TOPIC: ROCKETS AND SATELITES

SUBTOPIC: ROCKETS
A rocket is a self-propelled vehicle that obtains its thrust by ejecting a stream of
fast moving fluid through its rear end. Rockets are useful for various purposes
such as for fireworks, as weapons, space explorations and to launch artificial
satellites to space.

COMPONENT PARTS OF A ROCKET

A model rocket consists of the following parts;

1. Nose cone
2. Fins
3. Recovery system
4. Launch lug
5. Body tube
6. Shock cord and parachute string
7. Rocket engine
8. Engine mount
9. Payload section

The diagram above is an image of a rocket it is made of the following parts;

1. Nose cone: This forms the top of the rocket and is aerodynamically
shaped to reduce air resistance during flight. It houses the payload, such
as satellites, scientific instruments etc.
2. The fins: These are attached to the bottom part of the body tube and are
used to stabilize the rocket during flight and ensure a straight path.
3. Body tube: This is the main housing for the components of the model
rockets it provides the structure and holds the component together.
4. Shock cord and Parachute string: these are used to connect the nose
cone, body tube and recovery systems. Once the ejection charge fires
and the nose cone is pushed out the front of the rocket, these
components make sure everything stays together and comes down in
one piece.
5. Rocket engine: the rocket engine is the core component that produces
thrust by burning propellant (the mixture of fuel and oxidizer that
produces the exhaust gases for propulsion).
6. Engine mount or holder: the engine mount or holder is a crucial part of
the rocket that is designed to securely hold the engine in place, ensuring
proper alignment and stable flight. It transfers the engines thrust to
propel the rocket and protects the other parts from and heat typically
the mount includes an engine tube, centering rings and clips.
7. Pay load section: this the cargo carried by the rocket.
8. Recovery system: the recovery system is housed in the body tube and
most commonly takes the form of a parachute but there are a variety of
safe recovery systems in model rocketry. These systems are best
deployed at the apogee (the peak altitude of flight) or just moment
before.
9. Launch lug: the launch lug is responsible for guiding the rocket off the
launch pad, for a rocket to be stable it needs to leave the launch rail at
30mph. While building up that speed, the rocket needs to be held up
tight and on a guided path. The launch lug slides over the launch rail and
provides that guidance until the rocket leaves the launch rail.
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKETS

Multi-stage rockets also known as step rockets are launch vehicles that use two
or more rocket stages, each containing its own engines and propellant. This
design enables rockets to effectively shed mass during flight, optimize
performance at different altitudes, and achieve the high speeds required for
reaching orbits.

image of multistage rocket

Multi-stage rockets consist of two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached

next to each other. There are two primary staging schemes:

The serial or tandem staging: In this configuration, stages are mounted on top of
one another, with the first stage at the bottom and subsequent stages decreasing
with size.

The parallel staging: In this arrangement, solid or liquid rocket boosters are
attached alongside the main rocket stages, often referred to as “stage 0”, in
parallel stage the multiple booster stages are strapped to a central sustainer.

The staging process

The multi-stage rocket staging process is crucial to achieve the high speeds
required for reaching orbit. The process typically unfolds as follows;

The first-stage and booster engines fire, propelling the entire rocket upwards.
When the boosters run out of fuel, they detach from the rest of the rocket and
fall away. The first stage continues to burn until it runs out of propellant, at which
point it separates from the remaining rocket stages.

The second stage ignites, often before the first stage separation to ensure a
smooth transition and positive separation between stages. This process is
repeated until the desired final velocity is achieved.

ROCKET PROPULSION

Rocket propulsion is the process which rockets move by ejecting high-speed

exhaust gases in the opposite direction of motion. The motion of a rocket is an
application of newton’s first law of motion, for every action there is an opposite
but equal reaction. When the fuels in the combustion chambers are mixed and
burned, the high-pressure gases are ejected at high velocities through nozzles at
the rear end of the rocket. The action force involved in ejecting the gases from
the rear end causes a reaction force or thrust on the rocket, thus enabling the
rocket to be propelled forward .Thrust is the force which moves aircraft through
the air and it is generated by the propulsion system of the aircraft.

There are two main categories of rocket engines; liquid rockets and solid rockets.
In a liquid rocket, the propellants, the fuel and the oxidizer, are stored separately
as liquids and are pumped into the combustion chamber of the nozzle where
burning occurs. In a solid rocket, the propellants are mixed together and packed
into a solid cylinder. Under normal temperature conditions, the propellants do
not burn; but they will burn when exposed to a source of heat provided by an
igniter. Once the burning starts, it proceeds until all the propellant is exhausted.
 USES OF ROCKETS

Some uses of rockets are as follows;

1. Fireworks: Rockets used for entertainment during fireworks displays date

back as far as the sung dynasty in china around 960-1279AD, it is also the
earliest form of rocket propulsion recorded in history.
2. Scientific Research: Rockets also play a crucial role in scientific research and
meteorology through sounding rockets. Monitoring upper atmospheric
conditions is crucial for establishing climate patterns and making weather
forecasts.
3. Military Weapons: During the start of the space race between the United
States and the Soviet Union, the majority of launch vehicles used during the
early years were converted to intercontinental ballistic missiles.
4. Safety Mechanisms: The ejection seats used in fighter aircraft and the
launch escape system used in crewed space launch systems are the best
examples of these mechanism in practice. In both cases, rockets are used to
lift the vehicle occupants to safety in case of an emergency.
5. Orbital Launch Vehicles: Orbital launch vehicles, or rockets that can reach
Low Earth Orbit and beyond, are still the most widely publicized and well-
known type of rocket. The vast majority of rockets are used to put a type of
satellite into orbit. The satellites vary from scientific craft monitoring
conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere and on its surface to reconnaissance
satellites, communications satellites, and Global Positioning Systems.

NEXT SUBTOPIC: SATELLITE

DEFINITION

A satellite is an object orbiting around the sun, earth, or any other colossal body.
There are two major types of satellites mainly Natural satellites and artificial
satellites.

Natural satellites: A natural satellite is an astronomical dwarf planet or small solar

system body orbiting round another planet. The earth has one permanent Natural
satellite, the moon which causes the in the sea. Sometimes other objects like
asteroids can enter into temporary orbits of the earth and become a natural
satellite for a span. Some examples are comets, planets or moons. Jupiter has 67
natural satellites.

Artificial Satellites: The earth has many man made satellites that are placed in the
orbit and are used for different applications in communication and information
gathering. Currently there are more than 2,500 manmade satellites orbiting the
earth. As the term itself states an artificial satellite is one that is put into space by
human effort and follows the orbit of natural satellites. The satellites are
launched with a special objective in mind pertaining to several uses such as
communication, research in scientific areas, forecasting the weather and
intelligence based on their purpose.

There are two kinds of artificial satellites mainly;

Geostationary Satellite:
These satellites are placed into orbit at a distance of around 35,800 km from the
earth’s surface. They rotate in the same direction as the earth and one revolution
of such satellites is the same as one day on earth (roughly 24 hours). This means
that, as seen from earth, these satellites will appear to be at the same spot
throughout. Hence, the name “geostationary” satellites. These satellites are used
as communication satellites and for weather-based applications.

Polar Satellite:
Polar satellites revolve around the earth in a north-south direction around the
earth as opposed to east-west like the geostationary satellites. They are very
useful in applications where the field vision of the entire earth is required in a
single day. Since the entire earth moves below them, this can be done easily. They
are used in weather applications where predicting weather and climate-based
disasters can be done in a short time. They are also used as relay stations.

PROJECTION OF A SATELLITE
To launch a satellite in an orbit around the earth multistage rocket is used. The
launching involves two steps. In the first step, the satellite is taken to the desired
height and then in the second step, it is projected horizontally with the calculated
speed in a definite direction. If the velocity is proper it starts revolving in a stable
circular orbit.
To understand the launching of satellite let us consider a simple case of the use of
a two-stage rocket. The satellite is kept at the tip of the two-stage rocket.

Initially, the first stage of the rocket is ignited on the ground so that the rocket is
raised to the desired height, the first stage is detached. Then the rocket is rotated
by remote control to point it in the horizontal direction. Then the second stage is
ignited so the rocket gets push in the horizontal direction and acquires certain
horizontal velocity (Vh). When the fuel is completely burnt second stage also
gets detached and the satellite starts orbiting around the earth.

A Satellite is Placed outside Earth’s Atmosphere:

The satellite orbiting very close to the earth’s surface has an orbital speed of
about 8 km/s. As the height of the satellite from the surface of the earth increases
its orbital velocity decreases. If the satellite is placed in the atmosphere, due to
the high velocity of satellite and friction between the atmosphere and the
satellite, large heat will be produced and the satellite will get burnt.
Satellites play a critical role in communication, navigation, weather
monitoring, and Earth observation. To understand their paths, positions, and
coverage, we often analyze projections of their orbits onto reference planes or
Earth's surface. These projections allow us to map their movements and
understand how they interact with Earth-based systems.
The projection of a satellite is the representation of its orbit in a simplified plane
or as a visible path over Earth's surface. Projections allow us to visualize satellite
coverage, predict its future positions, and manage orbital operations effectively.

Ground Track Projections

A ground track is the projection of a satellite’s orbit onto Earth’s surface. It
represents the path where the satellite appears to travel over the globe. Ground
tracks typically form sinusoidal patterns due to the interaction between Earth's
rotation and the satellite's orbit.
The shape and repetition of the ground track depend on the satellite’s inclination
and altitude. For geostationary satellites, the ground track is a single point
because they remain fixed relative to Earth. They are used to identify regions
where a satellite provides communication or imaging services.

Projections in Orbital Planes

Satellites orbit Earth in three dimensions. To analyze their motion, the orbital
path is often projected onto a two-dimensional plane, such as the equatorial or
orbital plane.
Orbital Elements for Projections, projections use Keplerian orbital elements:
Semi-Major Axis (a): The average size of the orbit, determining its altitude.
Eccentricity (e): Describes the shape of the orbit (circular or elliptical).
Inclination (i): The tilt of the orbit with respect to the equatorial plane.
Longitude of Ascending Node (Ω): The orientation of the orbit’s tilt.
True Anomaly (ν): The satellite’s current position within its orbit.

Types of Map projections

Map projections help represent the satellite’s motion and coverage on flat maps.
Key projections include:
a) Mercator Projection: A Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection that
stretches the poles. They are best for geostationary satellites and regions near the
equator.
b) Polar Projection: A circular projection centered at one of the poles. They are
deal for satellites in polar orbits that pass over poles, ensuring global coverage.
c) Azimuthal Projection: An azimuthal projection is a flat projection centered on a
specific point on Earth (e.g., a ground station). They are frequently used for real-
time tracking and satellite communication.

PARTS OF A SATELLITE

Structural Frame (Bus)

The structural frame provides the necessary support for all satellite components.
The platform is designed to withstand the mechanical stresses experienced during
powered flight, including liftoff and acceleration (up to 4-5G), noise (decibels),
and temperature differences. This requires materials with low thermal expansion,
such as carbon composites. It needs to be strong and stiff to survive the launch
but also as light as possible to reduce launch costs. The housing is constructed
from robust materials capable of withstanding the harsh space environment.
These materials should have good stiffness and strength properties relative to
their weight, such as aluminum or carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers.

Power System
A satellite’s power system is its lifeline, supplying energy to all onboard systems
and the payload. Satellites primarily generate energy using solar panels oriented
towards the sun. During eclipse periods, when they are in Earth’s shadow, they
rely on rechargeable batteries that have been previously charged by the solar
panels. The power control system monitors and regulates the battery charge and
voltage.

Propulsion System
The propulsion system is responsible for adjusting the satellite’s orbit and
orientation using various propulsion technologies. Different methods include cold
gas propulsion, chemical propulsion, and electric propulsion. All work on the
same principle: thrust is generated by accelerating mass through a nozzle.

Thermal Control System

Satellites are exposed to extreme temperatures. Parts of the payload must be
kept within narrow temperature ranges to function properly, and batteries or
electrical components that experience temperatures beyond their limits are at
risk of failure. Thermostat-controlled electric heaters activate at low
temperatures to prevent certain components from getting too cold. Additionally,
the attitude control system can aid thermal control by adjusting the orientation of
radiators and other surfaces.

Onboard Computers and Control Systems

These systems manage satellite operations, including navigation,
communication, and data processing. They centralize command processing
through the Command and Data Handling (C&DH) system, executing instructions
received from ground control and distributing them to the appropriate
subsystems. These systems continuously monitor the health and status of all
onboard components—such as power levels, temperatures, and functionality—
ensuring optimal performance. They also handle data processing by collecting,
processing, and storing information from the payload before transmitting it back
to Earth.

Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC) System

The Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC) system is critical for the satellite’s
ability to position and orient itself accurately in space. The Attitude and Orbit
Control System (AOCS) adjusts the satellite’s orientation using sensors (star
trackers, sun sensors, inertial measurement units) and actuators (reaction
wheels). Gyroscopes in the inertial measurement unit continuously measure
changes in orientation. Reaction wheels control the satellite’s orientation around
its three axes by generating rotations opposite to the center of mass.
 Communication System
The communication system on a satellite is a comprehensive suite that enables all
forms of data exchange between the satellite and ground stations. It
encompasses both the reception (uplink) and transmission (downlink) of mission-
specific data and the critical functions of Telemetry, Tracking, and Command
(TT&C).

The Payload
The payload is the heart of the satellite, containing all mission-specific
instruments and equipment. In a nutshell, it’s everything used to carry out the
satellite’s mission. Each payload is specific to the satellite’s mission.

USES OF SATELLITE
Satellite are useful in;
1. Communication: Satellite play a vital role in communication by enabling
services like satellite phones, internet and television broadcasting e.g.
Direct-to-home TV or streaming in remote areas rely heavily on satellites.
2. Navigation and Positioning: Satellite are the backbone in navigation
systems like the Global positioning system (GPS). They provide highly
accurate location and timing that is essential for transportation,
smartphone navigation and military operation.
3. Scientific Research: On earth, scientific research are used for geophysical
studies, such as measuring the planet’s magnetic field, studying tectonic
plate movements and monitoring changes in the earth’s gravity.
4. Defense and Security: Satellites are critical for surveillance, they monitor
borders, track military activities enhancing national security. They are also
used to track danger such as missiles launches and coordinate military
operations.
5. For weather Monitoring: Satellites are also used to track changes in the
atmospheric conditions that determine the weather.