet section length (mm) 300

2. Description of computational fluid dynamics problem 2 Test section length (mm) 500
3 Outlet section length (mm) 200
The proposed CFD problem predicts the turbulent behavior of flow of 4 Dh (mm) 30.02
air in a triangular SAH, produced by perforated baffles mounted un­ 5 e (mm) 5, 7, 9 and 11
6 30◦
derneath the AP having circular holes. The baffle height (e), open area α
7 Baffle thickness (mm) 0.5
ratio (β) and flow Re are considered as variable operating parameters. 8 n 3
AP is heated with fixed heat flux. The following assumptions (Menasria 9 Gap size (mm) 3
et al., 2017) are incorporated in the investigation: 10 β 20%, 23%, 26% and 29%
11 Pb (mm) 28
12 Re 4000–20,000 (9 values)

Outlet section

Test section

Inlet section

Fig. 1. Geometrical model of triangular Solar air heater duct.

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Fig. 2. Front view of Absorber plate having baffles.

Fig. 3. Pictorial representation of baffles and geometrical parameters.

Fig. 4. Side view of Geometrical model after meshing.

heat transfer and fluid flow behavior, geometries are converted into
Table 3
STEP format and exported to ANSYS FLUENT-19.0.
Percentage change in To and ΔP with number of mesh elements.
The computational domain is discretized using ANSYS FLUENT-19.0.
Reynolds Number Outlet Pressure Change Change Patch conforming unstructured tetrahedral mesh is generated as illus­
number of mesh temperature drop, ΔP in To in ΔP
trated in Fig. 4, near the regions close to baffles to precisely observe the
elements of air, To (K) (Pascal) (%) (%)
laminar sub-layer.
6000 749,219 314.1 22.5 0 0
6000 980,385 311.8 21.4 2.32 2.15
6000 1,081,187 310.2 20.3 1.35 1.24 2.2. Grid sensitivity test
6000 1,115,233 309.9 19.2 0.48 0.39
6000 1,220,350 309.6 19.0 0.18 0.20
Grid sensitivity analysis is conducted to explore the influence of grid
size on output in terms of Nu and f. Moreover, it also validates the
holes whose diameter (d) is determined by varying the open area ratio suitability of the geometrical model developed for further investigation.
(β) from 20% to 29% (four values). Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 are showing the In current CFD simulation, grid independence test is executed for e = 7
schematic representation of baffle parameters. To further analyze the mm and β = 23% at Re = 6000. Size of the mesh element is refined from
coarse (749,219 elements) to fine (1,220,350 elements) to predict the

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Fig. 5. Validation of RNG k-ε model for Nusselt number.

Fig. 6. Validation of RNG k-ε model for Friction factor.

Fig. 7. Comparison of Nusselt number and friction factor values with experimental results claimed by Rajneesh et al. (Rajneesh Kumar et al., 2017) for smooth duct.

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Fig. 8. Variation of Nusselt number with change in Reynolds number for different values of e.

Fig. 9. Axial Velocity contours at Reynolds number = 4000 for (a) e = 5 mm (b) e = 7 mm (c) e = 9 mm and (d) e = 11 mm, at a plane 13 mm from central plane.

effect on outlet temperature of air (To) and pressure drop (ΔP) along the with different parameters to reduce the computation time.
test section. Table 3 depicts how the values of To and ΔP vary upon
changing the number of mesh elements. It is pertinent to mention that as 2.3. Governing equations
the number of mesh elements are increased to 1,115,233, To and ΔP vary
by almost less than 1% from their previous values. Consequently, further The numerical simulation on geometrical model is performed using
investigation is performed with 1,115,233 elements for all geometries ANSYS FLUENT-19.0 and the fluid is supposed to be incompressible,

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and f values obtained using RNG k-ε model in the present study and
experimental outcomes presented by Rajneesh et al. (Rajneesh Kumar
et al., 2017), is depicted in Fig. 7. It can be observed that the numerically
estimated values of Nu and f are somewhat similar to the experimental
results, with deviation in the range of ±6.05% and ±4.19%, respec­
tively, which makes the present CFD approach feasible to be utilized for
further numerical investigation.

2.4. Boundary conditions and solution approach

Temperature of air at the inlet surface is taken to be 300 K. Velocity

of air changes from 1.97 to 9.87 m/s as Re changes from 4000 to 20,000
(mass flow rate ranging from 0.0028 kg/s to 0.0141 kg/s) and the AP is
heated by applying a heat flux (Gawande et al., 2016) of 1000 W/m2.
No-slip condition at the walls is incorporated (Chaube et al., 2006) and
the domain is kept at zero-gauge pressure. The outlet surface of the
Fig. 10. Variation of Nusselt number enhancement ratio with change in Rey­ domain is assigned as pressure outlet.
nolds number for different values of e. As far as the interpolation scheme(Thakur et al., 2017) is concerned,
PRESTO scheme is selected for highly swirling flows and to compute
fully developed and governed by fundamental equations provided cell-face pressures. However, to solve pressure and velocity coupling
below: and to get the pressure field, SIMPLE algorithm (Gee et al., 2006) has
Equation of continuity is expressed as: been employed. Selection of discretization scheme is required to fetch
the solutions of the governing equations. First order upwind dis­
∂ρ
+ ∇(ρu) = 0 (1) cretization scheme offers a stable solution with better rate of residual
∂t convergence having less accuracy. While its equivalent, Second-order
Equation of momentum: upwind scheme results in more precise solution. Thus, as far as accu­
( ) ( ) racy is considered, Second-order upwind scheme is exercised in the
∂U ∂U ∂P ∂τiJ present CFD analysis. Convergence criteria for velocity; continuity; en­
ρ* j + ρ∗Ui J ∇ = − − + ρg (2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ergy; k; ε was fixed at 10− 6 (Menasria et al., 2017). Steady-state con­
Energy equation: dition was attained after 3600 iterations and solution got converged.
[( ) ]
∂ ( )
ρuj T =
∂ μ μt ∂T
+ (3) 3. Mathematical expressions for determination of thermal and
∂xj ∂xj Pr σt ∂xj flow attributes

Where i and j represent directional components. The simulation of the proposed geometry is carried out on Hp Z-620
Accuracy of the solution is greatly influenced by the appropriateness workstation with following features: Intel (R) Xeon (R) CPU E5-2620 v2
of the turbulence model which is used to execute the CFD analysis. In the @ 2.10 GHZ, RAM-20 GB, Windows-7 Professional 64-bit architecture.
proposed study, RNG k-ε model is applied to model turbulence of fluid, While simulating the duct, mean temperature of AP, mean temperature
which is united in ANSYS Fluent-19.0 (ANSYS Fluent Theory Guide, of air at outlet surface and pressure drop across the test section are taken
2013). The RNG k-ε model renormalises the Navier-Stokes equations to as output parameters whereas, velocity is taken as input parameter.
include the effects of smaller levels of motion. Flow velocity is computed using Re, while output parameters are used to
Transport equations for RNG k-ε is given by Eq. (4) and Eq. (5): determine the Nu and f along with THPF, which are expressed by the
∂(ρk)
(
ρkui
)
∂ ( ) ∂k following equations (Sharma and Kalamkar, 2017):
+∂ = αμ + Gk + Gb − (YM ) − ρ∊ + (Sk ) (4) Hydraulic diameter of the duct is computed using:
∂t ∂xi ∂xj k eff ∂xj
Aduct
∂(ρ∊)
(
ρ∊ui
)
∂ ( ) ∂∊ ∈ Dh = 4* (8)
+∂ = α∊ μeff + C1∈ (Gk Pw
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k
∈2 where Aduct and Pw are the cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter of
+ C3∈ Gb ) − C2∈ ρ − R∊ + S∊ (5) duct, respectively.
k
Wetted perimeter of duct is given by:
Fig. 5 shows the Nu comparison of different turbulence models
incorporated in FLUENT and Nu calculated for smooth duct using Dittus- Pw = 3*l (9)
Boelter correlation given by Eq. (6). It is worth mentioning that RNG k-ε
model gives least deviation from theoretical values as compared to other where l is the length of each side of equilateral triangular duct.
turbulence models. Flow velocity is deduced by Re and is expressed as:

Nus = 0.024*Re4/5 *Pr2/5 (6) Re = ρuDh /μ (10)

Nu is determined by following expression:
fs = 0.085*Re− 1/4
(7)
h
It is also noted from Fig. 6 that RNG k-ε model has an average de­ Nu = Dh (11)
λ
viation of 5.2% between simulated and theoretical values of f calculated
from modified Blasius equation given by Eq. (7). and the f is determined from pressure drop across the duct and is
The numerical outcomes of smooth triangular SAH duct from present calculated using the following formula:
numerical study and experimental results obtained by Rajneesh et al.
ΔP
(Rajneesh Kumar et al., 2017), have been contrasted to authenticate the f = Dh (12)
2Lρu2
CFD model used in current study. The comparison between Nu values

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Fig. 11. Turbulent Kinetic Energy contours at Re = 4000 for (a) e = 5 mm (b) e = 7 mm (c) e = 9 mm and (d) e = 11 mm, at a plane 13 mm from central plane.

NNER is computed using:

Nu
NNER = (13)
Nus
FFER is computed using:
f
FFER = (14)
fs
THPF is determined using NNER and FFER as given below:
( )
Nu
Nus
THPF = ( )0.333 (15)
f
fs

4. Results and discussion

Fig. 12. Variation of Nusselt number with at different Reynolds number for
different values of β. The proposed study is performed to compute the influence of baffle

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Fig. 13. Velocity vector plot at plane parallel to Absorber plate.

parameters such as open area ratio (β), baffle height (e) and flow Rey­ 11 mm and β is kept fixed at 23%, the diameter (d) of perforations in the
nolds number (Re) on the heat transfer and fluid flow attributes of baffles increases. For baffle height (e) of 5 mm, 7 mm, 9 mm and 11 mm,
triangular duct having perforated baffles with gap, in V-down pattern corresponding diameter of perforation (d) is 4.112 mm, 4.865 mm,
mounted underneath AP. 5.517 mm and 6.099 mm, respectively.
It is observed from Fig. 9 (a) that at e = 5 mm, streamlines of velocity
4.1. Heat transfer attributes vectors don’t get scattered and with such a small baffle height, baffles do
not impose any restriction in flow. Presence of blue colored streamline
4.1.1. Effect of baffle height (e) having smallest magnitude close to AP, fulfills the no-slip condition. At
It is quite interesting to see how the baffle height (e) (Raj Kumar the center of the duct, as expected, streamlines with maximum velocity
et al., 2017) affects the performance of SAH. To examine the effect, magnitude are noticed. For better heat transfer, it is desirable that
height of the baffle is changed from 5 mm to 11 mm keeping β = 23%, Pb streamlines with greater velocity magnitude run close to AP. As e in­
= 28 mm, α = 30◦ and n = 3, as constant. Reynolds number was sys­ creases, more and more obstruction to the primary or main flow is
tematically varied from 4000 to 20,000. offered and strength of secondary flow, which travels along the baffle
It is observed from the Fig. 8 that Nu expressed by Eq. (11), increases from its trailing edge to leading edge, improves. This secondary flow
upon increasing the value of e from 5 mm to 9 mm, becomes maximum during its course of flow along the baffles, also comes out in the form of
at e = 9 mm and thereafter, further enhancement in e, brings down the strong jets through the perforations and creates the disturbance behind
value of Nu, irrespective of flow Re. It is to be pointed out that the values the baffle at a stronger level. These jets also get mixed with the primary
of baffle height to hydraulic diameter (e/Dh) for baffle height of 5, 7, 9 flow which jumps over the baffle and is diverted to move towards AP. It
and 11 mm are 0.166, 0.233, 0.299 and 0.366, respectively. It is obvious is observed that, as the baffle height increases, as can be seen from Fig. 9
that for e = 5 mm, e/Dh has the least value and baffle with such height is (b) to Fig. 9 (d), center of the perforation moves away from the AP and
too small to act as flow obstruction element and the baffle remains because of more opening area in the form of perforations, relative
submerged in laminar sub-layer (Jain et al., 2019d). Therefore, greater strength of secondary flow increases. Fig. 9 (a) clearly reveals that the
turbulence level near the AP is not observed and laminar sub-layer re­ jets emerging from perforations reattach to the AP just behind the baffle
mains undisturbed leading the heat transfer to be minimum. and a very small recirculation zone appears past the baffle. For highest
As e/Dh increases from 0.233 to 0.299 upon increasing the e, Nu baffle height of 11 mm, relatively large recirculation zone appears
increases and becomes maximum at e = 9 mm. Such behavior of baffle is behind the baffle as can be seen from Fig. 9 (d). With such baffle height,
quite evident, as upon increasing e, baffle starts offering obstruction to primary flow gets severely obstructed. Moreover, the velocity of jets
main flow and disturbs the laminar sub-layer. The main flow passing coming out of perforations also reduces because of larger diameter of
through perforation in baffles in the form of high velocity jet, creates a perforations and tends to decrease the performance of SAH. Thus, it can
greater extent of turbulence in the inter-baffle regions and ultimately be observed from the Fig. 9 (c) that baffle with 9 mm height gives better
improves the heat transfer. For baffle height beyond 9 mm, baffle starts behavior of velocity vectors and minimum vortices behind the baffle.
acting as a blockage and consequently, heat transfer from AP reduces. This aspect is substantiated with the encircled part of Fig. 9 (a) to Fig. 9
Fig. 9 illustrate the axial flow velocity contours (Qader et al., 2019), (d), that magnitude of axial velocity of jets emerging from perforations
respectively, for different values of e at Re = 4000. The axial flow ve­ increases as e increases from 5 to 9 mm, becomes maximum at e = 9 mm
locity contours have been plotted on a plane situated at 13 mm from the and after that it decreases as e becomes 11 mm. Therefore, baffle height
central plane along the duct. As e is systematically varied from 5 mm to of 9 mm, turns out to be better, from heat transfer point of view.

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Fig. 14. Axial Velocity contours at Re = 4000 for (a) β = 20% (b) β = 23% (c) β = 26% and (d) β = 29%, at a plane 13 mm from central plane.

Fig. 15. Variation of Nusselt number enhancement ratio at different Re for different β values.

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Fig. 16. Turbulent Kinetic Energy contours at Re = 4000 for (a) β = 20% (b) β = 23% (c) β = 26% and (d) β = 29%, at a plane 13 mm from central plane.

Fig. 17. Variation of Friction factor at different Reynolds number for different e values.

Nusselt number enhancement ratio (Kumar, 2019) expressed by Eq. from 2.11–3.07, 2.27–3.25, 2.63–3.79 and 2.47–3.63 for different e
(13), is an important parameter which discusses how much augmenta­ values of 5, 7, 9 and 11 mm, respectively. Moreover, NNER achieves its
tion in Nu is achieved by mounting roughness on the AP compared to highest value of 3.79 at e = 9 mm and Re = 4000.
smooth AP without roughness. Fig. 11 (a) to Fig. 11 (d) depict the contours of turbulent kinetic
The change in NNER with change in value of Re for different e is energy (TKE) (Kumar and Layek, 2019) on the same plane, at which
portrayed in Fig. 10. It is noted that as Re is increasing from 4000 to axial velocity contours are plotted. Contours of TKE support and justify
20,000, NNER is decreasing, irrespective of e. NNER value is ranging Fig. 9. TKE is nothing but the average kinetic energy per unit mass and is

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the baffles and therefore, heat transfer reduces.

Fig. 14 demonstrates the contours of axial velocity (Qader et al.,
2019), plotted on a plane situated at 13 mm from the central plane.
Baffle height was constant at 9 mm along with the baffle length (l’) and β
was varied from 20% to 29%. Since, e is constant, it means the cross-
section area through which primary flow passes is also constant. But,
as β varies, the diameter of perforations increases and thus, the open
area available for secondary flow also increases. Obviously, for β = 20%,
diameter of holes is minimum, which results into the impingement of jet
at much higher velocity and in turn, develops greater turbulence in the
inter baffle region. A close observation of encircled part of contour plots
would reveal that the axial velocity of jets passing through perforations
is highest when β = 20% and it supports the earlier claim of having
highest heat transfer for baffles having 9 mm height.
Fig. 18. Variation of friction factor enhancement ratio at different Reynolds The change in NNER with change in value of Re for different β is
number for different e values. portrayed in Fig. 15. It is noted that as Re is increasing from 4000 to
20,000, NNER is decreasing irrespective of β. NNER value is ranging
supposed to be associated with vortices which are present in turbulent from 2.72–3.96, 2.62–3.78, 2.52–3.63 and 2.46–3.40 for different β
flow. It is observed that as e increases from 5 mm to 9 mm, core strength values of 20%, 23%, 26% and 29%, respectively.
of TKE increases. Secondary flow, which emerges from perforations at­ Fig. 16 (a) to Fig. 16 (d) depict the contour plots of TKE for fixed e of
tains higher level of TKE, as e increases, and it promotes greater mixing 9 mm having β varying from 20% to 29% at Re = 4000. It is noticed that
of jets like flow with primary flow and takes away significantly greater the strength of turbulence in the fluid flow is highest at β = 20%. One
amount of heat from the AP. It leads to a conclusion that the presence of can notice that the magnitude of TKE is highest for the jets emerging
V-perforated baffles generates the vortex flow and causes better mixing from perforations at β = 20%. Further increase in β, results into reduc­
of fluid and jet impingement, which turns out to be the main reason for tion in velocity of jets through perforations and thus, TKE level reduces.
enhancement in heat transfer. It is required that the level of TKE is maximum near the AP, because
ultimately the heat is to be carried away from AP.
4.1.2. Effect of open area ratio (β)
Open area ratio (Ambade and Lanjewar, 2019) of a baffle signifi­ 4.2. Frictional attributes
cantly affects the heat transfer and frictional behavior of the duct. Open
area ratio (β) is nothing but the ratio of area of openings provided in the 4.2.1. Effect of baffle height (e)
baffle in the form of perforations to the total area of baffle and is Attachment of baffles on AP as roughness, also invites a pressure
expressed as follows: drop penalty in terms of increased f expressed by Eq. (12), along with
increased heat transfer. Fig. 17 depicts the variation of f with different e
β=
n × π × d2
(16) for Re ranging from 4000 to 20,000. It is also observed that f has an
4 × l’ × e increasing trend with an increase in e, irrespective of Re. Reason can be
In order to investigate the effect of β on the performance of SAH, the ascribed to the fact that as e increases, more and more obstruction to the
number of holes on each baffle are kept fixed and β is enhanced by main flow is offered by baffles and therefore, f continues to increase with
adopting the larger hole diameter as e = 9 mm and baffle length (l’) is e (Ambade and Lanjewar, 2019). Highest value of f is noticed at Re =
constant. The center to center spacing between the holes is also kept 4000 at e = 11 mm i.e. 0.046.
constant along with Pb = 28 mm and α = 30⁰. Friction factor enhancement ratio (Jain et al., 2019a) expressed by
Fig. 12 represents the variation of Nu with Re when β is changed from Eq. (14), discusses how much augmentation in f is attained by using
20% to 29%. When the perforated baffles are used on AP of SAH (Cha­ roughness as compared to smooth AP without roughness. The variation
moli and Thakur, 2016), the flow in the form of jet emerges through the in FFER with change in Re for different e is portrayed in Fig. 18. It is
baffle holes and interacts with the main flow which passes over the noted that as Re is increasing from 4000 to 20,000, FFER has an
baffles and reattaches to the AP. As the main flow passes over the baffles, increasing trend, irrespective of e. FFER value is ranging from
it also gets accelerated because of reduction in the flow passage area. It is 2.00–2.16, 2.47–2.90, 3.47–3.82 and 4.32–5.13 for different e values of
important to mention that by providing perforations in baffles, form 5, 7, 9 and 11 mm, respectively.
drag is greatly reduced and the development of hot zones behind the Fig. 19 (a) to Fig. 19 (d) show the contour plots of eddy viscosity
baffles also reduces. With the mixing of jet-like flow passing through the (μt )expressed by Eq. (17), at the exit plane of test section for e ranging
perforations and the main flow trying to reattach to AP, the thickness of from 5 mm to 11 mm and Re ranging from 4000 to 12,000. It is identified
laminar sub-layer diminishes and results into higher heat transfer rates. that the magnitude of μt increases, as Re increases, irrespective of e. Of
As β is increased, more and more flow pass through the perforations and course, attachment of artificial roughness would be justifiable only if it
the benefit of reattachment of the flow with AP is considerably reduced. results into lesser level of eddy viscosity (Schmitt, 2007). Greater the μt ,
This attributes to decrease in Nu value with an increase in β, irrespective larger will be the fluid friction and more power would be needed to
of flow Re. pump the fluid through duct. Fig. 19 (d) reveals that with e = 11 mm at
It is also pointed out that angled baffles also lead to development of Re = 12,000, almost whole of the triangular duct passage at exit of test
secondary flow which travels along the baffle from leading edge to section is covered with μt contour with highest value. It reflects the
trailing edge and finally escapes through the opening provided at the greater loss in terms of increased fluid friction. However, for baffles with
center of baffles as shown in Fig. 13. This secondary flow, to certain 5 mm height, zone of high eddy viscosity is much smaller and is located
extent, is responsible for taking away the heat from front of the baffle predominantly at the bottom of duct passage. It results into much
and results into higher heat transfer from AP, which in turn is reflected reduced fluid friction and therefore, the baffle with 5 mm height offers
in terms of highest values of Nu at lowest β. Moreover, as β increases much lesser resistance to flow.
from 20% to 29%, velocity of jet emerging through the holes decreases, Eddy viscosity (μt )is given by following equation:
which leads to poor level of mixing of jet with main flow passing over

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Fig. 19. Eddy Viscosity contours at (a) e = 5 mm (b) e = 7 mm (c) e = 9 mm and (d) e = 11 mm for different values of Reynolds number, at the exit plane of
test section.

ρC μ k 2 turn, results into a decreasing trend of f with β. As expected, upon

μt = (17)
∈ increasing Re, the flow velocity through the duct increases, which results
into suppression of laminar sub-layer and therefore, thickness of
4.2.2. Effect of open area ratio (β) boundary layer reduces which leads to decrease in f at higher Re.
Attachment of perforated baffles on AP undeniably improves the The variation in FFER with change in Re for different β is depicted in
heat transfer, but also leads to an increase in f. Fig. 20 highlights the Fig. 21. It is noted that as Re is increasing from 4000 to 20,000, FFER has
variation of f with β at different Re. It is observed that as β increases, an increasing trend irrespective of β. FFER value is ranging from
more and more flow passage for the main flow through the holes is 3.84–4.09, 3.47–3.82, 3.23–3.48 and 2.99–3.21 for different β values of
available and therefore, the form drag considerably reduces, which in 20%, 23%, 26% and 29%, respectively.

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Fig. 20. Variation of friction factor at different Reynolds number for different β values.

Fig. 21. Variation of friction factor enhancement ratio for different β values at different Reynolds number.

Fig. 22 (a) to Fig. 22 (d) present the contour plots of μt for e of 9 mm 4.4. Comparison of proposed baffle pattern with other researchers’ study
having different β ranging from 20% to 29% at Re = 4000, 8000 and
12,000. As expected, at β = 20%, highest levels of μt are noticed, irre­ With the aim to ascertain the worth and usefulness of the proposed
spective of Re. It is quite logical because with β = 20%, form drag offered roughness i.e. perforated baffles in V-down pattern, suggested geometry
by baffles is highest and relative strength of primary flow is more, but is compared with roughness geometries investigated by other re­
vortex generation is also on higher side in baffles with smaller value of β searchers. Table 4 depicts the comparison of NNER, FFER and THPF
and it results into greater fluid friction. values. It is observed that the proposed roughness gives a maximum
THPF value of 2.54, which is greater than the THPF values of 0.857, 1.3,
4.3. Thermo-hydraulic performance factor 1.87, 1.97 and 2.24 asserted for rectangular baffles in continuous
manner (Menasria et al., 2017), perforated blockage in V-shape (Alam
The thermal and frictional behavior of a roughened SAH is articu­ et al., 2014), multiple baffles in V-shape (Promvonge, 2010), baffle in U
lated, in a realistic manner, by thermo-hydraulic performance factor shape (Bopche and Tandale, 2009) and perforated baffles in discrete
(THPF) (Webb and Eckert, 1972) expressed by Eq. (15). It compares the manner (Jain et al., 2019d), respectively. Thus, it can be ascertained that
NNER with FFER (Karwa et al., 2005). It is ascertained that the suggested artificial roughness can be advantageous than roughness ge­
attachment of artificial roughness is said to be feasible, if it achieves ometries examined recently.
high heat transfer rate with minimum pumping power requirement,
which is articulated when THPF value is greater than 1, irrespective of 5. Correlations developed for Nusselt number and friction factor
flow Re.
Figs. 23 and 24 demonstrates the variation of THPF with Re for The Nu and f values for the triangular solar air heater duct having
different e and different β values, respectively. It can be noted that by perforated baffles in V-down pattern are correlated as functions of baffle
attaching the suggested baffle pattern underneath AP gives better heat height (e) ranging from 5 mm to 11 mm and open area ratio (β) ranging
transfer from AP to air compared to heat transfer attained from smooth from 20% to 29% (0.20 to 0.29) for Re ranging from 4000 to 20,000
AP. It is further observed that THPF is maximum with a value of 2.54 at (velocity ranging from 1.97 m/s to 9.86 m/s) formulated as in Eqs. (18)–
e = 9 mm and β = 20%. (19), respectively. The plots of the Nu and f for the proposed ribs,

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Fig. 22. Eddy Viscosity contours at (a) β = 20% (b) β = 23% (c) β = 26% and (d) β = 29% for different values of Reynolds number, at the exit plane of test section.

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Fig. 23. Variation of Thermo-hydraulic performance factor at different Reynolds number for the range of e values.

Fig. 24. Variation of Thermo-hydraulic performance factor at different Reynolds number for the range of β values.

Table 4
Comparison of NNER, FFER and THPF for proposed roughness with other
roughness geometries.
S. Authors Roughness NNER FFER THPP
No. geometry

1. Menasria et al. ( Rectangular baffles 2.16 15.95 0.857

Menasria et al., 2017) in continuous
manner
2. Alam et al. (Alam Perforated blockage 2.2 5.2 1.3
et al., 2014) in V-shape
3. Promvonge ( Multiple baffles in 5.55 29.44 1.87
Promvonge, 2010) V-shape
4. Bopche and Tandale ( Baffle in U shape 2.82 3.72 1.97
Bopche and Tandale,
2009)
5. Jain et al. (Jain et al., Perforated baffles in 4.24 14.73 2.24
2019d) discrete manner
6. Proposed current Perforated baffles in 3.96 5.13 2.54
study V-down pattern Fig. 25. Plot of predicted Nu vs Nu simulation.

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S. Faujdar and M. Agrawal Solar Energy 228 (2021) 235–252

4. As Re increases from 4000 to 20,000, Stanton number shows a

decreasing trend on varying e as well as β.
5. Due to generation of vortices and enhanced level of mixing of pri­
mary flow with jets emerging through perforations, turbulent kinetic
energy is found to be maximum at e = 9 mm. While, on increasing β,
hole diameter increases, resulting in a decrease in turbulent kinetic
energy.
6. The friction factor shows an increasing trend on increasing the baffle
height owing to the reason that as baffle height increases from 5 mm
to 11 mm, the fluid faces an excessive blockage in the flow passage.
Whereas, upon increasing the open area ratio, the hole size increases,
resulting in a decreasing trend in friction factor.
7. The friction factor enhancement ratio is observed to be highest at e =
11 mm and β = 20%.
8. The thermo-hydraulic performance factor of proposed perforated
baffle geometry is found to be highest with a value of 2.54 at e = 9
Fig. 26. Plot of predicted f vs f simulation.
mm and β = 20%.

predicted by Eqs.(18)–(19) and measured data are depicted in Fig. 25

and Fig. 26, respectively. In the figure, the majority of the measured data Declaration of Competing Interest
falls within ± 8% and ± 5%, for the predicted Nu and f, respectively.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

[ ] [ ]
Nu = 4.29*10− 3 Re0.5574 (e)− 2.0415
*(β)− 8.8738
*exp 0.5441(ln(e) )2 *exp − 2.9522(ln(β) )2 (18)

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

the work reported in this paper.

[ ] [ ]
f = 4.9*10− 2 Re− 0.187
(e)− 1.4605
*(β)− 1.3489
*exp 0.6215(ln(e) )2 *exp − 0.2416(ln(β) )2 (19)

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to AICTE, New Delhi, India for providing
6. Conclusions financial support under Collaborative Research Scheme Vide Grant No.
CRS/1-5766820846 for carrying out the study.
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