S.NO.

Lecture Name

1. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Agroforestry Definitions,

Objectives, Potential And Distinction Between Agroforestry And Social
Forestry

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: - To Impart Knowledge About

Forest Definition, Classification Of Forest, Forest Types, Status Of Indian
Forest And Their Role In Farming System
3. LEARINING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Different Agroforestry
Systems, Subsystem, Practices, Afs Classification, Afs On Nature Of
Components

4. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Different Agroforestry Systems, Subsystem,

Practices, Afs Classification, Afs On Nature And Arrangement Of
Components (Contd…)
5. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Energy Plantation, Characteristics Of Tree
Spp. For Energy Plantation, Different Energy Plantation Species &
Advantages Of Energy Plantation

6. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Planning For Agroforestry –

Constraints, Diagnosis & Design Methodology

7. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Selectionof Tree Crop Species

For Agrofrestry.

8. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Different National And

International Institutes Working In The Field Of Agroforestry/Foresty

9. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To Know About Multipurpose Tree Species

(Mpts) And Their Management

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 LECTURE-1

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT AGROFORESTRY DEFINITIONS,

OBJECTIVES, POTENTIAL AND DISTINCTION BETWEEN AGROFORESTRY
AND SOCIAL FORESTRY

CONCEPT OF AGROFORESTRY

Agroforestry is an age old practice, indeed very old. Farmers of the tropical area
have long tradition of growing food crops, tress and animals together as well as
exploiting a multiple range of production from natural wood lots. Trees and
forests are an integral part of the Indian culture. The best of Indian culture was
born in the forests. Our rishis who evolved the Hindu philosophy, lived in forests
in complete harmony with the nature. In fact, so much has been said about trees
in our ancient literature that planting tree was being done by individuals on their
own along with agriculture crops. “Krishishukti” written by Maharishi Kashyap,
classifies land into several categories and identifies areas which are sustainable
for planting trees, all wet and dry lands and areas around houses, wells, tanks
are specifically identified for tree planting. But foresters and agriculturists, who
have traditionally operated within rather rigid disciplinary boundaries
concentrating on monoculture production of their preferred commodities of
crops, animals and trees used to ignore such combined integrated production
systems.

More recently, however, the forest area has receded and resources have shrunk
considerably. The people are no longer able to meet their requirements of
firewood, fodder, timber, bamboo, etc. from the forest. Due to shortage of wood
the prices of these commodities have, therefore, increased substantially. Many
forest based industries have been facing problems in supply of raw material.
Many farmers quite recently started planting trees on their farm lands to meet
these shortages along with agriculture crop; thus from the concept of
agroforestry it emerged out

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 • Agroforestry is collective name for land use systems involving trees
combined with crops and/or animals on the same unit of land. Further
it,

• Combines production of multiple outputs with protection of resource

base

• Places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs

• Is particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile
environments

• Involves the interplay of sociocultural values more than in most other

land-use systems

• Is structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture

AGROFORESTRY DEFINITIONS: -

• Agroforestry means practice of agriculture and forest/ horticulture tree on

the same piece of land. However, the agroforestry has been defined by
various workers working in the field of agroforestry. Some of the definitions
given by different workers are as follows:

• Bene et al. (1977) defined agroforestry as a sustainable management system

for land that increases overall production, combines agriculture crops,
forest plants and tree crop and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially
and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural
patterns of a local population.

• King and Chandler (1978): “Agroforestry is a sustainable land management

system which increases the overall yield of the land, combines the
production of crops (including tree crops) and forest plants and/or animals
simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and applies
management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the
local population.

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 • Nair (1979) defines agroforestry as a land use system that integrates trees,
crops and animals in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically
desirable, practically feasible and socially acceptable to the farmers.
• According to Lundgren and Raintree (1982), agroforestry is a collective name
for land use systems and technologies, where woody perennials (trees,
shrubs, palm bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used in the same piece of land
management units as agriculture crops and/or animals in some form of
spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems, there
are both ecological and economical interactions between the different
components.

Some of the basic ideas emerging from the definition of

AGROFORESTRY
• AF normally involves two or more species of plants (or plants and animals),
at least one of which is woody
• An *AFS always has two or more outputs
• Cycle of the AFS is always more than one year
• Positive and negative interactions are exhibited among components (tree,
crop)  Even the simplest AFS is more complex ecologically (structurally and
functionally) and economically, than a monocropping system

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 Plate1.1 Agroforestry components/Basic components of agroforestry
OBJECTIVES OF AGROFORESTRY

In all agroforestry land management there are two essential and related aims
such as

 The AFS should conserve and improve the site  Optimize the
combine production of tress, agricultural crops and animals
ATTRIBUTES OF AGROFORESTRY

There are three attributes which, theoretically, all agroforestry system possess,
these are:

 Productivity

Most, if not all, agroforestry systems aim to maintain or increase

production (of preferred commodities as well as productivity (of the land).
Agroforestry can improve productivity in many different ways. These
include: increased output of tree products, improved yields of associated
crops, reduction of cropping system inputs, and increased labour
efficiency.

 Sustainability

By conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly

through the beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils, agroforestry
can achieve and indefinitely maintain conservation and fertility goals

 Adoptability

The word “adopt” here means “accept” and it may be distinguished from
another commonly used word adapt, which implies “modify” or “change.”
The fact that agroforestry is a relatively new word for an old set of practices
means that, in some cases, agroforestry already been accepted by the
farming community. However, the implication here is that improved or new
agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas should also
conform to local farming practices

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POTENTIAL OF AGROFORESTRY:

The different aspects in which agroforestry can help in enhancing the

productivity of our lands to meet the demand of ever- growing human and
livestock population. are as follows:
Meeting the demand of food & fodder
• Enhanced food production from crops associated with trees through
nitrogen fixation, better access to soil nutrients brought to surface from
deep tree roots, improved availability of nutrients due to high cation-
exchange capacity of the soil and its organic matter and mycorrhizal
associations
• Food for man from trees as fruits, nuts and cereal substitutes
• Fodder for meeting rural needs

Water conservation
• Improvement of soil-moisture retention in rainfed croplands and pastures
through improved soil structure and micro-climate effect of trees
• Regulation of stream flow, reducing flood hazards and a more even supply
of water through reduction of run-off and improvement of interception and
storage in infiltration galleries.

• Improvement in drainage from waterlogged or saline soils by trees with high

water requirements.

Fuelwood and energy

• Fuel-wood for direct combustion
• Pyrolytic conversion products such as charcoal. oil and gas
• Ethanol produced from fermentation of high-carbohydrate fruits
• Oils, latex and other combustible saps and resins

Shelter from trees

• Building materials for shelter construction
• Shade trees for people, livestock and shade-loving crops

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 • Wind-breaks and shelter-belts for protection of settlements, crop lands,
pastures and roadways
• Fencing: live fences and fence posts

Raw material for industries

• Raw material for pulp and paper industry
• Tannins. essential oils and medicinal ingredients
• Wood for agricultural implements and various crafts
• Fibre for weaving

Cash benefits
• Direct cash benefits from sale of tree products
• Indirect cash benefits from increased productivity

Increased yield and maximized production:

Combining agriculture crops with trees helps in increasing the productivity of
the land by:
• Utilizing available solar radiations throughout the year and thus enhancing
total productivity
• Many leguminous tree species fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and return
much more in leaf fall than they take from soil.

• Leaves of tree species could be used as green manure and help the farmer
to increase soil productivity at optimum levels over a long period of time.
Diversified products:
• Several trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers yield a substantial quantity of
food materials which are used by rural poor and particularly by tribal.
• About 213 species of large and small trees, 17 species of palm, 128 species
of shrubs, 116 species of herbs, 4 species of fern and 15 species of fungi are
known to yield edible/food material.
• Thus, by adopting agroforestry one can get diversified products viz. fuel,
fodder, fruits, fibre, timber, etc.
• Agroforestry aims to maximize production of biomass of trees and
agricultural crops.

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 • Tree and agriculture crop production system is more productive and is
capable of meeting almost all the demands of timber, fodder, fruits, fiber
and firewood.
Utilization of wasteland and degraded land:

• In India approx 100 million ha area is under different kinds of waste land.
• These lands can be gainfully utilized for the cultivation of trees.
• Once the area is vegetated, ecological restoration process starts by means
of leaf litter decomposition etc., which leads to improvement in soil
condition.
• Once the soil is improved, this land can be utilized for agricultural
production.
Provides employment opportunities:

• Unemployment is the country‟s main problem.

• Agroforestry systems increase the employment opportunities.
• Plantation, including seed collection and nursery raising generate
employment of about 200-500 man days/yr.
• Wood based industries such as saw milling, furniture, sports goods, pulp
and paper, Match splints, bamboo and cane furniture, etc. are the important
sectors where rural youth get employment.

Increased farm income:

Agroforestry provides the farmers with large number of alternatives of

agricultural, forestry and horticultural crops and thus gives more income to the
farmers per unit of land than monoculture.

Carbon sequestration services and its influence on climate change.

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 One of the most important contributions of agroforestry in general is to
respond to climate change through sequestration of carbon in above ground
plant biomass and below ground biomass in the soils.

Potential reduction in the rate of deforestation

• Agroforestry reduced the annual rate of deforestation to a great extent.

• The ready availability of fuel wood in own farm reduces the burden on the
natural forests.

• The time that household/family members especially women would have

spent walking long distances in search of fuelwood in forests can be saved.

Improvement in soil health and insurance against climatic hazards

• Trees and shrubs improve the physical properties of soils.

• In particular aggregation is higher in fields where trees are being grown, and
this enhances water infiltration and water holding capacity of soils thereby
reducing surface run-off and soil erosion.

• As a result, trees /shrubs have the potential to reduce the impact of

droughts, a common seasonal phenomenon in most of the developing
countries where agriculture is mainly rainfed.

• The repeated application of tree biomass increases the soil organic matter
that leads to important increase in soil water retention capacity.

• The trees biomass also provide favourable environment for soil microbes and
fauna which in turn break down the biomass and release plant nutrients.

Agroforestry as a habitat for wild species

• Agroforestry can enhance connectivity and landscape heterogeneity in

multi-functional conservation landscape.

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 • Zomer et al., (2001) found that an agroforestry system viz Alnus nepalensis
and cardamom contributed to the integrity of riparian corridors for wildlife
conservation around the Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation
Area of eastern Nepal.

SOCIAL FORESTRY:

• Social forestry is the practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional

forest area for the benefit of the rural and urban communities.
• The term was coined by J.C. Westoby. It was first recognized as an important
component of forestry for meeting rural needs in the interim report of the
National Commission on Agriculture (NCA), 1976.
• The objectives of social forestry adopted by the NCA were to fulfill the basic
and economic needs of the community.
• The scope of social forestry defined by the NCA included farm forestry,
community woodlots and reforestation in degraded lands. By mid-1980, the
concept of social forestry was firmly established as forestry „for the people,
with the people and by the people‟ or forestry of the people, by the people
and for the people.

Social forestry includes within its scope the following:

a) Farm Forestry: Farm forestry is the practice of forestry on farms in the form
of raising rows of tree on bunds or boundaries of field and individual trees in
private agriculture land as well as creation of wind breaks, which are
protective vegetal screens created round a farm or an orchard by raising one
or two lines of trees fairly close with shrubs in between.

b) Extension Forestry—Extension forestry is the practice of forestry in areas

devoid of tree growth and other vegetation and situated in places away from
the conventional forest areas with the object of increasing the area under tree
growth. It includes within its scope the following:

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 i. Mixed forestry: Mixed forestry is practice of forestry for raising fodder
grass with scattered fodder trees, fruit trees and fuel-wood trees on suitable
waste lands, panchayat land and village commons land.

ii. Shelterbelts: Shelterbelts is defined as „a belt of trees and/or shrubs

maintained for the purpose of shelter from wind, sun, snow-drift, etc. they
are generally more extensive than the wind-breaks covering areas larger
than a single farm and sometimes whole regions on a planned pattern.‟ Or

Shelterbelt is wide belt of tree, shrubs and grasses which goes right across
the land at right angle to the direction of prevailing wind in order to

• Reduce wind velocity

• Deflect wind current
• Protect public properly in leeward side iii. Linear Strip
Plantation: These are plantations of fast-growing species on linear strips
of land on the sides of public roads, canals and railway lines.

c) Community Woodlots: The community woodlots, consists of plantations of

fuelwood species on community village lands, with intended objective of
increasing a villager‟s access to fuel wood, fruits and fodder.

d) Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests

As a third component, the interim report of the NCA, 1976 suggested

reforestation of degraded forests to achieve the following objectives:

1. To grow short rotation fuel and timber species for meeting the requirements.
2. To organize fuelwood supplies at reasonable rates, this will prevent pilferage
from neighbouring commercial forests.
3. To tie up degraded forest areas with the nearby rural and semi-urban
centers for their requirements of fuelwood.
4. To provide employment.
5. To rehabilitate the degraded forests in the process.

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e) Recreation Forestry

Recreation forestry is the practice of forestry with the object of raising

avenue/flowering trees and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests for the
urban and rural population. This type of forestry is also known as Aesthetic
forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing
or maintaining a forest of high scenic value.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SOCIAL FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY

SOCIAL FORESTRY AGROFORESTRY

1. Social forestry is a plantation made on 1. Agroforestry is a sustainable Land

lands outside conventional forest management system that increases
areas for the benefit of rural and urban the overall production, combines
communities, with objectives to agricultural crops, tree crops and
supply fuel wood to divert cow dung forest plants and/or animals
from village hearths to village fields, simultaneously or sequentially, and
small timber for housing and applies management practices that
agricultural implements and fodder for are compatible with the cultural
cattle of the rural population, living far patterns of the local population.
away from the forest area, protection
of agriculture by creation of diverse
ecosystem, and arresting wind and
water erosion. 2. Agroforestry is a system which is
2. It is thus the forestry of the people, by rather localized in its concept for
the people and for the people. managing the unit of land for
maximizes production of agricultural
crop and forest trees complimentary
with each other.
3. Planting of trees on massive scale is 3. Agroforestry is practiced mostly in
done on vacant land community land, farmers‟ field/own land.

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 roadside railway track and even 4. It involves integration of two or more
degraded reserve forest. than two components in a cultivated
4. Trees and shrubs are to be used to land.
harvest multiple products. 5. Agroforestry is also short rotation
5. Social forestry is a short rotation forestry.
investment.

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 LECTURE- 2

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: - TO IMPART KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOREST

DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST, FOREST TYPES, STATUS OF
INDIAN FOREST AND THEIR ROLE IN FARMING SYSTEM

IMPORTANT FOREST DEFINITIONS:

• General definition- Forest is defined as ‘an area set aside for the
production of timber and other forest produce or maintained under woody
vegetation for certain indirect benefits which it provides e.g., climatic or
protective.’

• In ecology point of view, it is defined as a plant community predominantly

of trees and other woody vegetation usually with closed canopy.

• In legal terminology forest is defined as an area of land proclaimed to be

forest under a forest law.

STAND

• Stand is defined as an aggregation of trees occupying a specific area

sufficiently uniform in composition, age, arrangement and condition to be
distinguishable from the forest on adjoining areas.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS: Forests can be classified on the basis of:

• Method of regeneration
• Age
• Composition
• Object of management  Ownership and legal status  Growing stock.

METHOD OF REGENERATION:

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 • High forest: Forest regenerated from seed

• Coppice forests: Forests regenerated by vegetative means such as

coppicing shoots or root suckers

AGE:

• Even aged or regular forests: Forest composed of even-aged woods and

applied to a stand consisting of trees of approximately the same age.
Differences up to 25% of the rotation age may be allowed.

• Uneven aged or irregular forest: Forest composed of trees of markedly

different ages and applied to a stand in which individual stem vary widely
in age.

COMPOSITION:

• Pure forest is defined as a forest composed of almost entirely of one species

usually to the extent of not less than 80%.

• Mixed forest is defined as a forest composed of trees of two or more species

intermingled in the same canopy.

Plate 2.1 Pure Forest of Cedrus deodara Plate 2.2

Mixed Forest

OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT:

• Production forest: Forest managed primarily for its produce’. It is also

sometimes referred to as national forest, i.e., a forest which is maintained
and managed to meet the needs of the defence, communication, industry,
and other general purposes of public importance’.

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 • Protection forest: An area wholly or partly covered with woody growth,
managed primarily to regulate stream flow, prevent erosion, hold shifting
sand or to exert any other beneficial influence’.

• Farm forest: Forest raised on farms and its adjoining area either as
individual scattered trees or a collection of trees to meet the requirement of
fuel and fodder of the farmers and to have a beneficial influence on
agriculture.

• Fuel forest: Forest raised on village waste land to supply fuel, small timber,
fodder, etc., to the village communities living far away from Government
forest.

• Recreational forest: Forest which is managed only to meet the recreational

needs of the urban and rural population.

OWNERSHIP AND LEGAL STATUS:

• State forest is a ‘forest owned by state’. On the basis of legal status, state
forests are further classified as:

 Reserved forest is ‘an area so constituted under the Indian forest Act
1927 or other forest law’.

 Protected forest: An area subject to limited degree of protection under

the provision of chapter IV of the Indian Forest act 1927’.

 Village forest: State forest assigned to a village community under the

provision of the Indian Forest Act 1927’.

 Communal forest: Forest owned and generally managed by a community

such as a village, town, tribal authority or local government, the members
of which share the produce’.

 Panchayat forest: Any forest where management is vested in a village

panchayat (i.e., a body of men elected by the villagers from among
themselves for specific administrative or other purposes pertaining to the
village)’.

GROWING STOCK:
• Normal forests: Forest which for a given site and given objects of
management is ideally constituted as regard growing stock, age class
distribution and increment and from which the annual or periodic removal

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 of produce is equal to the increment can be continued indefinitely without
endangering future yield.

• Abnormal forest: is the one in which the quantity of material in the growing
stock is in deficit or in excess or in which the relative proportion of the age
or size classes are defectives.

PRESENT STATUS OF INDIAN FORESTS (2009)

• The forest cover of the country as per 2007 assessment is

690,899km2/69.09 mha which is 21.02 percent of the geographical area
of the country.

• Very dense forest constitutes 83,510 km2/ 8.35 million ha (2.54%),

• The moderately dense forest 319,012 km2/ 31.90 million ha (9.71%) and

• Open forest constitutes 288.377 km2/28.84 million ha (8.77%)

• The scrub accounts for 41,525 km2/4.15 million ha (1.26%).

• Mangrove: 4639 km2/0.46 million ha (0.14%)

• Excluding the area (18.31 million ha) above tree line, the forest cover of
the country comes of 22.26 per cent

• Reportedly, hills and tribal districts, especially the North-Eastern (NE)

states, contributed significantly to this increase.

• Madhya Pradesh has largest area under forest cover followed by Arunachal
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa and Maharashtra

• Mizoram has maximum proportion of geographic area under forest cover

followed by Nagaland

• North-East region accounts for 25.11 per cent of forest cover

• Native forests in India are disappearing at a rate of up to 2.7 per cent per
year

• Very dense forest - All lands with tree cover of canopy density of 70% and
above

• Moderately dense forest - All lands with tree cover of canopy density
between 40% and 70%

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 • Open forest - All lands with tree cover of canopy density between 10% and
40%

• Scrub - Degraded forest lands with canopy density less than 10%

• Non-forest – Any area not included in the above classes

Plate 2.3 Pictorial illustration of different forest cover classes

FORESTS TYPES OF INDIA

Champion and Seth (1967) classified forests of India into 5 major groups
and further its is classified into 16 type groups
MAJOR GROUPS
1. Tropical Forests
2. Montane Subtropical Forests

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 3. Montane Temperate Forests
4. Sub-alpine Forests
5. Alpine scrub
1. Tropical Forests: This group has seven group type such as
a) Wet Evergreen Forest e) Dry Deciduous Forest
b) Semi-evergreen Forest f) Thorn Forest
c) Moist Deciduous Forest g) Dry Evergreen Forest
d) Littoral and Swamp Forest
2. Montane Subtropical Forests: This group has three group type
a) Broad-leaved Hill Forest c) Dry Evergreen Forest
b) Pine Forest
3. Montane Temperate Forests: This group has three group type
a) Montane Wet Temperate Forest c) Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest
b) Himalayan Temperate Forest
4. Sub-alpine Forests:
a) Sub-alpine Forest
5. Alpine scrub: This group has two group type
a) Moist Alpine Scrub
b) Dry Alpine Scrub

ROLE OF FORESTS IN FARMING SYSTEMS

Forests are known as the world’s air-conditioner and the earth’s blanket. Without
forests, this world would be an inhospitable place to live in. Forests play an
important role in environmental stability and provide a variety of benefits to the
economy. Of all the ecosystems, forests are the largest, most complex and self-
perpetuating. The maintenance of forests is vital for all sections of society
regardless of their stage of development. Forests perform various functions. Some
of these functions are:

1) Productive
2) Protective

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 3) Ameliorative
4) Recreational and
5) Developmental

1) Productive functions of the forest

Forests are valuable natural resources. The goods provided by forests are of
immense importance. Wood is a major forest produce and is used extensively for
various purposes. In India, most of the wood produced is used for construction
of houses, agricultural implements, bridges, sleepers, etc.
Wood is a universal fuel. For thousands of years, until the advent of coal, oil,
gas, electricity, etc., wood constituted man’s chief source of fuel. Even today more
than half of the total world consumption of wood is for fuel. Wood remains the
major source of domestic fuel in India. Out of the total requirement of 201 million
tones fuelwood, 103 million tonnes is met from the forest areas (including
plantations), which constitutes nearly 51 percent of the total requirement, and
the balance 98 million tonnes from farm forestry sector including plantation on
common land.
Forests provide raw material to a large number of industries, e.g., paper and
pulp, ply board and other boards, saw-mill, furniture, packing cases, matches,
toys, etc.
Out of 64 million m3 timber demand, nearly 31 million m3 comes from farm
forestry and other woodlands and 12 million m 3 from forests. The balance 21
million m3 is removed from plantations and from natural forests, largely (70%) as
small timber to meet the domestic need.
A large number of non-wood products are also obtained from forests. These are
commonly called minor forest products, not because they are of minor
significance, but because they are harvested in smaller quantities. Some of the
important minor forest products are as under:
a. Fibers and flosses
b. Grasses and bamboos

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 c. Essential oils
d. Oilseeds
e. Tans and dyes
f. Gums and resins
g. Drugs, spices and insecticides
h. Tendu and other leaves
i. Edible products
j. Lac and other products
k. Fodder and grazing

2) Protective and ameliorative functions of forest

i. Forests play a significant role in maintaining the CO 2 balance in the
atmosphere. Without sufficient forest cover, all the CO 2 released in the
atmosphere will not be utilized, resulting in a higher percent of CO 2 in the
atmosphere. This, according to scientists, will result in warming of the
world temperature, disturbance in the climate, melting of polar ice caps,
increase in sea levels, etc. The CO2 percent in the atmosphere has already
reached 0.042% against the normal of 0.030%. If this increases
continuously, higher temperature and other disturbances on the earth may
bring unimaginable miseries to mankind.
ii. Forests increase local precipitation by about 5 to 10% due to their
orographic and microclimate effect and create conditions favourable for the
condensation of clouds.
iii. Forests reduce temperature and increase humidity. The temperature in
forests is 30 C - 80 C less than in adjoining open areas. Reduced
temperature makes life comfortable. It also reduces evaporation losses. The
effect of forests on temperature is not limited to forests areas; it extends far
beyond the boundaries of the forests.

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 iv. Forests maintain the productivity of the soil through adding a large quantity
of organic matter and recycling of nutrients. The leaves of trees are used as
manure. Supply of firewood from forests releases dung for use, as manure.
v. Tree crowns reduce the violence of rain and checks splash erosion. Forests
increase the infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil, resulting in
much lower surface run-off. This in turn results in checking of soil erosion.
vi. Forests check floods. Forests conserve both soil and water. Forests prolong
the water cycle from its inception to the final disposal as run-off into
streams and ocean. The longer the water retained in the land, the greater
is its usefulness in nurturing crops and trees, and in maintaining a regular
supply of water in streams throughout the year. Forests increase
subsurface run-off which is much slower than surface run-off and the sub-
surface run-off does not cause erosion.
vii. Forests and trees reduce wind velocity considerably. Reduction of wind
velocity causes considerable reduction in wind erosion, checks shifting of
sand dunes and halts the process of desertification.

viii. Forests and trees provide a shelterbelt and wind breaks effect which is
beneficial to agricultural crops, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas,
and increase in agricultural production.

3) Recreational and educational function of forest

i. Forests provide recreational facilities to the people. A large variety of trees
and shrubs, animals and birds attract a large number of people towards
them. National parks and sanctuaries rich in flora and fauna are visited
by a large number of people every year.
ii. Forests provide an experimental area and laboratory for college and
university students. Forests provide sites for ecological studies.
iii. Forests have a natural healing effect for a number of diseases. Most of the
sanatoria are found in a forested locality.

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4) Developmental functions of forest
i. Forests provide employment to a large number of people. Almost all
forestry activities are labour intensive and provide considerable
employment in primary and secondary sectors.
ii. Forests and various forest activities help tribals to improve their
socioeconomic condition through collection, processing and marketing of
various forest products and by providing gainful employment. Forestry is
an important activity in an alleviation programme.
iii. Forests provide a good sum as revenue to the government which is used
for various developmental works. During 1985, forests provide revenue
worth.
iv. Forests help in biological rejuvenation of soils. Trees through their sturdy
root structures open the soil; improve it by adding organic litter or humus
rendering it hospitable to useful micro and macro flora and fauna.
v. Trees provide subsistence products, like fodder and other non-wood forest
products nearly 30% of the fodder requirement of the country comes from
the forest areas. There is removal to the extent of 145 million tonnes of
dry fodder and 178 million tonnes of green fodder annually from the forest
areas.

vi. In semi-arid regions trees increase soil productivity and land

sustainability through nutrient recycling and by providing mulch and
shade for crops, thus complement agricultural production.
vii. The most widespread benefit from keeping trees on farms is the soil
enriching effect of trees and protection against erosion.
viii. Trees are planted on farm boundaries, or inter-cropped with field crops
with a view to get supplementary income from trees without much loss of
the main crops.
ix. Homestead plantation increases overall income from land.
x. Where income from agriculture is uncertain and inadequate and there is
little possibility for farmer to seek work outside the village; in such

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 conditions, even small farmers shift their lands to trees, which demand
less labour and concentrate on wage labour for meeting their immediate
consumption needs.
xi. Where trees substitute agricultural crops for increasing total profits from
land.

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 LECTURE-3

LEARINING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT DIFFERENT

AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS, SUBSYSTEM, PRACTICES, AFS
CLASSIFICATION, AFS ON NATURE OF COMPONENTS

Different types of agroforestry systems exist in different parts of the world.

These systems are highly diverse and complex in character and function.
Classification of agroforestry system is necessary in order to provide a
framework for evaluating the system and developing action plan for their
improvement. Several criteria can be used in classifying them but most
common includes the system structure, function, socioeconomic scale of
management, ecological spread etc. According to the potential, there are
many different systems of agroforestry. In agroforestry the terms like system,
sub-system and practices are commonly used. Therefore, these terms require
proper definitions in agroforestry languages:

System:

• System refers to a group of physical components, i.e. an assemblage of

objects connected or related in such a manner so as to form and/or act
as a unit; e.g. ecosystem which consists of living organism and their
non-living environment with which they are inseparably interrelated.
• In land use terms, a system refers to a type of land use specific to an
area and described according to its biotechnical composition and
arrangement, level of technical management of socio-economic
features; e.g. rice production system, plantation crop systems.

Sub-system:

• Sub-system indicates a lower order hierarchy of the system.

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 • It refers to a part of system, with more or less restricted role, content
and complexity than the system itself.
• A sub-system produces a defined ‘basic needs’ as its major output, so
that there can be a food sub-system, an energy production sub-system
and cash sub-system.

Practices:

• Practices in agroforestry denote specific land management operations

of any nature, carried out on a farm or other management unit.
• Such practices are involved in the constitution and maintenance of an
agroforestry system; e.g. alley cropping, boundary plantations of trees
and shrubs, shelterbelts and windbreaks, etc.

Why classification:

• It include logical way of grouping the major factors on which production

of the system will depend

• It indicate how system is managed

• It offer flexibility for regrouping the information
• We usually understood and readily handled
CRITERIA /BASIS FOR AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM CLASIIFICATION

Combe (1982) proposed 24 agroforestry systems based on three type

of association of the trees with crops, with pastures and with both crops
and pastures); two major functions of the tree components (production
and protection); two spatial arrangements (regular and irregular); and
two types of temporal association (temporary and permanent).

The most obvious and easy-to-use criteria for classifying agroforestry

systems are the spatial and temporal arrangement of components, the
importance and role of components, the production aims or outputs
from the system, and the social and economic features. They

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 correspond to the systems' structure, function (output), socioeconomic
nature, or ecological (environmental) spread. These characteristics also
represent the main purpose of a classification scheme. Therefore
agroforestry systems can be categorized according to these sets of
criteria:

• Structural basis
• Functional basis
• Socioeconomic basis
• Ecological basis

Agroforestry systems classification (Combe, 1982)

Kinds of associated agricultural products)

Agrosilvi Silvopas Agrosil Agro Silvo Agro

culture toral vopast silvic pasto silvo
oral ulture ral pasto
ral

Permanent Production

Protection

Temporary Production

Protection

Regular Irregular

Spatial distribution

Fig. 3.1(a) Agroforestry systems classification, Combe (1982)

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 Agroforestry systems-detailed classification (Combe,
1982)
Kinds of associated agricultural products)

AS SA SAq PS SP ASP AS SA SAq PS SP ASP

Perm Prod
anent .

Prot.

temp Prod
ory .

Prot.

Regular Irregular

Spatial distribution

Fig. 3.1(b) Agroforestry systems classification, Combe (1982)

100 % 100 %
agriculture forestry

% land
% land
allocation
allocation

• Relative allocation of land under agricultural, forestry and agroforestry production

•(after Vergera, 1982)

Fig. 3.2 Agroforestry system on relative allocation of land for

components

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  Vergera (1982) considered the relative allocation of land, trees, crops,
pastures in various agroforestry systems.

Fig. 3.3 Agroforestry systems on basis of relative dominance of

components

 Tejwani (1987) suggested a classification which among the other things

also took into account relative dominance of trees or crops/pastures

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 Fig. Agroforestry Systems

Fig. 3.4 Agroforestry systems based on different criteria

CLASSIFICATION OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS (NAIR, 1985)

 Structural basis: refers to the composition of the components, including

spatial arrangement of the woody component, vertical stratification of all
the components, and temporal arrangement of the different components.
Hence on the basis of structure agroforestry system can be grouped into
two categories.

A) Nature of components

B) Arrangement of components

A) Nature of components: Based on nature of component agroforestry

systems can be classified into following categories

• Agrisilviculture systems/ silviagriculture/ agrosilviculture

• Silvopastoral systems/ silvipastoral

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 • Agrosilvopastoral systems/ agrisilvipastoral

• Other systems
• Note: Nomenclature of the system depends upon the prime importance
of the component and the component given lot of space placed first in
any agroforestry system for eg. Agrisilviculture in which prime
component is agriculture crop.

• Agrosilviculture has a wide applicability and it covers in its scope

integration of different components of farming system for eg.
Vegetables, pulses, oil seed crops, cereals etc.

• Whereas agrisilviculture restricted only to integration of cereals with

the tree crop

Plate 3.1 Classification of agroforestry systems on the basis of nature of

components

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 I. Agrisilviculture/Silviagriculture/Agrosilviculture

This system involves the conscious and deliberate use of land for the
concurrent production of agricultural crops including tree, crops and forest
crops. Based on the nature of the components this system can be grouped
into various forms:

a) Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation

b) The Taungya system
c) Multispecies tree gardens
d) Alley cropping (Hedgrow intercropping)
e) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands
f) Crops combinations with plantation crops
g) Agroforestry for fuelwood production
h) Shelter belts
i) Wind breaks
j) Soil conservation hedges etc.

a) Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation:

Shifting cultivation:

• It is prevalent in many parts of Africa, Latin America, South-East Asia

and Indian subcontinent.

• In India it is prevalent in Assam, Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Manipur,

Orissa, Nagaland, Chattisgarh, M.P., Arunanchal Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Kerala, West Bengal, Sikkim.

• It is known as ‘jhuming’ in North-east, ‘khallu / kurwa’ in Jharkhand

and ‘dahiya’ or ‘podo’ in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh.

• In this system, forest patch is selected and cleared felled. The herbs,
shrubs and twigs and branches (slashed vegetation) are burnt
.Cultivation of crops is done for a few years until soil fertility declines.
The site is than abandoned (fallow period) and new patch is selected for

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 cultivation of crops. The site is again cultivated after giving rest for few
years.

• Earlier the fallow cycle was of 20–30 year. However, due to increasing
requirement for cultivation of land due to population pressure, fallow
period has reduced from 25–30 years to 2–3 years which has broken
down the resilience of ecosystem and the land is increasingly
deteriorating. Thus now shifting cultivation has become source of
ecological degradation, soil erosion and converting good forests into
wastelands.

Plate 3.2 Shifting cultivation

Effect of shifting cultivation

• Deforestation and denudation of hill slopes-in secondary succession,

area is occupied by weeds, useless shrubs etc
• Soil erosion which leads to soil and nutrient losses, silting of reservoirs
and streams, reduction in water-yield and landslips and landslides
• Shifting cultivation adversely affects cation exchange capacity and
physical properties of soil. It leads to lowering of organic matter and
lowering the total quantity of sesquioxides, iron, aluminum, calcium,
potassium, phosphorus, etc.
• Increases soil pH and reducing microbial activity

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 • More weed growth and lower crop yield
• No opportunity for infrastructural development

Controlling shifting cultivation

• Motivate public for permanent agriculture by opening demonstration

centers for improved agricultural practices, good quality seed,
manuring, irrigation, weeding use of improved tools, terracing etc.
• Earning goodwill of local people: By engaging them in forest work and
training them to undertake shifting cultivation on scientific lines.
• Arable land can be provided to the tribals for carrying out agriculture
and also to settle in the area; a few schemes are being implemented
under integrated tribal development programme
• Legal measures: on steep slopes, near to roadside etc
• Using land according to its capability
• Provision of alternative management
• Development of animal husbandry and dairy farming
• Training of artisans and development of handicrafts
• Employment in forest works and other industries
• Providing communication facilities
• Providing economic assistance for houses and agriculture operations

Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation:

• Fallows are crop land left without crops for periods ranging from one
season to several years.
• The objective of improved fallow species in shifting cultivation is to
recover depleted soil nutrients. Once the soil has recovered, crops are
reintroduced for one or more season.
• The best species for the fallow system should induce good nitrogen
fixation in the soil.

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 • The main aim of the fallow is to maintain or restore soil fertility and
reduce erosion; some plants can be introduced primarily for their
economic value.
• Plants included in improved fallows should be compatible with future
crops, free of any negative physical or chemical effects on the soil and
not in competition with the crops to be planted later on the same site.

b) Taungya System of cultivation:

• The taungya system was used primarily as an inexpensive means of
establishing timber plantations but is finally a recognized AF system.
• The taungya (taung = hill, ya = cultivation) is a Burmese word coined
in Burma in 1850. The system was introduced to India by Brandis in
1890 and the first taungya plantations were raised in 1896 in North
Bengal.
• It was introduced to S Africa in 1887 and was taken to Chittagong and
Sylhat (Now in Bangladesh) in 1870.
• In India it started in 1896 in North Bengal. In 1890, it was introduced
to Coorg in Karnataka. Regular plantation however started in North
Bengal in 1911 for raising Sal plantations and in 1912, extended for
raising Teak. In 1923 it was adopted in UP for raising Sal plantations .
• It is still practiced in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Orissa,
Karnataka and the northeastern hill region.
• This is a modified form of shifting cultivation in which the labour is
permitted to raise agri-crops in an area but only side by side with the
forest species planted by it. The practice consists of land preparation,
tree planting, growing agricultural crops for 1-3 years, until shade
becomes too dense, and then moving on to repeat the cycle in a different
area. A large variety of crops and trees, depending on the soil and
climatic conditions, are grown in India. In fact this system was

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 introduced to raise forest plantations, but finally became recognized
agroforestry system.

Types of Taungya:

i. Departmental Taungya: Under this, agricultural crops and

plantation are raised by the forest department by employing a number
of labourers on daily wages. The main aim of raising crops along with
the plantation is to keep down weed growth.
ii. Leased Taungya: The plantation land is given on lease to the person
who offers the highest money for raising crops for a specified number
of years and ensures care of tree plantation.
iii. Village Taungya: This is the most successful of the three taungya
systems. In this crops are raised by the people who have settled down
in a village inside the forest for this purpose. Usually each family has
about 0.8 to 1.7 ha of land to raise trees and cultivate crops for 3 to 4
years.

Table 3.1: Trees and crops grown in Taungya

State Tree crop Associated agricultural crops

U.P. Shorea robusta, Tectona Maize, paddy, sorghum, pigeon-pea,

grandis Acacia catechu, soyabean, wheat, barley, chick-pea,
Dalbergia sisso, Eucalyptus rape-seed and miscellaneous
spp. Populus spp.
Andhra Pradesh Anacardium occidentale, Hill paddy, groundnut, sweet potato
(AP) Tectona grandis, Bombax
ceiba, Bamboo, Eucalyptus
spp.

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Kerala Tectona grandis Bombax Paddy, tapioca, ginger, turmeric,
ceiba Eucalyptus spp. etc.

Assam Shorea robusta, S assamica Paddy

Tamil Nadu Tectona grandis, Santalum Millet, pulses, groundnut, cotton

album
Tamarindus indica, Acacia
nilotica
Acacia mearnsii ,Ceiba
pentandra
Cashew, Rubber, Bamboo
Andaman and rPterocarpus dalbergioides Sugar-cane, maize
Nicoba
Islands
Maharashtra Tectona grandis, Acacia Sunhemp, jute, mesta, sunflower,
nilotica castor etc.
Tripura Shorea spp., Schima spp., Paddy, maize etc
Michelia spp.

West Bengal Tectona grandis, Shorea Paddy, maize, millets, turmeric,

robusta ginger, lady’s, finger, pineapple,
Schima wallichii, sunhemp
Cryptomeria japonica,
Quercus spp. Michelia
doltsopa
Karnataka Tectona grandis, Santalum Paddy, tapioca, etc.
album, Cassia siamea

ADVANTAGES OF TAUNGYA:

• Artificial regeneration of the forest is obtained cheaply;

• Problems of unemployment are solved;
• Helps towards maximum utilization of the site;
• Low cost method of forest plantation establishment;
• In every case, highly remunerative to the forest departments;

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 • Provision of food crops from forest land; and  Weed, climber growth,
etc. is eliminated.

DISADVANTAGE OF THE TAUNGYA:

• Loss of soil fertility and exposure of soil;

• Danger of epidemics;
• Legal problems created;
• Susceptibility of land to accelerated erosion increases; and,
• It is a form of exploitation of human labour

c) Multi-species tree Gardens:

• In this system of agroforestry, various kinds of tree species are grown

mixed.

• The major function of this system is production of food, fodder and

wood products for home consumption and sale.

d) Alley cropping (Hedge row intercropping):

• Alley cropping, also known as hedgerow intercropping,

• In this perennial, preferably leguminous trees or shrubs are grown
simultaneously with an arable crop.
• The trees, managed as hedgerows, are grown in wide rows and the crop
is planted in the interspace or 'alley' between the tree rows.
• During the cropping phase the trees are pruned and leaves and twigs
are used as mulch on the cropped alleys in order to reduce evaporation
from the soil surface, suppress weeds and/or add nutrients and organic
matter to the top soil.
• The primary purpose of alley cropping is to maintain or increase crop
yields by improvement of the soil and microclimate and weed control.
Farmers may also obtain
tree products from the hedgerows, including fuelwood, building poles,
food, medicine and fodder, etc.

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Plate 3.3 Alley cropping

Layout of Alley:

• The position and spacing of hedgerow and crop plants in an alley

cropping system depend on plant species, climate, slope, soil conditions
and the space required for the movement of people.
• Ideally, hedgerows should be positioned in an east to west direction so
that plants on both sides receive full sunlight during the day.
• The spacing used in fields is usually 4 to 8 meters between rows and
25 cm to 2 meters between trees within rows. The closer spacing is
generally used in humid areas and the wider spacing in sub-humid or
semi-arid regions.

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Plate 3.4 (a) Alley cropping

Plate 3.4 (b) Alley cropping

Characteristics of species for hedgerow intercropping: Alley cropping

usually includes leguminous trees to improve soil fertility through nitrogen
fixation; hence an ideal alley cropping tree or shrub species should have
following characteristics:

• It should have a sparse, small crown to permit sunlight penetration

into the cropped area

Plate 3.5 Hedgerow intercropping

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 • It should re-sprout rapidly after pruning, coppicing, pollarding or
lopping.
• It should form a deep taproot system so that it takes moisture and
nutrient from deeper layers and will not compete with agricultural
crops.
• It should have shallow lateral roots that are easily ‘pruned’ by
ploughing along the hedgerow, without serious damage to the plants.
• Fast decomposition rate of leaf litter.
• Ideally, trees and shrubs used for alley cropping should fix nitrogen.
• Trees/shrubs should be non-exacting in nature. Promising species
• Gliricidia sepium, Flemingia macrophylla, Leucaena, Calliandra
calothyrsus, Erythrina subumbrans, Albizia saman, Pithecellobium
dulce, Paraserianthes falcataria, Acacia spp., Paraserianthes falcataria
and Cajanus cajan.

ADVANTAGES
• Improved crop performance due to the addition of nutrients and
organic matter into the soil/plant system,
• Reduction of the use of chemical fertilisers,
• Improvement in the physical nature of the soil environment.
• Reductions in erosion losses.
• Provision of additional products such as forage, firewood or stakes
when a multipurpose tree legume is used as the hedgerow, and 
Improvement in weed control.
e) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands:
• In this system various multipurpose tree species are scattered
haphazardly or according to some systematic patterns on bunds.
• The major components of this system are multipurpose trees and other
fruit trees and common agricultural crops.
• The primary role of this system is production of various trees products
and the protective function is fencing and plot demarcation. Examples
of multipurpose trees employed in agroforestry are: Leucaena

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 leucocephala, Acacia albida, Cassia siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia,
Azadirachta indica, Acacia senegal, Cocos nucifera, etc.

f) Crop combinations with plantation crops:

Perennial trees and shrubs such as coffee, tea, coconut and cocoa are
combined into intercropping systems in numerous ways, including:

i. Integrated multistory mixture of plantation crops;

ii. Mixture of plantation crops in alternate or other crop arrangement;
iii. Shade trees for plantation crops iv. Intercropping with agricultural
crops.

• Tea (Camilia sinensis) is grown under shade of A. chinensis, A.

odoratissim, A. lebbek, A. procera, Acacia lenticularis, Derris robusta,
Grevillea robusta, Acacia spp., Erythrina lithosperma, Indigofera
tesmanii.
• Coffee (Coffea arabica) is grown under the shade of Erythrina
lithosperma as temporary shade while, permanent shade trees include
Ficus glomerata, F. nervosa, Albizia chinensis, A. lebbek, A moluccana,
A. sumatrana, Dalbergia latifolia, Artocarpus integrifolius, Bischofia
javanica, Grevillea robusta.
• Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is grown under the shade of coconut and
areca nut, and Dipterocarpus macrocarpa (in forest).
• Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is grown with support from Erithrina
indica, Garuga pinnata, Spondias, Mangifera, Gliricidia maculate and
Grevillea robusta.
• Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and large cardamom
(Ammomum subulatum; A. aromaticum) grow in forests under temporary
shade tree of Mesopsis emini..
• Large cardamom is grown under the shade of natural forest as well
under planted shade treesviz., Alnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii;
Cinchona spp.; Lagerstroemia spp., Albizia lebbek; Castanopsis
tribuloides; C. hystrix; C. indica; Terminalia myriocarpa; Bischofia
javanica.
g) Agroforestry for fuelwood production:
• In this system, various multipurpose fuelwood/firewood species are
inter-planted on or around agricultural lands.

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 • The protective role is to act as fencing, shelter belts and boundary
demarcation.
• Tree species commonly used as fuelwood are: Acacia nilotica, Albizia
lebbek, Cassia siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo,
Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus tereticornis, etc.

h) Shelterbelt:
• Shelterbelt is a wide belt of trees, shrubs and grasses, planted in rows
which goes right across the land at right-angle to the direction of the
prevailing winds to deflect air current, to reduce wind velocity and to
give general protection to cultivated areas against wind erosion and
desiccating effect of the hot winds in lee-ward side.
• A typical shelterbelt has a triangular cross-section which can be
achieved by planting tall trees in the centre, flanked on both sides
successively by shorter trees, tall shrubs and then low spreading
shrubs and grasses.
• A certain amount of penetrability is desirable in shelterbelts as a result
of which the zone of influence is very much greater and the velocity
curve shows a smooth, slowly declining trend.
• The width of shelterbelt depends upon local climatic conditions, wind
velocity, and the soil type.
• Shelterbelt should be oriented as nearly as possible, at right angles to
the prevailing wind In case, where winds blow from different directions,
shelterbelt should be raised in quadrangles.

Height and spacing—

• Height of shelterbelt is very important
• As it affects the distance to which protection will be afforded on the lee-
ward side.
• Higher the trees forming the shelterbelt, the greater is the zone of
influence on the leeward side.

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 • This affects the spacing of the shelterbelts also. If wind erosion has to
be completely controlled, the second belt should be located a little
before the place where the wind on the lee-ward side often first
shelterbelt assumes damaging velocity.
• Taking 20% reduction in wind velocity as the basis of usefulness of a
shelterbelt, effective protection zone extends up to 15 to 20 times the
height of the belt.
• In Rajasthan, taking the height of shelterbelt to be about 7.5 m, spacing
recommended is 10 times the height, i.e., 75 meters.

Length:

• The length of shelterbelt is an important consideration because at the

ends of the shelterbelt eddies are produced resulting in increasing the
wind velocity at these places.
• It is because of this that road is not ordinarily allowed to cross a
shelterbelt.
• In some of the western countries, shelterbelts have been raised right
across the country for the protection they afford
• For shorter shelterbelt, the minimum length of shelterbelt to be most
effective is 24 times its height.

Soil Preparation:
• Soil preparation should be done at least a year in advance to build up
sufficient reserve of soil moisture
• It may be done either mechanically or by manual labour
• Leguminous crops may be raised for the first few years in between the
rows of trees and shrubs for improving the fertility of the soil.
Choice of species:

• The choice of species to be raised in shelterbelt is governed by the

climate, soil and topography of the area.

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 • It is better to raise local species because of their easy establishment.
• Exotics may also be used to improve the efficiency of the shelterbelts.

Characteristics of tree spp. used for shelterbelt:

• The species selected should be non-exacting;
• Fast-growing;
• Wind-firm;
• Drought-resistant;
• Unpalatable to animals;
• It should have a dense crown and low branching habit;
• It should not be leafless at a time when protection is required;
• It should be economically a multipurpose species, i.e., fit for firewood,
timber and fodder.
The following species are recommended for creation of shelter belt:

Grasses: Cenchrus barbatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum munja,

Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale.

Shrubs: Calotropis procera, Crotolaria burhia, Calligonum polygonoides,

Clerodendron phlomoides, Cassia auriculata, Dodonaea viscosa, Jatropha
curcas, Leptadenia spartivm, Agave spp. , Sesbania aculeata.

Small trees: Acacia jacquemontii, Acacia leucophloea, Balanites aegyptiaca,

Capparis aphylla, Salvadora oleoides.

Trees: Acacia arabica, Acacia senegal, Acacia cyanophylla, Albizzia lebbek,

Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Lannea coromendelica, Parkinsonia
aculeata, Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora, Pongamia pinnata, Tecoma
undulata, Tamarix articulatat Eucalyptus spp., Acacia tortilis.

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 Fig. 3.5 A cross section of 10-row shelterbelts

Method of raising the plants:

• It is better to sow the seeds in polythene bags and plant out the plants
so raised.
• For this purpose nurseries should be maintained at site.
• The plant should be regularly watered for one or two years.
• Properly fenced to protect them from browsing cattle.
ADVANTAGES OF SHELTERBELTS:
• Very little research work has been done in our country.
• To find out the benefits of the shelter-belts on yields of agricultural
crops, horticultural crops and grasses.
• However, on the basis of research work done in CAZRI, TNAU and
abroad, the following advantages of the shelterbelts may be mentioned:
Moderating effect on temperature—
• Shelterbelt has a moderating effect on air and soil temperature by
lowering the maximum and raising the minimum.
• Temperature during day time inside the forest is lower evaporation.
• Temperature during night is higher inside the forest than open.

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Increase in humidity—
• Shelterbelts increase relative humidity from 1 to 50%.
• There is distinctly perceptible increase in the average relative humidity
in the agricultural land protected by shelterbelts Reduction in evapo-
transpiration:
• Shelterbelts reduce evapo-transpiration sufficiently in the zone of their
influence.
Increase in soil moisture:
• Shelterbelts increase the moisture content of the soil on the leeward
side and delay it’s drying up during summer.
• They also increase the underground water supplies by promoting
infiltration in the soil.
Reduction in wind velocity and wind erosion:
• Shelterbelts deflect the wind upwards
• Cause considerable reduction in the wind velocity on the leeward side
upto a distance of 15 to 20 times the height of the trees forming the
shelterbelt.
• As there is considerable reduction in the wind velocity on the leeward
side of a shelterbelt, wind erosion is very much reduced.
Increase in agricultural and horticultural crops:
• Shelterbelts increase production of agricultural and horticultural
crops.
• Study made in 8 cotton fields in distinctly semi-arid areas of U.S.A.
revealed an increase of 17.4% in cotton yield when protection against
hot winds was provided by shelterbelts.
• Similar increase in crop yields has been reported from Russia where a
shelterbelt of 5 rows increased the oat yield by 25% to 28%.
• Protection of orchards by shelterbelt reduces wind damage and
increases fruit yield.
• Studies revealed that even if 0.4 hectare out of 4 hectare orchard is
devoted to creation of shelterbelt, the remaining protected 3.6 hectare

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 of orchard yielded about 13.00% more than the unprotected 4 Hectare
orchard.
• Similarly, the increase in fodder yield is reported to be as high as 300 -
400%.
Protection of damage to public and private property:
• The shelterbelts hold up the movement of shifting sand
• Save the roads and railway tracks from being covered and otherwise
damaged by moving sand dunes.
• They prevent deposition of silt in canals and agricultural fields.
i) Windbreaks:
• Wind break is a protective planting around a garden, a farm or a field
to protect it against strong winds.
• It usually consists of 2-3 rows of trees or shrubs, spaced at 0.5 m to
2.5 m apart, depending on the species.

Plate 3.6 Windbreak

j) Soil conservation hedges:

• In this system, the major groups of components are: multipurpose
and/or fruit trees and common agricultural species.

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 • The primary role of multipurpose fruit trees and agricultural species is
soil conservation and provision of various tree products.
• The following tree species are used for soil conservation: Grevillea
robusta, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii, Acacia modesta, Prosopis
juliflora, Alnus nepalensis, Leucaena leucocephala, etc.

HORTISILVICULTURE

It is deliberately integration of horticultural trees with timber trees in order

to harvest fruits and timber concurrently from single unit of land. Timber
trees are planted on bunds of the orchards acts as windbreak thus protect
orchard from high winds.

HORTISILVOPASTORAL

In this system various improved leguminous grasses are grown in orchard in

order to provide forage to livestock. Trees are planted on the bunds of the
orchards. These trees acts as windbreaks and protect horticulture plants
from high wind; also provides multiple products.

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 LECTURE- 4

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: DIFFERENT AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS,

SUBSYSTEM, PRACTICES, AFS CLASSIFICATION, AFS ON
NATURE AND ARRANGEMENT OF COMPONENTS (CONTD…)

II. SILVI-PASTORAL SYSTEM (TREES + PASTURE and/or ANIMALS)

• The production of woody plants combined with pasture is referred to as a
silvi-pastoral system.
• The trees and shrubs may be used primarily to produce fodder for livestock
or they may be grown for timber, fuelwood, and fruit or to improve the soil.
• A silvi-pastroal system is needed in dry areas, in order to meet out the
demands of wood and fodder throughout the year. There are three main
categories of silvicultural system
A. Protein bank
B. Live fence of fodder trees and hedges
C. Trees and shrubs on pasture land

A. PROTEIN BANK:
• In this system various multipurpose trees (protein rich trees) are planted on
or around farmlands and rangelands
• For cut and carry fodder production to meet the fodder requirements of
livestock during the fodder deficit period in winter.
• These trees are rich in protein.
• The trees planted in protein banks are…
Grewia optiva, Bauhinia variegata, Morus alba, Artocarpus spp., Anogeissus
latifolia, Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia sissoo, Eutralobium saman, Zizyphus jujube,
etc.
B. LIVE FENCE OF FODDER TREES AND HEDGES:

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 • In this system, various fodder trees and shrubs are planted as live fences to
protect the property from stray animals
• To protect the farm property from biotic influences.
• The following trees are generally used: Sesbania grandiflora, Gliricidia
sepium, Erythrina abyssinica, Euphorbia spp., Acacia spp. etc.
C. TREES AND SHRUBS ON PASTURE LAND:
• In this system various tree and shrub species are scattered irregularly or
arranged according to some systematic pattern,

III. AGRISILVOPASTORAL/AGROSILVOPASTORAL SYSTEM (CROPS +

TREE +
GRASSES/ANIMALS)

This system has been grouped into two subgroups:

A. HOME GARDENS
B. WOODY HEDGE ROWS FOR BROWSING, MULCHING, GREEN

MANURING AND SOIL CONSERVATION. A. HOME GARDENS:

• It is deliberate integration of trees, crop and animals in a same unit of land

in some form of spatial and temporal sequence.
• This is one of the oldest agroforestry practices found in high rainfall area of
South and South-East Asia.
• In India it is prevalent in Southern states like Kerala, Tamilnadu.
• Also common in North Eastern states like Tripura, Assom, West Bengal and
part of Islands of Andaman and Nicobar.
• In India it is a common practice to plant trees around the habitation.
• It is also known as multilayered AFS
• Area of homestead varies from 0.2-0.5ha
• Tall tree/timber tree occupy the top most layer followed by fruit tree.
• Small shrubs also form the parts of home garden.
• Shade loving vegetables find their place in the ground layer.

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 • Trees provide timber, fruits and also support climber such as pepper,
cucurbits, clove, yam, sweet potato, colocasia etc.
• Pineapple is a common fruit grown in home garden.
• In hills, the common spp. for home gardens is Grewia optiva, Ficus
glomerata, Juglans regia and Punica granatum.
• In rural areas, fruit trees and commercial tree spp., such as Acacia and
Neem are of common occurrence in most of the country.
• Cattle and poultry are the main component of homesteads.
• Forage spp. like Stylo, Guinea grass, Guatemala, Napier and Setaria cephalis
variety Kazungula also find their place in home garden.

B. WOODY HEDGES FOR BROWSING, GREEN MANURING, MULCHING

AND SOIL CONSERVATION:

• In this system various woody hedges especially

• Fast growing
• Good coppicing capacity planted in order to
• Browse the animals
• Mulching purpose
• Green manuring purpose
• Soil conservation purpose
• Aim is production of food, fodder, fuel-wood and soil conservation

IV. OTHER SPECIFIED SYSTEMS

i) Apiculture with Tree:

• In this system nectar and pollen rich tree/shrubs are planted on the bunds
of the farm.
• Some agriculture/oil seed crops are also grown.

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 • Mangifera indica, Vitex negundo, Melia azedarach, Azadirachta indica,
Prunus salicina, Prunus armeniaca, Rubus ellipticus, Eucalyptus spp.,
Callistemon lanceolatus, Berberis lycium, Toona ciliata, etc.
• Main purpose of this system is production of honey.
ii) Aqua-
forestry: Aqua-
forestry is very
common in coastal
regions (more
evident along
Andhra coast).

 Farmers are cultivating fish and prawn in saline water and growing coconut
and other trees on bunds of ponds.
 These trees help in producing litter-feed to fishery and generate extra income
to farmers.
 Now fish culture in mangroves is also advocated which forms a rich source
of nutrition to aquatic life and breeding ground for juvenile fish, prawn and
mussels.
 A well-balanced system of animal husbandry including goatry, poultry,
duck-farming, turtles and fishes in the small ponds in home-gardens make
a balanced system of high moisture, energy and nutrient-use efficiency per
unit area.
 The leaves of many leguminous trees viz. Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena,
Moringa oleifera, Acacia nilotica etc. have been found to serve as good fish
feed when offered as pellets and improved its productivity.
 Area is enclosed with earth embakements.
 Inside the embakement, system of ridges and canals is created. Rain water
is collected by making bunds which helps in growing of tree species.
iii) Multipurpose Wood
Lots:

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In this system special location-specific MPTs are grown mixed or separately
planted for various purposes such as wood, fodder, soil protection, soil
reclamation, etc.

B) AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS BASED ARRANGEMENT OF COMPONENTS

Arrangement of component refers to the plant component of the system

even in agroforestry system involving animal the management of such
animal according to definite plan such as rotational grazing scheme is
in consideration more of the plant than animal. Such plant
arrangement in multi species combination can involve dimension,
space and time.

• Spatial arrangement of plant in agroforestry mixture can result

– Mixed dense, e.g., homegardens
– Mixed sparse, e.g. most systems of trees in pastures
– Zonal-microzonal, macrozonal
Spatial or zonal agroforestry varies from microzonal (such as
alternate rows of plant components) to macrozonal arrangements.
An extreme form of the zonal arrangement is the boundary planting
of trees on edges of plots for fruits, fodder, fuel wood, fencing, soil
protection and windbreak.
• Temporal arrangement of plant in agroforestry systems can take
various forms such as
– Coincident
When two component woody and non woody components occupy the
land
together as coffee under shade tree and pasture under shade trees
– Concomitant
When two component woody or non woody stays together for some
part of life as in taungya
– Intermittent (Space dominated)

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 When annual crops are grown with perennial crops such as paddy
with coconut
– Interpolated (Space and time dominated)
When different components occupy space during different time as in
home garden
– Overlapping Black and rubber
– Separate (time dominated)
When component occupy space during separate time such as
improved fallow species in shifting cultivation
Arrangement of components in agroforestry systems
(Nair, 1985)

Temporal Schematic Examples arrangement illustration

_______________
Coincident ------------------------
Coffee under shade trees:
Pasture under trees.
________________
Concomitant --------- Taungya

Intermittent ________________
(space-dominant) --- --- --- Annual crops under coconut
seasonal grazing of cattle in
pastures under trees
Interpolated ________________ Home garden
(space and time- ---- ---- ---- ----
dominant) ---- ---- ----
Overlapping _______ Black pepper and rubber
________
Separate
(time-dominant) ______ _ _ _ _ _ _ Improved ‘follow’ species in shifting
cultivation
Time
(time scale will vary for each combination)
_____woody component ------ non-woody component
Plate 4.1 Arrangement of components in agroforestry systems
• Functional basis: refers to the major function or role of the system, usually
furnished by the woody components (these can be of a service or protective
nature, e.g., windbreak, shelterbelt, soil conservation).
– Production
– Protection

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 • Socioeconomic basis: refers to the level of inputs of management (low
input, high input) or intensity or scale of management and commercial goals
(subsistence, commercial, intermediate).
– Commercial agroforestry systems aim at the production of a saleable
output (for example, commercial tree plantations with under planting of food
crops)
– Intermediate agroforestry systems fall between commercial and
subsistence scales of production and management
– Subsistence agroforestry systems are directed toward satisfying basic
needs, and are managed mostly by the owner/occupant and his family. Cash
crops, including sale of produce surplus are only supplementary

• Ecological basis: refers to the environmental condition and ecological

suitability of systems, based on the assumption that certain types of
systems can be more appropriate for certain ecological conditions; i.e., there
can be separate sets of agroforestry systems for arid and semiarid lands,
tropical highlands, lowland humid tropics, etc.

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 LECTURE-5
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: ENERGY PLANTATION, CHARACTERISTICS OF
TREE SPP. FOR ENERGY PLANTATION, DIFFERENT ENERGY PLANTATION
SPECIES & ADVANTAGES OF ENERGY PLANTATION
Introduction

• India is one of the world‟s 2nd largest populated country.

• India has huge human population of 125 crore.
• Most of the population (75%) residing in rural area which totally depends
upon forest to meet out their energy requirement.
• The demand for fuelwood in India is increasing day by day.
• India‟s current firewood consumption is more than 133 million tonnes;
most of it is being used in cooking. To cook 1 kg of food 1.2 kg of firewood
is required.
• It clearly indicates that India should produce more wood than food if it
is to be cooked before it is consumed. The electricity can also be
generated by dried wood.
• According to estimate 400 million tonnes of cattle dung equivalent to
about 60 million tonnes of fuelwood are burnt annually in our country.
• If this much quantity of cattle dung is incorporated into the soil then it
could increase soil productivity.
• Similarly fuelwood is the most significant reason for tree cutting.
• To save forests from degradation, fuel wood tree growing should become
part of agriculture through agroforestry in blocks in order to meet out
their demands of fuelwood improve the microclimate by means of saving
trees in natural forests.
• An energy plantation is one that is grown purely for plant material for
their fuel than for fibre content.

Criteria of tree spp. planted for energy plantation

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 • Tree species should be fast growing with high photosynthetic efficiency
which results into high yields.
• Tree species should have high coppicing and pollarding capacity.
• Tree species selected to energy plantation should be conical or cylindrical
in shape.
• Tree species should have wood of high calorific value, high wood density,
dry weight and burns without sparks or toxic smoke.
• Tree species should be able to tolerate incidences of insects, pests and
diseases.
• Tree species should have ability in them to reduce transpiration loss in
arid areas.
• Tree species should have ability to fix nitrogen, if possible, that can
improve soil fertility without having much competition with main crop for
soil moisture, sunlight, etc.
• Tree species should be multiple in nature.

Plat 5. Eucalyplus Wood Lot

e 1

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 Plate 5.2 Casuarina equisetifolia wood lot

SUITABLE SPECIES FOR FIREWOOD/FUELWOOD/ ENERGY PLANTATION

FOR DIFFERENT REGIONS

Tropical dry region: Acacia catechu, Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Acacia
Senegal, Acacia tortilis, Anogeissus pendula, Albizia lebbek, Azadirachta indica,
Cassia siamea, Cordia rothii, Dalbergia sissoo, Emblica officinalis, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Erythrina superb, Gmelina arborea, Parkinsonia aculeate,
Peltophorum ferrugineum, Pongamia pinnata, Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora,
Tamarindus indica, Tamarix troupe, Tecomella undulate, Zizyphus maurtiana etc.
Tropical humid region: Adina cordifolia, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia catechu,
Acacia nilotica, Albizia procera, Azadirachta indica, Cassia siamea, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Dendrocalamus strictus, Ficus spp., Eucalyptus
spp., Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala, Madhuca indica, Melia azedarach,
Morus alba, Salix tetrasperma, Syzygium cuminii, Tamarindus indica, Trewia
nudiflora, Gliricidia sepium and Gmelina arborea.

Sub-tropical region: Acacia catechu, Acacia melanoxylon, Acacia nilotica,

Aesculus indica, Ailanthus excels, Celtis australis, Grevillea robusta, Michelia
champaca, Populus deltoids, Populus nigra, Robinia pseudoacacia, Salix alba and
Toona ciliate.

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Temperate climate: Acer spp., Aesculus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Alnus nitida,
Celtis australis,
Populus ciliate, Quercus semecarpifolia, Salix alba and Toona serrata

• The direct use of firewood in densely populated area should be avoided as it

causes environmental pollution.
• Some firewoods on burning give toxic and irritating smoke, and foul odour.

• The firewood may be converted into charcoal which is more efficient.

Charcoal:

• Charcoal is an ideal smokeless fuel for cooking. 1 kg of charcoal has a

replacement value of 2.38 kg of firewood or more.
• The combustion efficiency of charcoal is about 28 per cent.
• Thus, conversion of firewood into charcoal for use as a fuel will be better
than firewood as such.
• Charcoal is also useful as a reductant in electrometallurgical industries 
Manufacture of calcium carbide, carbon-disulphide and active carbon.
• It does not contain sulphur. The following are a few important trees species
for energy plantation: (charcoal making)
Charcoal making: Acacia nilotica, Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia,
Casuarina equisetifolia, Pinus roxburghi, Quercus leucotrichophora, Quercus
semecarpifolia, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellerica,
Terminalia chebula and Terminalia catappa

Shrubs for energy plantation: Atlantia monophylla, Crewia latifolia,

Clerodendron inerme,
Dodonaea viscose, Jatropha glandulifera, Jatropha curcas, Tecoma gracilis and
Ipomoea camea etc.
• Besides firewood and charcoal plants also provide exudates and extractives.
• Such plant species are energy rich and may be exploited as renewable
sources of energy.

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 • These species are known as „petro-crops‟, since they can serve as
substitutes for supplement to petro chemicals.
Extractive plants: Based on exudates and extractives, plants are
classified as those bearing: i) Latex ii) Vegetable oil and waxes iii) Resins
iv) Essential oils

v) Tannins and phenolic compounds bearing

plants Latex yielding plant species:

• Plant species yielding latex belong to Family Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae and Sapotaceae.
• Potential petro-crops are: Euphorbia antisyphilitica, E. tirucalli, E. lathyris,
Pedilanthes tithymaloides, Calotropis procera, Asclepias curassavica and
Parthenium argentatum.

Vegetable oils:

• Vegetable oils have great potential to be used as liquid fuel or as a source

of hydrocarbons.
• Some of them can be mixed in diesel.
• The non-edible seed bearing oil tree species can be cultivated on poor,
marginal and wastelands.
• Important species are
• Seed-oil bearing plants Antinodaphe hookeri, Aleurites triloba, Anacardium
occidentale, Aphanamixis polystachya, Azadirachta indica, Calophyllum
inophyllum, Cocos nucifera, Croton tiglium, Garcinia indica, Hydnocarpus
wightiana, Jatropha curcas, Madhuca indica, Madhuca longifolia, Melia
azedarach, Mesua ferrea, Mimusops elengi, Pongamia pinnata, Pittosporum
resiniferum, Ricinus communis, Salvadora oleoides, Sapium sebiferum,

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 Schleichera oleosa, Samecarpus anacardium, Shorea robusta, Simmondsia
chinesis, Strychnos nux-vomica and Vateria indica etc.

Resins:
• Resins are collected mainly from members of family Pinaceae.
• These are volatile oils (turpentine) and non volatile resins (rosin).
• The resins are main source for synthetic rubber and other polymers.
• Turpines are highly combustible and they can be used in various
formulations of fuel for automobiles.
Calorific value:
• The amount of heat produced when 1 g of fuel is completely burnt in excess
of air or oxygen.
• If one gram of carbon is burned completely, it produces about 30,000J or
30 KJ/g of heat.
• Therefore, the calorific value of carbon is 30 KJ/g and fuel having high
calorific value is regarded as good fuel.
• CV of hydrogen is 150 KJ/g. However, it is not commonly used fuel because
of highly combustible nature and difficulty in its handling.

ADVANTAGES OF ENERGY PLANTATIONS

• Emit little or no sulphur and less nitrogen dioxide than fossil fuel
• Helps in rehabilitation of degraded lands
• Provide rural employment
• Alive and active growing forest and other plant biomass absorb the green
house gas in quantities broadly equivalent to amount emitted when plant
material decay or burned. They are thus called as “Carbon neutral” fuel
sources
• Growing energy crops creates a “carbon sink” which includes storing
carbon underground through the tree root system
• Lower energy cost per unit area as lower inputs are require as compared to
agriculture crops.
• Energy plantations are thought to remove the entire nutrient from soil.
However, by use of thermo chemical process of biomass conversion it is
feasible to recover all nutrients as ash which can be returned to the
plantation sites

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 • Dependable & renewable source of energy along with afforestation of
marginal lands & employment generation.
• Aesthetic value, Windbreak and Shelterbelts.
• Fodder, NTFP etc.
• Handling & disposal of by products is safe.
• Energy plantations are both ecologically as well as sociologically much
sounder investments
Table 5.1 A few species used in energy plantations with their respective
calorific value and specific gravity
Sr. Species Sp. gravity Calorific
No. value K
cal/kg
1. Acacia auriculiformis 0.60-0.78 4800-4900
2. Acacia catechu 1.00 5142-5244
3. Acacia dealbata 0.70-0.85 3500-4000
4. Acacia leucophloea 0.78 4899-4886
5. Acacia mearnsii 0.70-0.85 3500-4000
6. Acacia nilotica 0.67-0.68 4800-4950
7. Acacia senegal - 3200
8. Acacia tortilis - 4400
9. Adina cordifolia - 3855
10. Aegle marmelos 0.91 4495
11. Albizia lebbek 0.55-0.64 5163-5166
12. Albizia odoratissima 0.73 5131-5266
13. Albizia procera 0.68 4870-4865
14. Alnus nepalensis 0.32-0.37 4600
15. Anogeissus latifolia 0.94 4948

16. Anogeissus pendula 0.94 4900

17. Anthocephalus cadamba 0.94-0.53 4800
18. Artocarpus heterophyllus 0.51 5318
19. Azadirachta indica 0.75 -
20. Baringtonia acutangula 0.58 5078
21. Bauhinia retusa 0.72 5027
22. Bauhinia variegata - 4800
23. Butea monosperma 0.54 4909
24. Bischofia javanica 0.74 5162
25. Cajanus cajan - 4594

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 26. Cassia siamea 0.60-0.80 -
27. Casuarina equisetifolia 0.80-1.2 4950
28. Cedrela toona 0.57 5113-5168
29. Chloroxylon swietenia - 4759
30. Dalbergia sissoo 0.75-0.80 4908-5181
31. Diospyros melanoxylon 0.79-0.87 4957-5030
32. Diospyros montana 0.70-0.80 5125
33. Dodonaea viscosa 1.20-1.28 5035-4939
34. Emblica offcinalis 0.70-0.80 5200
35. Eucalyptus 0.6 4800
camaldulensis
36. Eucalyptus globulus 0.80-1.00 4800
37. Eucalyptus grandis 0.40-0.70 4900
38. Eucalyptus tereticornis 0.70 4800
39. Gmelina arborea 0.42-0.64 4763-4800
40. Grevillea robusta 0.57 4904-4914
41. Grewia spp. 0.67 5292
42. Hardwickia binata 1.08 4891-4952
43. Holoptelia integrifolia 0.63 5228
44. Lannea coromandelica 0.55 4933
45. Leucaena leucocephala 0.55-0.70 4200-4600
46. Madhuca longifolia 0.56 5043-5156
47. Mangifera indica 0.58 4610
48. Melia azedarach 0.56 5043-5176
49. Morus alba 0.63 4371-4773
50. Michelia champaca 0.45 5068
51. Ougeinia oojeinensis 0.85 5178
52. Pithecellobium dulce 0.64 5177-5600
53. Pongamia pinnata 0.75 4600
54. Populus euphratica 0.48 5008-5019
55. Prosopis chilensis 0.80-0.92 5000-5500
56. Prosopis cineraria 0.77-0.94 5000
57. Prosopis juliflora 0.70 4800
58. Pterocarpus marsupium 0.79 4904-5141
59. Pterygota alata 0.25-0.62 5160
60. Quercus leucotrichophora 0.74 4633
61. Schleichera oleosa 0.91-1.08 4928-4950

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 62. Sesbania grandiflora 0.55 4407
63. Shorea robusta 0.68-0.82 5095-5433
64. Syzygium cuminii 0.67-0.78 4834
65. Tamarindus indica 0.91-1.28 4909-4969
66. Tamarix aphylla 0.60-0.75 4835
67. Tectona grandis 0.55-0.70 4989-5535
68. Terminalia alata 0.71-0.94 5047-5373
69. Terminalia arjuna 0.74-0.82 5030-5128
70. Terminalia chebula 0.77 3967
71. Trema orientalis 0.48 3095
72. Xylia xylocarpa 0.92 4975-5044
73. Zizyphus mauritiana 0.93 4900

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 LECTURE-6
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT PLANNING FOR AGROFORESTRY
– CONSTRAINTS, DIAGNOSIS & DESIGN METHODOLOGY

AGROFORESTRY PLANNING OF FARMS

• Agroforestry is the management of interactions between trees, crops and
livestock in each of the farms plots, aiming to reach the objectives set by the
farmer or the family
• Interactions are the effects of one component over another component
• Interactions are always not positive it may negative and compete for the
different resources For example. Dense canopy trees in cropped areas create
a shade to the underground crop and thus the interaction may fall on
negative side
• The manager must take advantages of positive interactions and eliminate or
reduce negative interactions
• The agroforestry planning of farms allows manager to manage interaction in
order to maximize production, value and conservation
• The agroforestry planning of farms is applicable to farms of all sizes

• Researchers in developing countries are trying to reach out to farmers

through on-farm experimentation.
• The partnership is still somewhat one sided.
• Scientist go out to the farmers and bring back information to help them
• Decide how best to make their technologies more relevant to their client‟s
needs.
• What is needed is a communication channel in which information about
technology and research needs and priorities flows with equal ease in both
directions.
• The farmer or other land user makes the final decision on whether or not to
adopt an agroforestry technology for use in a particular land use system.

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 • In order to help agroforestry researchers, ICRAF's team of anthropologists,
economists, agricultural and forestry researchers - together with
participating men and women farmers have developed a methodology for the
diagnosis of land management problems and the design of agroforestry
solutions.
• This is simply a systematic approach for applying to agroforestry the
common sense medical principle that „diagnosis should precede treatment‟.

CONSTRAINTS OF AGROFORESTRY

• The interference of trees decreases the crop yield which is lower than the
monocropping
• The tree canopy absorbs maximum light and causes competition for light
• Felling of trees causes damage to the arable crop
• Competition for moisture between trees and arable crops is maximum when
the trees have not deep tap root system
• Some of the trees serves as host to pest that harm main crop
• Agroforestry system requires more for its management
• Longer gestation period for tree delay the returns to the farmer
• Farmers give more weightage to field crops compare to tree crop
• Certain tree species produce chemical exudation which affects the growth
of agriculture crops

THE GENESIS OF D&D

• Agroforestry in itself is described as „a new name for an old practice‟.

• The D&D methodology is an adaptation of old or existing methodologies to
the specific needs and conditions of agroforestry.
• Several methodologies have been developed for holistic evaluation and
analysis of land use systems. The most significant among these are:

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 i) Farming Systems Research /Extension
(FSR/E) ii) Land Evaluation methodology

• Each of these two was developed with specific objectives and conditions. For
example, the FSR/E was developed in response to the failures or
inadequacies of the traditional transfer-of-technology extension methods
that were initiated to disseminate the researcher-driven green revolution
technologies to resource-poor, small scale farmers.
• FSR/E was designed to be interdisciplinary and holistic as well as
demanding farmer involvement from the outset The D&D arose, in the words
of J.B. Raintree, who directed
its development at ICRAF, “Out of the demands of the agroforestry situation.
It gives a special focus on agroforestry related constraints and opportunities
within existing land use systems and highlights agroforestry potentials that
might be overlooked by other methodologies. For example, for most FSR/E
practitioners, the trees within the farming system tend to be invisible”.

WHAT IS D&D?

DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN

D&D is a methodology for the diagnosis of land management problems and

design of agroforestry solutions. It was developed by ICRAF to assist agroforestry
researchers and development fieldworkers to plan and implement effective
research and development projects.

THE KEY FEATURES OF THE D&D:

A. FLEXIBILITY

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 D&D is a flexible discovery procedure which can be adapted to fit the needs
and resources of different users.

B. SPEED

D&D has been designed with the option of a „rapid appraisal‟ application at
the planning stage of a project with in-depth follow up during project
implementation.

C. REPETITION

D&D is an open-ended learning process. Since initial designs can almost

always be improved, the D&D process need not end until further improvements
are no longer necessary.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD AGROFORESTRY DESIGN

There is no substitute for good design. A good agroforestry design should fulfill
the following criteria:

A. PRODUCTIVITY

There are many different ways to improve productivity with agroforestry:

increased output of tree products, improved yields of associated crops, reduction
of cropping system inputs, increased labour efficiency, diversification of
production, satisfaction of basic needs, and other measures of economic efficiency
or achievement of biological potential.

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B. SUSTAINABILITY

By seeking improvements in the sustainability of production systems,

agroforestry can achieve its conservation goals while appealing directly to the
motivations of low income farmers, who may not always be interested in
conservation for its own sake.

C. ADAPTABILITY

No matter how technically elegant or environmentally sound an agroforestry

design may be, nothing practical is achieved unless it is adapted by its intended
users. This means that the technology has to fit the social as well as the
environmental characteristics of the land use system for which it is designed.

WHO CAN MAKE USE OF D&D?

• Researchers
• Extension officer
• Government field workers
• NGOs

BASIC PROCEDURE OF D&D

The basic logic of the D&D discovery procedure is displayed in the following
table 1. The process can be subdivided into small steps and used selectively for
varying purposes, but the hierarchical logic of D&D is quite robust and generally
applicable to virtually any problem in technology design. The more detailed
procedural suggestions are best thought of optional steps for collecting and
processing the information needed to answer the basic question shown in the table
1. At any time you feel you are getting lost in the details, simply return to this

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outline of basic procedures for a reorientation to know where you are in the
process.

Table 6.1 Basic procedure of D&D

D&D Stages Basic Questions Key factors to Mode of inquiry

to answer consider
Prediagnostic Definition of the land Distinctive Seeing and
use systems and site combinations of comparing The
selection (which resources, technology different land use
system to focus on?) and land user systems
objectives
How does the Production Analyzing and
system work? (How objectives and describing the
is it organized, how strategies, system
does it function to arrangement of
achieve its components
objectives?)
Diagnostic How well does the Problems in Diagnostic
system work? (What meeting system interviews and
are its problems, Objectives direct field
limiting constraints, (production short- observations
problem- generating falls, sustainability
syndromes & problems Casual Troubleshooting
intervention factors, constraints the problems,
points?) and interventions subsystems
points
Design & How to improve the Specifications for Iterative
Evaluation system? (What is problem solving or design and
needed to improve performance evaluation of
system enhancing alternatives
performance?) interventions
Planning What to do to Research and Research design
develop and development needs, project planning
disseminate the extension needs
improved system?
Implementation How to adjust to Feedback from on- Re-diagnosis and
new information? station research, on- redesign in the
farm trials and light of new
special studies information

D&D IS AN ITERATIVE PROCESS

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 The basic D&D process is repeated throughout the project implementation
stage to refine the original diagnosis and improve the technology design in the
light of new information from on-farm research trials, more rigidly controlled on-
station investigations, and eventual extension trials in a wider range of sites. As
shown in the following flowchart, the iterative D&D process provides a basis for
close feedback complementarily between different project components. By
adjusting the plan of action to new information, the D&D process becomes self
corrective. In an integrated agroforestry research and extension programme, the
pivotal decisions are taken in periodic meetings which evaluate new results and
revise the action plan accordingly. The process continues until the design is well
optimized and further refinement is deemed unnecessary. You can enter the cycle
at any point, but the ultimate fine-tuning and dissemination of the technology will
most likely be accomplished by the farmers themselves.

KEY CONCEPTS OF D&D a) D&D is system specific b) Definition of the

system for D&D purposes

A land use system is defined as a distinctive combination of three

interrelated factors: the land resources, exploited by a particular technology, to
satisfy the production objectives of a particular type of land user.

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 PREDIAGNOSTIC
DESCRIPTION

DIAGNOSIS

TECHNOLOGY DESIGN AND

EVALUATION

O -SITE PLANNING O -STATION

N
RESEARCH DECISIONS NRESEARCH

DISSEMINATION

Fig. 6.1 D&D IS AN ITERATIVE PROCESS

C) The diagnosis leads to ‘specifications’ for interventions

The end product of diagnostic procedure is a set of functional specifications:

- What the system needs
- How these needs can best be satisfied

D) Specifications suggest ‘candidate technologies’ E) ‘Technology

specifications’ complete the design

- The actual choice of component species

- Spatial arrangement
- Management practice, etc.

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F) The design reveals research needs and extension opportunities

G) If at first you do not succeed, try and try and try again

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 LECTURE - 7

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT SELECTION OF TREE

CROP SPECIES FOR AGROFRESTRY

Agroforestry is a deliberate integration of trees and crops in general, in

same unit of land. These trees and crops compete with each other for nutrients,
moisture and light. Therefore there are both +ve and –ve interaction among
different components. In order to have a positive interaction among different
components one must select a compatible component so that from a single unit
of land a farmer/cultivator maximize his production. While selecting tree species
for agroforestry three factors must taken into consideration such as...

• CLIMATE
• SOIL
• BIOTIC FACTOR

CLIMATE:- TREE SPECIES SELECTED FOR AGROFORESTRY TAKEN INTO

ACCOUNT CLIMATE FACTOR

Hot desert: Prosopis cineraria, P. chinensis, Acacia tortilis, Capparis spp,

Tecomella undulate

Cold desert: Populus nigra, P. cilita, P. alba, P. tremula, P. euphretica, salix alba, S
fragilis, Juniperus

Tropical semi-arid: Prosopis spp, Acacia tortilis, A. nilotica, A. senegal, Albizia

lebbeck, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Azadirachta indica, Salvadora persica, Tamarix
spp
Subtropical semi arid: Pinus roxburghii, Acacia modesta, Albizia procera, Bauhinia
variegata, Morus indica, Ficus spp

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Temperate semi arid: Pinus gerardiana, Juniperus macropoda, Corylus colurna

Humid tropical: Terminalia myriocarpa, Tectona grandis, Terminalia alata, Schima

wallichi, Gmelina arborea, Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Cocus nucifera, areca
catechu, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Pterocarpus santalinus, Chukrasia tubularis

Humid subtropical: Eucalyptus globulus, Acer oblungum, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,

Aesculus indica, Pinus kesiya, Prunus spp, Quercus spp

Humid temperate: Acer campbelii, abies pindrow, Quercus spp, Robinia

pseudacacia, Pinus alata, P. wallichiana, Alnus nitida, Populus ciliata, Cryptomeria
japonica

Subtropical semi-humid: Albizia chinensis, Pinus roxburghii, P. kesiya, P. ellioti,

Grewia optiva, Celtis australis, Eucalyptus grandis, E. globulus, Toona ciliate

Tropical sub-humid: Eucalyptus teriticornis, E. citridora, Casuarina equisetifolia,

Dalbergia latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Morus alba, Leucaena leucocephala, Dalbergia
sissoo, Anthocephalus chinensis, Adina cardifolia, populus deltoides, Moringa
oleifera

Subtropical semi-humid: Albizia chinensis, Pinus roxburghii, Grewia optiva, Celtis

australis, Morus indica, Toona ciliata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus globules

Temperate semi-humid: Acacia mearnsii, Acer oblungum, Alnus nepalensis,

Cedrus deodara, Celtis australis, Fraxinus spp, Quercus spp, Juglans regia

SOIL:- TREE SPECIES SELECTED FOR AGROFORESTRY TAKING INTO

ACCOUNT SOIL TYPE

Desert soil: Prosopis cineraria, P. chilensis, Acacia tortilis, A. senegal, A. nilotica,

Salvadora spp

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Recent alluvium: Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba etc.

Old alluvium:

Saline-alkali soils: Prosopis spp, Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus spp,
Eucalyptus spp, Tamarix spp, Pongamia pinnata

Coastal and deltaic alluvium: Casuarina equisetifolia, Cocus nucifera, Areca

catechu, Avicennia spp
Red soils: Tectona grandis, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Dalbergia sissoo,
Acacia nilotica, Leucaena leucocephala, Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus hybrid,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Adina cardifolia, Dendrocalamus strictus

Black cotton soils: Acacia nilotica, A leucophloea, Tectona grandis, Hardwickia

binnata, Adina cardifolia, Tamarandius indica, Aegle marmelos, Bauhinia spp,
Dalbergia latifolia

Laterite and lateric soils: Tectona grndis, Eucalyptus spp, Acacia auriculiformis,
Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Emblica officinalis

Peaty and organic soil: Syzygium cuminii, Ficus glomerata, Bischofia javanica,
Lagerstromia speciosa, Glircidia sepium

Hill soils: Juglans regia, Alnus nitida, Toona serrata, Cedrus deodra, Quercus spp,
Grewia optiva, Celtis australis

BIOTIC FACTORS:- Choice of species is also governed by biotic factors such as

grazing, fire and incidence of Insect pest etc.

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS FOR AGROFORESTRY

While selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable
characteristics should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable
characters are not found in a single species, but their multiple uses are taken
care of.  Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moisture

 Tree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water
requirement  Should not compete with main agricultural crops for
water.

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  Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water
from deep strata of the soil.

• Tree species should not compete for plant nutrients

 Tree species should not utilize more plant nutrients

 They should help in building soil fertility,
 Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots
should be prfer.
 The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to
exploration of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by
agricultural crops.
• Tree species should not compete for sunlight
 Tree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops.
 Tree species should be light branching in their habit.
 Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better
crop, pasture growth and yield.
 Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it posses dense canopy.

• Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishment

 Trees species should have high survival percentage,  Leave little or no

gaps after transplanting.
 Hardy tree species are easy to establish.
 They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate
transplanting shocks easily.
 Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short
period of time after transplanting.

• Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy management

 Tree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,

 Rapid growth, especially in the early years,

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  Tree should have short rotation (the period between planting and final
harvesting)
 Fast growing species such as Poplar, Casuriana, Leucaena leucocephala
etc. are important species which provide lot of opportunities to be planted
in AFS

• Tree species should have wider adaptability

 A tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider
adaptability.

• Tree species should have high palatability as a fodder

 Most of the Indian farmers rear livestock separately and cut and carry
method of fodder production is quite prevalent.
 Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are
palatable to livestock and had a high digestibility.

• Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization

attributes
 Some tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability,
are especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock.
Poplars (Populus spp.), Willows (Salix spp.), Casurina equisetifolia, etc. for
example, have been extensively used in soil erosion control because of their
extensive root system and ability to grow in waterlogged soils.
• Tree species should have capability to withstand management practices
 Many agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the
trees in order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be
able to withstand such treatment without drastically restricting growth
rate.
• Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation
attributes

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  Within an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling
nutrients, leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from
weathering parent material such as rocks and sediments.
 These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many
returning to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds
which slowly decompose on the surface, or are eaten by animals.
 Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the
soil through recycling.
 Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of
leaves on the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level
of litter fall throughout the year.
 Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert
atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through
complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine
roots.
 The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as
it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant.
 Most leguminous trees and some non-leguminous ones, such as Acacia,
Leucaena and Prosopis as well as Casuarina spp. fix the atmospheric
nitrogen.
 The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus
increasing the nitrogen status of the soil.

The following are a few tree species which help in fixing atmospheric
nitrogen through their roots:
Table 8.1 Nitrogen fixing tree species
1. Acacia albida 21. Bauhinia variegata
2. Acacia auriculiformis 22. Butea monosperma
3. Acacia catechu 23. Cassia fistula
4. Acacia aneura 24. Cassia siamea

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5. Acacia dealbata 25. Casuarina equisetifolia
6. Acacia decurrens 26. Dalbergia latifolia
7. Acacia farnesiana 27. Dalbergia sissoo
8. Acacia implexa 28. Delonix regia
9. Acacia leucophloea 29. Gliricidia sepium
10. Acacia mearnsii 30. Hardwickia binata
11. Acacia melanoxylon 31. Leucaena leucocephala
12. Acacia mollissima 32. Moringa oleifera
13. Acacia nilotica 33. Oogeinia oojeinensis
14. Acacia planifrons 34. Parkinsonia aculeata
15. Acacia senegal 35. Peltophorum ferrugineum
16. Albizia chinensis 36. Pithecellobium dulce
17. Albizia lebbek 37. Prosopis alba
18. Albizia procera 38. Prosopis chilensis
19. Alnus nepalensis 39. Prosopis cineraria
20. Alnus nitida 40. Robinia pseudoacacia
41. Samanea saman 44. Sesbania bispinosa
42. Saraca indica 45. Sesbania grandiflora
43. Sesbania aegyptica 46. Tamarindus indica

• Tree species should have thin bark

 Species selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark
regularly but it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates
unhygienic conditions for underground crop.

• Tree species should be free from chemical exudations

 The species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from allelo-
chemicals as these allelo-chemicals affect the growth of under-ground
crops.

• Tree species should have easily decomposable leaves

 The suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen
leaves decompose with fast rate.

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  The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose
quickly and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients
to the soil.
 Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should
not be preferred for agroforestry system.
 They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for
decomposition. Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants,
block their photosynthetic activities.

• Tree species should have their multiple uses

 The selected tree species should have multiple uses.

 The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf
fodder, edible fruit, edible flower and fibre.

• Tree species should have high yield potential

 High yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree

species for agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more
output per unit area. Care should be taken before collection of seeds and
seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FOR AGROFORESTRY

a) Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing.

b) They should be at least partially tolerant to shade.
c) Most of them should belong to Leguminosae family.
d) They should respond well to high density tree planting.
e) They should bear some adverse conditions, like water stress and/or excess
of watering;
f) Crops should return adequate organic matter to soil through their fallen
leaves, root system, stumps, etc.

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 g) Crops should appropriately be fitted in intensive or multiple cropping
system.

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 LECTURE – 8

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT DIFFERENT NATIONAL AND

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES WORKING IN THE FIELD OF
AGROFORESTRY/FORESTY

IDRC Canada (1975), commissioned John Bene to undertake the study to:

 Identify significant gaps in world forestry research and training

 Assess the interdependence of forestry and agriculture in low income

tropical countries and propose research leading to optimization of land use

 Formulate forestry research programs which promise to yield results of

considerable economic and social impact on developing countries

 Recommend institutional arrangements to carry out such research

effectively and expeditiously

 Prepare a plan of action to obtain international donor support

Bene concluded that

 First priority should be given to the combined production system which

would integrate forestry, agriculture, and/or animal in order to optimize the
land use

 Research project carried earlier were unplanned and haphazard

 Need for establishment of international organization which would support,

plan, and coordinate, on a world-wide basis, research combining the
agriculture and forestry

 The systematic research in agroforestry geared up after establishment of

International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) in 1977 and the
ancient practice of AF was instutionalized for the first time.

 Renamed as The International Centre for Research in AF (ICRAF) in 1991

 Now known as World Agroforestry Centre (WAC)

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 INDIA

 IGFRI, CSWCRTI, CRIDA, CAZRI, ICAR complex for NE region started

agroforestry research in 1960-70s

 In seventh five year plan (1985-90) NCA emphasis importance of AF and it

was introduced to agriculture syllabus at that time.

 Organised research in agroforestry was initiated during VI plan period in

1983 with start of All India Coordinated Research Project for Agroforestry
(AICRP(AF)) project at 20 centres (State centres at Agricultural Universities-
12 and ICAR Research Institutes-8).  Recognizing importance NRCAF was
proposed in seventh five year plan

 In VII plan 11 more centres at SAUs were added in the project.

 After inclusion of 2 new centres at TNVASU, Kattupakkam and IGKV, Raipur

during the VIlIth plan total 33 regular centres are working besides 5
voluntary centres.

 The total number of centres engaged in agroforestry coordinated project is

39 (33 regular, 5 voluntary and I PC unit).

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES WORKING IN THE AREAS OF FOREST

CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH

1) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

• The headquarters is in Rome (Italy)

• It plays an important role in coordinating and implementing forestry genetic

resources policy within its overall aim of providing technical assistance.

• Emphasis is paid, in technical terms, on the use of multipurpose species.

The species in the arid and semi-arid regions of developing countries are
given priority as they are subjected to high human and biotic stress.

• Efforts are done to explore, use and conserve gene resources of forest trees.
In this regard increased attention has been paid to in situ conservation as a
desirable complement to various forms of ex situ conservation.

• It disseminates the information on forest tree seed supplies, seed collection,

handling, storage, testing and certification. The organization and results of

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 international provenance trials and various aspects of the conservation and
use of genetic resources, through a newsletter, Forest Genetic Resources
Information.

2) The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR)

• The headquarters is in Rome (Italy).

• It is an international scientific centre of the Consultative Group on

International Agriculture Research (CGIAR).

• It is working on agricultural crops, forest species, particularly fuel wood

species, for their conservation and improvement.

3) International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF)

• Established in 1977. Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.

• Established as an international scientific centre devoted to improving the

nutritional, economic and social well-being of people in developing countries
by promoting agroforestry system for enhanced use of the land without
degrading the environment.

• It acts as a catalyst for agroforestry research, training and information

dissemination.

4) International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)

• Its headquarters is in Yokohama, Japan.

• The purpose of ITTO is to provide an effective frame work for cooperation

and consultation between tropical timber producing and consuming
countries regarding all aspects of the tropical timber economy.

• Its major activity related to forest genetic resources involves funding of

projects directed at the conservation and sustainable use of tropical forests.

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5) International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN)

• Its headquarters is in Gland, Switzerland.

• It is a unique international agency as it is constituted with both

governmental and nongovernmental membership.

• It is concerned with species level conservation and has paid increasing

attention to plant genetic resources.

• It produces the IUCN plant Red data book, a series that gives detailed case
histories on rare and threatened plants in all parts of the world; for each
species, data are given on conservation status, threats to survival,
distribution and habit, together with a short description and an evaluation
of its interest or potential value to humankind.

• It has a World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC) located at

Cambridge, UK for data storage and processing and also provides
information on international trade in endangered plants and animals.

6) International Union of Forestry Research Organization (IUFRO)

• Its headquarters is situated in Vienna, Austria.

• It coordinates and assists scientists participating in programmes. It has

placed strong emphasis on industrial species and works on provenance
testing, progeny testing and breeding of specific species. It is also working
on conservation and on population genetics for the species of temperate zone
and Mediterranean conifers, as well as Quercus spp., Eucalyptus spp.,
Populus spp.

7) United Nations Environment Programme

• Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.

• It is an agency of United Nations.

• It works with various governments, other UN organizations and non-govt.

organizations around the globe to monitor the state of global environment.

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 Much of the UNEP’s work is aimed at promoting public awareness of the
importance of genetic diversity and methods of conserving and managing
that diversity for the future.

8) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO)

• Its headquarters is in Paris, France.

• UNESCO’s involvement in gene conservation is primarily through its MAB

Programme (Man and Biosphere Programme)

• The objectives of MAB are to establish project areas based on ecosystem

concept (including human activity) to conserving representative ecosystems
with zoned management to developing biosphere reserves that conserve
biological diversity and its genetic resources.

9) Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR).

• Its secretariat is located in Washington DC, USA.

• It was established to help coordinate the efforts of developed and developing

countries, public and private institutes and international and regional
organizations to support a network of 13 international agricultural research
centers.

NATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS

This section describes selected national and regional institutions with

international programmes bearing on forest genetic resources.

1) Central America and Mexico Coniferous Research Cooperative

(CAMCORE)

• The private organizations have been able to directly effect the

development of genetic resources by the cooperative efforts.

• It has sponsored collection for some 30 Central American and Mexican

conifer and angiosperm species. From the collections, seeds are

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 processed, stored and distributed to cooperating agencies for
establishing conservation stands and provenance and progeny tests.

• Main aim is to prevent reduction & loss of germplasm.

2) Centre Agronomics Tropical De Investigation Ensenanza (CATIE)

• The member countries are Central American and Latin American ones like
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and
Panama.

• Working for the renewal of natural resources by the renewable natural

resources development which has four programmes: agroforestry,
silviculture, wild lands and watershed management. It also works on ex-situ
conservation.

3) Canadian International Development Agency and International

Development Research Centre

• Headquarters in Canada.

• It finances various projects which work for forestry research in

developing countries.

4) Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT)

• It is a department of French foreign assistance agency.

• It works for 12 francophone sub-Saharan African countries and French

Guiana and New Caledonia.

• It also works for selected species like: Eucalyptus spp, Pinus caribaea,
Pinus kesiya,
Terminalia superba, T. ivorens, Tectona grandis, Gmelina arborea,
Cedrela odorata, Cordia alliodora, Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, A.
albida and A. senegal. It works for these species in all aspects -
silviculture, breeding, conversion and utilization, and ex-situ
conservation.

5) Commonwealth Scientific and Industries Research Organization

(CSIRO)  Headquarters in Canberra, Australia.

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  Key programmer on Australian forest tree resources is Tree Seed
Centre, where the centre collects and distributes high quality and
source identified seeds of commercially promising Australian woody
plants for research purposes, provides professional advice on the choice
of species and seed supply, and provides technical information on
species of value.

6) Danish Forest Seed Centre (DFSC)

• Headquarters in Humleback, Denmark.
• Most of the activities are taking place in developing countries, primarily
in SouthEast Asia and Central America.
• Major activity is in handling, storage and distribution of seed collected
within FAO/IBPGR/UNEP projects on genetic resources of arid and semi-
arid zone arboreal species for improvement of rural living.

7) Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI)

• Based in United Kingdom
• Formerly it was known as ‘Commonwealth Forestry Institute’.
• It is a world centre for research and development. It is working for the
establishment of international provenance testing projects for some 50
species in Central America and parts of Africa. The project covers -
exploration, taxonomy, collection, seed storage, distribution,
conservation and development of genetic improvement strategies for a
number of tropical species- Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa, P. tecunumanii, P.
patula, P. kesiya, P. merkusii, P. greggii, Agattiis spp., Cupressus spp.,
Widdringtonia spp., Cedrela spp., Cordia alliodora, Liquidambar
styracifua, Leucaena spp., Prosopis spp. and Acacia spp., etc.

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8) U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service and State Programmes

• The activities of the U.S. department of Agriculture’s Forest service

include research and genetic improvement programs conducted in
national forests.

• Research is primarily aimed at species of high commercial value, but

there is growing emphasis on maintaining the diversity of forests.

• Individual states have independent conservation programmes. Conifer

germplasm conservation project is designated to provide information and
resources needed for long term protection of the diversity of forests. It is
working on Pinus taeda, P. ponderosa, Pseudotsuga spp., etc.

9) NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE FOR AGROFORESTRY (NRCAF)

• Its head quarter is in Jhansi, UP, India

• To under take basic and applied research for developing and delivering
technologies based on sustainable agroforestry prctices on farms,
marginal and wastelands for different agroclimatic zones in INDIA
• To co-ordinate network research with the SAUs/ ICAR Institutes/ other
related research institutes for identifying technologies which can be
transferred from one region to another.
• To provide training in (a) research methodologies and (b) use and
application of technologies developed at various levels.
• To develop technological packages of diffrent agroforestry practices for
various agroclimatological zones for transfer to farm field and
wastelands.
• To act as repository of information on the subject.
• To collaborate with relevent national and international agencies for
achieving the mandate.
• To provide consultancy.

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10) INDIAN GRASSLAND AND FODDER RESEARCH INSTITUTE (IGFRI)

• Based in Jhansi, UP, India

• To conduct basic, strategic, applied and adaptive research; development
and training in forage production and it's utilization.
• Is the premier R&D institution in South Asia for sustainable agriculture
through quality forage production for improved animal productivity.

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 LECTURE - 09

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: TO KNOW ABOUT MULTIPURPOSE TREE

SPECIES (MPTs) AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

MUTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES

The multipurpose tree species (MPTs) is a plant species that are purposefully
grown so as to provide two or more than two products and also a service functions
like shelter, shade, land sustainability of the land-use system. Many woody
perennial species may be ‘multipurpose’ in one kind of system but ‘single purpose’
in another.

VARIOUS BENEFITS FROM MPTS FOOD

1. Human food from trees (fruits, nuts, leaves, cereal substitutes, etc).
2. Livestock feed from trees (one step down the tropic chain).
3. Fertilizer trees for improving the nutritional status of food and feed crops
through:
(a) Nitrogen fixation
(b) Access to greater volume of soil nutrients through deep rooting trees
(c) Improved availability of nutrients associated with higher cation
exchange capacity and organic matter levels.
4. Soil and water conservation.
5. Environment amelioration.
WATER

1. Improvement of soil moisture-retention in rain-fed cropping systems and

pastures through improved soil structure and microclimate effects of
trees.
2. Regulation of stream flow for reduction of flood hazard and more even
supply of water, through reduction of run-off and improvement of

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 interception and storage in infiltration galleries, through various
watershed protection practices involving trees.
3. Protection of irrigation works by hedgerows of trees.
4. Improvement of drainage from waterlogged or saline soils by
phreatophytic trees.
5. Increased biomass storage of water for animal consumption in forage and
fodder trees (higher water content of tree fodder in dry season).

ENERGY

1. Firewood for direct combustion

2. Pyrolytic conversion products (charcoal, oil, gas).
3. Produces gas from wood or charcoal feedstocks.
4. Ethanol from fermentation of high-carbohydrate fruits.
5. Methanol from destructive distillation or catalytic synthesis processes
using woody feedstock.
6. Oils, latex, other combustible saps and resins.
7. Augmentation of wind power using appropriate arrangements of trees to
create venturi effects (wind power is proportional to the cube of wind
velocity).
SHELTER

1. Building materials for shelter construction

2. Shade trees for humans, livestock and shade-loving crops.
3. Wind-breaks and shelter-belts for protection of settlements, cropland
4. And pasture.
5. Living fences.
RAW MATERIALS FOR PROCESSING

1. Wood for a variety of craft purposes.

2. Fibre for weaving industries.
3. Fruits, nuts etc. for drying or other food-processing industries.
4. Tannins, essential oil, medicinal ingredients etc.

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CASH

1. Direct cash benefits from sale of above-listed products.

2. Indirect cash benefits from productivity increases (or input savings)
3. Via associated crops or livestock.
SAVINGS INVESTMENT

1. Addition of a viable emergency saving or investment enterprise to farms

now lacking one.
2. Improvement of exiting savings/investment enterprise (e.g., fodder for
cattle as savings on the hoof).

SOCIAL PRODUCTION

1. Production of goods for socially motivated exchange (e.g. cattle for bride
price, ceremonial foods etc.)
2. Increased cash for social purposes (ritual expenses, development levels,
political contributions etc.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF MPTS

Multipurpose trees species should fulfil the following criteria:

• Wider adaptability to local climatic conditions.

• Thin and sparse crown that allows sunlight enter into the system
• Capacity to withstand various management practices like coppicing,
lopping and pollarding etc.
• Quick sprouting habit.
• Productive capacity that includes poles, wood, food, fodder, medicinal
and other products.
• Good leaf litter making nutrients available at appropriate times in the
crop cycle.

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 • Few and shallow lateral roots (or prunable).
• Ability to assist in nitrogen fixation.
• Resistance to drought, flooding, soil variability and other climatic
hazards.
• Deep thrusting taproot system.
• Easy to manage
• Cheap to establish
• Higher demand and better value for the produce.

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR MPTS

• Having chosen the forestry and agricultural components of an agroforestry

system suited to the site the management strategy which maximizes the
value of the system must be developed.

• Probably the most important factor affecting the management strategy is the
nature of the relationship between the over-storey of trees and the
agricultural under-storey.
• Management in horizontal dimension (water and nutrient
limiting) o Changing spacing o Zonal arrangement-
Macro/micro o Mixed cropping
• Management in vertical dimension (light limiting, nutrient and
moisture in plenty) o Growing species at different times o Growing species
of different heights in such manner that smaller mature before tallest one
o Under storey crops can be given extra light at certain times of the year
depending upon leaf fall or by tree pruning
o Growing species which attains similar heights but with different life
cycle
• Management in time dimension o If component not fully utilize
environmental resources available throughout the year, yield can be
increased skillfully by:

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  Choosing species and cultivars according to phenology, stature,
habit, produce etc.
 Staggering planting, relay planting etc
• Management practices: (for tree crops) o Initial tree spacing o
Management practices
 Thinning, pruning, coppicing, pollarding, bending, bushing etc

INITIAL SPACING

• Dependent on growth rate of the trees

• Final crop stock depends on o Relative value
of the tree and agriculture crops
o Environmental factors affecting availability of nutrients, moisture
and soil space o Latitude and aspect which affect the availability of
incoming radiation o Performance of tree crop o Performance of
agriculture crop o Management considerations-machinery o Personal
preferences

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Thinning

Felling made in immature stand for the purpose of improving the growth and form
of the trees that remain without permanently breaking the canopy. It is mainly
done:

• To improve the hygiene of the crop by removing dead, dying and diseased
trees

• To ensure best physical conditions of growth

• To obtain a desired type of crop

• To improve the stand composition and afford protection from the spread of
insects and diseases

• To improve the quality of wood

• Increase the net yield and financial return from the crop

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Pruning

• Removal of live or dead branches or multiple leaders from standing trees for
the improvement of the tree or its timber.
• It allows the grower to manipulate the growth and development of the trees
left after thinning to improve the quality of the tree and to increase
agriculture returns o Natural; natural death and fall of branches of standing
trees grown closely due to deficiency of light or decay etc
o Artificial: Removal of branches with sharp tools in a dense crop. o
Pruning lower branches close to the trunk of tree makes small knotty
core which gives clear straight grain timber.
o Removal of too many branches will retard the growth
o If pruning is left too late, the central core of knotty wood become large
thus reducing value of tree Pollarding:
Pollarding consists of cutting a pole tree at some height above the ground level so
that it produces new shoots from below the cut. Pollarding is done at a height of
2- 2.5 m above ground level; e.g. in Salix spp., Hardwickia binata, Grewia optiva,
Morus alba, etc.

Lopping:
Removal of one year shoots or fresh growth from entire crown of the tree/plant in
order to get sufficient fodder for livestock is known as lopping. Lopping is
extensively done in Morus, Grewia, Bauhinia, etc.

Coppicing:
Cutting or heading back of main stem at 30 cm from the ground level. Strong
coppicers:

Acacia catechu, Albizia lebbek, Anogeissus latifolia, etc.; Good coppicers: Aesculus
indica, Chloroxylon swietinia, Hardwickia binata, etc.; Bad coppicers: Adina
cordifolia, Bambax ceiba, etc.; and Non coppicers: All conifers.

Bending:

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Restricting the development of bole to allow more food material to new leaf shoots.
Bending and coppicing are useful when it is desirable to produce large quantity of
foliage close to ground level.

Training:
In agroforestry vertical spread of the tree is a desirable feature, therefore
trees raised in agroforestry systems must be vertically trained to avoid shade and
light competition to underground crop.

Bushing: Horticulture operation commonly used to increase fruit production at a

convenient height for harvesting.

📝
Challenge yourself to do better each time and to improve
yourself with each step. Your goals will be met if you put out
your best effort.

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