PHY 102: ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND MODERN PHYSICS

CHAPTER FOUR

MAGNETIC FIELDS AND FORCES

References
1. Contemporary College Physics 3rd Edition, by Jones/Childers.
2. Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics, by M. M. Kashimbila.
3. Previous Lecture Notes.

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MAGNETISM
In terms of applications, magnetism is one of the most important fields in physics. Large
electromagnets are used to pick up heavy loads. Magnets are used in such devices as meters,
motors, and loudspeakers. Magnetic tapes and disks are used routinely in sound- and video
recording equipment and to store computer data. Intense magnetic fields are used in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) devices to explore the human body with better resolution and greater
safety than x-rays can provide. Giant superconducting magnets are used in the cyclotrons that
guide particles into targets at nearly the speed of light, and magnetic bottles hold antimatter,
possibly the key to future space propulsion systems.
Magnetism is closely linked with electricity. Magnetic fields affect moving charges, and
moving charges produce magnetic fields. Changing magnetic fields can even create electric
fields. These phenomena signify an underlying unity of electricity and magnetism, which
James Clerk Maxwell first described in the 19th century. The ultimate source of any magnetic
field is electric current.
Experiments shows that current carrying objects exert force on each other. The force that exists
between objects due to the currents they carry is called magnetic force.

Recall
1. Like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
2. The direction of a magnetic field B at any location is the direction that the north pole of a
compass at that location would point.
3. Magnetic poles have always been observed to occur in pairs, never singly. Two opposite
poles form a magnetic dipole.
4. Magnetism is produced by electric charges in motion, such as electric currents and orbiting
atomic electrons.

Magnetic field
Magnetic field is a physical quantity used to represent magnetic force. A magnetic substance
is assumed to set up magnetic field throughout space and this field exerts magnetic force on a
magnetic substance placed at any point in space. Magnetic field is defined to be magnetic force
on a current carrying wire per a unit current per a unit length when the current is perpendicular
to the magnetic field.

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The magnetic force F experienced by a charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B
is given by
F = qv  B (41)
The magnitude of F is given by
F = qvB sin (42)
Equation (42) is used to define the magnitude of the magnetic field as
F
B= (43)
qv sin
The direction of this force is perpendicular to both v and B. If F is in newtons, q in coulombs,
and v in meters per second, then the SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T), also called the
weber (Wb) per square meter (1 T = 1 Wb/m 2). If a 1-C charge moves in a direction
perpendicular to a magnetic field of magnitude 1 T with a speed of 1 m/s, the magnetic force
exerted on the charge is 1 N. We can express the units of B as
Wb N N
 B = T = 2
= = (44)
m Cm s Am
In practice, the centimetre-gram-second system (cgs) unit for magnetic field, the gauss (G), is
often used. The gauss is related to the tesla through the conversion
1 T = 104 G (45)
From Equation 42, we see that the force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field has
its maximum value when the particle’s motion is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
corresponding to θ = 90°, so that sin θ = 1. The magnitude of this maximum force has the value
Fmax = qvB (46)

Also from Equation 42, F is zero when v is parallel to B (corresponding to θ = 0° or 180°), so

no magnetic force is exerted on a charged particle when it moves in the direction of the
magnetic field or opposite the field.
Thus, moving charges in the presence of magnetic field experiences a force. Also, a moving
charge or current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space. This means that a conductor
carrying an electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field. The right-hand rule can be used
to predict the direction of the magnetic force.
To use the right-hand rule,
1. First arrange the middle finger and the index finger of the right hand in such a way that the
index finger is directed in the direction of the velocity and the middle finger is directed in
the direction of the field vector.

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2. Arrange the thumb in such a way that it is perpendicular to both fingers
3. The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic force if the charge is positive and opposite
to the direction of the magnetic force if the charge is negative.

Example 16: A 4 μC charge is going north east in a uniform magnetic field of strength 2 T
directed towards east with a speed of 600 m/s. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic force acting on the charge.
Solution
q = 4 μC, v = 600 m s , B = 2 T, θ = 45° and FB = ?

FB = qvB sinθ

= ( 4 ×10-6 ) ( 600 )( 2 )( sin 45) = 3.4 ×10-3 N

FB = 3.4 ×10-3 N perpendicularly in x

The Lorentz Force

When a charge particle moves through a region of space where both electric and magnetic
fields are present, both fields exert forces on the particle. The total force F, called the Lorentz
force is the vector sum of the electric and magnetic forces:
F = q ( E + v  B) (47)

Example 17: A charge q = 40 μC moves with instantaneous velocity v = ( 5 ×104 ) j m s

through the uniform fields

E = ( 6 ×104 ) ( 0.52i + 0.56j + 0.645k ) V m

B = (1.1781i + 1.02j + 0.68k ) T

Find the magnitude and direction of the instantaneous force on q

Solution
F = q ( E + v  B)

( )
Where v = 0i + ( 5 ×104 ) j + 0k m s

E = ( 6 ×104 ) ( 0.52i + 0.56j + 0.645k ) V m

= ( 31200i + 33600j + 38700k ) V m

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B = (1.1781i + 1.02j + 0.68k ) T

q = 40  10−6 C

i j k
v×B = 0 5 ×104 0
1.1781 1.02 0.68

= i ( 5×104 ) ( 0.68) - 0 + j ( 0 )(1.02) - 0 + k 0 - (1.1781) (5×104 )

= 34000i − 58900k

 F = ( 40 ×10-6 ) ( 31200i + 33600j + 38700k ) + 34000i − 58900k 

= 2.61i + 1.34j − 0.81k

The magnitude of F is

( 2.61) + (1.34 ) + ( −0.81) = 3.04 N

2 2 2
F = Fx + Fy + Fz =

The direction cosines are

Fx 2.61
cos α = = = 0.86
F 3.04
Fy 1.34
cos β = = = 0.44
F 3.04
Fz − 0.81
cos γ = = = − 0.27
F 3.04
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
When a conductor carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field, each of the moving
charge carriers experiences a force due to the presence of the magnetic field. Since the average
drift velocity of the charge carriers are directed along the conductor, the forces associated with
the motions of the charge carriers are directed perpendicular to the conductor. The resultant of
these individual forces is equal to the net sideways force F on the wire element.
Suppose a conductor carrying a current I is placed in a magnetic field of intensity B. If a net
charge dq moves with an average drift velocity v d within an element of the wire, then the force

on the element dl of the wire is

dF = dq vd × B

dq
But I =
dt
dF = Idt vd × B

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The quantity dt v d represents the average distance of drift dl experienced by the electrons

during the interval dt. The combination Idt vd = I dl is called a current element, where dl is a

length element in direction of the current.

dF = Idl × B
This result is known as Ampere’s law. The magnitude of this force is given by
dF = Idl B sin θ (48)
Mostly written as
F = BIL sin θ

TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP

Consider a rectangular loop carrying current I in the presence of an external uniform magnetic
field in the plane of the loop, as shown in Figure 19. The forces on the sides of length a are
zero because these wires are parallel to the field. The magnitudes of the magnetic forces on the
sides of length b, however, are
F1 = F2 = BIb

The direction of F1, the force on the left side of the loop, is out of the page, and that of F2, the
force on the right side of the loop, is into the page. If we assume that the loop is pivoted so that
it can rotate about point, we see that these two forces produce a torque about the point that
rotates the loop clockwise. The magnitude of this torque, τ max is

a a a a
τ max = F1 + F2 = ( BIb ) + ( BIb ) = BIab
2 2 2 2
where the moment arm about the point is a/2 for both forces. Because the area of the loop is A
= ab, the torque can be expressed as
τ max = BIA (49)

This result is valid only when the magnetic field is parallel to the plane of the loop. If the field
makes an angle θ with a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop, the moment arm for each
force is given by (a/2) sin θ.

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 Figure 1: A rectangular loop in a uniform magnetic field B.
An analysis like the previous gives, for the magnitude of the torque,
τ = BIA sin θ (50)
This result shows that the torque has the maximum value BIA when the field is parallel to the
plane of the loop (θ = 90°) and is zero when the field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
(θ = 0).
Although the foregoing analysis was for a rectangular loop, a more general derivation shows
that Equation 50 applies regardless of the shape of the loop. Further, the torque on a coil with
N turns is
τ = BIAN sin θ (51)
The quantity μ = IAN is defined as the magnitude of a vector μ called the magnetic moment
of the coil. The vector μ always points perpendicular to the plane of the loop(s). The angle θ
in Equations 50 and 51 lies between the directions of the magnetic moment μ and the magnetic
field B. The magnetic torque can then be written
τ = μB sin θ (52)

Example 18: A current of 5 A flows in a straight wire in a magnetic flux density of 2 × 10-4
T. Calculate the force per unit length on the wire if it is perpendicular to the field.
Solution
F = BIL sin θ

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 = BI sin θ = ( 2 ×10−4 ) ( 5 ) sin 90° = 0.001 N m
F
L
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
If a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field so that its initial velocity is
perpendicular to the field, it will move in a circular path in a plane perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The radius r of the circular path can be found from Newton’s second law and
centripetal acceleration, and is given by
mv
r= (53)
qB
where m is the mass of the particle and q is its charge

Example 19: An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 3750 V. It
enters a region where B = 4 mT perpendicular to its velocity. Calculate the radius of the path
it will follow.
Solution
Since the magnetic force is always perpendicular to B and v it acts as a central force.
Furthermore, since there is no acceleration tangent to the path of motion after passing through
the potential difference, both v and F = evB are constant, which are the conditions for uniform
circular motion. The velocity v is obtained from
1
eV = me v2
2

2eV ( 2 ) (1.6 ×10-19 ) ( 3750 )

v= = -31
= 3.63 ×107 m s
me 9.1×10

mv ( 9.1  10 )( 3.63  10 )
−31 7

r = = =
qB (1.6  10−19 )( 4  10−3 )

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

The Biot-Savart Law:
A conductor carrying a current produces magnetic fields in the space around it. The magnitude
of this field at any point from the conductor can be evaluated using Biot-Savart law. It states
that for a very short length dl of a conductor, carrying a steady current I, the magnitude of the
magnetic field dB at a point P distant r from dl is

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 Idl sinθ
dB α
r2
where θ is the angle between dl and the line joining it to P as seen in Figure 20. The product
Idl is called a current element. In equation form, Biot-Savart law is written as
Idl sinθ
dB = k m (54)
r2

Figure 2
The constant km is the magnetic counterpart of the constant k that appears in Coulomb’s law
and has the value of
μ0
km = = 10 −7 N A 2
4π
μ0 = 4π  10−7 N A2 = Permeability of free space .
Equation (53) can be written in vector form as
μ 0 Idl  rˆ
dB = (55)
4π r 3
where r̂ is a unit vector directed towards point P.
Magnetic Field of a Long, Straight Wire
The magnetic field at distance r from a long, straight wire carrying current I has the magnitude
μ0I
B= (56)
2πr
Ampere’s Circuital Law
Ampere’s law is most useful for determining magnetic fields for situations in which the
geometry possesses a high degree of symmetry. It can be written as

 B  dr = μ I0 (57)

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Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
The force per unit length on each of two parallel wires separated by the distance d and carrying
currents I1 and I2 has the magnitude
F μ 0 I1I 2
= (58)
l 2πd
The forces are attractive if the currents are in the same direction and repulsive if they are in
opposite directions.
Magnetic Field of Current Loops and Solenoids
The magnetic field at the centre of a coil of N circular loops of radius R, each carrying current
I, is given by
μ0I
B= N (59)
2R
The magnetic field inside a solenoid has the magnitude
B = μ 0 nI (60)

where n = N l is the number of turns of wire per unit length.

Example 20: Two wires, each having a weight per unit length of 1 × 10-4 N/m, are parallel
with one directly above the other. Assume that the wires carry currents that are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. The wires are 0.10 m apart, and the sum of the magnetic
force and gravitational force on the upper wire is zero. Find the current in the wires. (Neglect
Earth’s magnetic field.)
Solution
Set the sum of the forces equal to zero, and substitute the appropriate expressions. Notice that
the magnetic force between the wires is repulsive.
Fgrav + Fmag = 0

μ 0 I1I 2
−mg + l=0
2πd
The currents are equal, so I1 = I2 = I. Make these substitutions and solve for I2.
μ 0 I2
l = mg
2πd

I2 =
( 2πd )( mg l )
μ0

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 ( 2π  0.10) (1.00  10−4 )
2
I = −7
= 50.0 A 2
4π  10
I = 7.07 A

Magnetic Materials
In general, whenever we place an object in a magnetic field, the object becomes polarized, that
is it develops a magnetic dipole moment. This polarization may be measured and used to
characterize the object. We define magnetization M to be the dipole moment per unit volume,
a vector quantity whose direction is that of the magnetic dipole moment.
The total magnetic field inside the object is the sum of the magnetic field arising from the
magnetization and the magnetic field due to electric currents inside and outside the material.
The ratio of the magnetization to the external magnetic field B that induces it is the magnetic
susceptibility per unit volume, χ.
M
χ = μ0 (61)
B
where B is the external magnetic field without the sample object present. When the field and
the magnetization are in SI units, the susceptibility is dimensionless.
The magnitude of magnetic susceptibility depends on the inherent properties of the material.
In fact, it depends on the very nature of the electronic structure of the ions that make up the
material. Generally, nonmagnetic materials are said to be paramagnetic or diamagnetic because
they do not possess permanent magnetization without external magnetic field. Ferromagnetic,
ferrimagnetic, or antiferromagnetic materials possess permanent magnetization even without
external magnetic field and do not have a distinct zero field susceptibility.
1. Diamagnetism: characterized by a small, negative susceptibility that is usually
independent of temperature and applied field. The negative indicates that the direction of
the induced moment is opposite to the direction of the applied field. Superconductors
belong to a special class of diamagnetic materials (Benzene, Silicon etc).
2. Paramagnetism: another common magnetic behavior is Paramagnetism, which is
described by a positive susceptibility that depends inversely on the absolute temperature:
C
χ= (62)
T
This equation is known as the Curie law, and C is the Curie constant. Each paramagnetic
material has a characteristics Curie constant. A typical example is Aluminium.

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Example 21: Copper sulphate is paramagnetic with susceptibility of 1.68 × 10-4 at 293 K. what
is the susceptibility of copper sulphate at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77.4 K) if it
follows the Curie law?
Solution:
C
χ=
T
χ ( T1 ) T2
=
χ ( T2 ) T1

293
χ ( 77.4 ) = χ ( 293 )
77.4
χ ( 77.4 ) = 6.36  10−4

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