High Energy Processes and Phenomena in Astrophysics
ASP Conference Series, Vol. , IAU Symposium 214
A High Angular Resolution View of Hot Gas in Clusters,
Groups, and Galaxies – Mergers, Mixing, and Bubbling
W. Forman1 , E. Churazov2,3 , L. David1 , F. Durret4 , C. Jones1 , M.
Markevitch1 , S. Murray1 , M. Sun1 , A. Vikhlinin1,3
arXiv:astro-ph/0301476v1 23 Jan 2003
1 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, MA, USA
2 MPI für Astrophysik, 85740 Garching, Germany
3 Space Research Institute, 117997 Moscow, Russia
4 Institut d’Astrophysique, 98bis Boulevard Arago, Paris, France
Abstract.
We discuss two themes from Chandra and XMM-Newton observa-
tions of galaxies, groups, and clusters. First, we review observational
aspects of cluster formation and evolution as matter accretes along fila-
ments in A85 and A1367. We describe Chandra observations that probe
the later evolutionary phases where the effects of mergers – both sub-
sonic and supersonic – are observed in cluster cores as “cold fronts” and
shocks. Second, we review the interactions between the hot, intracluster
gas with relativistic plasma originating in active nuclei within the dom-
inant galaxy at the cluster center. As examples of this interaction, we
describe the radio and X-ray observations of M87 where buoyantly rising
bubbles transfer energy and matter within the cluster core. We describe
the Chandra observations of ZW3146 which exhibits both multiple cold
fronts and relativistic plasma interactions. Finally, we describe the X-ray
observations of NGC4636 where energy produced by the central AGN
imprints a unique signature on the surrounding hot corona of the galaxy.
1. Cluster Evolution and Mergers
The most popular view of the formation of clusters, the largest gravitationally
collapsed systems in the Universe, is that they form hierarchically from smaller
mass systems at the nodes of large scale filaments. At the present epoch, matter
continues to accrete onto clusters preferentially along the large scale filaments.
X-ray observations of present epoch clusters, combined with optical studies,
show both the large scale merging process as well as provide new insights into
the detailed physics as merger remnants traverse cluster cores.
1.1. Filamentary Structures and Cluster Formation
A85 shows the effects of filamentary structure on the appearance of the cluster.
In a remarkable ROSAT observation (Durret et al. 1998), a large scale X-ray
filament was detected extending from a merging subcluster (South Blob) towards
the southeast (see Fig. 1a) at a position angle of ∼ 160◦ (measured from north,
counterclockwise). The major axis of the central cD galaxy, the distribution
1
2 Forman et al.
Figure 1. ROSAT and XMM-Newton observations of A85 (a)
ROSAT PSPC iso-intensity contours (0.4-2.0 keV) are shown super-
posed on an optical image (adapted from Durret et al. 1998). A fil-
amentary structure extends to the southeast. (b) The XMM-Newton
MOS image shows the inner portion of the filament extending southeast
from the South Blob (Southern Clump) (Durret et al. 2003).
of bright cluster galaxies, the X-ray filament and nearby groups and clusters
all show a common orientation at this same ∼ 160◦ angle over linear scales
extending from 100 kpc (the outer isophotes of the central cD galaxy) to 25
Mpc, the alignment of nearby clusters (Durret et al. 1998). Such common
alignments over a wide range of scales are expected if clusters form through
accretion of matter from filaments and the accretion direction remains fixed
over significantly long fractions of the age of the Universe (e.g., Van Haarlem &
Van de Weygaert 1993). Recent XMM-Newton observations of A85 detect X-
ray emission from the inner region of the filament extending from the southern
clump (10′ south of the X-ray peak; see Fig. 1b) for about 15′ to the southeast
(Durret et al. 2003; see Kempner et al. 2002 for a discussion of the Chandra
observation of the South Blob).
A second example of a cluster that clearly shows the importance of the sur-
rounding filamentary structure is A1367. As shown by West & Blakeslee (2000),
A1367 lies at the intersection of two filaments – the first extending roughly
100 Mpc from A1367 towards Virgo and the second extending between A1367
and Coma. The X-ray structure of A1367 as seen in the XMM-Newton obser-
vation in Fig. 2a and 2b shows effects from both these filaments with cool gas
streaming into the cluster core from the direction of Coma to the northeast and
a merger underway along the axis towards Virgo along the northwest–southeast
axis (Forman et al. 2003a; see additional details on A1367 in the contribution
by M. Sun in these proceedings).
A High Angular Resolution View of Hot Gas in Clusters, Groups, and Galaxies 3
10 arcmin
To Coma
3.0 4.0
4.5
10 arcmin
2.5
To Virgo 3.5
Figure 2. XMM-Newton observations of A1367 (Forman et al.
2003a) (a) Smoothed, flat-fielded, background-subtracted XMM-
Newton (MOS) image shows the remarkable ellipticity of A1367 with
the extension to the northwest. Also seen is the bright, highly struc-
tured core. (b) The temperature map (XMM-Newton MOS data)
shows the extensive cool gas (darker shading is cooler gas; numbers
indicate the gas temperature for the corresponding grey scale) entering
the cluster from the east. (c) The large scale structure surrounding
A1367 (adapted from West & Blakeslee 2000) shows filaments extend-
ing from A1367 towards the Virgo and Coma clusters.
A85 and A1367 contrast the effects of accretion. For A85, matter is ac-
creting from a filament into a well-developed “cooling flow” cluster with a low
entropy core centered on a cD galaxy. For A1367, we see accreting gas pene-
trating directly into the core of a less relaxed cluster.
1.2. Cold Fronts
The study of “cold fronts”, contact discontinuities between cooler and hotter
gas, began with the launch of Chandra (Markevitch et al. 2000; Vikhlinin et
al. 2001a, b). A particularly revealing example of a cold front is seen in the
Chandra observation of the Fornax cluster (Dosaj et al. 2002). In Fig. 3a, we
see gas bound to the infalling bright elliptical galaxy NGC1404 as it approaches
the cluster center (to the northwest). The image clearly shows the sharp edge of
the surface brightness discontinuity, shaped by the ram pressure of the Fornax
cluster gas. The temperature map (Fig. 3b) confirms that the infalling cloud is
cold compared to the surrounding Fornax ICM.
Cold fronts provide a unique opportunity to explore cluster physics. In a
study of A3667, Vikhlinin et al. (2001a, b) derived the ram pressure of the
ICM on the moving cold front from the gas density and gas temperature. In
turn, the ram pressure yielded a measurement of the cold front velocity. The
factor of two difference in pressures between the free streaming region and the
region immediately inside the cold front implied a cloud velocity of 1430 ± 290
km s−1 (Mach 1 ± 0.2). In addition, Vikhlinin et al. (2001b) showed that the
“edge” of the cold front in A3667 is very sharp – the width of the front was less
than 3.5′′ (5 kpc). This sharp edge requires that transport processes across the
edge be suppressed, presumably by magnetic fields. Without such suppression,
the density discontinuity at the “edge” would be broader since the relevant
Coulomb mean free path for electrons is several times the width of the cold front.
4 Forman et al.
3 arcmin
4 arcmin 0 1 2 3 4
Temperature (keV)
Figure 3. The ACIS observation of NGC1404 and NGC1399. (a)
The 0.5–2.0 keV band image of the Fornax cluster. The gas filled
dark halo surrounding NGC1404 is at the lower left (southeast) while
the cluster core, dominated by the halo surrounding NGC1399 lies at
the upper right (northwest). (b) The temperature map of the Fornax
region. The cold core surrounding NGC1404 has a temperature of less
∼ 1 keV while the surrounding gas has a temperature of >
∼ 1.5 keV.
Furthermore, Vikhlinin et al. observed that the cold front appears sharp only
over a sector of about ±30◦ centered on the direction of motion, while at larger
angles, the sharp boundary disappears. The disappearance can be explained by
the onset of Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities, as the ambient ICM gas flows past
the moving cold front. To suppress the instability over the inner ±30◦ requires
a magnetic field parallel to the boundary with a strength of 7 − 16µG (Vikhlinin
et al. 2001b).
1.3. A Classic Supersonic Merger - 1E0657
1E0657 (z = 0.296) was discovered by Tucker et al. (1995) as part of a search
for “failed” clusters, clusters that were X-ray bright but had few, if any, optical
galaxies. The cluster temperature, as measured from ASCA observations, was
found to be remarkably high, about 17 keV, making it the hottest cluster known
(Tucker et al. 1998).
The Chandra image of 1E0657 shows the classic properties of a supersonic
merger (see Markevitch et al. 2002a for a detailed discussion). The image shows
a dense (cold) core moving to the west after having traversed, and disrupted, the
core of the main cluster. Leading the cold, dense core is a density discontinuity
that appears as a shock front (Mach cone). The shock is confirmed by the
spectral data since the gas to the east (trailing the shock) is hotter than that in
front of the discontinuity, unlike the cold fronts discussed above (or the western
boundary of the bullet which also is a cold front). The detailed gas density
parameters confirm that the “bullet” is moving to the west with a velocity of
3000–4000 km sec−1 , approximately 2-3 times the sound speed of the ambient
A High Angular Resolution View of Hot Gas in Clusters, Groups, and Galaxies 5
gas. 1E0657 is the first, and so far the only, clear example of a relatively strong
shock arising from cluster mergers.
2. Interaction between Hot Gas in Galaxies, Groups, and Clusters
with Energy Produced by AGN Accretion
With the greatly increased observing capabilities provided by Chandra and
XMM-Newton, the complexity of the phenomena exhibited by hot gas in early
type galaxies, groups and clusters seen in X-rays has grown. Not only do we see
the effects of merging, but also we see the detailed effects on the hot gaseous
atmospheres of the liberation of accretion energy as relativistic plasmas are ex-
pelled from AGN.
One of the first, and clearest, examples of the effect of plasma bubbles
on the hot intracluster medium was found in the Perseus cluster around the
bright active, central galaxy NGC1275 (3C84). First studied in ROSAT images
(Bohringer et al. 1993), the radio emitting cavities to the north and south of
NGC1275 are clearly seen in the Chandra images with bright X-ray emitting
rims surrounding the cavities that coincide with the inner radio lobes (Fabian et
al. 2000). For NGC1275/Perseus, the radio lobes are in approximate pressure
equilibrium with the ambient, denser and cooler gas and the bright X-ray rims
surrounding the cavities are cooler than the ambient gas. The central galaxy in
the Hydra A cluster also harbors X-ray cavities associated with radio lobes that
also show no evidence for shock heating (McNamara et al. 2000). Both sets of
radio bubbles, being of lower density than the ambient gas, must be buoyant.
The Chandra images of Perseus/NGC1275 also suggest the presence of older
bubbles produced by earlier outbursts (Fabian et al. 2000). These older bubbles
appear as X-ray surface brightness “holes”, but unlike the inner bubbles, these
outer holes show no detectable radio emission, suggesting that the synchrotron
emitting electrons may have decayed away leaving a heated, plasma bubble (see
Fabian et al. 2002a who reported low frequency radio spurs extending towards
the outer bubbles in NGC1275, consistent with this scenario). Such bubbles,
with no attendant radio emission, are seen by Chandra in the galaxy groups
HCG62 and MKW3s (Vrtilek et al. 2001; Mazzotta et al. 2002).
In addition to bubbles associated with central dominant cluster galaxies,
bubbles and their effects also are seen in more typical early type galaxies. For
example, in the E1 galaxy M84 (NGC4374), Chandra observed an unusual X-
ray morphology which is explained by the effect of the radio lobes on the hot
gas (Finoguenov & Jones 2001). The X-ray emission appears H-shaped, with a
bar extending east-west with two nearly parallel filaments perpendicular to this
bar. The complex X-ray surface brightness distribution arises from the presence
of two radio lobes (approximately north and south of the galaxy) that produce
two low density regions surrounded by higher density X-ray filaments. As with
Perseus/NGC1275 and Hydra A, the filaments, defining the H-shaped emission,
have gas temperatures comparable to the gas in the central and outer regions
of the galaxy and hence argue against any strong shock heating of the galaxy
atmosphere by the radio plasma.
Although the bubbles are not driving shocks into the surrounding gas, they
still can provide significant energy input. One particularly well-studied system
6 Forman et al.
inner lobes
uplifted thermal gas to observer
‘pancakes’
Figure 4. (a) 14′ .6 × 16′ .0 radio map of M87 (North to the right,
East is up) (from Owen et al. 2000). (b) Source geometry. The central
black region represents the inner radio lobes, the gray “mushrooms”
correspond to buoyant bubbles, transformed into tori, and the gray
lens-shaped structures are “pancakes” (seen edge-on) formed by older
bubbles.
combining complex X-ray and radio emission is M87, at the center of the Virgo
cluster. The 327 MHz high resolution, high dynamic range radio map of M87
(see Fig. 4a) shows a well-defined torus-like eastern bubble and a less well-
defined western bubble, both of which are connected to the central emission
by a column, and two very faint almost circular emission regions northeast and
southwest of the center (Owen et al. (2000). The correlation between X–ray and
radio emitting features has been remarked by Feigelson et al. (1987), Bohringer
et al. (1995), and Harris et al. (1999).
Motivated by the similarity in appearance between M87 and hot bubbles
rising in a gaseous atmosphere, Churazov et al. (2000) developed a simple model
of the M87 bubbles which is generally applicable to the many bubble-like sys-
tems seen in the Chandra observations. An initial buoyant, spherical bubble
transforms into a torus as it rises through the galaxy or cluster atmosphere.
By entraining cool gas as it rises, it exhibits a characteristic “mushroom” ap-
pearance, similar to an atmospheric nuclear explosion. This may qualitatively
explain the correlation of the radio and X–ray emitting plasmas and naturally
accounts for the thermal nature of the X-ray emission associated with the rising
torus (Bohringer et al. 1995). Ambient gas is uplifted in the cluster atmosphere
producing the “stem” of the mushroom that is brighter than the surrounding
regions (Churazov et al. 2000). Finally, in the last evolutionary phase, the bub-
ble reaches a height at which the ambient gas density equals that of the bubble.
The bubble then expands to form a thin layer (a “pancake”). The large low
surface brightness features in the M87 radio map could be just such pancakes
(see Fig. 4b for a schematic of the radio emitting components of M87).
The XMM-Newton observation (see Belsole et al. 2001) supports the buoy-
ancy scenario with spectra showing that emission from the X-ray columns is
A High Angular Resolution View of Hot Gas in Clusters, Groups, and Galaxies 7
Inner Edges
Outer Edge
Cavity
10 arcsec
30 arcsec
Figure 5. Edges in ZW3146. (a) The 0.5-2.0 keV image of the central
region of ZW3146 shows two “edges” as well as an inner cavity at the
position of a nuclear radio source which lies at the center of the optical
image of the cD galaxy. (b) A third “edge” appears on a larger scale
at ∼ 35′′ from the cD galaxy center.
thermal in nature with a gas temperature that is lower (1.5 keV) than the sur-
rounding gas (2.3 keV).
2.1. ZW3146 - Multiple Edges
ZW3146 is a moderately distant (z = 0.29; 5.74 kpc per arcsec) cluster with a
remarkably high mass deposition rate that has been estimated to exceed 1000
M⊙ yr−1 (Edge et al. 1994). The Chandra image further demonstrates the
remarkable nature of this cluster – on scales from 3′′ to 30′′ (∼ 20 kpc to 170
kpc), three separate “edges” are detected (see Fig. 5 and Forman et al. 2003b).
At the smallest radii, two edges are seen to the northwest and north (see Fig. 5a).
The first, at a radius of ∼ 3′′ (17 kpc) has a surface brightness drop of almost
a factor of 2. This innermost “edge” defines a cavity, surrounded by a partial
shell, centered on the bright, central cD galaxy. The cavity probably arises as
relativistic plasma (seen as radio emission in the NVSS/FIRST survey) produced
in the central AGN expands outward and evacuates the X-ray emitting plasma
from the immediate environs of the the nucleus. The second edge, at a radius of
∼ 8′′ (45 kpc) has a surface brightness drop of almost a factor of 4. The third
“edge” (Fig. 5b) lies to the southeast, about 35′′ (200 kpc) from the cluster
center. One possibility for the origin of these multiple edges is that the 8′′ edge
is produced by gas motions induced by the expanding plasma bubble in the
central core. Alternatively, “sloshing” motions can arise either from mergers or
bubbles (e.g., Markevitch et al. 2001; Churazov et al. 2003).
Studies of clusters like ZW3146, for which the standard cooling flow scenario
predicts large mass deposition rates but which have complex cores, may help to
resolve the source of the energy needed to moderate the effects of radiative
cooling as required by recent XMM and Chandra observations (e.g., Peterson
et al. 2001 and Tamura et al. 2001). A variety of proposals have been made
to explain the much smaller amounts of cool gas than expected (e.g., Churazov
et al. 2001, Bruggen & Kaiser 2001, Quilis et al. 2001, Bohringer et al. 2002,
Nulsen et al. 2002, Fabian et al. 2002b, 2002c, Ruszkowski & Begelman 2002,
8 Forman et al.
Zakamska & Narayan 2002, Churazov et al. 2002). Only more observational
studies can determine which processes are most effective.
2.2. Origin of Density Edges
The variety of morphologies and scales exhibited by sharp edges or cold fronts
seen in Chandra images is quite remarkable. Possibly the edges may arise from
moving cold gas clouds that are the remnants of merger activity. They may
arise either from massive mergers as in A2142, multiple collapses as suggested
for RXJ1720.1+2638 (Mazzotta et al. 2001), or gas oscillations (sloshing) in
“cooling flow” clusters (Markevitch et al. 2001, 2002b). For A3667, the data
were of sufficiently high quality that the parameters of the dark matter halo as-
sociated with the observed gas cloud could be derived (Vikhlinin & Markevitch
2002). Alternatively, some edges could arise from the interaction of surviving
cold, dark matter halos as they move within the cluster potential. High resolu-
tion, large scale structure simulations show that dense dark matter halos, formed
at very early epochs, would not be disrupted as clusters collapse (Ghigna et al.
1998 and Ghigna et al. 2000). While most of the dark matter halos, having
galaxy size masses, are associated with the sites of galaxy formation, larger
mass halos also may survive or may have fallen into the cluster only recently.
Hence, we might expect to find a range of halo mass distributions moving within
the cluster potential. As these halos move, they could give rise to the multi-
ple surface brightness edges observed in some clusters. Churazov et al. (2003)
showed that edges/cold fronts in cluster cores could be produced by weak shocks
or sound waves as they traverse cluster cores. Such waves can be generated by
infalling gas that provides an impetus to the core gas. The infalling gas itself
does not penetrate the core. A crude simulation of such a scenario was used by
Churazov et al. (2003) to explain the appearance of the core of the Perseus clus-
ter. Still another possible mechanism to generate edges in cluster (or group or
galaxy) atmospheres is from motions induced by buoyant bubbles of relativistic
particles produced in central AGN (Quilis et al. 2001, Churazov et al. 2001).
Buoyant bubbles can entrain, uplift and possibly drive gas motions. Thus, a
variety of physical mechanisms have been suggested to produce the observed
cold fronts/edges. Probably, at least several of these mechanisms are operative
in different clusters and perhaps even in the same cluster where mergers are
underway and AGN in the central galaxies are producing relativistic plasma
bubbles.
2.3. Explosive Cavities
NGC4636 is one of the nearest and most X-ray luminous “normal” ellipti-
cal galaxies (LX ∼2×1041 ergs s−1 ). The first X-ray imaging observations of
NGC4636 from Einstein showed that, like other luminous elliptical galaxies,
NGC4636 was surrounded by an extensive hot gas corona (Forman, Jones &
Tucker 1986).
The Chandra observation of NGC4636 shows a new phenomenon – shocks
produced by nuclear outbursts (see Jones et al. 2002 for details of the Chan-
dra observation of NGC4636). The high angular resolution Chandra image (see
Fig. 6) shows symmetric, ∼ 8 kpc long, arm-like features in the X-ray halo
surrounding NGC4636. The leading edges of these features are sharp and are
A High Angular Resolution View of Hot Gas in Clusters, Groups, and Galaxies 9
1 arcmin
Figure 6. (a) The 0.5-2.0 keV ACIS-S image of NGC4636. (b) The
smoothed emission after an azimuthally symmetric model describing
the galaxy corona has been subtracted. Shocks from a recent nuclear
outburst could produce the brighter arm-like structures, while the ad-
ditional features could arise from other outbursts.
accompanied by temperature increases of ∼ 30%, as expected from shocks prop-
agating in a galaxy atmosphere.
Although the sharpness of the edges of the NE and SW arms appears similar
to the sharp edges found along “fronts” in clusters (see discussion and references
above), the cluster “fronts” are cold, while those in NGC4636 are hot. Also,
while the presence of sharp fronts suggests the possibility of an ongoing merger,
the east-west symmetry of the halo structures, the similarity of this structure to
that seen around radio lobes, as well as the lack of a disturbed morphology in
the stellar core or in the stellar velocities suggest an outburst from the nucleus as
the underlying cause. In particular, the bright SW arm, the fainter NW arm and
the bright NE arm can be produced by the projected edges of two paraboloidal
shock fronts expanding about an east – west axis through the nucleus. A shock
model is also consistent with the evacuated cavities to the east and west of the
central region.
The size, symmetry, and gas density and temperature profiles of the shocks
are consistent with a nuclear outburst of energy ∼ 6 × 1056 ergs having occurred
about ∼ 3 × 106 years ago. It is tempting to suggest that these outbursts are
part of a cycle in which cooling gas fuels nuclear outbursts that periodically
reheat the cooling gas. Such outbursts if sufficiently frequent could prevent the
accumulation of significant amounts of cooled gas in the galaxy center.
3. Conclusions
We have described several of the new phenomena observed with Chandra and
XMM-Newton. Of particular note are the density “edges” (some of which are
shock fronts but most of which are cold fronts) and bubbles. Some cold fronts are
certainly produced through mergers. However, others may arise from residual
gas “sloshing” in cluster cores (Markevitch et al. 2002). The gas motions may be
initiated by rising buoyant bubbles, weak sound waves traversing the cluster core,
10 Forman et al.
or motions of dark matter halos that have survived mergers. Buoyant bubbles of
relativistic plasma can induce complex morphologies in cluster (and group and
galaxy) atmospheres as well as moderate the effects of radiative cooling. We have
observed at least one example of an outburst (NGC4636) with direct heating of
the surrounding gaseous atmosphere. Clearly, cluster cores are more complex
than previous lower angular resolution observations had shown. Studies of this
“complexity” provide a unique opportunity to better understand the details of
cluster mergers and to investigate the interaction of relativistic plasma produced
by AGN with the gas in the cluster cores.
We acknowledge support from NASA grant NAG5-9217 and NASA contract
NAS8-39073.
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