UNIT 3.

METHODS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENTING DATA

You have learned the different ways on how to gather data and the sampling
techniques from which you can choose the one that you will employ in your research.
Now is the time for you to know what to do with the data that you have gathered. It is
essential to organize your data so that you can easily interpret them.

Data may be ungrouped or grouped. Ungrouped data are unsorted or raw data.
This means that the data have not been grouped or classified according to any
characteristic. On the other hand, grouped data are data that have been organized
or grouped.

Ways of Organizing Ungrouped Data

These are the ways of organizing ungrouped data.

1. By forming an array
An array is an arrangement of numbers in increasing or decreasing
order.

2. By constructing a stem-leaf plot

A stem-leaf plot is a way of organizing data where the data is split into
two parts: the stem is consists of the hundreds or tens digit while the
leaves are the unit digits.

3. By constructing a frequency distribution table

An ungrouped frequency distribution table is a table showing the data
and its frequency.

The three ways of organizing a set of ungrouped data are shown using the
example below.

The following are the ages of 25 employees in a supermarket.

42, 51, 44, 28, 32, 24, 30, 25, 24, 35, 43, 37, 28,

28, 22, 45, 29, 28, 36, 35, 50, 25, 25, 46, 44

You can organize the data in the following ways:

Array: (from youngest to eldest)

22, 24, 24, 25, 25, 25, 28, 28, 28, 28, 29, 30, 32,
35, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51
Stem-leaf Plot: (Assuming that we did not form an array, let us refer to the original
data.)

42, 51, 44, 28, 32, 24, 30, 25, 24, 35, 43, 37, 28,
28, 22, 45, 29, 28, 36, 35, 50, 25, 25, 46, 44

In the first value, 42, the digit 4 is the stem, and the digit 2 is the leaf. In the
second value, 51, the digit 5 is the stem, and the digit 1 is the leaf. Continue plotting
all the ages of the employees. After all the ages have been plotted, make another table
and arrange the leaves in increasing order.

Draft: (as the data is given) Final: (after arranging the leaves from
The lowest to the highest)

STEMS LEAVES STEMS LEAVES

2 8, 4,5, 4, 8, 8, 2, 9, 8, 5, 5 2 2, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9
3 2,0, 5, 7,6, 5, 3 0, 2, 5, 5, 6, 7
4 2, 4, 3,5, 4, 4 4 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6
5 1, 0 5 1, 0

Ungrouped frequency distribution table

Table No. 1
Ages of 25 Employees in a Supermarket
Ages Frequency
22 1
24 2
25 3
28 4
29 1
30 1
32 1 Note: You may first form an
35 2 array or a stem-leaf plot so
36 1 that it would be easier to
37 1 construct the frequency
42 1 distribution table.
43 1
44 2
45 1
46 1
50 1
51 1
25
Interpretation of the data may be made in this way.

The table shows that of the twenty-five employees of the supermarket, the
youngest is twenty-two years old while the oldest is fifty-one years old. Most of the
employees are in their twenties, six are in their thirties and their forties, and only two
are in their fifties.

Frequency Distribution for Grouped Data

Let us now learn how to organize grouped data. A frequency distribution table
is used to organize this kind of data. The data are sorted into groups or classes. The
frequency distribution table shows the number of occurrences of the data in the
different classes.
A grouped frequency distribution is an arrangement of data that shows the
frequency of occurrence of values falling within arbitrarily defined ranges of the
variable known as class intervals.

Example of a frequency distribution table:

Table No 2
Scores of a Sample of 40 Students in a Biology Test

Class Number Class

Class
Intervals of Boundaries
Marks
(Scores) Students Always write the table number
(𝑋𝑖 )
LL-UL (f) LB - UB and the table title so that the
17-21 2 16.5 - 21.5 19 reader would know what the
22-26 5 21.5 - 26.5 24 data is about. The class size
27-31 8 26.5 – 31.5 29 and the total number of
32-36 12 31.5 – 36.5 34 frequencies must also be
37-41 7 36.5 – 41.5 39 written after the last class
42-46 5 41.5 – 46.5 44 interval.
47-51 1 46.5 – 51.5 49
c=5 n=40

You have to remember the definition of the following terms that are found in
the frequency distribution table:

Class interval refers to the grouping bounded by the lower limit (LL) and upper limit
(UL).
Class size (c) is the length or width of the class.
Class frequency (f) is the number of observations falling within a class interval.
Class boundaries refer to the true boundaries (true limits) of a class interval
 Class
Intervals In this example, 17-21 is the first class interval
(Scores) where 17 is the lower limit and 21 is the upper
17-21 limit. The lower limit of the first class interval is
17+5 22-26 21+5 usually the lowest value in the data. The upper
limit 21 was obtained by counting 5 units (since
22+5 27-31 26+5
c=5) starting from the lower limit 17 (17, 18, 19,
27+5 32-36 31+5
20, 21). To get the succeeding lower limits, just
32+5 37-41 36+5
add 5 which is the class size. Do the same for the
37+5 42-46 41+5 upper limits.
42+5 47-51 46+5
c=5

The table shows that there were 2 students

Class Number Class
who scored between 17 and 21 while 5
Intervals of Boundaries
students got scores between 22 and 26.
(Scores) Students (LCB –
(f) UCB) The lower class boundaries are obtained
17-21 2 16.5 - 21.5 * by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limits. The
22-26 5 21.5 - 26.5 upper class boundaries are obtained by
adding 0.5 to the upper limits.
*17-0.5=16.5

*21+0.5=21.5

Class mark or class midpoint refers to the representative of the class interval.

𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡=𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 17+21

Class Number Class mark = = = 19
2 2
Intervals of Class Mark
(Scores) Students 𝑋𝑖 Note: If the class size is an odd number, the
(f) class mark is the middle value (17, 18, 19, 20, 21). If
17-21 2 19 the class size is an even number, the class mark is
22-26 5 24 the average of the two middle values. For example,
for a class interval of 5-10, the class mark is (7+8)/2
which is 7.5.

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Another way to get the succeeding class marks:

After getting the class mark of the first class
interval, just add to it the value o f c. For example,
19 + 5 = 24 (the class mark of the 2nd class) and so
on.
Constructing frequency Distribution Table

You have to follow the steps to construct a frequency distribution table. To show
you these steps, let us consider the test scores of 50 students in Statisticsrecorded as
follows:
Table 1
Test Score of 50 Students in Statistics
48 39 55 65 51
79 63 89 29 54
65 58 64 76 90
30 84 50 55 59
69 43 79 44 40
49 50 24 78 71
63 64 73 35 65
58 36 47 86 46
85 74 64 72 54
38 52 33 53 42

Step 1: Determine the Range (R) of the distribution. The range is equal to the
highest score minus the lowest score.

Range (R) = Highest Score - Lowest Score Formula 2

R = 90 - 24
R = 66

Step 2: Determine the class size by dividing the range by the desired number of
classes. (The number of classes must not be too few nor too many. Too many
class intervals may result in classes with zero frequencies.) Let us have ten
classes on this problem. In some cases, the class size is already given.

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Class size or class width( c ) = (if the class size is not
numbe𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
(Formula 3) exact, round it off to the
66 nearest whole number)
c= = 6.6 ≈ 7
10

Step 3: Unless otherwise specified, always start the lowest class limit by the lowest
value of the given data (raw data). For the second lower limit, just add the
class size and then continue to add the class size to this lower limit to get the
rest of the lower limits. To get the first upper limit, subtract one (1) from the
second lower limit. For the second upper limit, just add the class size continue
to add the class size to this upper limit to get the rest of the upper limits.

Note: The last class interval should contain the highest value.
 Constructing the Class Limits Resulting Class Limits/Class
Intervals
LL - UL

Lower Limits (LL) Upper Limits (UL) Class

Intervals

2nd lower limit

lowest score 24 minus 1 30 24 - 30
(31 - 1)
LL + class size UL + class size
24 + 7 = (2nd 30 + 7 31 - 37
31 37
lower limit) 10
31 + 7 38 37 + 7 44 38 - 44
38 + 7 45 44 + 7 51 45 - 51 classes
45 + 7 52 51 + 7 58 52 - 58
52 + 7 59 58 + 7 65 59 - 65
59 + 7 66 65 + 7 72 66 - 72
66 + 7 73 72 + 7 79 73 - 79
73 + 7 80 79 + 7 86 80 - 86
80 + 7 87 87 + 7 93 87 - 93

Step 4: Determine the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each of the lower
class limits and adding 0.5 to each of the upper class limits.

Constructing the Class Boundaries Resulting Class Boundaries

Lower Upper
Class
Boundarie Boundarie
Boundaries
Lower Limit s Upper Limit s
LB - UB
- 0.5 (LB) + 0.5 (UB)
24 - 0.5 23.5 30 + 0.5 30.5 23.5 – 30.5
31 - 0.5 30.5 37 + 0.5 37.5 30.5 – 37.5
38 - 0.5 37.5 44 + 0.5 44.5 37.5 – 44.5
45 - 0.5 44.5 51 + 0.5 51.5 44.5 – 51.5
52 - 0.5 51.5 58 + 0.5 58.5 51.5 – 58.5
59 - 0.5 58.5 65 + 0.5 65.5 58.5 – 65.5
66 - 0.5 65.5 72 + 0.5 72.5 65.5 – 72.5
73 - 0.5 72.5 79 + 0.5 79.5 72.5 – 79.5
80 - 0.5 79.5 86 + 0.5 86.5 79.5 – 86.5
87 - 0.5 86.5 93 + 0.5 93.5 86.5 – 93.5

Step 5: Calculate the class marks or class midpoints. It is the numerical location
of the center of the class and is computed as follows:
Formula 4

𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡(𝐿𝐿)+ 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 (𝑈𝐿)

Class mark or class midpoint(Xi ) = 2

LL + Class Class
LL + UL
UL Midpoint Midpoint
2
2 Xi Xi
24 + 30 24 + 30
27 27
2 2
31 + 37 shortcut: 1st midpoint +
34 class size 34
2 27 + 7
38 + 44
41 34 + 7 41
2
45 + 51
48 OR 41 + 7 48
2
52 + 58
55 48 + 7 55
2
59 + 65
62 55 + 7 62
2
66 + 72
69 62 + 7 69
2
73 + 79
76 69 + 7 76
2
80 + 86
83 76 + 7 83
2
87 + 93
90 83 + 7 90
2

Step 6: Tally the data. Write the numerical equivalent of the tally on the column for
frequency. The best example of tallying the scores is counting the votes cast
in an election.
From table 1
Class Tally
Interval (Test Scores)
Tally f
s First 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
LL- UL Column Column Column Column Column
l l l
24 - 30 III 3
(30) (24) (29)
l l l
31 - 37 III 3
(36) (33) (35)
lI II
l l
38 - 44 (39),(43 (40), IIII-I 6
(38) (44)
) (42)
 ll II
lI l
45 - 51 (50),(47 (51), IIII-II 7
(48),(49) (50)
) (46)
ll II II
l l
52 - 58 (52),(58 (55), (54), IIII-III 8
(58) (55)
) (53) (54)
lI lI II
ll I
59–65 (63),(64 (64),(64 (59), IIII-IIII 9
(65, 63) (65)
) ) (65)
l l I
66 - 72 III 3
(69) (72) (71)
lI Il
l I
73 - 79 (79),(73 (76), IIII-I 6
(79) (74)
) (78)
l I I
80 - 86 III 3
(85) (84) (86)
I I
87 - 93 ll 2
(89) (90)

Applying the steps, table 2 shows how the frequency distribution table looks like.

Table No. 2
Frequency Distribution of the 50 Test Scores in Statistics
Class
Class Class Frequen
Boundarie
Intervals Marks cy
s
LL - UL Xi f
LB – UB
24 - 30 23.5 - 30.5 27 3
31 – 37 30.5 - 37.5 34 3
38 – 44 37.5 - 44.5 41 6
45 – 51 44.5 - 51.5 48 7
52 – 58 51.5 - 58.5 55 8
59 – 65 58.5 - 65.5 62 9
66 – 72 65.5 - 72.5 69 3
73 – 79 72.5 - 79.5 76 6
80 – 86 79.5 - 86.5 83 3
87 - 93 86.5 - 93.5 90 2
c=7 n = 50

Now let us continue with the cumulative frequency distribution.

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

A cumulative frequency distribution can be constructed from a frequency

distribution by adding a column called "Cumulative Frequency." A cumulative
frequency refers to subtotals obtained from the successive additions of the
frequencies. This may be done in two ways:

1. The less than cumulative frequencies (<cf) refer to the frequencies

added successively from the lowest class interval to the highest class interval.

2. The greater than cumulative frequencies (>cf) refer to the frequencies

added successively from the highest class interval to the lowest class interval.

Illustration 1
(Data from Test Scores of 50 Students in Statistics)

Resulting "Less
Successive addition of Successive addition of than" and
frequencies from top to frequencies from "Greater than"
bottom bottom to top Cumulative
Frequencies
Greater Cumulati
Less Than
Frequenc than ve
Cumulative Frequency
y Cumulative f Frequenc
Frequency f
f Frequency y
(<cf)
(>cf) <cf >cf
3 3 3 47 + 3 50 3 3 50
3 3+3 6 3 44 + 3 47 3 6 47
6 6+6 12 6 38 + 6 44 6 12 44
7 12 + 7 19 7 31 + 7 38 7 19 38
8 19 + 8 27 8 23 + 8 31 8 27 31
9 27 + 9 36 9 15 + 9 23 9 36 23
3 36 + 3 39 3 11 + 3 14 3 39 14
6 39 + 6 45 6 5 + 6 11 6 45 11
3 45 + 3 48 3 2+3 5 3 48 5
2 48 + 2 50 2 2 2 50 2
n=5
n = 50 n = 50
0

Then let us proceed to make the table on cumulative percentage frequency.

Cumulative Percentage Frequency

Cumulative percentage frequency is another column in the frequency

distribution. It is obtained by dividing the cumulative frequency by the total number of
cases (n) then multiplying by 100. It shows the percentage of students falling below
or above (<cpf or >cpf) individual scores. The formula is:

𝑐𝑓 Formula 5
Cumulative Percentage Frequency (cpf) = 𝑥 100
𝑛

This is how to use the formula.

Illustration 2

Cumulative Percentage
Frequency Cumulative Frequency
Frequency
f
<cf >cf <cpf >cpf
3 50
3 3 50 𝑥100 = 6 𝑥100 = 100
50 50
6 48
3 6 48 𝑥100 = 12 𝑥100 = 96
50 50

Now our table looks like this with the addition of the column on cumulative
percentage frequency.
Table 3
Cumulative Percentage Distribution of 50 Test Scores in Statistics

Cumulative
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency Percentage
Intervals Boundaries Frequency
f Frequency
LL - UL LB - UB
<cf >cf <cpf >cpf
24 - 30 23.5 - 30.5 3 3 50 6 100
31 – 37 30.5 - 37.5 3 6 48 12 94
38 – 44 37.5 - 44.5 6 12 44 24 88
45 – 51 44.5 - 51.5 7 19 38 38 76
52 – 58 51.5 - 58.5 8 27 31 54 62
59 – 65 58.5 - 65.5 9 36 23 72 46
66 – 72 65.5 - 72.5 3 39 14 78 28
73 – 79 72.5 - 79.5 6 45 11 90 22
80 – 86 79.5 - 86.5 3 48 5 96 10
87 - 93 86.5 - 93.5 2 50 2 100 4
c=7 n= 50
This is how to interpret the cumulative frequency and the cumulative
percentage frequency.
 Remember: Use the upper class boundaries in interpreting the <cf and
the <cpf. (lower than the upper class boundaries)
Use the lower class boundaries in interpreting the >cf and the
>cpf. (higher than the lower class boundaries)

The following is an example of an interpretation for the scores of the 50 students in

Statistics.

(For less than cumulative frequency and less than cumulative percentage frequency,
use the numbers colored yellow in the table.)

As seen in table 3, of the 50 students who took the test in Statistics, three
(3) students scored lower than 30.5 while six (6) students scored lower than 37.5.
Twenty-seven (27) or more than half of them, scored lower than 58.5. Moreover,
24% of the students scored lower than 44.5, while 78% scored lower than 72.5.

(For greater than cumulative frequency and greater than cumulative percentage
frequency, use the numbers colored green in the table.)

Of the 50 students who took the test in Statistics, thirty-eight (38)

students got scores higher than 44.5, while only two (2) students got scores
higher than 86.5. On the other hand, 62% of them scored higher than 51.5, while
only 10% got higher than 79.5.

Let us add one more column, this time on relative frequency.

4.2.2.3 Relative Frequency Distribution

A relative frequency distribution can be created from a frequency distribution by

adding a column called "Relative Frequency." A relative frequency is the ratio of the
individual frequency per class to the total number of cases (n) then multiplied by 100%.
The formula is:

𝑓 Formula 6
Relative Frequency (rf) = 𝑛 𝑥 100%
 Resulting
Relative Frequency
lustration No.3 Distribution of 50 Test
Scores in Statistics
Relative Relative
Frequency Frequency
Frequency Frequency
f f
(rf) (rf)
3 3 6
𝑥100% 6 3
50
3 3 6
𝑥100% 6 3
50

6 6 12
𝑥100% 12 6
50
7 14
8 16
9 18
3 6
6 12
3 6
2 4
n = 50 100%

Table 4 shows the addition of the column on Relative Frequency (RF).

Table 4
Cumulative Percentage and Relative Frequency Distribution of 50 Test Scores
in Statistics

Cumulative
Class Class Frequen Cumulative Relative
Percentage
Intervals Boundaries cy Frequency Frequency
Frequency
LL – UL LB - UB f (RF)
<cf >cf <cpf >cpf
24 – 30 23.5 - 30.5 3 3 50 6 100 6
31 – 37 30.5 - 37.5 3 6 48 12 94 6
38 – 44 37.5 - 44.5 6 12 44 24 88 12
45 – 51 44.5 - 51.5 7 19 38 38 76 14
52 – 58 51.5 - 58.5 8 27 31 54 62 16
59 – 65 58.5 - 65.5 9 36 23 72 46 18
66 – 72 65.5 - 72.5 3 39 14 78 28 6
73 – 79 72.5 - 79.5 6 45 11 90 22 12
80 – 86 79.5 - 86.5 3 48 5 96 10 6
87 – 93 86.5 - 93.5 2 50 2 100 4 4
c=7 n = 50 100%

This is how to interpret relative frequency.

As shown in the following example, of the fifty (50) students who took the
test in statistics, 6% got scores between 24 and 30, and another 6% scored
between 31 and 37. Most of the students, or 18%, scored between 59 and 65
while 16% got scores between 52 and 58.
Methods of Presenting Data

Collected data remains useless and invalid unless presented effectively for
analysis and interpretations. Data are presented in three general methods as
enumerated below:

1.) Textual Method. By textual or paragraph method, the reader gets information by
merely reading the gathered data. Readers are directed to pay particular attention on
specific data such as comparisons, contrasts, synthesis, generalizations, or findings.
This method, however, when employed alone elicit its boredom. It is a weak means of
showing the quantitative comparisons or relations among quantitative or numerical
data attractively and interestingly. This method of presenting data is simple when there
are only a few numbers to be presented. However, it is not desirable to include a big
mass of quantitative data in a “text” or paragraph as the presentation becomes almost
incomprehensible.

Example:
The present enrollment of the Bulacan State University is 19,900 students.
About 12,077 or 63.56% are female or 36.44 % are male. Of the 19,000 students, 950
or 5% are scholars sponsored by different benefactors.

Example:
“Studies were made to evaluate the performance of students regarding the use
of modules (an innovative method) in teaching algebra against the traditional method.
A sample of 400 students were subjective in both methods. Two hundred of this
sample uses the modular approach and the other 200 of the students underwent the
traditional method. The groups were handled by two different professors. At the end
of the semester the students took the final examinations. The recorded results of the
examinations were as follows: 175 or 87.5% of the students who took the traditional
method passed the final exams and the remaining 25 or 12.5% of them failed the
exam. While for the group exposed to who uses the modular approach, 190 or 95% of
the students passed the examination and only 10 or 5% did not make it.

2.) Tabular Method. The tabular method is a more effective way of showing
relationships or comparisons of numerical data. It gives a more precise, systematic
and orderly presentation of data in rows and columns. This makes comparisons of
figures easy and comprehensive.
Example:

Table 3.4
Comparison of Final Grades of the 400 students between the
Traditional and Modular Method

Method Traditional Modular Method

Method
Grades No. of Students % No. of Students %
1.25 5 2.5% 10 5%
1.5 6 3% 15 7.5%
1.75 15 7.5% 45 22.5%
2.0 23 11.5% 53 26.5%
2.25 35 17.5% 20 10%
2.5 42 21% 15 7.5%
2.75 36 18% 14 7%
3.0 13 6.5% 18 9%
Total Passed 175 87.5% 190 95%
Failed 25 12.5% 10 5%

Semi-tabular method. The semi-tabular method employs both the textual and tabular
method. This method is used only if there are few figures to be tabulated. The tables
are followed by narrative explanations to make the facts more understandable.

3.) Graphical Presentation. The use of graphs is the most effective method of
presenting statistical result or findings. It gives the relationships of data in pictorial
form. Presentations of facts are made attractive and meaningful especially if colors
are made and pictures are used, making it easy for important information to be grasped
by the reader. Its only limitations are 1.) graphs are not precise as the tables. 2.)
graphs require more skills and time to prepare, 3.) graphs can only be made after data
have been presented in tabular forms.

Kinds of graphs are as follows:

a.) line or curve graphs-frequency polygon
b.) bar graphs-frequency histogram
c.) pie graph
d.) statistical maps or pictorial form.

a.) Line graph. A line graph is a type of chart used to show information that changes
over time. We plot line graphs using several points connected by straight lines. We
also call it a line chart. The line graph comprises of two axes known as ‘x’ axis and ‘y’
axis.
Source:
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=line+graph+example&fr=mcafee&type=
E210PH91215G91490&imgurl=https%3A%2F%2F2.zoppoz.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fimages.edrawmax.com%2Fimages%2Fknowle
dge%2Fline-graph-5-example-2.jpg#id=8&iurl=https%3A%2F%2F2.zoppoz.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fd77da31580fbc8944c00-
52b01ccbcfe56047120eec75d9cb2cbd.ssl.cf6.rackcdn.com%2F2691abf7-b6f8-45dc-83ba-
417e3224dc9a%2Fslide11.jpg&action=click

b.) Bar Graph. The bar graph is used to represent discrete data, so instead of being
joined like in the histogram, the bars are separated. The length of each bar also
represents the frequency within the given class. The width of the bar is arbitrary. The
bars, however must be of the same width. Thus, the bar graph is almost the same as
the histogram, the only difference is that the bars of the histogram are joined.

Number of Students Among the Different Colleges

Colleges No. of Students

COEd 1250
CAS 850
CIT 1120
COE 758
CAFA 251
OTHERS 854
Total 5110
 1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
COEd CAS CIT COE CAFA OTHERS

A clustered-bar graph is used when two or more categories are to be

presented for a variable.

A cosmetic company manufactures 4 different shades of lipstick. The

sale for 6 months is shown in the table. Represent it using bar charts.
Source: https://byjus.com/maths/bar-graph/

c.) The Pie Diagram. A pie diagram or a pie chart is used to present
percentage distribution. It consists of a circle subdivided into sectors
proportional in size to the quantities or percentages they represent.

Degree Male Female Total

Ph. D./Ed. 7 15 22
D.
MA/MS 21 23 44
with
advanced
Units
MA/MS 22 29 51
graduate
AB/BS with 51 60 111
advanced
Units
AB/BS 21 12 33
graduate
Total 112 139 261
 Degree Total
Ph. D./Ed. D. 22 22÷261=0.08429 360ᴼx0.08429=30.3444≈30 
MA/MS with 44 44÷261=0.16858 360ᴼx0.16858=60.6888≈61 
advanced Units
MA/MS graduate 51 51÷261=0.19540 360ᴼx0.19540=70.344≈70 
AB/BS with 111 111÷261=0.42529 360ᴼx0.42529=153.1044≈153 
advanced Units
AB/BS graduate 33 33÷261=0.12643 360ᴼx0.12643=45.5148≈46 
Total 261

d.) Statistical maps. A special type of map in which the variation in quantity of a factor
such as rainfall, population, or crops in a geographic area is indicated.
Pictogram. A pictogram is a chart that uses pictures to represent data. Pictograms
are set out in the same way as bar charts, but instead of bars they use columns of
pictures to show the numbers involved.
 Example of statistical Map

Example of statistical Map

Data which have been presented in tabular form are graphed in order to grasp the
essential facts or features quickly and easily. Graphing is one of the most effective
devices in presenting statistical results, values, and relationships in pictorial or
geometrical forms.
This section will present five common methods of representing a distribution
graphically: the histogram, the bar graph, the frequency polygon, the cumulative
frequency polygon, and the pie diagram.

Constructing the Frequency Histogram

The histogram is composed of vertical bars that are joined together, making it
an appropriate graph for continuous data. The basis of each bar or rectangle is equal
to the class boundaries with the height corresponding to its class frequency.
The column of the class boundaries are obtained by subtracting point 5 from all
the lower limits and adding point 5 to all upper limits. The amount to be subtracted or
added is exactly half the gap between to class intervals. For instance, in the interval
15-21 and 22-28, the gap is 1, so half or 1 is 0.5.

Constructing a histogram involves the following steps:

Step 1. Lay off the x-axis and the y-axis to represent the class intervals and the class
frequencies, respectively.
Step 2. Determine the most appropriate scale for the class frequencies.
Step 3. Draw each bar with a height equal to the class frequency of each class
boundary. Class marks may replace the class boundaries. So just enter the base of
each bar on its corresponding class mark.
Step 4. Label x and y-axis correctly.

Class Interval Frequency Class Marks Class Boundaries

LL-UL f LCB-UCB
15-21 2 18 14.5-21.5
22-28 2 25 21.5-28.5
29-35 4 32 28.5-35.5
36-42 8 39 35.5-42.5
43-49 11 46 42.5-49.5
50-56 9 53 49.5-56.5
57-63 4 60 56.5-63.5
64-70 6 67 63.5-70.5
71-77 2 74 70.5-77.5
78-84 2 81 77.5-84.5
c=7 n=50
Constructing the Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is commonly known as the linear graph. It is a useful

devise to show changes in values over successive periods of time.
The column of the class marks were obtained by adding the first lower limit
15  21 36
and upper limit then dividing by two:   18 . For the next class mark just
2 2
add the class size to the first class mark. For the third add the class size to the
second class mark, and so on.

To construct the frequency polygon, the following steps are involved.

Step 1. Represent the x-axis by using the class marks of the intervals.
Step 2. Represent the y-axis using the frequencies of the class intervals.
Step 3. Plot each class frequency directly above the class marks of its class interval.
Step 4. Connect the points by means of lines.
Step 5. Create an additional class at both end of the distribution to close the polygon.

Class Interval Frequency Class Marks

LL-UL f
 15-21 2 18
22-28 2 25
29-35 4 32
36-42 8 39
43-49 11 46
50-56 9 53
57-63 4 60
64-70 6 67
71-77 2 74
78-84 2 81
c=7 n=50

Constructing the Cumulative Frequency Polygon

The cumulative frequency polygon is the graph of a cumulative frequency distribution

To construct the graph, the steps are as follows:

Step 1. Represent the units on the x-axis by the exact upper limit of each class
interval.
Step 2. Represent the y-axis by the cumulative frequency.
Step 3. Plot the point above the exact upper limit, which corresponds to its
cumulative frequency.
Step 4. Connect the points by straight lines.
Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries <Cf >Cf
LL-UL f LCB-UCB
15-21 2 14.5-21.5 2 50
22-28 2 21.5-28.5 4 48
 29-35 4 28.5-35.5 8 46
36-42 8 35.5-42.5 16 42
43-49 11 42.5-49.5 27 34
50-56 9 49.5-56.5 36 23
57-63 4 56.5-63.5 40 14
64-70 6 63.5-70.5 46 10
71-77 2 70.5-77.5 48 4
78-84 2 77.5-84.5 50 2
c=7 n=50

Less Than Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Less Than Ogive)

Greater than Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Greater than Ogive)