Scientific Journal of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 2024, 7(2), Page:57-63

Recep Çağrı ORMAN1*

1Department of Machinery and Metal Technology, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Gazi University, Ankara, Türkiye

In this study, a 1D model was created using the Ricardo-Wave program for a single-cylinder, spark ignition, four-stroke, direct injection engine
with a stroke volume of 398 cc. Air-fuel ratio (AFR), mixture temperature (MT), and start of injection (SOI) were used as fuel injection
parameters. Using these parameters, 343 different cases were created. Brake power, thermal efficiency, and fuel consumption were used as
engine performance parameters. By holding one injection parameter constant, a contour plot was created to examine the effect of the other
two parameters on the engine performance parameter. According to the results, the effect of MT and SOI on brake power is 1%, the effect of
AFR on brake power is 9.6%, the effect of MT and SOI on thermal efficiency is 1%, and the effect of AFR on thermal efficiency is 12.8%. The
effect of MT and SOI on fuel consumption is 0.04%, the effect of AFR on fuel consumption is 22.9%, and the effect of AFR on brake specific
fuel consumption is 22.9%. These results indicate that the most significant effect is provided by AFR, while MT and SOI also have a slight
impact on engine performance.
Fuel injection, Internal combustion engine, Performance, Simulation

One of the greatest inventions affecting humanity is undoubtedly internal combustion engines. Although many
researchers have made significant contributions to the development of internal combustion engines, the historical
achievements in the development of the spark-ignition engine (1876) and the compression-ignition engine (1892) have
shaped the present of the global automotive industry [1]. These fossil fuel-powered internal combustion engines
provide approximately 25% of the world's power. Significant technological advancements have been made in internal
combustion engines, particularly in recent years. However, the reputation of internal combustion engines has recently
taken a significant hit, primarily due to high-profile emission scandals like the Volkswagen diesel scandal. These
scandals revealed that some manufacturers manipulated emissions testing to make their engines appear cleaner than
they actually are. This deception has not only damaged trust in these engines but also raised doubts about their
potential to contribute meaningfully to future emission reductions, as they have been shown to produce more
pollutants under real-world conditions than previously claimed. Consequently, there have been developments aimed
at replacing internal combustion engine vehicles with electric drives to further reduce fuel consumption and emissions
and decrease vehicle greenhouse gas emissions [2]. For example, in the United Kingdom, internal combustion engine
vehicles produced 23% of carbon dioxide emissions in 2010, compared to 14% in 1980 [3]. Although there has been a
transition from internal combustion engine vehicles to electric vehicles today, significant work continues internal
combustion engines. Society continues to rely heavily on integrated circuit engines for transportation, commerce, and
energy production. This is why motor research, with over a century-long history, is still vibrant today. Internal
combustion engines are used not only in the transportation sector but also in many areas such as pumps, lawnmowers,
chainsaws, and power generators [4]. Changes in motor technology and transportation energy demand, driven by the
need to increase the efficiency of internal combustion engines and reduce emissions, also affect future fuel
characteristics. The increasing energy demand for transportation is shifting towards jet fuel compared to gasoline [5].

Various simulation programs are used to develop internal combustion engines. Through simulation, the impact of
engine design parameters on performance can be observed [6]. 1D engine models are frequently preferred in engine
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
Burdur
Submitted: 23.06.2024 Revision Requested: 13.08.2024 Last Revision Received: 25.08.2024 Mehmet Akif Ersoy
Accepted: 11.09.2024 Published Online: 11.10.2024 University Press

Cite this article as: Orman, R. Ç. (2024). Effect of Fuel Injection Parameters on Engine Performance in
A Conventional Single Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine. Scientific Journal of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 7(2): 57-63.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.70030/sjmakeu.1503849 https://dergipark.org.tr/sjmakeu

Content of this journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
 Effect of Fuel Injection Parameters on Engine Performance in A Conventional Single Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine

analyses. Yontar and Doğu [7], in their study, created a 1D engine model alongside experimental work to observe the
impact of CNG and gasoline fuels on engine performance. A 1D model was created for all test equipment and the
engine using Ricardo-Wave software, and numerical engine analyses were performed. The same test parameters were
analyzed, and the same test outputs were calculated in the 1D engine model. Therefore, the test and 1D engine model
were used to measure the effects of gasoline and CNG fuels on engine performance and emissions for a unique engine
[7]. Claywell et al., in their study, used Ricardo-Wave software to investigate the performance of the three most
common intake concepts for a naturally aspirated four-cylinder Formula SAE engine, as well as the performance of two
variations of the basic concepts [8]. Deighan et al., in their study, presented an approach to model engine crankcase
gas flow using Ricardo-Wave software. The model was developed and validated using pressure and leakage data during
the design of a racing engine's dry sump version. The model was used to measure gas velocities, pressure fluctuations,
and power loss resulting from the pumping of crankcase gas [9]. Youssef et al., in their study, created a computer
simulation using Ricardo-Wave software to predict the performance and nitrogen oxide emissions of a diesel engine
running on a diesel-biodiesel blend and diethyl ether as a fuel additive. The model created was validated with
experimental data.

In 1D models, it is common to validate the engine operating conditions with experimental data. However, 1D models
can also be created to examine the impact of engine parameters on engine performance. Due to the numerous
variables in these models, it may not be possible to validate all obtained data. However, these models can be actively
used to observe the impact of a parameter. The main aim of this study was to examine the impact of fuel injection
parameters on engine performance in a conventional, single-cylinder, spark-ignition engine using a 1D model.

In this study, a 1D model was created in the Ricardo-Wave program for a single-cylinder, spark ignition, four-stroke,
direct injection engine with a stroke volume of 398 cc. The engine has two valves. The connecting rod/crank ratio is
3.66. The nozzle diameter of the injector is 0.2 mm and the working pressure is 2000 kPa. In the model, the case in
which the engine operates at a constant speed of 5000 rpm is examined. For reference, the air/fuel ratio is 14.5, the
fuel-air mixture temperature is 320 K, and the injection start is -100°CA.

Fig 1. Model created for the engine

The change of in-cylinder pressure and temperature to the reference values of the engine is as shown in Fig. 2. The
maximum pressure of the engine is 6300 kPa and the maximum temperature is 2650 K. The results of the engine
according to these reference values are among the examples tested in the Ricardo-Wave program.

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Recep Çağrı ORMAN

7000 3000 60 dT dP 10
Pressure
Exhaust Intake 9
6000 Temperature
2500 40 8
5000 7

Temperature (K)

Valve Lift (mm)

2000 20

dP/dθ or dT/dθ
Pressure (kPa)

6
4000 5
1500 0
3000 4
1000 -20 3
2000 2
500 -40 1
1000
0
0 0 -60 -1
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540
Crank Angle ( CA) Crank Angle ( CA)

Fig 2. In-cylinder pressure and temperature change for reference case

For this study, the injection parameters were air-fuel ratio (AFR) (0.5 step between 13 and 16), mixture temperature
(MT) (10 K step between 290 and 350 K), start of injection (SOI) (-130°CA to 10 steps between -70°C) are preferred.
343 full factorial cases were obtained for the parameters in the model. Accordingly, effective power, thermal efficiency
and fuel consumption values at 5000 rpm were examined. The term “mixture temperature” here essentially
corresponds to “fuel temperature”. The reason for insisting on using 'mixture temperature' instead of 'fuel
temperature' is to align with the terminology used in the program. Since the program evaluates parameters for both
port injection and direct injection, fuel temperature is referred to as mixture temperature. Actually, fuel temperature
is a parameter that directly influences mixture temperature. When fuel is injected into the compressed air, the mixture
temperature will decrease slightly due to the evaporation enthalpy of the fuel molecules. If the fuel is hot, some of the
energy required for evaporation will be carried into the cylinder with the fuel, which can slightly affect performance.
Although fuel temperature is not commonly used as a parameter in practice today, it is known that fuel temperature
increases due to pressurization. However, the fuel may cool down in the distance between the pump and the injector.
For this reason, mixture temperature has been deliberately considered a parameter in this study, and its impact has
been examined.

The effect of the three determined injection parameters on engine performance was shown by creating contour plots
while a certain injection parameter was at the reference value (AFR = 14.5, SOI = -100ºCA and MT = 320 K), and the
effect of the other two parameters on engine performance was demonstrated.

The effect of injection parameters on braking power is shown in Figure 3. Low AFR and high MT values improve braking
power. Figure 3a shows the effect of AFR and MT on braking power when SOI is constant. In this case, it can be seen
that MT does not have a significant effect on braking power. However, it is seen that the brake power increases for the
case where AFR is low. Figure 3b shows the effect of AFR and SOI on braking power when MT is constant. In this case,
it appears that SOI has no significant effect on braking power. However, it is seen that the brake power increases for
the case where AFR is low. Here it can be seen that AFR has a dominant effect on braking power. Figure 3c shows the
effect of MT and SOI on braking power when AFR is constant. In this case, thermal efficiency increases when MT and
SOI are low. A low SOI means the injection starts early. The effect of MT and SOI on braking power is 1%. The effect of
AFR on braking power is 9.6%.

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Scientific Journal of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 2024: 7(2)
 Effect of Fuel Injection Parameters on Engine Performance in A Conventional Single Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine

Brake Power (kW) Brake Power (kW)

350 -100 16.71
16.67
15.60
16.48 16.53
340 16.30 15.58 -105 16.34
Mixture Temperature (K)

Start of Injection (°CA)

16.30 16.34

330 -110
16.53 15.97
16.16
16.12
15.94
320 15.94
-115 15.97
16.48
15.79 15.79
15.76
15.76 -120 16.16
310
15.60
15.58
-125
300 16.12 15.42
15.40 15.42
15.40 -130
15.24
15.22
290 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0
13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0
Air-Fuel Ratio
Air-Fuel Ratio

(a) (b)
Brake Power (kW)
-70 16.61

16.45
16.59
-80 16.47
16.49
Start of Injection (°CA)

16.56

-90
16.54

16.52
-100 16.52
16.54
16.49
-110
16.47

-120 16.59 16.56 16.45

16.42
-130
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Mixture Temperature (K)

(c)
Fig 3. Effect of injection parameters on brake power

The effect of injection parameters on thermal efficiency is shown in Figure 4. High AFR and low MT values improve
thermal efficiency. Figure 4a shows the effect of AFR and MT on thermal efficiency when SOI is constant. In this case,
it appears that MT does not have a significant effect on thermal efficiency. However, it is seen that thermal efficiency
increases for the case where AFR is high. Figure 4b shows the effect of AFR and SOI on thermal efficiency when MT is
constant. In this case, it appears that SOI does not have a significant effect on thermal efficiency. However, it is seen
that thermal efficiency increases for the case where AFR is high. Here it can be seen that AFR has a dominant effect on
thermal efficiency. Figure 4c shows the effect of MT and SOI on thermal efficiency when AFR is constant. In this case,
when MT and SOI are low, brake power increases. A low SOI means the injection starts early. The effect of MT and SOI
on thermal efficiency is 1%. The effect of AFR on thermal efficiency is 12.8%.

The effect of injection parameters on fuel consumption is shown in Fig. 5. Low AFR and high MT values increase fuel
consumption. Figure 5a shows the effect of AFR and MT on fuel consumption when SOI is constant. In this case, it can
be seen that MT does not have a significant effect on fuel consumption. However, it is seen that fuel consumption
decreases when AFR is high. Figure 5b shows the effect of AFR and SOI on fuel consumption when MT is constant. In
this case, it appears that SOI does not have a significant effect on fuel consumption. However, it is seen that fuel
consumption decreases when AFR is high. Here it can be seen that AFR has a dominant effect on fuel consumption.
Figure 5c shows the effect of MT and SOI on fuel consumption when AFR is constant. In this case, when MT and SOI
are high, fuel consumption decreases. A high SOI means that the injection starts late. The effect of MT and SOI on fuel
consumption is 0.04%. The effect of AFR on fuel consumption is 22.9%.

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Recep Çağrı ORMAN

Thermal Eff. (%) Thermal Eff. (%)

350 32.62
-100 32.68
29.42
32.16 32.22
340 30.79 32.16 -105
Mixture Temperature (K)

Start of Injection (°CA)

31.71 29.91 31.76

330 -110 32.22

31.25 31.29 31.29

29.88 29.44
320 31.25 30.79 -115 30.83
30.83
30.33 30.37
310 -120 31.76
30.33 30.37
29.88 29.91

300 31.71 -125

29.42 29.44

28.96 28.98
290 -130
13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0

Air-Fuel Ratio Air-Fuel Ratio

(a) (b)
Thermal Eff. (%)
-70 32.26

31.96
32.21
-80 32.00
32.04
Start of Injection (°CA)

32.17

-90
32.13
32.08
-100 32.08
32.13
32.04
-110
32.00

-120 32.21 32.17 31.96

31.91
-130
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Mixture Temperature (K)
(c)
Fig 4. Effect of injection parameters on thermal efficiency
Fuel Cons (kg/hr) Fuel Cons (kg/hr)
350 4.792
-100 4.792

4.680 4.680
340 4.457 4.122 -105
Mixture Temperature (K)

Start of Injection (°CA)

4.569 4.569

330 -110 4.457 4.122

4.457 4.457

320 4.345 -115 4.345

4.569 4.680 4.345
4.233
4.233 4.233
310 -120
4.010
4.122 4.122
4.569
4.233
300 4.345 4.010 4.010
-125
4.010

4.680
3.898 3.898
290 -130
13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0
Air-Fuel Ratio Air-Fuel Ratio
(a) (b)
Fuel cons (kg/hr)
-70 4.293
4.291
4.293
-80 4.291
Start of Injection (°CA)

4.292

-90
4.292

4.292
-100 4.292

4.292 4.292
-110 4.292
4.291

-120 4.292 4.291

4.293
4.291
-130
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Mixture Temperature (K)
(c)
Fig 5. Effect of injection parameters on fuel consumption

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Scientific Journal of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 2024: 7(2)
 Effect of Fuel Injection Parameters on Engine Performance in A Conventional Single Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine

The effect of injection parameters on brake specific fuel consumption is shown in Fig. 6. High AFR and low SOI values
decrease fuel consumption. Figure 6a shows the effect of AFR and MT on brake specific fuel consumption when SOI is
constant. In this case, it can be seen that MT does not have a significant effect on brake specific fuel consumption.
However, it is seen that specific fuel consumption decreases when AFR is high. Figure 6b shows the effect of AFR and
SOI on fuel consumption when MT is constant. In this case, it appears that SOI does not have a significant effect on
brake specific fuel consumption. However, it is seen that brake specific fuel consumption decreases when AFR is high.
Here it can be seen that AFR has a dominant effect on brake specific fuel consumption. Figure 6c shows the effect of
MT and SOI on fuel consumption when AFR is constant. In this case, when MT and SOI are low, fuel consumption
decreases. A low SOI means that the injection starts early. The effect of MT and SOI on brake specific fuel consumption
is 0.04%. The effect of AFR on brake specific fuel consumption is 12.6%.

bsfc (kg/kW/hr) bsfc (kg/kW/hr)

350 0.2879
-70 0.2895
0.2852
0.2839 0.2852
340 0.2718 0.2569 -80
0.2766 0.2637
0.2590
Mixture Temperature (K)

Start of Injection (°CA)

0.2798 0.2809
0.2573
330 0.2839 -90
0.2758 0.2766
0.2637 0.2587
320
0.2758 0.2576 0.2718 -100 0.2680 0.2723

0.2565
0.2677 0.2809 0.2680
310 0.2596 -110
0.2637 0.2637
0.2798 0.2580
300 0.2677 0.2583 0.2596
-120 0.2723 0.2594 0.2594
0.2563 0.2558
0.2556 0.2551
290 -130
13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0
Air-Fuel Ratio Air-Fuel Ratio

(a) (b)
bsfc (kg/kW/hr)
-70 0.2613
0.2609
0.2609
-80
0.2606
0.2602
Start of Injection (°CA)

0.2606

-90
0.2599 0.2602

-100 0.2599

0.2595
0.2595
-110
0.2592
0.2592

-120 0.2588
0.2588

0.2585
-130
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Mixture Temperature (K)

(c)
Fig 6. Effect of injection parameters on brake specific fuel consumption

In this study, a 1D model was created in the Ricardo-Wave program for a single-cylinder, spark ignition, four-stroke,
direct injection engine with a stroke volume of 398 cc. Air-fuel ratio (AFR), mixture temperature (MT) and start of
injection (SOI) were used as fuel injection parameters. Using these parameters, 343 different cases were created. Brake
power, thermal efficiency and fuel consumption were used as engine performance parameters. By leaving any injection
parameter constant, a contour plot was created in which the effect of the other two parameters on the engine
performance parameter could be examined. According to the results, the effect of MT and SOI on brake power is 1%,
the effect of AFR on brake power is 9.6%, the effect of MT and SOI on thermal efficiency is 1%, the effect of AFR on

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Scientific Journal of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 2024: 7(2)
Recep Çağrı ORMAN

thermal efficiency is 12.8%, the effect of MT and SOI on thermal efficiency is 12.8%. The effect of AFR on fuel
consumption is 0.04%, the effect of AFR on fuel consumption is 22.9%, and the effect of AFR on brake specific fuel
consumption is 12.6%. Here it can be seen that the biggest effect is provided by AFR. However, MT and SOI are also
slightly effective on engine performance.

Recep Çağrı ORMAN https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7700-2800

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