FACULTY: ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING
Pract
MODULE TITLE: SOIL MECHANICS 2
MODULE CODE: (ECFMC2A)
STUDENT NAME: MKHABELE C
icum
STUDENT NUMBER: 214093425
SUBMISSION DATE: 20/06/2021
GROUP NUMBER: 05
EXPERIMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER
EXPERIMENT 1 1
EXPERIMENT 2 4
EXPERIMENT 3 12
EXPERIMENT 4 18
1
EXPERIMENT 1 (Pascal’s law)
INTRODUCTION
Pascal's law states that in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one
part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
APPARATUS
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
❖ Check the zeroing of the balance.
❖ Fit one of the glass vessels into the glass socket.
❖ Hook the mass hanger over the slot in the end of the lever arm and add various
masses.
❖ Measure and record the temperature of the water to be used for this experiment.
❖ Slowly pour water into the glass vessel until bubbles of water appear around the
pressure plate.
2
❖ Slide the marker along the stand rod until it is level with the water surface in the
glass vessel.
❖ Leave the marker in position and drain the water and measure its volume, noting
the mass used.
❖ Measure and record the distance from the pressure disc to the marker (h).
❖ Dry the pressure plate. 10. Remove the masses and re-zero the balance.
❖ Fit a new glass vessel into the glass socket.
❖ Pour the water into the vessel as before.
❖ Using the same mass as before repeat the experiment for all the glass vessels.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:
Sketched diagram
CALCULATIONS
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ
Where: w = specific weight of water (N/m³) at temperature = T°C h = head in meters (m)
3
For vessel 1
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ
𝑃 = (20×9.81)(0.104) = 20.405 N/m²
For vessel 2
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ
𝑃 = (20×9.81)(0.104) = 20.405 N/m²
For vessel 3
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ
𝑃 = (20×9.81)(0.104) = 20.405 N/m²
VESSEL 1 T = 17°C
M = 20g
V = 100ml
h = 104mm
p = 20.405N/m²
VESSEL 2 T = 17°C
M = 20g
V = 48ml
h = 104mm
p = 20.405N/m²
VESSEL 3 T = 17°C
M = 20g
V = 46ml
h = 104mm
p = 20.405N/m²
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS:
The results obtained ware not accurate due to the lab equipment. The tools we used to
conduct the experiment were old and some of them were not working well. However, the
students’ engineers tried their best to yield the best results. Therefore, the Pascal’s law
was proved to be correct.
4
EXPERIMENT 2
(Pressure on a submerged planer surface)
INTRODUCTION
Fluid force is constant at any depth but varies vertically. This force is calculated as liquid
weight per unit volume times the depth. The total force exerted by the liquid on the ring
section is non-uniformly applied vertically. When the quadrant is immersed in water it is
possible to analyse the forces acting on the surfaces of the quadrant as follows: 1. The
hydrostatic force at any point on the curved surface is normal to the surface and therefore
resolves through the pivot point because this is located at the origin of the radii. 2.
Hydrostatic forces on the upper and lower curved surfaces therefore have no net effect,
no torque to affect the equilibrium of the assembly because all these forces pass through
the pivot. 3. The forces on the sides of the quadrant are horizontal and cancel out. The
hydrostatic force on the vertical submerged face is counteracted by the balanced weight
W. 4. The resultant hydrostatic force on the face can therefore be calculated from the
value of the balance weight and the depth of the water.
AIM
To determine the exact practical expression for the relationship between the balance pan
and height of water exerting pressure on a partially emerged vertical planer surface of the
quadrant and to compare this expression with one developed from theory.
5
APPARATUS
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
❖ Level the tank using the adjustable feet and spirit level, Move the counter balance
weight until the balance arm is horizontal with the balance pan in place.
❖ Close the drain cock and admit water until the level reaches the bottom edge of
the quadrant.
❖ Place a weight on the balance pan, slowly adding water into the tank until the
balance arm is horizontal, Record the water level on the quadrant and the mass
on the balance arm.
❖ Fine adjustment of the water level can be achieved by overfilling and slowly
draining, using the stopcock.
❖ Repeat the above for each increment of mass until the water level reaches the top
of the quadrant face. Then remove each increment of weight, noting weights and
water levels until all the weights have been removed.
6
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:
Temperature of water = 17°C
a = 0.1m
b = 0.075m
Mass density of water = 998.8 kg/m³
FILLING TANK DRAINING TANK MEAN Moment Left Quadrant Position
Trial No Partial submerged
y<100mm
Height of water
Mass m(kg) Mass m(kg) Height of y (m) m y y² mgL
y(m)
Fully submerged
y>100mm
1 0,05 0,046 0,05 0,049 0,05 0,046 0,00212 0,1372931 partial
2 0,1 0,067 0,1 0,066 0,1 0,067 0,00449 0,2745862 partial
3 0,15 0,083 0,15 0,084 0,15 0,083 0,00689 0,4118793 partial
4 0,2 0,095 0,2 0,097 0,2 0,095 0,00903 0,5491724 partial
5 0,25 0,11 0,25 0,108 0,25 0,11 0,0121 0,6864655 fully
6 0,3 0,125 0,3 0,121 0,3 0,125 0,0156 0,8237586 fully
7 0,35 0,137 0,35 0,134 0,35 0,137 0,0188 0,9610517 fully
8 0,4 0,149 0,4 0,146 0,4 0,149 0,0222 1,0983448 fully
9 0,45 0,162 0,45 0,16 0,45 0,162 0,026 1,2356379 fully
10 0,5 0,174 0,5 0,174 0,5 0,174 0,03 1,372931 fully
7
Graph of M against Y
M agaist Y
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 0,5
Graph of M against y2
M vs Y2
0,035
0,03
0,025
0,02
0,015
0,01
0,005
0
0,025 0,05 0,075 0,1 0,125 0,15 0,175 0,2 0,225 0,25
8
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS:
consider the forces which result in turning moments of the beam and submerged part of
the model about the knife edged fulcrum. Liquid pressures on the curved surfaces act at
right angles to the curved surfaces, and the design of the model ensures that these forces
pass through the line of action of the knife edges and therefore do not exert any turning
moment.
9
EXPERIMENT 3
STEADY UNIFORM FLOW IN AN OPEN CHANNEL
INTRODUCTION
As in most flow problems it is often necessary to predict the rate of flow through a channel
of known physical characteristics (size, shape, slope, roughness etc.) In this experiment
the theoretical and empirical relationships of these quantities are compared with the
measured values in the channel for steady uniform flow, as defined below:
❖ Uniform Flow
Uniform flow takes when the velocity, in size and direction is the same everywhere. The
velocity can change with the time and the other condition may also change from point to
point and from time to time. Said for example, water flowing in a pipe of constant diameter.
For an incompressible fluid with a free surface this implies:
1. That the channel bed must have a constant slope.
2. That the depth of the fluid in the channel must be constant.
3. That the cross-section of the channel must be constant.
❖ Non-Uniform Flow
Takes place if the velocity in size and direction differ from point to point. Non-uniform
flow implies:
1. A fluid surface is not parallel to the channel bed because of variation in one or
both of the two follows factors:
2. That the depth of the fluid in the channel is not constant.
3. That the cross-section of the channel is not constant.
❖ Steady Flow
Steady flow occurs when the flow at any particular point in the system does not vary with
time. The velocity, pressure, density, and temperature remain constant from one moment
to the next.
❖ Unsteady Flow
Unsteady flow occurs when the flow at any particular point in the system does vary with
time. Unsteady flow is thus the converse of Steady flow.
10
❖ Laminar or Turbulent Flow
As with pipe flow, Laminar and Turbulent conditions are characterized by the
predominance of viscosity and cohesion forces respectively and the ratio of these forces
in the form of Reynolds Number is used as the criterion flow.
𝒘𝑽𝒍 𝒘𝑽𝒎
Reynolds Number (Re) = 𝒈𝝁 = 𝒈𝝁
Where:
w = specific weight of fluid
μ = viscosity of fluid
V = mean velocity flow
l = characteristic length for an open channel hydraulic mean depth (A = cross-sectional
area of flow and p = wetted perimeter of flow)
The lower critical value of Re is about 600 for an open channel, and it will be readily
appreciated that in all channels of engineering proportions there will be fully developed
turbulent flow.
Re can be calculated from any given flow of water knowing and obtaining and from tables
depending upon the water temperature.
Chezy’s equation
V = C√𝒎𝒊 - is the Chezy equation for steady uniform flow in a channel.
It was once asserted that f and hence was a constant dependent only on the surface
roughness of the channel. However, we know that the size and shape of the cross-section
of flow also influence it. These may be expressed in terms already used – Reynolds
Number (Re) and hydraulic mean depth (m).
Many expressions have been developed to relate these factors to the experimentally
observed results and reference should be made to textbooks specializing in open channel
flow for an extensive treatment of this subject. In this experiment we shall use the
expression attributed to Robert Manning to compare with our results:
𝒎𝟏/𝟔
C= 𝒏
Where:
n = Manning Roughness Coefficient
11
m= hydraulic mean depth.
The Manning Roughness Coefficient is not dimensionless and tables give accepted
values for various types of channel surfaces.
By applying the appropriate values of n and m in the formula a value of C may be obtained
to use the Chezy Equation. (NB! Before applying any of the above, remember that it only
applies to steady, uniform fully developed turbulent flow at high Reynolds Number)
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
The self-contained open channel unit has three main components:
❖ Sump tank/Pump
❖ The weighing mechanism
❖ Inclined channel and inlet tank
❖ Water
❖ A weight equivalent to leverage factor 1:3 of the tank
❖ Stopwatch
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Before commencing serious experimental work, thoroughly familiarize yourself with all
controls and instrumentation supplied.
12
Allow the channel to run full to ensure adequate “wetting” of the walls before commencing
experimental work. Wiping the inside faces of the channel with wet cloth while running
will help to “wet” the walls.
Set the outlet sluice gate in the closed position and approximately half fill the channel with
water. Close the delivery valve before stopping the pump, so that the water is retained in
the channel. While allowing the water to settle check that the instrument guide rails are
parallel to the channel base by using the depth gauges. Then set up the depth gauges
1.27m either side from the middle of the channel, and tilt the channel using the hand
wheel and screw arrangements, until the depth of the water is 6.35m greater at the
downstream depth gauge than at the upstream one. The channel bed now has a gradient
of 1/400 = i.
Open the sluice gate and switch on the pump. Adjust the position of the sluice gate and
the flow rate, to obtain a uniform depth of flow of about 12.7mm over the mid-length of
the channel. By careful adjustment it should be possible to set up constant depths to
within 2% of the depth measured. When satisfied that the flow is uniform and steady take
a measurement of the flow rate using the weighing mechanism and stop-clock. Record
this against the depth of flow. Repeat this procedure for a series of flow rates up to the
maximum delivery of the pump.
NOTE: There will be some disturbance of the inlet flow, particular at high flow rates, due
to the inevitable contraction of the flow in the inlet; the effects of this should not be
apparent beyond the first 915mm of the channel.
Depth measurements will start downstream of this point.
Check the width of the channel with round nosed calipers, being careful not scratch the
surfaces. Also take the temperature of water.
METHOD OF USING THE WEIGH TANK
❖ Water is flowing into the weigh tank with the flush valve open and the water
therefore passing directly into the sump tank.
❖ Close the flush valve.
❖ Apply weights to the weigh tank hanger until the weigh beam moves sharply down
to the lower stops. The weights should preferably be marked with figures
representing the actual weight of the water passing into the weigh tank.
❖ As water is now flowing from the channel into the closed weigh tank there comes
a time when the weigh beam will move sharply to the upper stop. At this instant
start the clock.
❖ Add a further known weight on the weigh tank hanger, which will bring the weigh
beam down to the lower stop.
13
❖ As soon as the incoming water causes the beam to rise to the top stop again,
instantly stop the clock. You now have a record of the exact weight of the water
that has left the exit of flow through the safety overflow pipe.
❖ Note: Especially that as soon as a note of weight and time has been recorded the
flush valve should be opened. Failure to observe this may cause the weigh tank to
overflow with disastrous results because the overflow pipe is not designed to cope
with maximum outflow from the channel. Execute several trail weighing of water in
the weigh tank. It should be possible to achieve a repetitive accuracy of better than
1 second over the same weight for 5 to 6 operations.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
❖ Depth of water d = 12.7 (m)
❖ Mass of water M = 10 (kg)
❖ Time t = 89 (s)
❖ Breadth of channel = 0.075m
❖ Temperature of water = 16°C
❖ Mass density of water = 998.9 kg/m3
❖ Leverage factor = 1:3
❖ Slope = 1:400
CALCULATIONS
FLOW
𝑀
Q =𝑝𝑡(m3/s)
𝑀
Q1 = 𝑝𝑡
10 x 3
=998.9x 89
= 3.374× 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 m3/s
AREA OF FLOW
A (m2) = depth of channel x breath channel
A1 = d x b
= 0.265 x 0.05
A1 = 0.0133 m2
WETTED PERIMETER p = B +2D (m)
14
P1 = B + 2D
= 0.0127 + (2x0.0632)
= 0.139 m
VELOCITY OF FLOW
𝑄
V = 𝐴 (m/s)
𝑄
V1 = 𝐴
3.374×10−4
= 0.0133
= 0.025 m/s
HYDRAULIC MEAN DEPTH
𝐴
m = 𝑃 (m)
𝐴
M1 = 𝑃
0.025
= 0.139
= 0.180 m
CHEZY COEFFICIENT
𝑣
C=
√𝑚𝑖
𝑣
C1 =
√𝑚𝑖
0.025
= 1
√0.180 x
400
= 1.179
The table below gives the values of the depth, mass, time and gradient obtained in the
experiment. The derived quantities are obtained in the following way
VALUES OBTAINED DERIVED QUANTITIES
M (kg) t (s) I mean Q(m3/s) A (m2) P (m) V m (m) C
d(m) (m/s)
10 X 3 48 1:400 3.010 0.626 × 10−3 76.454 0.167 0.118 0.021 16.286
15
10 X 3 31 1:400 1.684 0.969× 10−3 76.654 0.183 0.198 0.022 26.7
10 X 3 18 1:400 1.169 1.669 x 10-3 76.854 0.219 0.336 0.025 42.5
10 X 3 13 1:400 0.080 2.310 x 10-3 77.054 0.235 0.378 0.026 46.885
Calculating the values of C using Manning formulation, assuming the values for the
roughness coefficient (n) to be;
n = 0.010
n = 0.009
n = 0.008
n = 0.0075
Typical values for n are shown as follows
Surface N
kClean, smooth brick, stone or 0.010 to 0.017
wood
Smooth earth 0.017 to 0.025
Rough earth 0.025 to 0.040
Calculating the values of C using Manning formula where n = 0.010
𝑚1/6
C1 = 𝑛
0.021 1/6
= 0.010
= 52.525
Calculating the values of C using Manning formula where n = 0.009
𝑚1/6
C1 = 𝑛
0.0211/6
= 0.009
= 58.361
Calculating the values of C using Manning formula where n = 0.008
16
𝑚1/6
C1 = 𝑛
0.0211/6
= 0.008
= 65.657
Calculating the values of C using Manning formula where n = 0.0075
𝑚1/6
C1 = 𝑛
0.0211/6
= 0.0075
= 70.034
The table below gives the comparison between the values calculated and those
measured in the experiment, for the various values of the Hydraulic Mean Depth m
used.
FROM EXPERIMENT CALCULATED C using:
M Chezy C n = 0.010 n = 0.009 n = 0.008 n = 0.0075
0.018 21.317 51.193 56.881 63.991 68.258
0.0214 35.136 52.691 58.545 65.864 70.255
0.0238 44.856 53.633 59.592 67.041 71.510
0.0250 56.796 54.074 60.082 67.593 72.099
0.0258 54.039 54.359 60.399 67.949 72.478
The range of values if Reynolds Number (Re) used in the experiment may be inferred
from calculating:
𝑤𝑉𝑙 𝑤𝑉𝑚
Re (minimum) = =
𝑔𝜇 𝑔𝜇
998.9x 0.118 x (10 x 3)
= 9.81 x 1.002
= 359.740
𝑤𝑉𝑙 𝑤𝑉𝑚
Re (maximum) = =
𝑔𝜇 𝑔𝜇
998.9x 0.427 x (10 x 3)
= 9.81 x 1.002
= 1301.770
17
CONCLUSION
The variation of the mean velocity is controlled by the area of the channel, whereby the
greater the area, the greater the results in the mean velocity.
The Reynolds Number is controlled by the minimum and the maximum velocity, meaning
the lower velocity results in the minimum Reynolds Number and the greater the velocity
results in the maximum Reynolds Number.
Chezy Coefficient maximizes with respect to velocity, meaning the greater the velocity
will results in a greater value for the Chezy coefficient and again due to N value, the lower
the value of N results in the greater C value and vice-visa.
EXPERIMENT 4
NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN AN OPEN CHANNEL
(The change in depth at a Hydraulic Jump)
𝐈𝐍𝐓𝐑𝐎𝐃𝐔𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍
In this experiment we shall investigate the relationship between the flow rate in the
channel and the depths of flow on either side of the hydraulic jump.
Consider a rectangular channel of width b in which the rate of flow is Q and the flow per
𝑄
unit width is therefore q = 𝑏
Figure below shows the flow on either side of the hydraulic jump.
d2
d1 V1 V2
Applying the law of continuity across the hydraulic jump, and (if the flow is steady and
uniform, we may consider the flow lines to be substantially straight and parallel)
applying the hydrostatic force and the momentum equation across the hydrostatic jump,
we will obtain the following equation:
2q2
= d1d2(d1 + d2) …………………………………………………………………(1)
𝑔
18
It is of interest to note that equation 1 may be re-arranged in a form, which includes the
Froude Number of the flow upstream of the jump, namely:
𝑑 𝑑2
(2Fri)2 = 𝑑1 (1 + )……………………………………………………………….(2)
2 𝑑1
𝑉
Where Fr = Froude Number =
√𝑔ℎ
𝑄
V = mean velocity of flow = 𝐴
𝐴
h = mean depth of flow = 𝑏
𝑠
bs = width of the flow at the surface
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
The apparatus used in this experiment is the same as previously described in
experiment 1, with flow under the upstream sluice gate causing hydraulic jump.
APPARATUS:
❖ Sluice gate
❖ Sump tank/Pump
❖ The weighing mechanism
❖ Inclined channel and inlet tank
❖ Water
❖ A weight equivalent to leverage factor 1:3 of the tank
❖ Stopwatch
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
: Allow channel to run to full capacity to “wet” the walls before commencing work.
❖ Fill the channel approximately halfway, stop pump and close valve, tilt the
channel using the hand wheel and screw arrangement, until the depth of the
water is 6.35mm greater upstream than downstream. The channel bed has now
a gradient of 1:400.
❖ Open the sluice gate and switch on pump. Adjust the position of the sluice gate
and the flow rate, to obtain a uniform flow of about 12.7mm over the mid-length
of the channel.
❖ When satisfied that the flow is uniform and steady
❖ place the sluice gate along the open channel to achieve a hydraulic jump
❖ Take a measurement of the flow using the weighing mechanism and stop-clock.
Also measure the depth of the flow in the channel.
❖ Record this against the depth of flow,(d1 and d2)
19
❖ Repeat this procedure for a series of flow rates up to the maximum delivery of
the pump.
❖ Measure depths downstream from this point.
❖ Measure the width of the tank with a caliper and also the temperature of the
water.
❖ Water is flowing into the weigh tank if the flush valve is open, then water can
therefore pass directly into the sump tank.
❖ Close flush valve.
❖ Apply weights to the weight hanger until the weigh beam moves sharply down
to the lower stops.
❖ As water is now flowing from the channel into the closed weigh tank there
comes a time when the weigh beam will move sharply to the upper stop. At this
instance, start clock.
❖ As soon as the incoming water causes the beam to rise to the top; stop the
clock. You have now a record of the exact weight of the water that has left the
exit of the channel in a precise period of time.
❖ Repeat these steps with different flow rates to measure the time taken to fill the
weighing tank.
COLLECTED DATA:
Temperature of the water = 16°C
Mass density of the water = 998.9 kg/m³ at 16°C
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Temperature of water = 16℃
Density of water = 998.9 kg/m3
In the table below the depths upstream and downstream of the jump and the flow rates
are computed to give right and left hand sides of equation 1 respectively. These are
plotted in fig 2 together with a line showing the theoretical equality.
Upstream Downstream Quantity M Time to EQUATION 1
depth d1 depth d2 (mm) (kg) collect water RHS = 𝟐𝐪𝟐
LHS =
(mm) (s) d1d2(d1 + d2) 𝒈
57 25 5x3 10 1.169 x 10-4 2.942x 10-3
55 20 5x3 09 1.667 x 10-3 1.009 x 10-4
55 23 5x3 08 1.877 x 10-3 1.277 x 10-4
20
DEPTH VARIATION ACROSS AN HYDRAULIC JUMP WITH
0,0007
QUANTITY
0,0006
0,0005
0,0004
RHS
0,0003
0,0002
0,0001
0
0,000067 0,00012 0,00019 0,0022 0,0011
LHS
VALUE CALCULATED IN EQUATION 1 (RHS = d1d2(d1 + d2)
RHS1 = d1d2(d1 + d2)
= (0.057 x 0.025)(0.057 + 0.025)
= 1.169 x 10-4 m
2q2
VALUES CALCULATED USING THE LHS EQUATION (LHS = )
𝑔
2q2
LHS1 = 𝑔
𝑄
But q = 𝑏
𝑀
When Q = 𝜌𝑡
5x3
=
998.9x 10
21
= 1.502 x 10-3 m3/s
1.502 x 10−3
Therefore q = 0.075
= 0.0120
2 x 0.01202
AND LHS1 = 9.81
= 2.942 x 10-3
2q2
LHS2 = 𝑔
𝑄
But q = 𝑏
𝑀
When Q = 𝜌𝑡
5x3
= 998.9 x 9
= 1.669x 10-3 m3/s
1.669 x 10−3
Therefore q = 0.075
= 0.0222
2 x 0.02222
AND LHS2 = 9.81
= 1.009 x 10-4
2q2
LHS3 = 𝑔
𝑄
But q = 𝑏
𝑀
When Q = 𝜌𝑡
5x3
= 998.9 x 8
= 1.877 x 10-3 m3/s
1.877 x 10−3
Therefore q = 0.075
22
= 0.025
2 x 0.0252
AND LHS3 = 9.81
= 1.277 x 10-4
CONCLUSION
According to the graph some of the right-hand side values does not correspond with the
left hand side values so when applying the law of continuity across the hydraulic jump, it
proves that not all the values in the RHS = LHS.The RHS increases for some time and
then decreases and increases again as the LHS increases.
PICTURES FROM LAB
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24
25
26
27
28
29
