EE331
Power electronics
2024/2025
1
Chapter 01
Part II
2
Chapter 01
Part II
3
Chapter 01
Part II
What is RMS?
•RMS Definition:
• The Root Mean Square (RMS) value is a statistical measure of the
magnitude of a varying quantity.
• It represents the equivalent steady-state value of an AC voltage
or current that produces the same power as a DC source.
•Importance in Electrical Engineering:
• Used to describe the effective value of alternating currents (AC)
or voltages.
• Allows for easy comparison between AC and DC systems in terms
of energy delivery. 4
Chapter 01
Part II
?
s I d c
e s
Gu
5
Chapter 01
Part II
0 A
= 1
I dc
6
RMS Calculation Formula
7
RMS of Common Waveforms
8
Why Use RMS in AC Circuits?
9
RMS in Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms
10
Applications of RMS
11
Chapter 01 Part II
Harmonics
An example of a voltage and current waveforms of a
linear load is shown in Figure
12
Chapter 01 Part II
An example of a voltage and current waveforms of a
non-linear load is shown in Figure
13
Chapter 01 Part II
Harmonics
What Are Harmonics?
• Definition:
• Harmonics are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency
in a waveform.
• When an electrical signal deviates from a pure sinusoidal
form, it can be broken down into a fundamental frequency
and its harmonic components.
• Example:
• If the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, the harmonics are at:
• 2nd harmonic: 100 Hz
• 3rd harmonic: 150 Hz
• 4th harmonic: 200 Hz, and so on.
14
Chapter 01 Part II
These non-sinusoidal currents contain harmonic
currents that interact with the impedance of the power
distribution system to create voltage distortion that
can affect both the distribution system equipment,
and the loads connected to it.
15
Chapter 01 Part II
IEEE 519-1992 defines harmonic as a sinusoidal component of a
periodic wave or quantity (for example voltage or current) having a
frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Types of Harmonics
• Odd Harmonics:
• Occur at frequencies like 3rd, 5th, 7th harmonic, etc.
• Common in non-linear loads such as inverters, fluorescent lights,
and computers.
• Even Harmonics:
• Occur at frequencies like 2nd, 4th, 6th harmonic, etc.
• Rare in power systems, often canceled out due to symmetrical load
characteristics.
• Triplen Harmonics:
• Multiples of the 3rd harmonic (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.).
• These harmonics are especially problematic in three-phase
systems because they add up in the neutral wire.
17
Chapter 01 Part II
Causes of Harmonics
• Non-Linear Loads:
• Devices that draw current in non-sinusoidal patterns cause
harmonics.
• Common Sources of Harmonics:
• Electronic devices: Computers, printers, and LED lighting.
• Power electronics: Rectifiers, inverters, variable frequency drives
(VFDs).
• Saturated magnetic devices: Transformers and inductors.
• Arc furnaces: Large industrial equipment.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Harmonic Distortion
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):
• A measure of the degree of distortion in a waveform due to the
presence of harmonics.
V1 = RMS value of the fundamental frequency.
V2,V3,… = RMS values of the harmonic components.
Impact of THD:
• High THD values indicate significant waveform distortion, leading to
inefficiencies and potential equipment damage.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Effects of Harmonics
• On Electrical Systems:
• Overheating: Excessive harmonics cause transformers, cables, and
motors to overheat.
• Reduced Power Factor: Harmonics distort the current waveform,
reducing the power factor and increasing losses.
• Neutral Overloading: In three-phase systems, triplen harmonics
(multiples of 3rd) accumulate in the neutral, causing overheating.
• On Equipment:
• Premature Failure: Sensitive electronics may fail prematurely due to
voltage distortion.
• Misoperation of Circuit Breakers: Harmonics can cause protective
devices to trip unexpectedly.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Reducing Harmonics
• Methods to Mitigate Harmonics:
• Passive Filters: Use capacitors, inductors, and resistors to block
harmonic frequencies.
• Active Harmonic Filters: Detect and cancel harmonic currents
using active electronic circuits.
• Isolation Transformers: Reduce harmonic distortion by isolating
harmonic-producing loads.
• Harmonic Standards: Following standards like IEEE 519, which
limits the acceptable levels of harmonics in power systems.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Harmonic Impact on RMS Calculation
• RMS and Harmonics:
• The presence of harmonics increases the overall RMS value of a
waveform.
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ …
V1 is the fundamental RMS value, and V2,V3 are harmonic RMS values.
Non-sinusoidal waveforms with harmonics have higher RMS values than
their fundamental component alone.
Harmonic Distortion and Power Losses:
• The RMS value increases due to harmonics, leading to increased power
dissipation in resistive components (I²R losses).
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Chapter 01 Part II
Conclusion
• Key Takeaways:
• Harmonics are undesirable distortions caused by non-linear
loads.
• High harmonic content leads to power quality issues such as
overheating, equipment malfunctions, and increased energy
losses.
• Mitigation techniques include using filters, isolation
transformers, and adhering to harmonic standards.
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Chapter 01 Part II
Harmonics Analysis
The analysis of harmonics is the process of
calculating the magnetudes and phases of the
fundamental and high order harmonics of the periodic
waveform. The resulting series is known as Fourier
series. It establishes a relation between a function in
the time domain and a function in the frequency
domain.
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Chapter 01 Part II
The Fourier Series represents a periodic function as the sum
of sines and cosines (or complex exponentials) with specific
frequencies and amplitudes. For a periodic function 𝑓(𝑥) with
period 𝑇, the Fourier series is given by:
∞
𝑎0 2𝜋𝑛𝑥 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑎𝑛 cos( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin( )
2 𝑇 𝑇
𝑛=1
Where:
•𝑎0 is the average (DC) component of the function.
•𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are the Fourier coefficients for the cosine and sine terms,
respectively.
•𝑛 is the harmonic number. 25
Chapter 01 Part II
Fourier Coefficients
The coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are calculated as follows:
2 𝑇
𝑎0 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 0
2 𝑇 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 𝑇
2 𝑇 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 0 𝑇
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Chapter 01 Part II
Fourier Coefficients
The coefficients 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are calculated as follows:
2 𝑇
𝑎0 = 0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇
2 𝑇 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 𝑇
2 𝑇 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 0 𝑇
Notes:
The Fourier series breaks down any periodic function into its constituent
sine and cosine waves.
It is particularly useful in signal processing, where complex waveforms can
be analyzed as the sum of simpler sinusoidal components.
This equation assumes the function is periodic, and the interval of integration
is one period T. 27
Chapter 01 Part II
-2 2
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Chapter 02
Power Semiconductor
Switching Devices
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Chapter 02
What is a Power
Semiconductor Switching
Device?
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Chapter 02
From the perspective of
resistivity
31
Chapter 02
Characteristics of Semiconductor Materials (Germanium and Silicon):
• They have electrical properties between conductive and insulating materials,
which is why they are called semiconductors.
• They possess a small number of free electrons, so they cannot conduct
electric current efficiently. However, their conductivity can be improved by
adding impurities, which increases the number of free electrons.
• A certain amount of impurity atoms is added in a ratio of 1 impurity atom:
10 million semiconductor atoms through a process called doping.
• A semiconductor element, like silicon, is used, and
impurities are added to create a new crystal that is
either positive (p-type) or negative (n-type):
1. Arsenic or antimony → n-type crystal.
2. Gallium or boron → p-type crystal.
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Chapter 02
A free electron that can move and
create an electric current.
Negative atom
A pure and stable silicon atom silicon atom doped with antimony
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Chapter 02
A missing electron represents a hole that can
accommodate an incoming electron, thereby
creating an electric current.
Positive atom
A pure and stable silicon atom silicon atom doped with Boron
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Chapter 02
Applications
Solar cell
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