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Kylie O’Brien and Philip Blair

Medicinal Cannabis and CBD in Mental

Healthcare
1st ed. 2021
Kylie O’Brien
Torrens University Australia, Adelaide, Sth Australia, Australia

Philip Blair
Private Practise, Castle Rock, WA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-78558-1 e-ISBN 978-3-030-78559-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78559-8

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer
Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham,
Switzerland
Foreword
Dr. Kylie O'Brien, PhD, the Chief Scientific Officer at Releaf Group Ltd
and Adjunct Professor at Torrens University, and Dr. Philip Blair, a
family physician and retired United States Army colonel who has
utilized medical cannabis in his practice for a number of years, have
written a comprehensive textbook on the relationship between
cannabinoids, including cannabis, and mental health. This important
book will be a resource for clinicians and patients around the world.
Cannabis remains a polarizing topic around the world. Some say
that cannabis is harmless and that it can treat almost any medical
condition while others refer to it as the “Devil’s Drug” with no place in
medical practice. Neither extreme view is true. Unfortunately, though,
patients and their doctors are caught in the middle of this battle, and it
has become hard to learn the truth about cannabis and cannabinoids
and to access doctors comfortable with utilizing cannabinoids in their
practices. It is my sincere hope that this book will help address this
problematic situation.
The authors, one a well-known educator and the other a noted
clinician, work to dispel many misunderstandings about cannabis,
primarily known as a recreational drug. The level of detail shows the
authors’ obvious passion for this topic. More recently, though, evidence
has been building to support the use of cannabis and cannabinoids as
pharmacotherapies for a host of medical indications.
The book opens with an introduction, followed by a chapter
describing the endocannabinoid system as a foundation for
understanding the hypothetical rationale for cannabinoids as
medications. Chapter 3 discusses the relationship between the
endocannabinoid system and stress. Chapter 2 plays a vital role by
explaining what medical cannabis is and what it is comprised of.
Unfortunately, many people have different understandings of what
medical cannabis refers to. The authors explain the roles of delta-9-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), but they also
introduce terpenes and other phytocannabinoids. From there, the book
covers specific medical conditions—anxiety, depression, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), insomnia, Alzheimer’s Disease, and autism
spectrum disorder.
 For each medical condition, the authors present key information
about each condition before reviewing the state of the evidence—both
preclinical and clinical—for cannabinoids as possible treatments for
these conditions. The depth in each chapter is considerable as the
authors dissect the role of the endocannabinoid system in each
condition, why cannabinoids may alleviate symptoms in each condition,
and the current state of the evidence for cannabinoids for each. They
place a particular focus on THC and CBD as those are the most
commonly utilized cannabinoids in most medical practices. Case
studies are used to illustrate clinical considerations that are likely to
arise. The authors acknowledge that the level of evidence for various
cannabinoids for different medical conditions varies widely, but they
want to ensure that patients and clinicians have all of the evidence at
their disposal so that they can make informed decisions about their
health.
The authors should be commended for making an important
contribution to the science of cannabinoids by creating an exhaustive
resource. Patients and clinicians alike will find this book to be an
important resource, especially with misinformation on cannabis being
so plentiful these days. We clearly need additional rigorous research on
the potential medical benefits of cannabinoids. For several reasons, the
rate and scale of the research has not kept pace with the surging public
interest. Drs. O’Brien and Blair, however, recognized the need for
guidance today for patients and clinicians discussing the possibility of
cannabinoid pharmacotherapy for mental health conditions, and they
have made an impressive contribution.
Kevin P. Hill
Disclaimer
This book was written for the purposes of healthcare practitioner
education. It is not intended as medical advice for any individual.
Individuals interested in the potential use of medicinal cannabis for
their own health concerns are advised to consult an appropriate
healthcare practitioner knowledgeable in its use.
Contents
1 Introduction
Why This Book?​
The Structure of the Book
Limitations
Medicinal Cannabis as Part of a Holistic Therapeutic
Approach
Your Journey
A Final Note from Dr.​Blair
References
2 Endocannabinoid System
Introduction
Purpose of the Endocannabinoid System
Components of the Endocannabinoid System:​Overview
Endogenous Ligands:​Endocannabinoids​
Endocannabinoids​in Brief
Synthesis of AEA and 2-AG
Binding to Receptors (Extracellular and Intracellular)
Degradation of Endocannabinoids​
AEA and 2-AG in More Detail
Key Difference Between Endocannabinoids​and
Phytocannabinoid​s
Endocannabinoid-Like Compounds:​PEA, OEA, and
Oleamide
Cannabinoid Receptors
Discovery of Cannabinoid Receptors
Location of Cannabinoid Receptors
 Location of CB1 Receptors:​Overview
CB1 Receptors in the CNS
CB1 Receptors in Peripheral Nervous System and Periphery
Functions of CB1 Receptors
CB2 Receptors
Mechanisms of Action of the Endocannabinoid System (ECS)
Classic Understanding of How the ECS Works in the Nervous
System
Complexity of the ECS:​Multiple Signaling Pathway
Involvement
The ECS in Non-neural Cells
ECS Signal Transmission Via Microvesicles
Other Receptor Targets for Endocannabinoids​
The Endocannabinoid System in Neuroprotection
Development of the Endocannabinoid System
The ECS in Early Life
The Adolescent Brain and the ECS
Endocannabinoid System Dysfunction and Disease
The Concepts of Endocannabinoid Tone and
Endocannabinoid Deficiency
Diseases in Which ECS Dysfunction Is Implicated
Endocannabinoid System Dysfunction and Mental Health
Omega 3 and 6 PUFAs in the Brain Health
Conclusion
References
3 The Endocannabinoid System, Stress, and Mental Health
Introduction
Key Brain Structures Involved in the Regulation of Stress
Corticolimbic System
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
Other Areas
The Stress Response
The Autonomic Stress Response
Neuroendocrine Stress Response
When the Stress Response Becomes Pathological
Stress and Inflammation
How Does Stress Activate Inflammatory Changes?​
Endocannabinoid System and Stress Regulation
Several Lines of Evidence that the ECS Is a Regulator of the
Stress Response
Bidirectional Relationship Between Stress and the ECS
ECS and the Autonomic Nervous System Stress Response
ECS, the Corticolimbic System, and the HPA Axis
How Is the ECS Involved in Acute and Chronic Stress?​
The Endocannabinoido​me (Extended ECS) and Stress
Genes, Stress, and the Endocannabinoid System
Early Life Stress and the Endocannabinoid System
Early Life Stress, Corticolimbic System, and HPA Axis
Development
Stress Responsivity
Findings from Animal Models
Early Life Stress and Genetic Patterns in Humans
Sex Differences in How Early Life Stress Affects the ECS
The Gut and Stress
 The Gut Microbiome and Stress
Microbiota Changes and Stress
The Gut Regulates the HPA Axis
Leaky Gut and Mental Health
The Endocannabinoido​me, the Gut, and Links to Mental
Health
Inflammation, the Gut, and the ECS
Cannabis Exposure and Stress Responsivity
Conclusion
References
4 Overview of Medicinal Cannabis
Introduction
Definition of Medicinal Cannabis
Taxonomy:​What Is in a Name?​
Hemp
Hemp Oil and Hemp Seed Oil
Historical Use of Cannabis as Medicine
Cannabis in China
Cannabis in Other Ancient Cultures
Medicinal Cannabis in the Western World
Regulations in the USA
Active Constituents of Cannabis
Where Are the Phytocannabinoid​s and Terpenes Found?​
Entourage Effect
Cannabis Strains and Active Constituent Profiles
A Word of Caution About Reductionism
Phytocannabinoid​s:​Overview
Cannabidiol
Therapeutic Actions of CBD
Mechanisms of Action of CBD
CBD Antagonism and Potentiation of THC
Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA)
Tetrahydrocannab​inol (THC)
Therapeutic Actions of THC
Mechanism of Action of THC
THCA-A
Other Phytocannabinoid​s
Cannabichromene (CBC)
Tetrahydrocannab​ivarin (THCV)
Terpenes
Actions of Terpenes
Forms of Medicinal Cannabis
Oils Are Not Oils
A Gap in Our Knowledge:​Lack of Studies in Whole Plant
Extracts
Routes of Delivery and Pharmacokinetics​
Inhalation
Oral Route
Topical Route, Other Routes
Bioavailability of CBD
Bioavailability and Onset and Duration of Action of THC
Safety
 Going Forward:​The United Nations and the Single Convention
Conclusion
References
5 Anxiety
Introduction
Anxiety:​Overview
Types of Anxiety Disorder
Associated Comorbidities
Treatment of Anxiety
Pathomechanisms Involved in Anxiety
Role of the Amygdala and Prefrontal Cortex in Anxiety
Serotonin in Anxiety
Noradrenergic System Involvement in Anxiety
GABA Involvement in Anxiety
Immune Dysfunction and Inflammation in Anxiety
Neurogenesis and the Hippocampus
The Endocannabinoid System in Anxiety
HPA Axis in Anxiety
Endocannabinoids​, Cannabinoid Receptors and Anxiety
Scientific Evidence:​CBD in the Treatment of Anxiety
Mechanisms of Action of CBD in Anxiety
Animal Research:​Efficacy of CBD in Anxiety
Human Research:​Efficacy of CBD in Anxiety
Scientific Evidence:​THC in the Treatment of Anxiety
Preclinical Research:​Effects of THC on Anxiety
Human Research:​Effects of Cannabis and THC on Anxiety
 Does Adding CBD to THC Lower Its Anxiogenic Effect?​
Whole Plant Medicines and Entourage Effects in Anxiety
N-Palmitoylethanol​amine (PEA) and Anxiety
Diet, ECS and Anxiety
Is Cannabis Use Associated with Anxiety?​
What Is the Evidence?​
Theories to Explain Association Between Cannabis Use and
Anxiety
Guidelines for Treating Anxiety with CBD
When to Use Medicinal Cannabis
Type of Product (Blends)
What Form of Product Should You Use?​
Dosing Guidelines
Titration and Follow-Up
Other Tips to Enhance Therapeutic Action
Drug-Cannabis Interactions
Case Studies from Dr.​Blair’s Practice
Case 1 Chronic Anxiety
Case 2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder with Prominent
Anxiety
Conclusion
References
6 Depression
Introduction
What Is Depression?​
Comorbidities of Depression
Pharmacological Treatment of Depression
Pathophysiology of Depression
Neuromorphometri​c Changes in Depression
Monoamine Theory of Depression
Immune System Function, Inflammation, and Depression
Malfunction of Lymphatic Vessels in the CNS Could Be
Involved in Depression
HPA Axis Dysfunction and Depression
Exaggerated and Blunted Autonomic and Neuroendocrine
Stress Responses
Genetic Abnormalities in Depression and a Link with
Inflammation
Neuroplasticity in Depression
Neurogenic Theory of Depression
The Glutaminergic System, N-Methyl D-Aspartate (NDMA),
and Depression
Disturbances of Serotonin in Depression
Multi-receptor Involvement
The Endocannabinoid System in Depression
Anatomical Basis
Evidence from Animal Studies Manipulating Cannabinoid
Receptors
Evidence of ECS Imbalance in Depression
Genetic Variations and Depression
Antidepressant Drugs Affect the ECS
Cross-Talk Between the Immune System and ECS in
Depression
Endocannabinoid System and the Neurogenesis Model of
Depression
Other documents randomly have
different content
nurseryman when ready for transplanting. The usual price is from
two-pence to four-pence for a dozen plants; and thus, for a couple
of shillings, a sufficient number of plants may be procured to make a
splendid display for a whole summer. No one should, indeed,
attempt to manage a hot-bed, who has not some person to pay
constant attention to it; as one day’s neglect respecting giving air,
watering, &c. will often destroy the hopes of a whole season.
The Californian annuals require peculiar treatment. These plants are
very hardy, and though many of them are of short duration in flower,
they may, by proper management, be contrived to produce a brilliant
effect during the whole summer. For this purpose a well-trodden
path, or a piece of very hard ground, should be covered about an
inch thick with very light rich soil; and the seeds of any of the
Californian annuals should be sown in it. These will stand the winter,
and in February or March, when the flower-beds have been dug
over, and made quite smooth, the annuals should be taken up with
the spade in patches and laid on the bed; the spaces between the
patches being filled up with soil, and the whole made quite firm and
compact, by beating each patch down with the back of the spade.
As soon as the patches have been removed, fresh earth should be
spread on the hard ground, and fresh seeds sown in it, the plants
springing from which will be ready to transfer to the beds as soon as
the first series have done flowering; and in this way a succession of
flowers may be kept up nearly all the year, observing to dig over the
bed in the flower-garden to which the flowers are to be
transplanted, and to rake it smooth every time the old flowers are
removed, in order to prepare it for the new ones.
Biennials are plants which do not flower till the second year. They
are generally sown in March, April, or May, and are transplanted in
September, to the situations where they are to flower the following
year. The best known of these flowers are the different kinds of
hollyhock, snapdragon, Canterbury bells, wallflowers, sweet-williams,
Œnotheras, and Brompton stocks; but there are many others
extremely beautiful and equally well deserving of cultivation. Most of
the biennials may be propagated by layers or cuttings, and thus
treated, they will last four or five years.
Perennial herbaceous plants are so numerous, that few general
directions can be given for their culture, and it will be necessary to
treat of the principal families separately. Perennial flowers are
generally propagated by layers, cuttings, offsets, suckers, and
division of the root; for when raised from seed, many of the kinds do
not blossom for several years. When propagated by layers, the earth
which is pressed over the pegged-down shoot, should not be kept
too moist; as layers of herbaceous plants, particularly where the
stem has been partly slit through, are very apt to rot. The same
remark holds good as to cuttings; and they should generally have
fewer leaves left on, than cuttings of trees and shrubs. Many plants
produce offsets, such as the potentilla, the wild geranium, &c., and
these only require separating from the parent, and planting in
spring; all the flower-buds should, however, be pinched off the first
year, to strengthen the plant, and to encourage it to send down
roots. Suckers are treated in exactly the same manner as offsets.
Division of the roots is, however, the most common way of
propagating perennials. To do this the plant is generally taken up,
and the roots pulled asunder if dry, or cut into pieces if fleshy, and
replanted; care being taken to cut off any part of the fibrous roots
that may have been wounded, or broken, by the removal. The plant
itself is also generally pruned or cut in, and some of its leaves are
taken off before replanting, and carefully shaded and watered till it
has recovered from the effects of its removal. All perennial plants
should be occasionally taken up, thinned, and replanted with the
same precautions: and the ground dug over, and renovated, before
they are replaced.
The most remarkable kinds of herbaceous plants are those called
florists’ flowers. This name indicates plants grown principally for the
purpose of exhibiting at some show to gain a prize, and on the
culture of which an extraordinary degree of care has been bestowed.
Most of these are either bulbs or tubers, but some few come under
the present head; and of these the most remarkable are the
auricula, the polyanthus, the carnation, the pink, the heartsease,
and the chrysanthemum.
Auriculas are well-known and favourite flowers; the wild plant is a
native of Switzerland, but it is almost as different from the cultivated
kinds, as the wild cabbage is from brocoli or cauliflower. The garden
auriculas have almost innumerable names, but they are all divided
into four kinds, very distinct from each other. These kinds are the
green-edged, the grey-edged, the white-edged, and the selfs. The
beauty of the flowers depends upon their size, the clearness of their
colours, and their roundness and flatness; these last qualities being
often assisted by art: the anthers of the stamens should also rise
above the pistil; as when the pistil is seen above the anthers, the
flower is called pin-eyed, and is esteemed of little value by florists.
The culture of the auricula, when it is to be grown as a prize-flower,
demands a degree of care and attention that no one but a professed
florist would think it worth his while to bestow. The great points
appear to be to make the soil as rich as possible, only, however,
using the cold manures, such as cow-dung, &c.; to let the pots be
very well drained, by placing about an inch and a half deep of
broken pot-shreds in each pot; and to keep the plants well and
regularly watered. When the flowers expand, they are generally
shaded with square pieces of board, tin, or paste-board, supported
by a stick just over the flower, so as to shelter it from the direct
influence of the sun, but to admit a free current of air, and sufficient
light. This precaution is said to improve the clearness and intensity
of the colours, which otherwise are apt to become dull and clouded.
Those persons who grow auriculas for sale, generally show them on
what is called a blooming-stage, and shade them with an awning like
that used for a tulip-bed. The plants are propagated by offsets, or
dividing the root; and new varieties are continually being raised from
seed. Auriculas are occasionally double or semi-double, but these
varieties are considered by florists very far inferior to the single
kinds.
The Polyanthus is of the same genus as the auricula, and of the
same species as the primrose. It is, however, a very distinct variety
of the last; and it is said to take its name of polyanthus, which
signifies many-flowered, from its producing its flowers in trusses like
the auricula, while the flowers of the primrose are produced singly,
each on a separate stalk rising from the root. The qualities of the
polyanthus resemble those of the auricula as to form and shape, but
there is not the same variety as to colour, as the polyanthus is
always of a very dark brownish red and golden yellow. The best
flowers have generally a narrow edging of a bright golden colour,
and as clear and distinct as possible, round the margin of each petal;
and no flower is at all esteemed that has what is called a pin-eye;
that is, as before mentioned with regard to the auricula, when the
pistil projects beyond the anthers of the stamens. The polyanthus is
propagated by slips, and division of the root, and new varieties are
raised from seed.
The Primrose differs essentially from the polyanthus and the
auricula, in being only esteemed when double, while they are not
considered to rank as florists’ flowers unless they are single. The
primrose, indeed, is not a florist’s flower; and its pretty double pale
yellow, dark scarlet, lilac, and white varieties are only grown as
common border flowers. They like a rich loamy soil, rather moist
than otherwise, and a shady situation; and they are propagated by
division of the roots.
The Carnation has long been a favourite florists’ flower; and, as it is
not quite so difficult to grow to a considerable degree of perfection
as the auricula, it is also a favourite border flower. The florists’
carnations are of three kinds, viz.—the flakes, which are striped with
broad bands of two colours; the bizarres, which are striped or
streaked with three colours; and the picottees, which are much the
hardiest, and are only bordered with a narrow margin of some dark
colour, or dotted with very small and almost imperceptible spots. The
carnation, in its wild state, is a native of England, and is generally
found on the walls of some old castle, or other ruin, or growing in
very poor, gravelly, or calcareous soil. The cultivated plant, of course,
requires different treatment; and the following directions have been
kindly given to us by one of the first growers of carnations in France,
M. Triquet de Blanc, Rue de la Madelaine, Paris:—“The compost
should be a fresh mellow loam, mixed with an equal quantity of
what the French call terre de taupinière, and we, casts from mole-
hills; to this mixture should be added a fifth of well-rotten cow-dung,
so thoroughly decayed as to have become quite black. The soil thus
prepared should be pressed firmly into the pots, more so, indeed,
than for any other plant: thus there should be twice as much earth
as usual in pots for carnations. The pots are placed in the sun till the
15th or 20th of November, and watered a little at a time, but often.
After the 20th of November, at latest, the plants should be kept
entirely in the shade, so that they may not be exposed to the sun at
any time during the day; and it is also absolutely necessary that they
should be kept under a roof where they may be sheltered from the
rain and snow; but they must not be put in a hot-house, as a cold
situation suits them much better. During frosty weather, they should
be very little watered, in order that the soil in which they grow may
not freeze very hard. They are thus left in the shade till the end of
April, when, there being no longer white hoar frosts to fear, they
may be exposed to the east, so that the sun may shine upon them
from its rising to the middle of the day, but no longer. Thus treated,
they will grow luxuriantly, and produce a magnificent show of
flowers.”
The best places for carnations in London, are, Groom’s, Walworth;
and Hogg’s, Paddington Green.
Carnations are propagated by layers and cuttings which, as we have
before mentioned, are called pipings. The layers are made when the
flowers are in full blossom, and several are made at once, as the
operation frequently kills the old plant, and consequently cannot be
practised with advantage unless a great many plants are ready to
take its place. The layers are cut half through as usual; and covered
half an inch deep with mould. As the stalks are very brittle, when
they are wet and succulent, it is customary to place the plant in the
sun for about half an hour, or an hour, to render it flaccid before the
layers are made. The layers will generally be well rooted in a month
or six weeks, and will then be ready to be separated from the parent
plant. The mode of treating pipings has been already described.
When the buds begin to form they are frequently tied round with a
strand of bast mat, to prevent them from bursting; and just as they
are opening, a bit of paste-board curiously cut is slipped under the
flower to keep the petals in their proper place. Each flower is also
furnished with a paper or tin cap to shade it from the sun, and a
stake to tie it to, in order to keep the stalk erect. Clove-carnations
bear the same relation to florists’ carnations, as unbroken tulips, or
self-coloured auriculas do to the finer flowers. The tree-carnation is
a half-shrubby variety of the same species, and the mule pink is a
hybrid between the carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) and the
sweet-william (Dianthus barbatus.) All these may be treated as
common perennial border flowers.
The Pink.—It is remarkable that though the pink is a commoner and
hardier flower than the carnation, it is not known in a wild state, and
it does not appear to have been much cultivated till the latter half of
the last century, though it is said to have been introduced in 1629.
Its origin is indeed very uncertain; some botanists considering it as a
variety of the carnation, and others making it a distinct species,
under the name of Dianthus plumarius. There are now many named
sorts, and the best laced pinks rank as florists’ flowers; their culture
being the same as that of the carnation. The other kinds are
considered inferior, and are grown like common herbaceous plants in
the open borders.
The Heartsease has only within the last few years ranked as a
florist’s flower. It had long been a favourite in gardens as its
innumerable popular names may testify; but it was reserved for a
young lady, aided by an industrious and intelligent gardener, to show
the world the extraordinary variations of which the flower is
susceptible. About the year 1810 or 1812, the present lady Monck,
then Lady Mary Bennet, had a small flower-garden entirely planted
with heartseases in the garden of her father, the late Earl of
Tankerville, at Walton-upon-Thames. The young lady naturally
wished to get as many different sorts into her garden as possible;
and at her desire, the gardener, Mr. Richardson, raised as many new
kinds as he could from seed. From this small beginning the present
passion for heartseases took its rise. Mr. Richardson, astonished at
the great variety and beauty of his seedlings, showed them to Mr.
Lee, of the Hammersmith Nursery. Mr. Lee instantly saw the
advantages to be derived from the culture of the plant; other
nurserymen followed his example, and in a few years the heartsease
took its place as a florists’ flower. The heartsease mania was at its
height from 1835 to 1838; but during the last year, it has appeared
somewhat on the decline. The most splendid flowers grown for
exhibition are generally hybrids, which possess, in a great degree,
the qualities of both parents. Thus, though almost every heartsease
has sprung partly from the wild kind, (Viola tricolor,) its other parent
may be traced by its general appearance. The very large dark purple
and yellow flowers are descended from Viola grandiflora, a species
with large yellowish flowers; other large flowers, with dark purple
upper petals, and the lower ones of a bluish tinge, are descended
from V. amœna; and the offspring of V. lutea are nearly all yellow,
strongly marked with very dark branched lines. The hybrids raised
partly from V. altaica are of a very pale yellow, and the petals have
an undulated margin; those from V. Rothomogensis, or V. hispida,
are of a pale blue; and those from V. bicolor are white, slightly
veined with purple, and tinged with yellow at the base. All these
vary exceedingly by continual crossings, but some of the
characteristics of the parents always remain.
The culture of the heartsease requires much attention. It is the habit
of the plant to ripen a succession of seed during the whole of its
flowering season: thus it bears flowers and ripe seeds at the same
time during the whole summer. The seeds should be sown in a bed
of rich garden mould, at least eighteen inches deep, and highly
manured, and the young plants should be suffered to remain till they
have flowered, when all the plants should be taken up, the best
replanted eighteen inches apart if in a bed, or in pots or boxes, and
the inferior ones thrown away. The best soil for replanting the
heartsease, particularly if they are in pots or boxes, is rich loam,
mixed with one-sixth of sand and one-sixth of vegetable mould; and
in large towns, all these soils may be purchased in small quantities
from the nurserymen. The pots and boxes should also be well
drained; for it must be remembered, that though the heartsease is
very liable to be scorched by the excessive heat of the sun, and will
require constant watering in hot weather; it is also very liable to be
damped off by cold and wet in winter. The best varieties are
propagated by cuttings, taken off in spring, which grow rapidly so as
to flower the same summer or autumn. These cuttings should be
taken from the points of the shoots, cutting them off immediately
below a joint; and they should be struck in pure white sand, as
when the cutting is put into earth it is very apt to damp off. The
cuttings when made should not be watered, but should be covered
with a bell glass, and shaded for several days, on account of the
succulent nature of the stems, and great evaporation from the
leaves. Heartseases are sometimes propagated by layers, in which
case the branch should be only pegged down at a joint, and not slit,
on account of its tendency to damp off.
Chrysanthemums are principally winter flowers, and they are
valuable for affording a brilliant show at a season when there are
few other flowers to be seen. In November and December, when no
other flowers are in blossom, these flowers are in full beauty; and
Mr. Loudon tells me that he has seen the walls of two small street-
gardens, one belonging to Mr. Ingpen at Chelsea, and the other to
Mr. Allen, Chapel Street, Edgware-Road, so completely covered with
them as to present a most brilliant and dazzling appearance.
Chrysanthemums may therefore be safely recommended as most
valuable flowers for both town and country; and their great number
and beauty make them particularly interesting. There are, indeed,
numerous varieties of every possible shade of yellow, brown,
orange, buff, pink, reddish-purple, lilac, and white, but not blue. All
the different varieties of chrysanthemums, and there are nearly a
hundred named sorts, may be referred to six distinct tribes; and
these are the following: 1. Ranunculus-flowered; 2. Incurved; 3.
China-aster, or Daisy-flowered; 4. Marigold-flowered; 5. Tassel-
flowered, or Quilled; and 6. Half-double Tassel-flowered. The
ranunculus-flowered have generally small flowers, in clusters, like
little roses; but the rest have large, handsome flowers, particularly
the tasselled kinds, the quilled petals of which are very long, and
hang down like tassels. The culture of the chrysanthemum differs
according to the use which it is proposed to make of it. When it is to
be flowered in pots, cuttings are taken from the tops of the shoots in
April; and as soon as they have taken root they are transplanted into
very small pots, where they are planted in a compost formed of
equal parts of sand, loam, and peat. As soon as they begin to grow,
and send out plenty of roots, they are removed into other, rather
larger, pots; and this shifting is repeated eight or nine, and
sometimes ten or twelve times. This constant shifting will keep the
plants bushy, without the cultivator being under the necessity of
pinching off the ends of the shoots; a practice which, though it
answers the desired end of keeping the plants of a compact habit of
growth, has yet the inconvenience of making them throw out so
many shoots and leaves as to weaken the flowers. When the
chrysanthemums are to be planted in the open border against a
wall, their roots should be parted in autumn or early spring, and
planted in very rich and highly manured, but light soil, at the foot of
a south or west wall, against which they should be trained like a
peach-tree, and all the superfluous shoots cut off. When planted,
they should be carefully watered, not only at their roots, but all over
their leaves, with a fine-rosed watering-pot, or garden-engine. They
should afterwards be watered three times a-day, and occasionally
with soap-suds, or manured water, that is, water in which manure
has been steeped. Thus treated, the plants will grow six or eight feet
high, and their flowers will not only be produced in great abundance,
but they will be of enormous size, and very brilliant in their colours.
The best chrysanthemums in London are at Chandler’s nursery,
Vauxhall.
Bulbs and Tubers.—The most interesting bulbs in a flower-garden
are the tulip, the hyacinth, and the crocus; and the most interesting
tubers are the ranunculus, the anemone, and the dahlia. There are,
however, many other flowers of both kinds highly deserving of
cultivation. The culture of all the bulbs is nearly the same; but that
of the tuberous-rooted flowers differs in different plants.
Bulbs are generally planted in autumn to flower in spring; and are
taken up when their leaves begin to wither, to be kept out of the
ground a month or two in complete repose before they are
replanted. They are generally propagated by offsets, which are
produced by the side of the old bulb; or rather, by the side of the
new bulb, which is formed every year to supply the place of the old
one, which wastes away. The new bulb sometimes forms beside the
old one; and sometimes below it or above it; and this is one of the
principal reasons why bulbs should be taken up and replanted every
year; as, when this is not attended to, those bulbs that form every
year below the old bulb, sink so low in the course of a few years,
that they become too far removed from the air to vegetate; while
those that form above the old bulb are pushed so high out of the
ground that they are often killed by frost or drought. In this way,
valuable plants often disappear from gardens, without their owners
having the slightest suspicion of the cause. It is, however, rarely
worth while to take up the common garden bulbs: such as the snow-
drop, the crown-imperial, &c., every year; particularly as they
generally form their new bulbs at the side of the old bulb: but even
these kinds should be taken up every two or three years. When
raised from seed, bulbs are generally from three to five years before
they produce flowers; and they are never propagated by layers or
cuttings.
Tulips.—Experienced florists raise tulips from seed to obtain new
varieties; but as the young bulbs are frequently from five to seven
years before they flower, this mode of propagating tulips does not
suit amateurs. Even when seedling tulips do flower, they produce
only self-coloured flowers, for the first two or three years, and in this
state they are called breeders. To make them break, that is, produce
the brilliant and distinct colours which constitute the beauty of a
florist’s tulip, they are subjected to the most sudden and violent
changes of soil, climate, and management. At one time, they are
grown in poor soil, and only allowed enough water to keep them
living; and then they are suddenly transported to the richest soil,
abounding with food and moisture. Sometimes, to change the
climate effectually, florists send their tulips to be grown for a year or
two twenty miles or more from the place where they were raised;
and then they are brought back to their native air. This laborious and
unscientific mode of proceeding is, however, now rapidly giving place
to a proper method of hybridizing; after which the young bulbs are
brought forward by means of bottom-heat, water, and frequent
shiftings, so as to flower and break the second or third season.
Florists’ tulips are generally divided into four tribes, viz.—1. Bizarres,
which have yellow grounds shaded with dark red or purple, and
which are sub-divided into flamed, in which the red or purple is in a
broad stripe or band, rising from the bottom of the petal,—and
feathered, in which the dark colour forms a marginal edging to the
petals, descending into them in various little delicate feathery veins.
2. Byblœmens, having white grounds shaded with violet or dark
purple, and also sub-divided into flamed and feathered. 3. Roses,
having white grounds shaded with rose-colour or cherry-red, and
divided into flamed and feathered; and, 4. Selfs, being either a pure
white or yellow. In addition to these, the French have Baguettes,
very tall-stemmed tulips, the flowers of which are white, striped with
dark brownish red; Baguettes Rigauts, which resemble the former,
but have shorter stems and longer flowers; and Flamands, which are
the same as Byblœmens. The Dutch have also a kind they call
Incomparable Verport, a very finely-shaped flower, white, and
feathered with bright shining brown. All these kinds are said to be
varieties of one species, Tulipa Gesneriana, a native of Italy; and
they all ought to have round, cup-shaped flowers, clean at the base,
and with all the marks and different colours quite clear and distinct.
Besides these florists’ tulips, several other species are occasionally
grown in gardens: the most common of which are the little Van Thol
tulips, which were named after the Duke Van Thol, and which are
scarlet, edged with yellow; the wild French tulip, which is a pure
yellow, and very fragrant; and the Parrot tulip, which appears to be
a variety of the last, and the petals of which are yellow, irregularly
striped or spotted with green, scarlet, and blue, and fringed at the
margin.
The culture of the tulip, as a florist’s flower, requires unremitting
attention and care; but for common garden purposes, the tulip will
be found hardier, and less liable to injury from insects, &c., than
most other flowers. Where tulips are grown in a regular bed, the
ground should be dug out to the depth of twenty inches, or two feet.
A stratum of fresh earth is laid at the bottom of the pit thus formed,
on that a stratum of rotten cow-dung, and on this a stratum of loam
mixed with sand. The bed should be three or four feet wide, and its
surface should be slightly raised in the middle. A fresh bed should be
made every year, or rather the same bed should be filled with fresh
soil every season; as the exudations from the tulips will soon poison
the ground for plants of the same kind, though it will be very
suitable for the growth of other bulbs, and tubers. The proper
distance at which the tulips should be planted in the bed is seven
inches apart, every way; and their colours and kinds may be
arranged according to the fancy of the planter. It is customary,
where the tulips differ a good deal in height, to place the tallest in
the middle, and the lower ones on the sides; and when this is the
case, the centre of the surface of the bed need not be raised. The
bed is protected by hoops and mats, which are contrived to open to
admit light, air, and rain at pleasure. When the plants are near
flowering, a path is made round the bed; and over the whole is
stretched a canvass covering, supported on a wooden frame, and so
contrived as to open at the sides or the top, as may be required. The
bulbs are planted about two or three inches deep, and are never
watered, except occasionally by admitting a gentle rain, till they are
in flower. When they have done flowering, the leaves are suffered to
remain till they begin to turn brown, when the bulbs are taken up,
and laid with the lower part upwards on shelves to dry. When this is
the case, the dry leaves and the fibrous roots are pulled or rubbed
off; and the bulbs are put into drawers or boxes, divided into
compartments so as to keep the named sorts apart, till the season
arrives for replanting, which is the last week of October or the first
of November.
Mr. Groom, of Walworth, is the principal tulip-grower in the
neighbourhood of London, and he has an exhibition of them of
extraordinary brilliancy and beauty every May.
Hyacinths are perhaps the most beautiful of all flowers, and when
grown in a bed like tulips, they are almost equally brilliant in effect.
Mr. Corsten, a Dutch florist, residing at a place he has called
Hyacinth Villa, at Shepherd’s Bush, has an exhibition of this kind
every April, and I have seldom seen any thing more striking. Under a
tent nearly two hundred feet long, and thirty feet wide, are two beds
each about one hundred and fifty feet long, divided by a walk
covered with matting in the centre, and surrounded by a similar
walk, with seats at each end of the tent. In these beds are above
three thousand hyacinths, the colours arranged so as to form
diagonal lines, and the whole presenting a perfect blaze of beauty.
Hyacinths are as numerous in their named varieties as tulips, but
they are not divided into any distinct tribes, except as regards their
colours. The principal distinctions are the white, the pink, and the
blue; but these admit of various modifications, and there are some
of a pale yellow, or rather lemon colour, and some of so dark a
purple as to be almost black.
The culture of the hyacinth somewhat resembles that of the tulip;
but it is more difficult, from the great length to which the roots of
the hyacinth descend perpendicularly, and the necessity which
consequently exists for preparing the ground for them to a very
great depth. There is also another peculiarity in hyacinth culture
which is rather difficult of attainment; namely, that the roots require
a great deal of moisture, though the bulbs should be kept quite dry.
The roots also require the soil to be very rich, but that the manure
used should be of the kind called cold. It will easily be seen from this
enumeration of the essentials for hyacinth culture, why Holland is so
pre-eminently the country for hyacinths. The dry sandy soil, raised
on the numerous dykes and embankments, by means of which
Holland has been rescued from the sea, affords at once a proper bed
for the bulbs, and a soil easily penetrable by the roots; while the
constant evaporation rising from the water which is every where
found below the dykes, is just what is required for the roots. Even
the manure most easily obtained in Holland is precisely that best
adapted for hyacinths, as it is cow-dung unmixed with straw; and
which thus contains nothing to induce fermentation and consequent
heat.
It is impossible in England to obtain the advantages so easily
attainable by the Dutch, without incurring a very considerable
expence. Our soil is generally so adhesive that it requires to be
pulverized to a very great depth to admit of the descent of the roots;
and even when the soil is sandy it is very different from the beautiful
silvery sea-sand, called Dünensande by the Dutch. The only way in
which we can imitate this sand is by mixing nearly in equal parts
what we call silver-sand and peat, or by growing the plants in silver-
sand, with a very slight admixture of fine vegetable mould.
Whatever the soil may be, it can hardly be too light, as the Dutch
say that the hyacinth will never thrive unless in sand so fine as to be
blown away in separate particles by a high wind. When hyacinths are
to be grown to the greatest perfection in England, a bed, or rather
pit, should be dug three feet or four feet wide, and six feet deep, the
length depending on the situation, and on the quantity of flowers to
be grown. A layer of stale cow-dung, without any mixture of straw or
litter, should be laid at the bottom of this pit at least a foot deep,
and the pit should then be filled up to within three inches of the top,
with equal parts of peat and silver-sand, or with a mixture of three
parts of silver-sand to one of light vegetable mould perfectly fine
and without any stones. About three inches from the top should be
spread a layer of pure sand in which the bulbs are placed at regular
distances, and each with the pointed end, which the Dutch call the
nose, upwards; and the bed is then filled up with the same mixture
as the lower part, and a layer about three inches deep of pure peat
is laid over the whole, to form a relief to the flowers. Dry weather
should always be chosen for the planting; and when planted, the
bulbs should be entirely covered with the sand, and should be about
six inches below the surface of the bed, which should be raised at
least three inches higher than the surrounding garden, to allow for
its sinking. The layer of pure peat on the surface is only to afford a
dark background to the flowers when they expand, and may be
omitted if thought unnecessary for this purpose. The bulbs are
planted the last week in October, or the first or second week in
November, and they are placed about four inches apart every way.
After they are planted, a mixture of cow-dung and water is generally
thrown with a scoop over the bed, so as to form a thin coating over
the soil, but not to penetrate into it. When the weather becomes
frosty, a covering of dry litter, reeds, or tan is put over the beds; or
hoops may be fixed over them on which bast mats are stretched. In
March the covering is removed and the beds are cleared of weeds,
and covered with a fresh coating of cow-dung and water. In April, an
awning of thin canvass, is erected over each bed, under which the
plants are to flower; and by the middle of this month they will be in
all their beauty. As soon as the flowers begin to fade the flower-
stalks should be cut off and instantly removed. They should never be
suffered to lie on the bed, and should not even be put where by any
chance they can mix with the earth intended for a hyacinth bed in
another year, as the exudations proceeding from them in their decay
would cause the bulbs to rot. This is not only because the
exudations from the hyacinths are of course poisonous to other
bulbs of the same genus; but because the flower-stalks appear to
contain a kind of corrosive juice, as the labourers employed in
Holland to cut them off the bulbs, frequently find their hands and
bodies become red and inflamed, and sometimes so painful as to
prevent them from sleeping.
When the leaves turn brown at the points, which is generally about
the middle of June, the bulbs should be taken up. When this is to be
done the leaves are first pulled off, or if they will not come off
readily by pulling, they are cut off close to the bulb. The bulbs are
then taken out of the ground, and laid on the footpath in rows, so as
to keep the different kinds distinct. The bed is afterwards raked
smooth all over, and a strip about a foot and a half broad is made
flat and firm, in the middle of the bed, by being pressed with a
plank, or beaten with the back of the spade, and on this the
hyacinth-roots are laid, still in distinct rows: earth is then drawn over
them two or three inches thick, and they are left for two or three
weeks. This the Dutch call lying in the Käuil, and the time of
remaining in it varies according to the size of the bulb and the
weather, the largest bulbs being removed soonest. When taken from
the Käuil, the bulbs are placed on shelves or wooden trays to dry,
with the root end of the bulb inclining towards the south.
Where it is not thought advisable to sink the bed so deep as six feet,
it may be made four feet deep, and the layer of cow-dung at the
bottom mixed with soil a foot deep, leaving only about three feet to
be filled with a mixture of peat and river sand, with about the
proportion of a third to the whole of vegetable mould. The other
treatment is the same as that detailed above. In all cases the soil
should be very light and fine, and only cow-dung should be used as
a manure. The roots should also always be watered very sparingly,
and with a mixture of cow dung and water, though not so thick as
that used for coating the bed. When the bulbs are planted, and
again when they are taken up, they should be carefully examined,
and all that are at all specked or mouldy, should be laid on one side,
as they would infect the others. When the infected part is large, the
bulb should be thrown away, or burnt with the stalks; but where the
speck is small it should be cut out with a sharp knife, and the bulb
planted, in not more than four-and-twenty hours after the piece has
been cut out. Hyacinths are propagated by offsets, by dividing the
bulb, and by seed, in which last case they are five years before they
flower. When planted in pots or boxes, the pot or box should be half
filled with broken potsherds, or some other material to ensure
perfect drainage, and the bulbs should be planted in a compost of
peat, sand, and very rotten cow-dung. The bulbs should only be
about half covered with soil; and if in boxes they should be kept, if
practicable, in a greenhouse, till they are ready to flower. If in pots,
they should be plunged into a hotbed, or into a tan-stove; or where
this cannot be done they should be buried in the garden, so that the
point of the bulb should be at least four inches below the surface.
Here they should remain till about six weeks before flowering, when
the pots should be taken out, and placed where they are to flower;
the sides of the pots being kept warm with moss, and the flowers
brought forward by daily waterings. All hyacinths grown in pots and
boxes will require abundance of water to make amends for the
unnatural situation in which their roots are placed. After hyacinths
have flowered in pots or boxes, or in water glasses, the bulbs are
generally planted in the open ground, and being covered with about
an inch of soil they are left to take their chance. Thus treated, the
finer kinds generally perish, but the hardier ones will live and flower
for many years, if allowed every autumn to retain their leaves, till
their new bulbs are matured. Hyacinths that have been flowered in
glasses, or pots, seldom however flower so well afterwards, at least
not for several years, as they scarcely ever quite recover the shock
they have sustained from the unnatural position of their roots;
whereas the Dutch florists, by allowing the roots of their hyacinths
plenty of room to descend perpendicularly, and taking up the bulbs
every autumn, have been known to keep bulbs of their finest flowers
twelve or even twenty years, and to have them produce splendid
flowers every year.
It must be observed that the exudations of hyacinths are very
abundant, and very injurious to other plants of their own genus. For
this reason, the Dutch never grow their hyacinths in the same bed
two years consecutively. The usual rotation is, first year, hyacinths;
second, tulips; third, polyanthus-narcissus; fourth, crocuses; and
fifth, hyacinths again. The Guernsey lily, the bulbs of which are
generally thrown away in England as soon as they have flowered,
will live many years if treated like the hyacinth.
Crocuses may be grown in the open ground, and they do not require
taking up every year like hyacinths or tulips. If they are taken up and
replanted every third or fourth year, it will be sufficient. There are
above a hundred named varieties, and they will produce a very good
effect if planted so as to form figures with their various colours.
When this is the case, however, the corms should be taken up and
replanted every year; to prevent the figure from becoming confused
by the spreading of the offsets. Crocuses may be grown in glasses,
or in pots or boxes, with very little injury, if planted in the open
ground as soon as they have done flowering, and suffered to mature
their leaves. In all cases the leaves of the crocus should be suffered
to remain till they wither, and not cut off; though many gardeners,
from a mistaken desire for neatness, cut the leaves off as soon as
the flowers have faded, and thus seriously injure the corms. All the
kinds of gladiolus or corn flag, the Irises, the Ixias, and, in short all
the Cape bulbs, are corms, and require the same treatment as the
crocus. Charlwood’s, Covent-garden, and Carter’s, Holborn, are the
best places in London for procuring all kinds of bulbs and corms.
The Ranunculus.—M. Triquet de Blanc, who had the kindness to
send me directions for the culture of the carnation, has given me the
following directions for the culture of the ranunculus:—“In November
spread well-rotten cow-dung, or thoroughly-decayed leaves, four or
five inches thick over the beds which are to be devoted to the
ranunculus, and dig it into the ground about four inches deep,
digging the bed over several times, so as to mix it well with the soil.
The surface of the bed is then raked smooth, and lines, or rather
drills, an inch and a half deep, are traced on it so as to form
squares, four inches on the side every way. The ground is then left
till the beginning of February, when the ranunculuses are planted
four inches apart, just at the point of intersection of the lines, and
they are covered about an inch and a half deep (rather less than
more) with the compost described above, or with fine garden mould.
The advantages gained by digging the earth in November, though
the roots are not planted till February, are—that the ranunculuses
are thus planted on a hard bottom, which suits them particularly;
and that the gardener is not obliged to dig the earth to mix the cow-
dung with it in February, when the ground is generally sloppy, and in
a very unfit state for being worked.”—When the plants are about to
flower, an awning may be erected over the bed to protect them from
the effects of the sun, which is apt to destroy the brilliancy of their
colours. In frosty weather, they should be protected by a mat, day
and night, as the sun will do them a serious injury, if they have been
at all affected by the frost. The plants may be watered with a weak
solution of cow-dung in water, and they should be constantly
watered in dry weather. The tubers should be taken up as soon as
the leaves begin to turn brown, which will generally be in July.
Groom, of Walworth, is considered to keep the best ranunculuses.
The Anemones of florists are of two kinds: those descended from
the garden or star anemone (A. hortense), and those descended
from the poppy anemone (A. coronaria). The poppy anemones,
which are generally single, are planted in September or October, and
under shelter are frequently in flower all winter: the splendid Dutch
anemones, and all the varieties of A. coronaria, on the contrary, are
not planted till February or March; the latter month, or even the
beginning of April, being preferred for the Dutch anemones, which
are apt to rot if planted too early. Anemones should be planted three
inches deep, and five inches apart every way, in a fresh, sound,
yellow loam, without any manure. Care should be taken to keep the
frost from them; but they will not need any other attention till the
leaves turn brown, when the tubers should be taken up, and treated
like those of the ranunculus and tulip. Old varieties are propagated
by offsets, and new kinds are raised from seed.
Dahlias are either raised from seed, or propagated by slips or
cuttings, or dividing the tubers. The seed is sown in pots in a slight
hotbed in February, and the young plants are transplanted into the
open air in June, where they are suffered to remain till they flower.
In October, those which are thought worth preserving are marked,
and the others taken up and thrown away. When the stalks are killed
by frost, the tubers are taken up, and kept in some dry place till the
season of planting the following year. The slips are taken from the
collar of the root in spring, and the cuttings from the tops of the
young shoots early in summer. Both are planted in very small pots,
in light, rich, sandy loam, and placed in a hotbed frame, and shaded.
In a fortnight they will have struck root; but they should be shifted
into larger pots, and placed for a short time in a greenhouse, before
they are turned out into the open ground. Dahlias have large
tuberous roots, but stems will only spring from the eyes or buds in
the crown of the root. If these eyes should have been destroyed, or
be wanting, the root is said to be blind; and though it will live for
several years in the ground, it will not send up a single stem. For
this reason, before dividing the root, it should be planted in a gentle
hotbed to develope or start the buds or eyes; and when it is divided,
care should be taken that each piece includes a portion of the
crown, which has an eye in it. Sometimes eyes are grafted in the
herbaceous manner on blind tubers.
The best soil for dahlias is a sandy loam, not too rich, as, in rich or
moist soils, the plant will produce more stalks and leaves than
flowers. Where the soil of the garden in which dahlias are to be
planted is rich, or heavy, a quantity of sand or gravel should be
mixed with it. Striped or variegated flowers will soon lose their
markings if grown in rich soil. The tubers of the early kinds are
planted in April, to flower in June; but those of the finer kinds are
not planted till May and June. When they begin to grow, the side-
shoots are removed from one foot to three feet from the ground; the
principal stem is then either tied to a stake driven deeply and firmly
into the ground, or the whole plant is drawn through a set of dahlia
rings. Dwarf plants are frequently suffered to trail on the ground,
and are pegged down, so as to cover the whole of the bed, with
which treatment they look extremely well. In dry weather, the plants
should be regularly watered, but not too abundantly. When the
leaves and stalks are killed by the frost, they should be directly cut
down; but the tubers may be left in the ground a little longer, as, if
taken up too soon, they will shrivel, and often become rotten. When
taken up, they should be kept in a dry place, and covered with a mat
to exclude the frost.
All the dahlias now in our gardens, numerous as they are, have
sprung from two kinds, both natives of Mexico, viz.—D. pinnata, or
variabilis, all the varieties of which are purple, crimson, rose-
coloured, lilac, or white; and D. coccinea, the varieties of which are
scarlet, orange, or yellow.
It is remarkable, that notwithstanding the numerous varieties that
have been raised of these two species, there have never been any
hybrids raised between them. Many attempts have been made, but
all the plants raised have partaken exclusively of the qualities of one
or the other of the parents, and none have partaken equally of both,
as is the case with true hybrids. There are many other kinds
mentioned in books, the most remarkable of which is the tree dahlia,
D. excelsa, a specimen of which, in the Liverpool Botanic Garden, is
now above twenty feet high. All the varieties grown in British
gardens as florists’ flowers, may be divided into four kinds, viz.—
Dwarfs, Anemone-flowered, Ranunculus-flowered, and Globe-
flowered. The dahlia was first discovered in Mexico by Baron
Humboldt, in 1789, and it was sent by him to Cavaniles, at Madrid,
who named it in honour of Professor Dahl, a Swedish botanist. This
name was afterwards changed to Georgina, in honour of a German
botanist named Georgi, who resided many years in St. Petersburg, in
consequence of the genus Dalea having been previously established
by Thunberg. As, however, this name is neither spelt nor pronounced
the same as Dahlia; and as the name of Dahlia was given long
before that of Georgina, the plant is now restored to its original
appellation. The dahlia was introduced into England in 1804, but it
did not become a florists’ flower till about 1815.
 CHAPTER IX.
MANAGEMENT OF THE LAWN, PLEASURE-GROUNDS,
AND SHRUBBERY, OF A SMALL VILLA.

The word Lawn may probably conjure up ideas of too large an

extent of ground to be managed by a lady; but when I use the term,
I do not mean an extensive park-like surface of level turf, but one of
those beautiful verdant glades that produce so delightful an effect
even in the smallest gardens. In places where the whole extent of
garden-ground does not perhaps exceed an acre, every one must
have felt the relief afforded to the eye by a broad strip of lawn,
bordered by trees and shrubs, not in a formal line on each side, but
running into numerous projections and recesses, and resting their
lower branches, frequently covered with flowers, on a rich smooth
velvet-looking carpet of grass.
Every one possessing a lawn of this description must be aware that
its chief beauty consists in its smoothness, and in the firmness and
closeness of its grasses. I say grasses, because strange as it may
sound to unbotanical ears, from twenty to thirty different kinds of
grasses sometimes enter into the composition of a square foot of
fine turf. Some of these grasses are coarse and grow high, and
widely apart; and others are very fine and slender, and grow closely
together. This being the case, it is obvious that when a fine smooth
turf is required, the finer kinds of grasses should be chosen, and the
coarser ones not only rejected among the grass-seeds sown, but, if
possible, destroyed whenever they appear, if they should chance to
come up accidentally.
Botanists have distinguished and arranged nearly fifteen hundred
different species of grasses; and of these probably more than three
hundred kinds are now cultivated in England. Of these, some are, of
course, better adapted to certain soils than others; and to ascertain
which grass was best suited to each soil, the late Duke of Bedford,
whose loss the horticultural and agricultural world has recently had
to deplore, instituted a series of experiments at Woburn under the
superintendence of his gardener, the late Mr. Sinclair, who was a very
intelligent man, and the result of which was published in the Hortus
Gramineus Woburnensis. From these experiments, it was found that
what are called hungry sandy soils, were the worst, and rich alluvial
soils the best for the production of grasses; but that sandy loams
produced the most equal and most permanent crops. To apply this
to practice in the production of proper lawn grasses, it is evident
that as a sandy loam appears to be the best for them, a sandy soil
would be improved by the addition of clay, and a clayey one by the
addition of sand, both these mixtures constituting what is called a
sandy loam: and it may be added, that where the soil is calcareous,
it may generally be left without any alteration, when it is to be
covered with grass. The next thing to be considered is the kind of
grasses most suitable for sowing on a lawn; and to ascertain this, it
must be remembered that the proprietor of a lawn does not want a
crop of hay, but a fine smooth level turf, the grass in which shall
entirely conceal the earth. For this purpose, it is evident that slow
growing grasses, the roots of which will retain permanent possession
of the soil, and which are sufficiently succulent not to be burnt up
when closely mown in hot weather, are preferable to those which
grow rapidly and produce an abundant crop of herbage, particularly
as the roots of the last kind are generally easily withered up in dry
weather. Very fast-growing grasses are indeed exceedingly annoying
to the possessor of a small lawn, as they require constant mowing
and are thus a constant source of expence.
Some philosophers assert that the chief thing that hinders the
attainment of our desires, is that very few of us know exactly what
we want; and it is to save my readers from being in this unpleasant
predicament with regard to lawns, that I have been thus particular in
describing what qualities are requisite in grasses to make them
suitable for producing soft turf. The next thing is to tell them as well
as I can, what kind of grasses appear most likely to answer the end
in view. Of all these, one of the most permanent appears to be the
fox-tail meadow-grass (Alopecurus pratensis); it is one of the
principal grasses in rich natural pastures, and it should always form
one-fourth part of the seeds used for laying down a lawn. The
sweet-scented spring grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) grows best in
deep moist soil; but it is worth sowing in every situation for its
fineness, its dwarf growth, and for its habit of continuing to
vegetate, and to throw up fresh stalks nearly all the year. It is this
grass which gives so delightful a fragrance to new hay. The common
meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) is also suitable for lawns; as, though
of slow growth, it has creeping permanent roots: and the short blue
meadow-grass (Poa cærulea) may be added, for its deep blue tint,
which gives a richness to the general colour of the grass, and
because it sustains no injury from dry weather. The crested dog’s-tail
grass (Cynosurus cristatus) is, however, the best for sustaining
drought and heat, as its roots penetrate so deeply into the ground,
as to keep its blades green, while all the grasses around it are quite
brown from being burnt up. The hard fescue grass (Festuca
duriuscula) is another kind which will stand the effects of dry
weather; it is also a very fine dwarf grass, and springs early. Many
other grasses might be named, but these will suffice. The proportion
in which they ought to be mixed, is another, and an essential point;
but at the same time it is one rather difficult to ascertain, as the
seeds of the finer kinds of grasses are very often abortive, and do
not germinate; and thus a larger quantity must be sown of them,
than of those kinds, all the seeds of which are generally good. The
seed of the meadow fox-tail grass (Alopecurus pratensis) is very
often so bad, that not above one seed in three will germinate,
consequently a much larger proportion of seed of this grass must be
sown than of any of the others. This seed is very light, and
consequently a pound of it, if bought by weight, will appear a great
deal more than a pound of the crested dog’s-tail grass (Cynosurus
cristatus), the seed of which is very heavy; and yet as the latter
seed is generally all good, it will cover more ground with grass than
the other. The best way is to write down the botanic names of the
grasses, and to send them to a respectable seedsman, with
directions to return enough of the seed of each, to produce an equal
quantity of grass of each respective species on the lawn. The whole
quantity required of the mixed grasses is generally not more than
four bushels and a half per acre; but if an immediate effect be
wanted, about a bushel and a half of the common white clover may
be added. This quantity of seed will be sufficient to sow the ground
very thickly, as when ground has been dug over and rendered
perfectly smooth the seeds will go further, and cover it more
completely than when the surface is uneven; and if the seeds are
sown in dry weather, then rolled in and afterwards watered, the
ground will be as green and covered with as fine a sward the first
season, as though it had been laid down with turf. The plants will,
however, probably be too thick; and as, when this is the case many
of them die, the ground may require a partial re-sowing the
following spring. It is therefore safer under ordinary circumstances
not to sow more than four bushels and a half an acre, as if that
quantity be equally distributed, the plants will not be too thick.
When the ground which is to form the lawn has been marked out,
the soil, if it wants amelioration, should be spread over with the
earth required to make it approach as near as possible to the great
desideratum, a sandy loam, and it should be then dug about a foot
deep. Care should be taken to do this in dry weather; as the two
soils to be mixed, should be both in a state of dryness. No manure
should be dug in unless the soil happen to be very poor indeed; as
manure will tend to produce a larger and taller growing crop of
grass, which, of course, will increase the trouble and expence of
mowing, without being of any use. The ground being dug, and raked
to remove all the large stones, the surface should be rolled, and
then the seeds sown; after which it should be rolled again and
watered by a garden-engine having a very fine rose. This watering
may be repeated occasionally if the weather should be very dry; and
if any mole-hills or worm-casts appear, they should be levelled, and
the rolling repeated.
When the ground is to be covered with turf, instead of being sown
with grass seeds, the turf should, if possible, be procured from some
meadow or downs where sheep have been fed; as these animals
bite close to the roots, and this kills the coarser grasses which have
generally weak fibrous roots, while the finer grasses, which have
deep roots, remain uninjured. The turf is then cut with a turf spade,
and rolled up for removal. When it is to be laid down, and the
ground is ready to receive it, it is spread out, and the different rolls
carefully joined to each other: little bits being cut off or pushed in
where the pieces do not exactly fit. It is then watered and rolled,
and will require no other care. With regard to after management, a
lawn can never be kept neat without frequent mowing, and this is an
operation which a lady cannot very well perform for herself: unless,
indeed, she have strength enough to use one of Budding’s mowing
machines. In whatever way, however, the operation may be
performed, it should be repeated very frequently. In large
establishments, the lawn is always mown every week during
summer; and even in the smallest gardens the grass should never
be suffered to remain more than a fortnight during summer without
mowing. The roots will thus become weakened, and will not be able
to send up any but dwarf and fine blades of grass, which will form in
a few years that beautifully smooth and soft velvet-like turf, which it
is the principal beauty of a lawn to possess. “It is a great mistake,”
says Mr. Loudon, in his Suburban Gardener, “to suppose that
anything is gained in the way of economy by suffering the grass of
lawns to grow long before mowing, in order to save the expense of
once or twice mowing during the season; for, in proportion as the
grass is allowed to grow long before mowing, in the same proportion
are the roots strengthened and enabled to send up still longer leaves
and stems; whereas if a lawn were kept short by frequent mowing
for two or three years in succession, the plants of grass would at last
become so weak that not one-half the mowing usually required for
even slovenly-kept lawns would be necessary, and the turf would be
much finer, and neater in appearance.” The best manure for a lawn
is soot.
I have dwelt longer than I otherwise should have done on the
management of lawns, not only because I am a great admirer of a
smooth green turf, but because I believe it is a subject not generally
understood. Most persons imagine that if they lay down turf, or sow
grass seeds, they have done all that is requisite; and my object is
simply to impress upon the minds of my readers, that this is not
enough: for as there are different kinds of turf and grasses, it is as
necessary to choose which to take, as to select flowers for the
flower-garden. I have only to add that the brownish hue sometimes
observed on the brows of hills in pleasure grounds is produced by
holcus lanatus, a kind of couch-grass, that wastes all its strength on
its fleshy roots, and produces only a thin and wiry herbage. This
species, the different kinds of agrostis or bent-grass, the brome
grasses, particularly Bromus arvensis, and the cock’s-foot grass,
Dactylus glomerata, should never be sown in lawns.
Grass seeds should be sown either in spring or autumn; and May,
and August or September are considered the best months. In very
old lawns, moss is apt to predominate, and when it is wished to
destroy this, the surface of the lawn is dressed, as it is called, in May
with lime. Dressing with lime will also destroy the worms which are
often very troublesome in lawns (particularly where the ground has
been manured with dung), in throwing up casts, which make the
ground uneven, and very difficult to mow.
The Walks in pleasure-grounds should be hard and dry; and they
should also be sufficiently wide to admit of three persons to walk
abreast occasionally; as nothing can be more disagreeable than the
situation of the third person, whom the narrowness of the walk
obliges to walk before or behind his companions; and who is obliged
either to remain silent or to carry on a most uncomfortable and
disjointed kind of conversation. The minor evils of clothes being
caught by branches, and leaves discharging on the pedestrians the
remains of a recent shower, would likewise be avoided by broader
walks.
The laying out of pleasure grounds embraces a wide field; and when
they are extensive they require the eye of a painter, as well as the
taste and skill of a landscape gardener. Even in small places, so
much depends on situation (particularly as regards the house, and
whether there may or may not be any distant prospects); on the
taste of the occupier; and on the expense to be incurred, not only in
laying out and planting, but in after keeping, that few directions can
be given that would be generally applicable. It may, however, be
observed that in all places whether large or small, the walks should
be so contrived, that no person passing along one, should see the
persons walking on another. Indeed, if more than one walk be ever
seen at a time, it gives an idea of want of space and confinement;
and this idea is one which the landscape gardener always
endeavours as much as possible to avoid. For the same reason the
boundary fence should never be seen, if it can possibly be disguised.
Even in a small street-garden, with three low walls on three of the
sides, and the house on the fourth, a very pleasing effect may be
produced by effectually concealing the boundary walls with ivy; and
thus permitting the imagination to fix the boundary where it will.
Another general rule in laying out pleasure-grounds is to avoid
monotony or sameness as much as possible. Nothing is more
wearying to the eye than a place, every part of which is alike, and
which leaves nothing to the imagination. A place regularly dotted
over with trees at equal distances is quite featureless; has nothing to
attract the eye, and nothing to interest the mind. But if the same
trees are planted on the same ground in masses, with a broad
expanse of lawn between; the trees sometimes projecting, and
sometimes showing a smooth glade of grass, running in among
them, the end of which the eye cannot reach, the imagination
becomes excited, and a degree of interest is instantly created.
Where the lawn is large, a few single trees may be introduced; but
few things in landscape gardening require more taste. Indeed, in
laying out pleasure-grounds, however small they may be, it is
generally the best, and indeed the most economical way, to have the
advice of a professional landscape gardener at first; instead of
groping on in the dark, from a mistaken idea of economy, till at last
it is discovered that all is wrong, and must be done over again. Thus
in the end, the work is generally found to have cost twice as much
as would have been expended if it had been begun properly at first;
besides the loss of time, and the annoyance always occasioned by
having anything to undo.
The Trees and Shrubs.—In all places sufficiently small to be
managed by a lady, without the aid of a regular gardener, the trees
and shrubs should be of the choicest kinds. It is quite the fashion of
the present day to plant arboretums; and though a place of the kind
I mention would not admit of a complete one, a lady might take
some genus, or some small natural order to illustrate, (as for
example the genus Ribes, or the order Berberideæ,) and fill up the
rest of her grounds with hollies or other evergreens, so as to form a
back ground to the ornamental trees. The genera Magnolia and
Liriodendron form the hardy trees of another small order, which it
would be easy to cultivate, taking care to plant M. conspicua, and
any other that produces its flowers before it does its leaves, with a
rich background of evergreens. The almond, which flowers in the
same manner, should be placed in a similar situation; and standard
roses may also be so placed as to have the unsightliness of their
long naked stems greatly lessened by a mass of evergreens behind.
Another very interesting mode of arrangement, where the ground
will admit of it, is to plant particular situations with certain trees
which are not to be found in any other part of the grounds; and thus
to form what the landscape gardeners call scenes. Thus, for
instance, there might be an American ground, formed in some
shaded hollow, and planted with rhododendrons, azaleas, and
kalmias. All these plants require a light peaty soil, and a shady and
somewhat moist situation. In another part of the pleasure-grounds
there might be some alpine scenery, with pines and firs, and
particularly larches, interspersed with a few birch-trees, planted in
dry sandy soil on hilly ground. The deciduous cypress and weeping
willow should be near water, as should the common willow, nearly all
the poplars, and the alders. In another place might be a thicket of
the different varieties of hawthorn, with a few of the fine large-
fruited foreign thorns planted in striking situations. In short there are
no limits to the numerous and beautiful scenes that might be laid
out by a woman of cultivated mind, who possessed fancy and taste,
combined with a very slight knowledge of trees; and I think I may
safely add, that I do not know a more delightful occupation than this
kind of landscape gardening. It is landscape painting, but on the
noblest and boldest scale: and it is a source of constant enjoyment,
from the daily improvement that it displays. What a difference it
makes in the pleasure we have in returning home, if we have
something to visit, that we know has been improving in our absence.
We regard the trees and shrubs we have planted, and the scenes we
have laid out with almost a parental fondness; and a new and daily
increasing interest is given to life. I would, therefore, most earnestly
entreat my readers to study trees and shrubs; and I do assure them
that they will find themselves amply repaid, not only by the pleasure
they will have in landscape gardening, but in the additional
enjoyment their accession of knowledge will give to every country
walk and ride that they take.
There is, however, one great drawback to the pleasure that may be
anticipated from planting an arboretum, or even an illustration of
any particular order or genus; and this is the very great difficulty
that exists in procuring plants true to their names. Nurserymen put
down a great many more names in their catalogues, than they have
different kinds of plants; and thus the same plants, like the actors in
a country theatre, are often made to perform under a great many
different names in the same piece. I have heard of instances where
twelve or fourteen species were named in a catalogue, though the
nurseryman only possessed three or four, which, when wanted, were
made to do duty under all these different names. Almost all
nurserymen are alike in this respect, and the only real cure will be
an increased knowledge of trees and shrubs on the part of the
purchasers, which will render it impossible to impose false kinds
upon them. In the mean time I may mention that Mr. Loudon has
found the trees and shrubs in the nursery of Messrs. Whitley and
Osborn, at Fulham, more correctly named than in most others.
In planting masses of trees and shrubs, great care should be taken
to hide the dug ground around them, which always forms a scar in