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STEM12 - General Chemistry (Our Lady of Fatima University)

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CHEMISTRY II b. PRESSURE – increasing the pressure on a substance forces the
rd particles closer together, which increases the strength of
3 Quarter Reviewer intermolecular forces.
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL: LIQUID & SOLID • Increasing the pressure on a gas may change the state to
a liquid
Physical and chemical properties of solids and liquids: • Increasing the pressure on a liquid may change the state
to a solid
1. COVALENT BOND
a. Molecular shape KMT AND PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
b. Bond energies
c. Chemical properties 1. One of the most significant properties of liquids is that they
2. `INTERMOLECULAR FORCES are fluid and they can flow.
a. Physical properties of liquids and solids 2. The liquid particles having relatively more energy than
solid particles are what allows liquids to flow.
LIQUIDS 3. Liquids have definite volume, but not a definite shape.
4. Liquids have low compressibility; which means that
1. Intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold particles
compared to gases, there is little space between particles
close together
but with solids, liquids have greater space between particles
2. Liquids are more dense and less compressible than gases
3. Liquids have a definite volume, independent of the size and shape
5. On the molecular level, these two factors make liquids
of their container appear as disorganized.
4. Attractive forces are not strong enough. To keep the molecules in a 6. The types of intermolecular forces in a liquid depend on the
fixed position, the molecules are free to move past or slide over chemical makeup of the liquid itself.
one another or have the capacity to flow 7. The strength of the intermolecular force is related to the
5. More kinetic energy than solids type of intermolecular force, but it is also affected by the
amount of kinetic energy in the substance.
SOLIDS 8. The higher the kinetic energy, the weaker the
intermolecular forces of a substance.
1. Intermolecular forces are strong enough to keep particles locked in 9. Liquids have more kinetic energy than solids, so the
a position
intermolecular forces between liquid particles tend to be
2. Solids are not very compressible because of lack of space
weaker.
3. If the solid has an ordered packing arrangement it is called a
crystalline solid. KMT AND SOLIDS
4. Solids are rigid
5. Low kinetic energy = packed tight • Solid substances have definite shapes and volumes.
• Solid particles do move, but not very far!
GASES
• Solid particles have relatively little kinetic energy and
1. High kinetic energy vibrate in place. Because of this, they cannot flow like
2. Average speed of particles is 1000mph liquids.
• Most solids are arranged in a tightly packed crystalline
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY structure.
• The crystalline structure is comprised of an orderly,
Is a model used to explain the behavior of matter. repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice.
POSTULATES OF KMT:
The shape of the crystal shows the arrangement of the
particles in the solid.
1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This • In contrast to crystalline solids, amorphous solids do not
energy in motion is called kinetic energy. have orderly internal Structures. Examples of amorphous
2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is directly solids include rubber, plastic, and glass. Wax is also an
proportional to its temperature. amorphous solid. It can be molded into any shape and
3. There is a space between particles. The amount of space in remolded anytime is heated a bit.
between particles is related to the substance's state of matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
changes sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called • The attractive forces between particles.
intermolecular forces. The strength of these forces increases as • They are distinctly different from the bonds that occur
particles get closer together. within particles.
• The type of intermolecular forces depends on the type of
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: particles present.
• Depending on its strength, intermolecular forces cause the
1. The motion of gas molecules is rapid, constant, and random
forming of three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas.
2. Rules:
• The physical properties such as melting point, boiling
a. Gases consist of small particles that are apart, relative to their
point, vapor pressure, evaporation, viscosity, surface
size
b. Constant and random motion (never loses their energy)
tension, and solubility are related to the strength of
c. Elastic collision attractive forces between molecules.
d. No forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles
POLAR COVALENT FORCES
e. Kinetic energy depends on the temperature
a. TEMPERATURE – heating and cooling can change the kinetic 1. HYDROGEN BOND
energy of the particles in a substance, and so can change the • Hydrogen bonds occur between polar molecules
physical state of a substance.
that contain an electronegative oxygen,
• Cooling a gas may change the phase to a liquid
nitrogen, or fluorine atom covalently bonded to
• Cooling a liquid may change the phase to a solid
a hydrogen atom.

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 • The intermolecular attraction happens between molecules called London dispersion forces or
the partially negatively charged oxygen, dispersion forces.
fluorine or nitrogen and the partially positively
charged hydrogen of a neighboring molecule
• Hydrogen bonds are relatively strong
intermolecular forces.

2. VAN DER WAALS FORCE

• Van der Waals force, named after a Dutch
physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals
• is a force of attraction between two nonpolar
substances. Molecules can attract each other at
moderate distances and repel each other at close
range.
• The attractive forces are collectively called
2. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES "vander Waals forces." Van der Waals forces
• Dipole-dipole forces occur between the are much weaker than chemical bonds, and
oppositely charged poles of polar molecules. random thermal motion around room temperature
• Dipole-dipole interactions result when two can usually overcome or disrupt them.
dipolar molecules interact with each other
PROPERTIES OF A LIQUID
through space. When this occurs, the partially
negative portion of one of the polar molecules is SURFACE TENSION
attracted to the partially positive portion of the
second polar molecule. • The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are
• This type of interaction between molecules responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension.
accounts for many physically and biologically • The cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid are
significant phenomena such as the high boiling shared with all neighboring molecules. Those on the
point of hydrogen chloride, HCl. surface have no neighboring molecules above and, thus,
exhibit stronger attractive forces with their nearest
neighbors on and below the surface.
• Surface tension could be defined as the property of the
surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force,
due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
• Water molecules cling to each other. At the surface,
however, there are fewer water molecules to cling to since
there is air above (thus, no water molecules). This results in
a stronger bond between those molecules that come in
contact with one another, and a layer of strongly bonded
water. This surface layer (held together by surface tension)
3. ION-DIPOLE FORCES creates a considerable barrier between the atmosphere and
• Ion-dipole forces occur between an ion and a the water.
polar molecule. An ion will form an attraction • other than mercury, water has the greatest surface
with an oppositely charged pole of a neighboring tension than any liquid.
molecule.
• is the measure of the elastic force in the surface of a
• Salt water is loaded with ion-dipole attractions.
liquid. It is the amount of energy required to stretch or
Positive sodium ions are attracted to the negative
poles of water molecules. Negatively charged increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.
chloride ions are attracted to the positive poles of • It is manifested as some sort of skin on the surface of a
water molecules. liquid or in a drop of liquid.

• Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by

intermolecular forces. Molecules at the surface are pulled
downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward
away from the surface
NONPOLAR COVALENT FORCES • Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces also have
high surface tension.
1. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
• Use water as an example of a liquid with high surface
• A German-American physicist, Fritz London
tension as a result of H-bonds, which are strong
proposed a weak intermolecular forces that arise
intermolecular forces.
from the interactive forces between
instantaneous dipoles or induced dipoles in

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 why water will form a spherical droplet on a sheet of plastic, but • Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids
kerosene will spread? To minimize the surface area of water under extreme pressure often experience an increase in
viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible, an
increase in pressure doesn't bring the molecules
EXAMPLES OF SURFACE TENSIONS: significantly closer together. Simple models of molecular
interactions won't work to explain this behavior and, no
1. Walking on water: Small insects such as water strider generally accepted more complex model does. The liquid
can walk on the water surface because their weight is not phase is probably the least well understood of all the phases
enough to penetrate the surface of the water. of matter.
2. Floating a needle: A small needle even though it is • Viscosity is directly proportional with temperature; when
several times as dense as water that is carefully placed on temperature is increased the viscosity is decreased, vice
the surface of water will float. If the surface is agitated to versa.
break or decrease the surface tension, the needle quickly • Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher
sinks. viscosities than those that have weak intermolecular forces.
3. Clinical test for jaundice: Normal urine has a surface
tension of about 66 dynes/centimeter but if bile is present CAPILLARITY
(a test for jaundice), it drops to about 55. In the Hay test
(also known as Hay's sulfur flower test, which is a • Capillarity is the rise or depression of a liquid in a small
chemical test used for detecting the presence of bile salts passage such as a tube of a small cross-sectional area, the
in urine), powdered sulfur is sprinkled on the urine spaces between the fibers of a towel, or the openings in a
surface. It will float on normal urine but will sink if the porous material. Capillarity is not limited to the vertical
surface tension is lowered by the bile. direction. Water is drawn into the fibers of a towel, no
4. Surface tension disinfectants: Disinfectants are usually matter how the towel is oriented.
solutions of low surface tension. This allows them to • Liquids that rise in small-bore tubes inserted are said to wet
spread out on the cell walls of bacteria and disrupt them. the tube, whereas liquids that the liquid is depressed within
5. Soaps and detergents: These help the cleaning of clothes thin tubes below the surface of the surrounding liquid do
by lowering the surface tension of the water so that it not wet the tube. Water is a liquid that wets glass capillary
readily soaks into pores and soiled areas. tubes; mercury does not.
6. Washing with cold water: The major reason for using hot • Capillarity is the result of surface or interfacial forces.
water for washing detergent lower the surface tension, the The rise of water in a thin tube inserted in water is caused
heating may not be necessary. by forces of attraction between the molecules of water and
7. Why bubbles are round: The surface tension of water the glass walls and among the molecules of water
provides the tendency to minimize that wall tension pulls themselves. These attractive forces just balance the force of
the bubbles into spherical shapes. gravity of the column of water that has risen to a
8. Surface tension and droplets of water: Surface tension is characteristic height. The narrower the bore of the capillary
responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although tube, the higher the water rises. Conversely, mercury is
easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a depressed to a greater degree, the narrower the bore. Since
spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. the attraction between its particles (cohesion) is greater
than the attraction of mercury with the tube (adhesion)
VISCOSITY • Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like
molecules (the liquid molecules).
• Viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance • Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such
to flow. Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed as those in water and in the particles that make up the glass
objects through them as well as to the motion of layers with tube).
differing velocities within them. • W h e n t h e
• two quantities are called viscosity. The quantity defined
above is sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute
viscosity, or simple viscosity. On the other hand, a
quantity called kinematic viscosity (represented by the
Greek letter v "nu") is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to
its density. It is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid
under the influence of gravity.
• frequently measured using a device called a capillary
viscometer a graduated glass tubing with a narrow part on
one side. When two fluids of equal volume are placed in
identical capillary viscometers and allowed to flow under
the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid takes longer than a
less viscous fluid to flow through the tube.
• The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is the square meter
per second [m/s], which has no special name. This unit is greater than the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls
so large that it is rarely used. A more common unit of of the container, the surface of the liquid is convex.
kinematic viscosity is the square meter per second o Example: mercury in a container
[cm3/s], which is given the name Stokes [St] after the Irish • When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are
mathematician and physicist George Stokes (1819- lesser than the adhesive forces between the liquid and the
1903). One square meter per second is equal to ten walls of the container, the surface of the liquid is concave.
thousand strokes. o Example: water in a glass container
VAPOR PRESSURE

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• Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a • As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure of water
vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed also increases.
phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed • When temperature is high, more molecules have enough
system. energy to escape from the liquid. At a lower temperature,
• The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the
liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of liquid.
particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). • The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction,
• A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.
temperatures is often referred to as volatile.
• As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy
of its molecules also increases, and the energy of the BOILING POINT
molecules also increases.
• The number of molecules transformed into a vapor also • The vapor pressure is constant at a certain temperature.
increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure. • As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure increases.
• The normal boiling point is the temperature the equilibrium
vapor pressure is exactly 1 atm (760 mm Hg).
• The normal boiling point for water is 100°C, volatile
liquids boil at lower temperatures, such as chloroform,
CHCI, at 61°C and ethyl alcohol, CH, OH at 78°C.
• As the liquid boils, bubbles of vapor form throughout the
liquid. At the normal boiling point, the pressure of the gas
in the bubble is equal to the pressure outside which is 1 atm
and the bubbles rise to the surface and escape into the
atmosphere.
• Sometimes, a liquid is heated to its boiling point, but no
bubbles form, continue heating so that a liquid becomes
superheated, that is, the temperature of the liquid is higher
than its normal boiling point. A superheated liquid is not
stable and if more heat is added, bubbles then form and
• Gas molecules move in random directions, and collide with when it does, the vapor pressure in the bubble is greater
other gas particles and the walls of the container. Some will than 1 atm and the bubble expands very fast, causing hot
strike the liquid surface and condense back into it. In the liquid to spatter. This phenomenon is termed as bumping.
closed flask, none of the gas particles can get out of the • The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the
container, and eventually, the number of molecules that go liquid converts to a gas when the external pressure is 1
into the gaseous state would equal the number of molecules atm. The normal boiling point of water is 100oC.
that condense back. • The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external
• Liquid = vapor (gas)
pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100OC, but
• The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only 82
pressure of a liquid at a given temperature and that it is OC
constant at a constant temperature. It increases with • The higher the heat of vaporization the higher the boiling
temperature. point
• The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a liquid
in a closed container at a given temperature is called the MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
equilibrium vapor pressure or simply vapor pressure of
the liquid. • The heat of vaporization is the energy required to
• This is one of the relationships between variables that transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a
describe a gas: the pressure of gas is directly proportional substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often
to the number of gas particles present. atmospheric pressure).
• The greater the number of gaseous particles, the greater the • Liquids may change to vapor at temperatures below their
pressure exerted by the gas boiling points through the process of evaporation.
• Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state
changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in
temperature and/or pressure. It is an essential part of the
water cycle and continuously occurring in nature.
• boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the
liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles
within the liquid.
• Molar heat of vaporization is an important part of energy
calculations since it helps you to know how much energy is
needed to boil each mole of substances.
• The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of
the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the
intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy
to free the molecules from the liquid phase and the heat
of vaporization will be high.
• It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water
(higher Hvap) at a given temperature, and more acetone
escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature.
Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-bonding. It has

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 weaker intermolecular forces than water, and therefore polarity. As a result, the negative charges within water are
acetone molecules are held less tightly to one another in attracted to the positively charged ions, and the positive
the liquid phase. charges within water are attracted to the negative ions. This
allows the water molecules to dissolve ionic solids by
separating the parts, essentially trading the favorable ionic
interaction in the solid crystal with favorable ionic
interactions between the individual ions and the water
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS molecules Therefore, most salts are relatively water-
soluble.
ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY • Both salt and sugar are quite soluble in water, but because
• Electricity is a flow of electrons from one place to another of the differences between ionic solids (salt) and molecular
and in metallic bonds the outer electrons are relatively free solids (sugar), salt water behaves differently than sugar
to move between adjacent atoms. water. When salt dissolves in water, the positively (Na+)
• Materials that do not conduct electricity are called and negatively (Cl-) charged ions that compose the solid
electrical insulators. separate, creating a solution of charged particles. These
• Solids that have low heat conductivity are known heat charged particles can pick up electrons and transfer them
insulators across the solution, effectively conducting electricity.
MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY When salts such as ammonium sulfate dissolve, the ionic
• Malleability describes the ability to hammer a solid into a bonds between the ions break, but the covalent bonds
sheet without breaking it. holding the individual complex ions together remain intact
• Ductility refers to whether a solid can be stretched to form molecule By comparison, when sugar dissolves, each
a wire. individual sucrose separates from its neighbors but the
MELTING POINT sucrose molecules themselves remain intact and without
• Another way to deform a solid is to melt it. charge, so they do not conduct electricity.
• The stronger the interaction the higher the melting point is.
• Molecular solid; breaking the weak intermolecular forces DENSITY
(the forces between different molecules)
• a compound like sugar can be easily melted on your • Density, defined as the amount of mass per unit volume, is
stovetop. For network solids (held together by covalent another important property that depends on the solid's
bonds), ionic solids (held together by ionic bonds), and structure and composition
metallic solids (held together by metallic bonds), the • For example, metallic solids do not all share a similar
melting temperature depends on the strength of the specific arrangement of atoms. The atoms and molecules that
bonds in each solid. Some metals have relatively low makeup crystals can pack in many different ways, which
melting points, like mercury, which is a liquid at room affects density.
temperature (its melting point is -38°C), while others, such • Imagine a jar of neatly ordered marbles, with each dimple
as tungsten, melt only at extremely high temperatures between marbles in one row filled with a marble in the row
(tungsten's melting point is 3,422°C). Among network above. This closely packed arrangement leads to a very
solids, a type of quartz called tridymite melts at 1,670°C high density.
while graphite melts at 4,489°C, and among ionic solids, • Gold takes on approximately this type of packing, resulting
sodium chloride melts at 801°C while lithium bromide in its high density of 19.3 grams per cubic centimeter.
melts at 552°C. Ionic bonds tend to be weaker than • Now imagine another jar where the marbles are still neatly
covalent and metallic bonds, and for these reason, the ordered, but each marble is stacked directly on top of
melting points for these salts are somewhat lower than most another instead of in the dimple. This type of packing
of the examples of melting points of other substances leaves a lot more empty space in the jar because those
mentioned. dimples aren't filled, so if the jar is the same size as the first
jar, it can't hold as many marbles and is less dense.
SOLUBILITY • Lithium, which is the least dense metal at 0.534 grams per
cubic centimeter, is an example of this type of packing
• Melting is one way of changing a solid's shape. Another
process is dissolving a solid into some type of liquid, Some Essential Properties of Solids are:
referred to as a solvent. 1. A solid has a definite volume and definite shape.
• The extent to which a solid dissolves in a particular solvent Reason: The intermolecular force of attraction is very strong
is called its solubility. and the molecules are arranged in order.
• Dissolving a metal requires breaking metallic bonds, and 2. A solid is rigid and cannot be compressed easily.
dissolving a network solid requires breaking covalent Reason: Molecules are closely spaced and the intermolecular
bonds. Both of these types of bonds are very strong and separation is very small which cannot be reduced further.
hard to break. Therefore, metals and network solids are 3. A solid does not diffuse into another solid easily.
generally not soluble in water. (Diamond rings probably Reason: Intermolecular force of attraction is very
would not be as valuable if the band and the stone dissolve strong.
while the person wearing it is taking a shower.) 4. A solid does not flow and can be stored in a container.
• In contrast, dissolving a molecular solid requires breaking Reason: Intermolecular force of attraction is so strong that
only weak intermolecular forces, not the covalent bonds molecules do not flow and leave the surface of the solid.
that hold the individual molecules together. 5. A solid on heating usually changes into its liquid state.
• molecular solids are relatively soluble, as you might have Reason: Heating provides sufficient energy to molecules to
been able to guess why sugar is used in so many drinks. overcome the intermolecular force of attraction.
• to dissolve ionic solids, the ionic bonds between the atoms Intermolecular separation increases, changing the solid into
or molecules must be broken, which water does pretty well. liquid.
Each atom or molecule within an ionic solid carries a
charge, and water molecules also carry charges due to CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHUS SOLIDS

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 • Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric
patterns or lattices.
• Examples: ice and sodium chloride (NaCl),
copper sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite,
and sugar (C12H22O11)
• Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles.
• Examples: glass, plastic, coal, and rubber.

Crystalline solids, or crystals, are regarded as "true solids."

Minerals are crystalline solids.
Common table salt is one example of this kind of solid.
In crystalline solids, the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an
ordered and symmetrical pattern that is repeated over the entire TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
crystal. The smallest repeating structure of a solid is called a unit
cell, which is like a brick in a wall. Unit cells combine to form a
network called a crystal lattice. There are 14 types of lattices, called
Bravais lattices (named after Auguste Bravais, a 19th-century
French physicist), and they are classified into seven crystal systems
based on the arrangement of the atoms. The systems are cubic,
hexagonal, tetragonal, rhombohedral, orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic.

Crystalline solids also exhibits anisotropy.

In amorphous solids (literally "solids without form"), the particles

do not have a repeating lattice pattern.
They are also called "pseudo solids."
Examples: glass, rubber, gels and most plastics
An amorphous solid does not have a definite melting point; instead, it
melts gradually over a range of temperatures, because the bonds do
not break all at once. This means an amorphous solid will melt into a
soft, malleable state (think candle wax or molten glass) before
turning completely into a liquid.
Amorphous solids are unsymmetrical, so they do not have regular
planes of cleavage when cut; the edges may be curved. They are
called isotropic because properties such as refractive index,
conductivity and tensile strength are equal regardless of the direction
in which a force is applied.

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PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

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FORMULAS/COMPUTATIONS

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