Physical Geography

physical geography
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IS AN integral part of a much larger area of
understanding called ​geography​. Most individuals define geography as a field of
study that deals with ​maps​. This definition is only partially correct. A better
definition of geography may be the study of natural and human phenomena
relative to a spatial dimension. The discipline of geography has a history that
stretches over many centuries. Over this time period, the study of geography has
evolved and developed into an important form of human scholarship. Examining
the ​historical evolution of geography as a discipline provides some important
insights concerning its character and methodology. These insights are also
helpful in gaining a better understanding of the nature of physical geography.
Physical geography, a subdiscipline of geography, is a field of
knowledge that studies natural features and phenomena on the Earth
from a spatial perspective. It primarily focuses on the spatial patterns of
weather and ​climate​, soils, ​vegetation​, animals, water in all its forms,
and landforms. Physical geography also examines the interrelationships
of these phenomena to human activities. This subfield of geography is
academically known as the Human-Land Tradition, and has seen very
keen interest and growth in the last few decades because of the
acceleration of human-induced environmental degradation. Thus,
physical geography's scope is much broader than the simple spatial
study of nature. It also involves the investigation of how humans are
influencing nature. In other words, it focuses on geography as an Earth
science, making use of biology to understand global flora and fauna
pattern, and mathematics and physics to understand the motion of the
Earth and its relationship with other bodies in the solar system. It also
includes landscape ​ecology​ and environmental geography.
Thus, the discipline, in a sense, is better organized than its human or
social counterpart because it rests upon specialist sciences like geology
and meteorology which had made great progress. There is no dearth,
but rather an embarrassing wealth, of material out of which to construct
the subject.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than 4,000
years ago. The main purpose of these early investigations was to map
features and places observed as explorers traveled to ​new lands​. At this
time, Chinese, ​Egyptian​, and ​Phoenician ​civilizations were beginning to
explore the places and spaces within and outside their ​homelands​. The
earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological
discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 B.C.E.
The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of
geography that was more than mere mapmaking or ​cartography​. Greek
philosophers and scientists were also interested in learning about spatial
nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the
first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484–425 B.C.E.).
Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and
physical geography of the various regions of the ​PERSIAN EMPIRE​.
The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry
of the Earth. Aristotle (c. 384–322 B.C.E.) hypothesized and scientifically
demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this
idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur
when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon's surface. The
first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was
the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (c. 276–194 B.C.E.). Eratosthenes
calculated the equatorial circumference to be 25,000 mi (40,233 km)
using simple geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was
unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite
technology have computed the circumference to be 24,899.5 mi (40,072
km).
Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the
Romans. Roman ​military commanders and administrators used this
information to guide the expansion of their empire. The Romans also
made several important additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo
(circa 64 B.C.E.–20 C.E.) wrote a 17-volume series called Geographia.
Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen
and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books,
Strabo describes the ​cultural geographies of the various societies of
people found from Britain to as far east as ​INDIA​, and south to
ETHIOPIA and as far north as ​ICELAND​. He also suggested a definition
of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human
geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that
the aim of geography was to describe the known parts of the inhabited
world and to write the assessment of the countries of the world with
clearly highlighting the differences between countries.
During the 2nd century C.E., ​PTOLEMY (c. 100–178) made a number of
important contributions to geography. Ptolemy's publication,
Geographike hyphegesis (Guide to Geography), compiled and
summarized much of the Greek and Roman geographic information
accumulated at that time. Some of his other important contributions
include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth's
surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some 8,000
places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical
latitude and longitude​.
Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period.
For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries) were a time of
intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the
only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the
Middle East​, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and
Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and exploring
southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the important intellectuals in
Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, ​IBN BATTUTA​, and Ibn Khaldun. Al-Idrisi
is best known for his skill at ​making maps and for his work of descriptive
geography. ​Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun are well known for writing about
their extensive travels to ​North Africa​ and the MIDDLE EAST.

RENAISSANCE
During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600), numerous journeys of
geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of
nation-states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because
of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The
voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and
discovery and added many significant contributions to geographic
knowledge. Important explorers of this period include Christopher
Columbus, ​Vasco da Gama​, ​Ferdinand MAGELLAN​, Jacques Cartier,
Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and
John Davis. Also during the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a
spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in
1492. Prior to Behaim's invention, it was commonly believed in the
Middle Ages that the Earth was flat. Behaim's globe probably influenced
the beliefs of navigators and explorers of that time because it suggested
that one could travel around the world.
In the 17th century, Bernhardus Varenius (1622–50) published an
important geographic reference titled Geographia generalis (General
Geography, 1650). During the 18th century, the German philosopher
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) proposed that human knowledge could be
organized in three different ways. One way of organizing knowledge was
to classify its facts according to the type of objects studied. Accordingly,
zoology studies animals, botany examines plants, and geology involves
the investigation of rocks. The second way one can study things is
according to a temporal dimension. This field of knowledge is of course
called history. The last method of organizing knowledge involves
understanding facts relative to spatial relationships. This field of
knowledge is commonly known as geography. Kant also divided
geography into a number of subdisciplines. He recognized the following
six branches: physical, mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and
theological geography.
Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the ​UNITED
STATES in the 1800s. This period also saw the emergence of a number
of societies interested in geographic issues. In ​GERMANY​, ​Alexander
von HUMBOLDT​, Karl Ritter, and ​Friedrich Ratzel made substantial
contributions to human and physical geography. Humboldt's publication
Kosmos (1844) examines the geology and physical geography of the
Earth. This work is considered by many academics to be a milestone
contribution to geographic scholarship.
Late in the 19th century, ​Ratzel theorized that the distribution and culture
of the Earth's various human ​populations were strongly influenced by the
natural environment. The French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche
opposed this revolutionary idea. Instead, he suggested that human
beings were a dominant force shaping the form of the environment. The
idea that humans were modifying the physical environment was also
prevalent in the United States. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave an
address to the ​Agricultural Society of Rutland County, ​VERMONT​. The
subject of this speech was that human activity was having a destructive
impact on land, especially through deforestation and land conversion.
This speech also became the foundation for his book Man and Nature or
The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this
publication, Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the
continued development of the American ​frontier​.
Many academics in the field of geography extended the various ideas
presented in the previous century to studies of small regions all over the
world. Most of these studies used descriptive field methods to test
research questions. Starting in about 1950, geographic research
experienced a shift in methodology. Geographers began adopting a
more scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques. The
quantitative revolution was also associated with a change in the way in
which geographers studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers
now began investigating process rather than mere description of the
event of interest. Today, the quantitative approach is becoming even
more prevalent because of advances in computer and software
technologies.
The history and development of geography, discussed above, suggest a
definition that geography, in its simplest form, is the field of knowledge
that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical
geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have
particular spatial patterns and orientation.

ELEMENTS AND PHENOMENA

Physical geography and ​HUMAN GEOGRAPHY are the two major
subfields of knowledge emanating from the discipline of geography. It is
important to distinguish between these two subfields that use similar
methodologies. Knowing what kinds of things are studied by
geographers provides us with a better understanding of the differences
between physical and human geography.
Phenomena or elements studied in physical geography include rocks
and minerals, landforms, soils, animals, plants, water, atmosphere,
rivers and other water bodies, environment, climate and ​weather​, and
oceans. Phenomena or elements studied in human geography include
population, setllements, economic activities, ​transportation​, ​recreational
activities, ​religion​, political systems, social traditions, human ​migration​,
agricultural systems, and urban systems.
Geography is also a discipline that integrates a wide variety of subject
matter. Almost any area of human knowledge can be examined from a
spatial perspective. Also, the study of geography can involve a holistic
synthesis, which connects knowledge from a variety of academic fields
in both human and physical geography.
For example, the study of the enhancement of the Earth's ​greenhouse
effect and the resulting ​global warming requires a multidisciplinary
approach for complete understanding. The fields of climatology and
meteorology are required to understand the physical effects of adding
additional greenhouse gases to the atmosphere's radiation balance. The
field of ​economic geography provides information on how various forms
of human economic activity contribute to the emission of greenhouse
gases through fossil fuel burning and land-use change. Combining the
knowledge of both of these academic areas gives us a more
comprehensive understanding of why serious environmental problems
occur.

STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS

The holistic nature of geography is a strength and weakness both.
Geography's strength comes from its ability to connect functional
interrelationships that are not normally noticed in narrowly defined fields
of knowledge. The most obvious weakness associated with the
geographical approach is related to the fact that holistic understanding is
often too simple and misses important details of cause and effect.
Physical geography's primary subdisciplines study the Earth's
atmosphere (meteorology and climatology), animal and plant life
(biogeography), ​physical landscape (​geomorphology​), soils (pedology),
and waters (hydrology). Some of the dominant areas of study in human
geography include human society and culture (social and cultural
geography), behavior (​behavioral geography​), economics (​economic
geography​), politics (​political geography​), and urban systems (​urban
geography​).

SPECIALIZATION
Academics studying physical geography and other related earth
sciences are rarely generalists. Most are in fact highly specialized in
their fields of knowledge and tend to focus themselves in one of the
following well defined areas of understanding in physical geography.
The fields of knowledge generally have a primary role in introductory
textbooks dealing with physical geography. Introductory textbooks can
also contain information from other related disciplines including
geology— the study of the form of the Earth's surface and subsurface
and the processes that create and modify it; ecology—the scientific
study of the interactions between organisms and their environment;
oceanography— the science that examines the biology, chemistry,
physics, and geology of oceans; cartography—the technique of making
maps; and astronomy—the science that examines nature, motion, origin,
and constitution celestial bodies and the cosmos.
After 1950, the following two forces largely determined the nature of
physical geography:
The Quantitative Revolution. Measurement became the central focus of
research in physical geography. It was used primarily for hypothesis
testing. With measurement came mapping, models, statistics,
mathematics, and hypothesis testing. The quantitative revolution was
also associated with a change in the way in which physical geographers
studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers now began
investigating process rather than mere description of the environment.
The Study of Human/Land Relationships. The influence of human
activity on the environment was becoming very apparent after 1950. As
a result, many researchers in physical geography began studying the
influence of humans on the environment. Some of the dominant themes
in these studies included environmental degradation and resource use;
natural hazards and impact assessment; and the effect of ​urbanization
and land-use change on ​natural environments​.

UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The nature of understanding in physical geography has changed over
time. When investigating this change, it becomes apparent that certain
universal ideas or forces had very important ramifications to the
academic study of physical geography.
During the period from 1850 to 1950, there were five main ideas that had
a strong influence on the discipline:
Uniformitarianism. This theory rejected the idea that catastrophic forces
were responsible for the current conditions on the Earth. It suggested
instead that continuing uniformity of existing processes were responsible
for the present and past conditions of this planet.
Evolution. ​Charles Darwin​'s Origin of Species (1859) suggested that
natural selection determined which individuals would pass on their
genetic traits to future generations. As a result of this theory,
evolutionary explanations for a variety of natural phenomena were
postulated by scientists. The theories of uniformitarianism and evolution
arose from a fundamental change in the way humans explained the
universe and nature.
During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, scholars began refuting belief-
or myth-based explanations of the cosmos and instead used science to
help explain the mysteries of nature. Belief-based explanations of the
cosmos are made consistent with a larger framework of knowledge that
focuses on some myth. However, theories based on science questioned
the accuracy of these beliefs.
Exploration and Survey. Much of the world had not been explored before
1900. Thus, during this period all of the fields of physical geography
were actively involved with basic data collection. This data collection
included activities like determining the ​elevation of land surfaces,
classification and description of landforms, the measurement of the
volume of flow of rivers, measurement of phenomena associated with
weather and climate, and the classification of soils, organisms, biological
communities, and ​ecosystems​.
Conservation. Beginning in the 1850s, a concern for the environment
began to develop as a result of the human development of once natural
areas in the United States and Europe. One of the earliest statements of
these ideas came from George Perkins Marsh (1864) in his book Man in
Nature or ​Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action. This book
is often cited by scholars as the first significant academic contribution to
conservation and environmentalism.
Systems Theory. The world of nature is very complex. In order to
understand this complexity, humans usually try to visualize the
phenomena of nature as a system. A system is a set of interrelated
components working together toward some kind of process. One of the
simplest forms of a system is a model. Both models and systems are
simplified versions of reality. The interaction between perceptible
phenomena and theory is accomplished through explanation and
validation. This simple model, while an extreme abstraction of reality,
illustrates how scientific understanding works. It suggests that in
scientific understanding, perceptible phenomena and theory interact
through explanation and validation.
In physical geography and many other fields of knowledge, systems and
models are used extensively as ​aids in explaining natural phenomena
around us. A system is a group of parts that interact according to some
kind of process. Systems are often visualized or modeled as component
blocks with some kind of connections drawn. All systems have the same
common characteristics. These common characteristics are summarized
below:
All systems have some structure.
All systems are generalizations of reality.
They all function in the same way.
There are functional as well as structural relationships between the units
of a system.
Function implies the flow and transfer of some material.
Systems exchange energy and matter internally and with their
surrounding environment through various processes of input and output.
Function requires the presence of some driving force or some source of
energy.
All systems show some degree of integration.
Within its defined boundary the system has three kinds of properties:
Elements are the kinds of things or substances composing the system.
They may be atoms or molecules or larger bodies of matter—sand
grains, rain drops, plants, or cows. Attributes are characteristics of the
elements that may be perceived; for example: quantity, size, color,
volume, temperature, and mass. Relationships are the associations that
exist between elements and attributes based on cause and effect.
The state of the system is defined when each of its properties (for
example, elements, attributes, and relationships) has a defined value.
Scientists have examined and classified many types of systems. These
types include the isolated system, a system where there are no
interactions outside its boundary layer. Such systems are common in
laboratory experiments. A closed system is closed with respect to
matter, but energy may be transferred between the system and its
surroundings. Earth is essentially a closed system. An open system is a
system where both matter and energy can cross the boundary of the
system. Most environmental systems are open.
A morphological system is a system where we understand process
relationships or correlations between the elements of the system in
terms of measured features. A cascading system concerns the
movement of energy and/or matter from one element to another and
understands the processes involved. A process-response system
involves the movement, storage, and transformation of energy and
matter and the relationships between measured features in the various
elements of the system. A control system is a system that is intelligently
manipulated by humans. An ecosystem is concerned with the biological
relationships within the environment and the interactions between
organisms and their physical surroundings.

STRUCTURE OF SYSTEMS
Systems exist at every scale of size and are often arranged in some kind
of hierarchical fashion. Large systems are often composed of one or
more smaller systems working within its various elements. Processes
within these smaller systems can often be connected directly or indirectly
to processes found in the larger system. A good example of a system
within systems is the hierarchy of systems found in the universe.
At the highest level in this hierarchy, we have the system that we call the
cosmos or universe. The elements of this system consist of galaxies,
quasars, black holes, stars, planets, and other heavenly bodies. The
current structure of this system is thought to have come about because
of a massive explosion known as the Big Bang and is controlled by
gravity, weak and strong atomic forces, and electromagnetic forces.
Around some stars in the universe we have an obvious arrangement of
planets, ​asteroids​, comets, and other material. We call these systems
solar systems. The elements of this system behave according to set
laws of nature and are often found orbiting around a central star because
of gravitational attraction. On some planets conditions may exist for the
development of dynamic interactions between the hydrosphere,
lithosphere, atmosphere, or ​biosphere​.
We can define a planetary system as a celestial body in space that orbits
a star and that maintains some level of dynamics between its
lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Some planetary systems, like
the Earth, can also have a biosphere. If a planetary system contains a
biosphere, dynamic interactions will develop between this system and
the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. These interactions can
be called an environmental system. Environmental systems can also
exist at smaller ​scales of size (for example, a single flower growing in a
field could be an example of a small-scale environmental system).
The Earth's biosphere is made up of small interacting entities called
ecosystems​. In an ecosystem, populations of species group together into
communities and interact with each other and the abiotic environment.
The smallest living entity in an ecosystem is a single organism. An
organism is alive and functioning because it is a biological system. The
elements of a biological system consist of cells and larger structures
known as organs that work together to produce life. The functioning of
cells in any biological system is dependent on numerous chemical
reactions. Together these chemical reactions make up a chemical
system. The types of chemical interactions found in chemical systems
are dependent on the atomic structure of the reacting matter. The
components of atomic structure can be described as an atomic system.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
An environmental system is a system where life interacts with the
various abiotic components found in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere. Environmental systems also involve the capture, movement,
storage, and use of energy. Thus, environmental systems are also
energy systems. In environmental systems, energy moves from the
abiotic environment to life through processes like plant ​photosynthesis​.
Photosynthesis packages this energy into simple organic compounds
like glucose and starch. Both of these organic molecules can be stored
for future use.
The chemical energy of photosynthesis can be passed on to other living
or biotic components of an environmental system through biomass
consumption or decomposition by consumer organisms. When needed
for metabolic processes, the fixed organic energy stored in an organism
can be released to do work via respiration or fermentation. Energy also
fuels a number of environmental processes that are essentially abiotic:
for example, the movement of air by wind, the ​weathering of rock into
soil, the formation of ​precipitation​, and the creation of mountains by
tectonic forces. The first three processes derive their energy directly or
indirectly from the sun's radiation that is received at the Earth's surface.
Mountain building is fueled by the heat energy that exists within the
Earth's interior. Finally, the movement of energy in environmental
systems always obeys specific thermodynamic laws that cannot be
broken.
It is understood that environment is the complex of physical, chemical,
and biotic factors (such as climate, soil, and living things) that act upon
an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determines its
form and survival. Both human and physical geography provide an
important intellectual background for studying the environment. Many
environmental studies/ science programs offered by universities and
colleges around the world rely on the information found in various
geography courses to help educate their students about the state of the
environment.

FUTURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The following describes some of the important future trends in physical
geography research:
Applied geography​. Continued development of applied physical
geography will help analyze and correct human-induced environmental
problems. A student of applied physical geography uses theoretical
information from the field of physical geography to manage and solve
problems related to natural phenomena found in the real world.
Remote sensing. Advances in technology have caused the development
of many new instruments for the monitoring of the Earth's resources and
environment from airborne and space platforms. The most familiar use of
remote sensing technology is to monitor the Earth's weather for
forecasting.
Geographic Information Systems​. A ​GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM (GIS) merges information in a computer ​database with spatial
coordinates on a digital map. Geographic Information Systems are
becoming increasingly more important for the management of resources.
Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one
of the two major sub-fields of geography. Physical geography is that
branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and
patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment,
the domain of human geography.University of southampton physical
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Sub-branches

Physical Geography can be divided into several sub-fields, as follows:

Geomorphology is the field concerned with understanding the surface of

the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as
well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that
deal with the specific landforms of various environments e.g. desert
geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology; however, these sub-fields are
united by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic
processes. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and
dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field
observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling
(Geomorphometry). Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for
pedology, one of two main branches of soil science

Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of

water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and
rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle. Thus the
field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to an extent
glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in
these bodies of water. Hydrology has historically had an important
connection with engineering and has thus developed a largely quantitative
method in its research; however, it does have an earth science side that
embraces the systems approach. Similar to most fields of physical
geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or
their interaction with other spheres e.g. limnology and ecohydrology.
Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the
cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the
latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as
alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are similar with research
undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the former
tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present
climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the landscape.
Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and
processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. snow hydrology and
glacial geology.
Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of
species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns.
Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred
Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had
largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its
approach. The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that
of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of island biogeography. The
field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: island biogeography,
paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeography
Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather
conditions averaged over a long period of time. Climatology examines
both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the
natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also
sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of
specific phenomena or time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall
climatology and paleoclimatology.
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that
focuses on weather processes and short term forecasting (in contrast with
climatology). Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant
progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century.
Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which
illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.
Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two
main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology
mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, soil classification. In
physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the numerous
interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life
(micro-organisms, plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils
(biogeochemical cycles) and its position and effects on the landscape
such as lateralization.
Palaeogeography is a cross-disciplinary study that examines the
preserved material in the stratigraphic record to determine the distribution
of the continents through geologic time. Almost all the evidence for the
positions of the continents comes from geology in the form of fossils or
paleomagnetism. The use of this data has resulted in evidence for
continental drift, plate tectonics, and supercontinents. This, in turn, has
supported palaeogeographic theories such as the Wilson cycle.
Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the
ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e.
coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human
geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering
processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering,
and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal
geography, although predominantly geomorphological in its research, is
not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and
influences of sea level change.
Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's
oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine
organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography); ocean
currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical oceanography);
plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological
oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical
properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (chemical
oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that
oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and
understanding of processes within it.
Quaternary science is an inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the
Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years. The field
studies the last ice age and the recent interstadial the Holocene and uses
proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to
infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred.
Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that
address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological
processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and
individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the
distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). The
field was largely founded by the German geographer Carl Troll.
Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic
context. The main difference between biogeography and landscape
ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and
material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the
former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical
cycles.
Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering
geographic information, or spatially referenced information. Geomatics
includes geodesy (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement
and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other
geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar
motion), geographical information science (GIS) and remote sensing (the
short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon,
by the use of either recording or real-time sensing devices that are not in
physical or intimate contact with the object).
Environmental geography is a branch of geography that analyzes the
spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. The
branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography and
thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology,
hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in
which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the
branch was previously more visible in research than at present with
theories such as environmental determinism linking society with the
environment. It has largely become the domain of the study of
environmental management or anthropogenic influences.

Journals and literature

Physical geography and Earth Science journals communicate and

document the results of research carried out in universities and various
other research institutions. Most journals cover a specific field and publish
the research within that field, however unlike human geographers,
physical geographers tend to publish in inter-disciplinary journals rather
than predominantly geography journal; the research is normally expressed
in the form of a scientific paper. Additionally, textbooks, books, and
magazines on geography communicate research to laypeople, although
these tend to focus on environmental issues or cultural dilemmas.
Examples of journals that publish articles from physical geographers are:

Historical evolution of the discipline

From the birth of geography as a science during the Greek classical period
and until the late nineteenth century with the birth of anthropogeography
(human geography), geography was almost exclusively a natural science:
the study of location and descriptive gazetteer of all places of the known
world. Several works among the best known during this long period could
be cited as an example, from Strabo (​Geography)​ , Eratosthenes
(​Geographika​) or Dionisio Periegetes (​Periegesis Oiceumene)​ in the
Ancient Age to the Alexander von Humboldt (​Kosmos)​ in the nineteenth
century, in which geography is regarded as a physical and natural
science, of course, through the work ​Summa de Geografía​ of Martín
Fernández de Enciso from the early sixteenth century, which indicated for
the first time the New World.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a controversy exported
from geology, between supporters of James Hutton (uniformitarianism
thesis) and Georges Cuvier (catastrophism) strongly influenced the field of
geography, because geography at this time was a natural science since
Human Geography or Anthropogeography had just developed as a
discipline in the late nineteenth century.

Two historical events during the nineteenth century had a great effect in
the further development of physical geography. The first was the
European colonial expansion in Asia, Africa, Australia and even America
in search of raw materials required by industries during the Industrial
Revolution. This fostered the creation of geography departments in the
universities of the colonial powers and the birth and development of
national geographical societies, thus giving rise to the process identified
by Horacio Capel as the institutionalization of geography.
One of the most prolific empires in this regard was Russia. In the
mid-eighteenth century many geographers were sent by the Russian
altamirazgo different opportunities to perform geographical surveys in the
area of Arctic Siberia. Among these is who is considered the patriarch of
Russian geography: Mikhail Lomonosov who in the mid-1750s began
working in the Department of Geography, Academy of Sciences to
conduct research in Siberia, their contributions are notable in this regard,
shows the soil organic origin, develops a comprehensive law on the
movement of the ice that still governs the basics, thereby founding a new
branch of geography: glaciology. In 1755 his initiative was founded
Moscow University where he promotes the study of geography and the
training of geographers. In 1758 he was appointed director of the
Department of Geography, Academy of Sciences, a post from which would
develop a working methodology for geographical survey guided by the
most important long expeditions and geographical studies in Russia. Thus
followed the line of Lomonosov and the contributions of the Russian
school became more frequent through his disciples, and in the nineteenth
century we have great geographers as Vasily Dokuchaev who performed
works of great importance as a "principle of comprehensive analysis of the
territory" and "Russian Chernozem" latter being the most important where
introduces the geographical concept of soil, as distinct from a simple
geological strata, and thus founding a new geographic area of study:
pedology. Climatology also receive a strong boost from the Russian
school by Wladimir Köppen whose main contribution, climate
classification, is still valid today. However, this great geographer also
contributed to the paleogeography through his work "The climates of the
geological past" which is considered the father of paleoclimatology.
Russian geographers who made great contributions to the discipline in this
period were: NM Sibirtsev, Pyotr Semyonov, K. D. Glinka, Neustrayev,
among others.

The second important process is the theory of evolution by Darwin in

mid-century (which decisively influenced the work of Ratzel, who had
academic training as a zoologist and was a follower of Darwin's ideas)
which meant an important impetus in the development of Biogeography.

Another major event in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
will give a major boost to development of geography and will take place in
the United States. It is the work of the famous geographer William Morris
Davis who not only made important contributions to the establishment of
discipline in his country, but revolutionized the field to develop
geographical cycle theory which he proposed as a paradigm for
geography in general, although in actually served as a paradigm for
physical geography. His theory explained that mountains and other
landforms are shaped by the influence of a number of factors that are
manifested in the geographical cycle. He explained that the cycle begins
with the lifting of the relief by geological processes (faults, volcanism,
tectonic upheaval, etc.). Geographical factors such as rivers and runoff
begins to create the V-shaped valleys between the mountains (the stage
called "youth"). During this first stage, the terrain is steeper and more
irregular. Over time, the currents can carve wider valleys ("maturity") and
then start to wind, towering hills only ("senescence"). Finally, everything
comes to what is a plain flat plain at the lowest elevation possible (called
"baseline") This plain was called by Davis' "peneplain" meaning "almost
plain" Then the rejuvenation occurs and there is another mountain lift and
the cycle continues. Although Davis's theory is not entirely accurate, it was
absolutely revolutionary and unique in its time and helped to modernize
and create geography subfield of geomorphology. Its implications
prompted a myriad of research in various branches of physical geography.
In the case of the Paleogeography this theory provided a model for
understanding the evolution of the landscape. For hydrology, glaciology,
and climatology as a boost investigated as studying geographic factors
shape the landscape and affect the cycle. The bulk of the work of William
Morris Davis led to the development of a new branch of physical
geography: Geomorphology whose contents until then did not differ from
the rest of geography. Shortly after this branch would present a major
development. Some of his disciples made significant contributions to
various branches of physical geography such as Curtis Marbut and his
invaluable legacy for Pedology, Mark Jefferson, Isaiah Bowman, among
others.

Questions
1. Consider the following statement (s) is/are related to the factors
influence ocean currents

I. Rotation of the Earth,

II. Air pressure and wind.

III. Ocean water density.

IV. Revolution of the Earth.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?

A. Both I & II

B. I, II and III

C. Both I & IV

D. II, III and IV

Ans: B

2. Which of the following place has never got the vertical rays of the
Sun?

A. Srinagar

B. Mumbai

C. Chennai

D. Thiruvananthapuram

Ans: A
3. Consider the following statement (s) related to the Western
Himalayas

I. Lie to the west of 80 degree East longitude between the Indus and Kali
river

II. Vegetation consists mainly of alpine and coniferous forests

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?

Code:

A. Only I

B. Only II

C. Both I and II

D. Neither I nor II

Ans: C

4. Which of the following countries are divided by the Radcliffe Line?

A. India and Pakistan

B. India and China

C. India and Bangladesh

D. India and Nepal

Ans: A

5. Which of the following countries are divided by the Durand Line?

A. Afghanistan and Pakistan

B. India and Pakistan

C. India and China

D. India and Burma

Ans: A

6. Where is the India's permanent research station Dakshin

Gangotri?

A. Great Himalayas

B. Indian Ocean

C. Antarctica

D. Arabian Sea

Ans: C

7. Which of the following Indian state touches the boundaries of the

maximum number of other States?
A. Andhra Pradesh

B. Bihar

C. Madhya Pradesh

D. Uttar Pradesh

Ans: D

8. Consider the following statement (s) related to the Eastern

Himalayas

I. Lie to the east of 88 degree east longitude between the Tista and the
Brahmaputra River

II. Large tracks are covered with dense evergreen forests

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?

Code:

A. Only I

B. Only II

C. Both I and II

D. Neither I nor II

Ans: C
9. Where is the Duncan Pass located?

A. South and Little Andaman

B. North and South Andaman

C. North and Middle Andaman

D. Andaman and Nicobar

Ans: A

10. Which of the following cities are called the twin cities?

A. Delhi and Faridabad

B. Mumbai and Pune

C. Hyderabad and Secunderabad

D. Bangalore and Mysore

Ans: C

11. Which State is called the sugar bowl of India?

A. Uttar Pradesh

B. Chhattisgarh

C. Andhra Pradesh
D. Bihar

Ans: A

12. Which of the following countries are divided by McMohan line?

A. India and Pakistan

B. India and China

C. India and Bangladesh

D. Pakistan and China

Ans: B

13. Which is the highest dam in India?

A. Bhakra dam

B. Nagarjuna Sagar dam

C. Hirakud dam

D. Tehri dam

Ans: D

14. Which of the following coast where is Gulf of Mannar is located?

A. Tamil Nadu
B. Kerala

C. Karnataka

D. Andhra Pradesh

Ans: A

15. Consider the following statements regarding Andaman and

Nicobar Islands

I. It enjoys equatorial climate.

II. This is the only place in India where a volcano is located.

III. This is the only place in India where coral bed is found.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?

Code:

A. Only I

B. Only II

C. Both I and II

D. I, II and III

Ans: C
16. What is the name of southernmost hill ranges in India?

A. Nilgiri Hills

B. Annamalai Hills

C. Nallamalai Hills

D. Cardamom Hills

Ans: D

17. Which of the following is the traditional name of Sahyadri?

A. Western Ghats

B. Eastern Ghats

C. Aravallis

D. Barbar and Nagarjuni hills

Ans: A

18. Which of the following factor is responsible for low rainfall in the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats?

A. The straight west coast

B. The lack of winter depressions

C. Their leeward location

D. The heights of the Ghats

Ans: C

19. Which of the following region is famous for the lion-tailed

macaque?

A. Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh

B. Western Ghats of Kerala

C. Shivalik Hills of Northern India

D. Hills of North-East India

Ans: B

20. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

A. Miri Hills : Arunachal Pradesh

B. Mikir Hills : Assam

C. Lushai Hills : Mizoram

D. Abor Hills : Meghalya

Ans: D
21. Which of the following affects atmospheric pressure?

a) Altitude
b) Temperature
c) Earth rotation
d) All the above

ANSWER: d) All the above

The pressure exerted by air on the surface of the earth is called as

atmospheric pressure. The pressure varies from region to region.

22) Consider the following statements and identify the right ones.

i) Air pressure decreases when air descends.

ii) Air pressure at sea level is lower than at the mountain top.

a. i only
b. ii only
c. Both
d. None

ANSWER: d. None
Air pressure increases when air descends. Air pressure at sea level is
higher than at the mountain top.

23) Consider the following statements and identify the right ones.

i )The temperature of air rises when its pressure falls.

ii )The pressure of the air falls when the temperature rises.
a. i only
b. ii only
c. Both
d. None

ANSWER: b. ii only

The temperature of air falls when its pressure falls and the pressure of the
air rises when the temperature falls.

24) Consider the following statements and identify the right ones.

i )Low temperature at poles cause air to expand.

ii ) High temperatures along equator cause air to contract.

a. i only
b. ii only
c. Both
d. None
ANSWER: d. None

Low temperature at poles cause the air to contract. High temperatures

along the equator causes air to expand.

25) Consider the following statements and identify the right ones.

i ) Lower layers of atmosphere have low pressure.

ii ) higher layers of atmosphere have high pressure.

a. i only
b. ii only
c. Both
d. None

ANSWER: d. None

Lower layers of atmosphere have high pressure because the density is

greatest at lower layers and are compressed. Higher layers of atmosphere
have low pressure because they are less compressed.

26) Consider the following statements and identify the right ones.

i )The gradual dissipation of the frontal zone is called frontogensis.

ii) The process by which two air masses of different physical

characteristics are brought together is frontolysis.
a. i only
b. ii only
c. Both
d. None

ANSWER: d. None

The gradual dissipation of the frontal zone is called frontolysis. The

process by which two air masses of different physical characteristics are
brought together is Frontogensis and it leads to the formation of a
temperate cyclone.

27) The weight of water vapour per unit weight of air is

a) Specific Humidity
b) Relative humidity
c) Absolute Humidity
d) None of the above

ANSWER: a) Specific Humidity

Specific humidity is expressed as grams per kg of air. The temperature at

which saturation occurs is called dew point. The weight of water vapour
per unit weight of air is called specific humidity.
28) The weight of actual amount of water vapour present in a unit volume
as air is _______

a) Specific Humidity
b) Relative Humidity
c) Absolute Humidity
d) None of the above

ANSWER: c) Absolute Humidity

Absolute humodity is expressed as grams per cubic metre of air. It is the

weight of actual amount of water vapour present in a unit volume as air.

29) The ratio of air's actual water vapour content to its water vapour
capacity at a given temperature is called

a) Specific Humidity
b) Relative Humidity
c) Absolute Humidity
d) None of the above

ANSWER: b) Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is expressed in terms of percentage. It is the ratio of the
actual water vapour content of the air to its water vapour capacity at a
given temperature.
30) Match the following.

1. Cirrus ------------- A. feather

2. Cumulus ------------ B. Heap
3. Stratus ------------ C. Layer type
4. Nimbus ------------- D. Rain cloud

a. 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D

b. 1A, 2C, 3B, 4D
c. 1C, 2A, 3D, 4C
d. 1D, 2C, 3B, 4A
ANSWER: a. 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D

There are different types of clouds. Cirrus clouds are very high clouds.
Cumulus clouds have flat bases and rounded tops. Stratus clouds ly in the
level sheets.
Reference Links -
https://geography.name/physical-geography/
https://alchetron.com/Physical-geography
https://www.careerride.com/view/physical-geography-atmosphere-mcqs-
with-answers-19249.aspx
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/gk-quiz-on-indian-geogr
aphy-physical-features-and-climate-of-india-set-i-1449220114-1