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EIGHTHEDITION

JAVA PROGRAMMING

JOYCE FARRELL

Java Programming,

Eighth Edition

Joyce Farrell

© 2016, 2014, 2012 Cengage Learning

WCN: 02-200-203

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014956152

ISBN: 978-1-285-85691-9

Cengage Learning

20 Channel Center Street

Boston, MA 02210

USA

Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01

Print Year: 2015

Brief Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi CHAPTER 1

Creating Java Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2

Using Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

CHAPTER 3

Using Methods, Classes, and Objects

. . . . . . . 119

CHAPTER 4

More Object Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

CHAPTER 5

Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

CHAPTER 6

Looping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

CHAPTER 7

Characters, Strings, and the StringBuilder . . . 353

CHAPTER 8

Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

CHAPTER 9

Advanced Array Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

CHAPTER 10

Introduction to Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

CHAPTER 11

Advanced Inheritance Concepts . . . . . . . . . . 537

CHAPTER 12

Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593

CHAPTER 13

File Input and Output

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

CHAPTER 14

Introduction to Swing Components

. . . . . . . . 729

CHAPTER 15

Advanced GUI Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

CHAPTER 16

Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

APPENDIX A

Working with the Java Platform . . . . . . . . . . . 919

APPENDIX B

Data Representation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925

APPENDIX C
Formatting Output

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931

APPENDIX D

Generating Random Numbers

. . . . . . . . . . . 941

APPENDIX E

Javadoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949

Glossary

....................

957

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

979

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

CHAPTER 1

Creating Java Programs . . . . . . . . . . .

Learning Programming Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Comparing Procedural and Object-Oriented

Programming Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Procedural Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Object-Oriented Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Understanding Classes, Objects, and Encapsulation . . . . . . 7

Understanding Inheritance and Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . 9

Features of the Java Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . 11

Java Program Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Analyzing a Java Application that Produces Console Output . . . . 13

Understanding the Statement that Produces the Output . . . . . 14

Understanding the First Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Indent Style

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Understanding the main() Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Saving a Java Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Compiling a Java Class and Correcting Syntax Errors . . . . . . . 23

Compiling a Java Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Correcting Syntax Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Running a Java Application and Correcting Logic Errors . . . . . . 29

Running a Java Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Modifying a Compiled Java Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Correcting Logic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Adding Comments to a Java Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Creating a Java Application that Produces GUI Output

. . . . . . 35

Finding Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Programming Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Debugging Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Game Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 2

Using Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Declaring and Using Constants and Variables . . . . . . . . . . 54

Declaring Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Declaring Named Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

The Scope of Variables and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Concatenating Strings to Variables and Constants . . . . . . . 58

Pitfall: Forgetting that a Variable Holds

One Value at a Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Learning About Integer Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Using the boolean Data Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Learning About Floating-Point Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Using the char Data Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Using the Scanner Class to Accept Keyboard Input . . . . . . . 78

Pitfall: Using nextLine() Fol owing One of the

Other Scanner Input Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Using the JOptionPane Class to Accept GUI Input . . . . . . . 87

Using Input Dialog Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Using Confirm Dialog Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Performing Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Associativity and Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Writing Arithmetic Statements Efficiently . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Pitfall: Not Understanding Imprecision

in Floating-Point Numbers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Understanding Type Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Automatic Type Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Explicit Type Conversions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Programming Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Debugging Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Game Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

CHAPTER 3

Using Methods, Classes, and Objects . . . . 119

Understanding Method Calls and Placement . . . . . . . . . . 120

Understanding Method Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Access Specifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Return Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Method Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Adding Parameters to Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Creating a Method that Receives a Single Parameter . . . . . 130

Creating a Method that Requires Multiple Parameters . . . . . 133

Creating Methods that Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Chaining Method Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Learning About Classes and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Creating a Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Creating Instance Methods in a Class . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Organizing Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Declaring Objects and Using their Methods . . . . . . . . . . 154

Understanding Data Hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

An Introduction to Using Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Understanding that Classes Are Data Types . . . . . . . . . . 163

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Programming Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Debugging Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Game Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

CHAPTER 4

More Object Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Understanding Blocks and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Overloading a Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Automatic Type Promotion in Method Calls . . . . . . . . . 194

Learning About Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Creating and Cal ing Constructors with Parameters . . . . . . . 200

Overloading Constructors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Learning About the this Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Using the this Reference to Make Overloaded Constructors More

Efficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Using static Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Using Constant Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Using Automatically Imported, Prewritten Constants

and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

The Math Class

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Importing Classes that Are Not Imported Automatically . . . . 223

Using the LocalDate Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Understanding Composition and Nested Classes . . . . . . . . 230

Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Nested Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Programming Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Debugging Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Game Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

CHAPTER 5

Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Planning Decision-Making Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

The if and if…else Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

The if Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Pitfall: Misplacing a Semicolon in an if Statement . . . . . . 249

Pitfall: Using the Assignment Operator Instead

of the Equivalency Operator

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Pitfall: Attempting to Compare Objects

Using the Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

The if…else Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Using Multiple Statements in if and if…else Clauses

. . . . 254

Nesting if and if…else Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Using Logical AND and OR Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The AND Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The OR Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Short-Circuit Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Making Accurate and Efficient Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Making Accurate Range Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Making Efficient Range Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Using && and || Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Using the switch Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

Using the Conditional and NOT Operators . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Using the NOT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Understanding Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Adding Decisions and Constructors

to Instance Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Programming Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Debugging Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Game Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

CHAPTER 6

Looping

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Learning About the Loop Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Creating while Loops

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Writing a Definite while Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Pitfall: Failing to Alter the Loop Control Variable

Within the Loop Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Pitfall: Unintentionally Creating a Loop with

an Empty Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Altering a Definite Loop’s Control Variable . . . . . . . . . . 307

Writing an Indefinite while Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Validating Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Using Shortcut Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Creating a for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Unconventional for Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Learning How and When to Use a do…while Loop . . . . . . 325

Learning About Nested Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Improving Loop Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Avoiding Unnecessary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Considering the Order of Evaluation of Short-Circuit

Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Comparing to Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Employing Loop Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

Using Prefix Incrementing Rather than Postfix

Incrementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

A Final Note on Improving Loop Performance . . . . . . . . 338

Don’t Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Other documents randomly have
different content
expected to reach the eastern coast of Asia by crossing the Atlantic,
that part of Asia was so wholly unknown to Europeans, that its
discovery by means of a transatlantic voyage would have enabled
the discoverer to take possession of it as a new continent; and it was
hence quite proper for Columbus to speak of discovering a new
world when he was really intending to discover the eastern half of
what we now call the Old world.
It is all very well to have a good opinion of one’s self, but
Columbus really did put what seems to unprejudiced people a
tremendous price upon his services. Not only did he demand one
tenth of whatever profits might be derived from his discoveries, but
he insisted that he should be made an admiral, and viceroy over
every country that he might discover. One of the committee justly
remarked that the proposed arrangement was one by which
Columbus had everything to gain and nothing to lose, and that if he
made no discoveries whatever he would still be a Spanish admiral,
and would outrank scores of deserving officers who had spent their
lives in the service of their country. Columbus thereupon modified his
terms by consenting to take only an eighth of the profits, and to
furnish one eighth of the expenses.
It so happened that some member of the committee knew that
one eighth was more, instead of less, than one tenth. We need not
wonder, therefore, that the committee reported that the terms
proposed were inadmissible. De Talavera told the Queen that he had
met with a good deal of “cheek” in his time, but the cheek of
Columbus was positively monumental, and that nature designed him
not for an explorer but for a life-insurance agent.
The result was that the Queen decided to have no more to do
with the affair, and Columbus, in a tremendous rage, climbed upon
his mule and rode out of Santa Fé, remarking that he wouldn’t
discover a continent for the Spanish monarchs if continents were as
thick as blackberries. He furthermore declared that he would go
straight to France and make a contract with the French king, and that
the Spaniards would never cease to regret their short-sighted
economy.
 As the extremity of the Columbian mule vanished through the
city gate, Luis de St. Angel, treasurer of the Church funds of the
kingdom of Aragon, and the much-suffering Quintanella—who did
not believe that Columbus would really go to France, and were
convinced that the true way in which to be permanently rid of him
was to send him on his proposed expedition—hastened to the
palace, and told the monarchs that they were risking the loss of a
new continent because they were afraid to risk two ships and a
comparatively small sum of money, and because they hesitated to
give the title of Admiral to an explorer who, if he did not succeed,
would in all probability never return to Spain.
The Queen was much impressed by this straightforward
statement of facts, and admitted that she would like to employ
Columbus upon his own terms. The King, instead of saying,
“Certainly, my dear; do so, by all means!” began to speak of the
emptiness of the treasury and the necessity for economy. Of course
this made Isabella indignant, and she rose up and exclaimed, “I will
undertake the enterprise in behalf of Castile, and will raise the
money if I have to pawn my jewels.”
[Æt. 55–56; 1492]

Quintanella and St. Angel applauded this resolution, and the

latter offered to advance the necessary money without any security
whatever. Inasmuch as the money in St. Angel’s hands belonged to
Aragon, this was a remarkably neat way of saddling the whole
expense upon King Ferdinand’s private dominions; and there are few
ladies who will not concede that it served the King right.
A messenger was at once sent to recall Columbus, and that
astute person, grimly smiling at the success of his threat to go to
France, prevailed upon his mule to turn back and reënter Santa Fé.
He was immediately given an audience with the Queen, and a
contract was drawn up in which his utmost demands were
recognized. He was to have a tenth of everything, and to rank with
the High Admiral of Castile, while instead of his being required to
contribute an eighth of the cost of the expedition, it was simply
specified that he might make such a contribution if he should feel so
inclined. The contract was signed on the 17th of April, 1492, and
Columbus’s commission as Admiral and Viceroy was immediately
made out and given to him.
[Æt. 56; 1492]

From 1474 to 1492, or precisely eighteen years, Columbus had

been seeking for assistance to cross the Atlantic. During that entire
period he was without money, without any visible means of support,
and without powerful friends. Nevertheless, he finally obtained from
Ferdinand and Isabella a full compliance with demands that to nearly
every Spaniard seemed wildly preposterous. To what did he owe his
success? It seems very plain that it must have been due to his
unparalleled powers of conversation. We know that most of those
persons with whom he was on familiar terms when he first conceived
his scheme soon died, and the inference that they were talked to
death is irresistible. Beyond any doubt, these were only a few of his
victims. Columbus talked in Portugal until he was compelled to fly
the kingdom, and he talked in Spain until the two monarchs and a
few other clear-headed persons felt that if he could be got out of the
country by providing him with ships, money, and titles, it must be
done. We can readily understand why the news that he was actually
about to leave Spain, and to undertake a voyage in the course of
which it was universally believed he would be drowned, was
received by the Spaniards with unanimous delight. Women wept
tears of joy, and strong men went into secluded corners and stood
on their heads in wild hilarity. The day of their deliverance was at
hand, and the devastating career of the terrible talker was nearly at
an end.
 CHAPTER V.
HE IS COMMISSIONED, AND SETS SAIL.

[Æt. 56; 1492]

ON the 12th of May, 1492, Columbus left Santa Fé for Palos, the
seaport from which his expedition was to sail. He left his small-boy,
Diego, behind him, as page to Prince Juan, the heir of Castile and
Aragon. Diego was the son of his lawful wife, and it is pleasant to
find that, in spite of this fact, Columbus still remembered him. His
favorite son was of course Fernando, who, with his mother, Beatrix,
seems to have been sent away to board in the country during
Columbus’s absence at sea.
As soon as he arrived at Palos, Columbus called on his worthy
friend the Prior, and on the next day the two went to the church of St.
George, where the royal order directing the authorities of Palos to
supply Columbus with two armed ships, and calling upon everybody
to furnish the expedition with all necessary aid, was read aloud by a
notary-public. The authorities, as well as the other inhabitants of
Palos, were naturally only too glad to do everything in their power to
hasten the departure of Columbus; but it was found extremely
difficult to procure ships or sailors for the expedition. The merchants
very justly said that, much as they might desire to have Columbus
drowned, they did not care to furnish ships at their own expense for
an enterprise in the interest of all classes of the community. The
sailors declared that they were ready to ship for any voyage which
might be mentioned, but that it was a little too much to ask them to
go to sea with Columbus as their captain, since he would
undoubtedly use his authority to compel them to listen to a daily
lecture on “Other Continents than Ours,” thus rendering their
situation far worse than that of ordinary slaves.
 The King and Queen, learning of the failure of Columbus to
obtain ships and men, and fearing that he might return to court,
ordered the authorities of Palos to seize eligible vessels by force,
and to kidnap enough sailors to man them. This would probably have
provided Columbus with ships and men, had not the short-sighted
monarch appointed one Juan de Peñalosa to see that the order was
executed, and promised him two hundred maravedies a day until the
expedition should be ready. De Peñalosa was perhaps not the
intellectual equal of the average American office-holder, but he had
sense enough to appreciate his situation, and of course made up his
mind that it would take him all the rest of his natural life to see that
order carried out. Accordingly, he drew his pay with great vigor and
faithfulness, but could not find any ships which, in his opinion, were
fit to take part in the proposed expedition. The people soon
perceived the state of affairs, and despaired of ever witnessing the
departure of Columbus.
Doubtless De Peñalosa would have gone on for years failing to
find the necessary ships, had not two noble mariners resolved to
sacrifice themselves on the altar of their country. Martin Alonzo
Pinzon and Vincente Yanez Pinzon, his brother, were the two marine
patriots in question. They offered a ship and crew, and the
magistrates, emulating their patriotism, seized two other ships and
ordered them to be fitted for service.
These vessels were under one hundred tons’ burthen each, and
only one of them, the Santa Maria, was decked over. In model they
resembled the boats carved by small inland boys, and their rig would
have brought tears to the eyes of a modern sailor—provided, of
course, a way of bringing a modern sailor to Palos to inspect them
could have been devised. If we can put any faith in woodcuts, the
Santa Maria and her consorts were two-masted vessels carrying one
or two large square sails on each mast, and remotely resembling
dismasted brigs rigged with jury-masts by some passengers from
Indiana who had studied rigging and seamanship in Sunday-school
books. The pretence that those vessels could ever beat to windward
cannot be accepted for a moment. They must have been about as
fast and weatherly as a St. Lawrence “pin flat,” and in point of safety
and comfort they were even inferior to a Staten Island ferry-boat.
The Pinta was commanded by Martin Pinzon, and the Niña by
Vincente Pinzon. No less than four pilots were taken, though how
four pilots could have been equally divided among three ships
without subjecting at least one pilot to a subdivision that would have
seriously impaired his efficiency, can not readily be comprehended.
Indeed, no one has ever satisfactorily explained why Columbus
wanted pilots, when he intended to navigate utterly unknown seas. It
has been suggested that he had bound himself not to talk to an
intemperate extent to his officers or men, and that he laid in a supply
of private pilots purely for the purpose of talking to them. It is much
more probable that a law of compulsory pilotage existed at that time
in Spain,—for it was a dark and ignorant age,—and that, inasmuch
as Columbus would have had to pay the pilots whether he took them
with him or not, he thought he might as well accept their services.
Besides, he may have remembered that a vessel rarely runs
aground unless she is in charge of a pilot, and hence he may have
imagined that pilots possessed a peculiar skill in discovering
unexpected shores at unlooked-for moments, and might materially
help him in discovering a new continent by running the fleet aground
on its coast.
A royal notary was also sent with the expedition, so that if any
one should suddenly desire to swear or affirm, as the case might be,
it could be done legally. The three vessels carried ninety sailors, and
the entire expeditionary force consisted of one hundred and twenty
men.
The ship-carpenters and stevedores, doubtless at the instigation
of Peñalosa, made all the delay they possibly could, and at the last
moment a large number of sailors deserted. Other sailors were
procured, and finally everything was in readiness for the departure of
the fleet. On Friday the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus and his
officers and men confessed themselves and received the sacrament,
after which the expedition put to sea.
 In spite of the knowledge that Columbus was actually leaving
Spain with a very slight prospect of ever returning, the departure of
the ships cast a gloom over Palos. The people felt that to sacrifice
one hundred and nineteen lives, with three valuable vessels, was a
heavy price to pay, even for permanently ridding Spain of the
devastating talker. Still, we are not told that they permitted sentiment
to overpower their patriotism, and they were probably sustained by
the reflection that it was better that one hundred and nineteen other
people should be drowned, than that they themselves should be
talked to death.
It is universally agreed that it is impossible not to admire the
courage displayed by Columbus and his associates. The ships of the
expedition were small and unseaworthy. They were not supplied with
ice-houses, hot water, electric bells, saloons amidships where the
motion is least perceptible, smoking and bath rooms, or any of the
various other devices by which the safety of modern steamships is
secured. The crew knew that they were bound to an unknown port,
and that if their vessels managed to reach it there was no certainty
that they would find any rum. Columbus had employed eighteen
years in convincing himself that if he once set sail he would
ultimately arrive somewhere; but now that he was finally afloat, his
faith must have wavered somewhat. As he was an excellent sailor,
he could not but have felt uncomfortable when he remembered that
he had set sail on Friday. However, he professed to be in the very
best of spirits, and no one can deny that he was as brave as he was
tedious.
On the third day out, the Pinta unshipped her rudder, and soon
after began to leak badly. Her commander made shift partially to
repair the disaster to the rudder, but Columbus determined to put
into the Canaries, and charter another vessel in her place. He knew
that he was then not far from the Canaries, although the pilots, either
because their minds were already weakening under the strain of
their commander’s conversation, or because they were ready to
contradict him at every possible opportunity, insisted that the islands
were a long way off. Columbus was right, and on the 9th of August
they reached the Canaries, where we may suppose the pilots were
permitted to go ashore and obtain a little rest.
For three weeks Columbus waited in hopes of finding an
available ship, but he was disappointed. The Pinta was therefore
repaired to some extent, and the Niña was provided with a new set
of sails. A report here reached Columbus that three Portuguese
men-of-war were on their way to capture him—doubtless on the
charge of having compassed the death of several Portuguese
subjects with violent and prolonged conversation. He therefore set
sail at once, and as he passed the volcano, which was then in a
state of eruption, the crews were so much alarmed that they were on
the point of mutiny. Columbus, however, made them a speech on the
origin, nature, and probable object of volcanoes, which soon reduced
them to the most abject state of exhaustion.
Nothing was seen of the Portuguese men-of-war, and it has
been supposed that some practical joker alarmed the Admiral by
filling his mind with visions of hostile ships, when the only
Portuguese men-of-war in that part of the Atlantic were the harmless
little jelly-fish popularly known by that imposing title.
It was the 6th day of September when the expedition left the
Canaries, but owing to a prolonged calm it was not until the 9th that
the last of the islands was lost sight of. We can imagine what the
devoted pilots must have suffered during those three days in which
Columbus had nothing to do but talk; but they were hardy men, and
they survived it. They remarked to one another that they could die
but once; that care had once killed a vague and legendary cat; and
in various other ways tried to reconcile themselves to their fate.
The crew on losing sight of land became, so we are told, utterly
cast down, as they reflected upon the uncertainty of ever again
seeing a Christian grog-shop, or joining with fair ladies in the
cheerful fandango. Mr. Irving says that “rugged seamen shed tears,
and some broke into loud lamentation,” and that Columbus
thereupon made them a long speech in order to reconcile them to
their lot. The probability is that Mr. Irving reversed the order of these
two events. If Columbus made a long speech to his crew, as he very
likely did, there is no doubt that they shed tears, and lamented
loudly.
Lest the crew should be alarmed at the distance they were
rapidly putting between themselves and the spirituous liquors of
Spain, Columbus now adopted the plan of daily falsifying his
reckoning. Thus if the fleet had sailed one hundred miles in any
given twenty-four hours, he would announce that the distance sailed
was only sixty miles. Meanwhile he kept a private log-book, in which
he set down the true courses and distances sailed. This system may
have answered its purpose, but had the fleet been wrecked, and had
the false and the true log-books both fallen into the hands of the
underwriters, Columbus would not have recovered a dollar of
insurance, and would probably have been indicted for forgery with
attempt to lie. The lawyer for the insurance company would have put
in evidence the two entries for, let us say, the 10th of September; the
one reading, “Wind E.S.E., light and variable; course W. by N.;
distance by observation since noon yesterday, 61 miles;” and the
other, or true entry, reading, “Wind E.S.E.; course W. by N.; distance
by observation since noon yesterday, 117 miles. At seven bells in the
morning watch, furled main-top-gallant sails, and put a single reef in
all three topsails. This day ends with a strong easterly gale.” With
such evidence as this, he would easily have proved that Columbus
was a desperate villain, who had wrecked his vessels solely to
swindle the insurance companies. Thus we see that dishonesty will
vitiate the best policy, provided the underwriters can prove it.
It was perhaps this same desire to lead his crew into the belief
that the voyage would not be very long, which led Columbus to insert
in the sailing directions given to the two Pinzons an order to heave-to
every night as soon as they should have sailed seven hundred
leagues west of the Canaries. He explained that unless this
precaution were taken they would be liable to run foul of China in the
night, in case the latter should not happen to have lights properly
displayed. This was very thoughtful, but there is no reason to think
that it deceived the Pinzons. They knew perfectly well that Columbus
had not the least idea of the distance across the Atlantic, and they
probably made remarks to one another in regard to the difficulty of
catching old birds with chaff, which the Admiral would not have
enjoyed had he heard them.
Thus cheerfully cheating his sailors, and conversing with his
pilots, Columbus entered upon his voyage. A great many meritorious
emotions are ascribed to him by his biographers, and perhaps he felt
several of them. We have, however, no evidence on this point, and
the probability is that he would not have expressed any feeling but
confidence in his success to any person. He had long wanted to sail
in quest of new continents, and his wish was now gratified. He ought
to have been contented, and it is quite possible that he was.
 CHAPTER VI.
THE VOYAGE.

[Æt. 56; 1492]

IN those days everybody supposed that the needle always

pointed due north. Great was the astonishment of Columbus when, a
few days after leaving the Canaries, he noticed what is now called
the variation of the compass. Instead of pointing to the north, the
needle began to point somewhat to the west of north; and the farther
the fleet sailed to the west, the greater became the needle’s variation
from the hitherto uniform direction of all respectable needles. Of
course Columbus at first supposed that his compass was out of
order, but he soon found that every compass in the fleet was
conducting itself in the same disreputable way. The pilots also
noticed the startling phenomenon, and said it was just what they had
expected. In seas so remote from the jurisdiction of Spain, who could
expect that the laws of Nature would be observed? They did not like
to grumble, but still they must say that it was simply impious to sail in
regions where even the compass could not tell the truth. But
Columbus was not the man to be put to confusion by remarks of this
kind. He calmly told the pilots that the compass was all right; it was
the North Star that was wrong, and he never had felt much
confidence in that star, anyway. Then inviting the pilots to come
down into his cabin and take a little—well, lunch, he explained to
them with such profound unintelligibility the astronomical habits and
customs of the North Star, that they actually believed his explanation
of the variation of the compass. There are those who hold that
Columbus really believed the North Star was leaving its proper
place; but the theory does gross injustice to the splendid mendacity
of the Admiral. The man who could coolly assert that if his compass
differed from the stars the latter were at fault, deserves the wonder
and admiration of even the most skilful editor of a campaign edition
of an American party organ.
The sailors would probably have grumbled a good deal about the
conduct of the compass had they noticed it; but it does not appear
that they had any suspicion that it had become untrustworthy.
Besides, the fleet was now fairly in the trade-wind, and very little
labor was required in the management of the vessels. The sailors,
having little to do, were in good spirits, and began to see signs of
land. A large meteor was seen to fall into the sea, and soon after a
great quantity of sea-weed was met, among which tunny-fish made
their home. The Admiral also caught a small crab. Crabs, tunny-fish,
sea-weed, and meteors must have been, in those days, exclusively
products of the land; otherwise, there was no reason why Columbus
and his men should have regarded them as proofs of the vicinity of
land. They did, however, meet with a bird of a variety—so the oldest
mariners asserted—that never sleeps except on a good substantial
roosting-place. This really did give them some reason to imagine that
land was not very far off; but as the result showed, the bird was
painfully untrustworthy.
Day after day the so-called signs of land were seen. A large
reward was offered to the first person who should see the sought-for
continent, and consequently everybody was constantly pretending
that a distant cloud or fog-bank was land, and then finding fault with
the Admiral because he would not change his course. One day a
pair of boobies—a bird singularly misnamed, in view of the fact that it
rarely flies out of sight of land—rested in the rigging. Another day
three birds of a kind—which, every one knows, were even better
than two pairs—came on board one of the ships in the morning, and
flew away again at night, and it was the universal opinion that they
sang altogether too sweetly for sea-birds; the voices of the gull, the
stormy petrel, and the albatross being notoriously far from musical.
After a time these signs ceased to give the crews any comfort.
As they forcibly observed, “What is the use of all your signs of land,
so long as you don’t fetch on your land?” They became convinced
that the sea was gradually becoming choked up with sea-weed, and
that the fact that the surface of the water remained unruffled,
although there was a steady breeze from the east, was proof that
something was seriously wrong. We now know that the expedition
was in the Sargasso Sea, a region of sea-weed and calms, and that
in point of fact Columbus was lucky in not being becalmed for a year
or two without any means of bringing his vessels to a more breezy
region. This, however, he did not know, and he explained the quiet of
the sea by asserting that the fleet was already in the lee of the
unseen land.
The men nevertheless continued to be discontented, and
declined any longer to believe that land was near. Even the sight of a
whale—which, as every one knows, is a land animal—failed to raise
their spirits, although Columbus told them that, now that he had seen
a whale, he knew they must be very near the shore. The sailors
would not listen to his argument, and openly insulted his whale. They
said he had brought them to a region where the wind either blew
steadily from the east or scarcely blew at all; in either case opposing
an insuperable obstacle to sailing back to Spain, for which reason,
with the charming consistency of sailors, they wanted to turn back
immediately and steer for Palos. Still, they did not break into open
mutiny, but confined themselves to discussing the propriety of
seizing the vessels, throwing Columbus overboard, and returning to
Spain, where they could account for the disappearance of the
Admiral by asserting that he had been pushed overboard by the cat,
or had been waylaid, robbed, and murdered by the James boys; or
by inventing some other equally plausible story. Happily, the wind
finally sprang up again, and the sailors, becoming more cheerful,
postponed their mutiny.
The typical biographer always begs us to take notice that
Columbus must have been a very great man, for the reason that he
prosecuted his great voyage in spite of the frequent mutinies of the
sailors; and as we shall hereafter see, Columbus was troubled by
mutinies during other voyages than his first one. At the present day,
however, the ability of a sea-captain would not be estimated by the
number of times his crew had mutinied. If Columbus was really an
able commander, how did it happen that he ever allowed a mutiny to
break out? Very likely his flag-ship was short of belaying-pins and
handspikes, but did not the Admiral wear a sword and carry pistols?
and was he not provided with fists and the power to use them?
Instead of going on deck at the first sign of mutinous conduct on the
part of any one of the crew, and striking terror and discipline into the
offender with the first available weapon, he seems to have waited
quietly in the cabin until the sailors had thrown off all authority, and
then to have gone on deck and induced them to resume work by
delivering a lecture on geography and the pleasures of exploration.
But we should remember that he was in command of Spanish
vessels, and that Spanish views of seamanship and discipline are
peculiar.
On the 25th of September, Martin Pinzon, whose vessel
happened to be within hailing distance of Columbus, suddenly
shouted that he saw land in the south-west, and wanted that reward.
The alleged land rapidly became clearly visible, and seemed to be a
very satisfactory piece of land, though it was too far off to show any
distinctively Japanese, Chinese, or East Indian features. Columbus
immediately called his men together, made a prayer, and ordered
them to sing a psalm. The fleet then steered toward the supposed
land, which soon proved to be an exasperating fog-bank, whereupon
the sailors unanimously agreed that Columbus had trifled with the
holiest feelings of their nature, and that they could not, with any self-
respect, much longer postpone the solemn duty of committing his
body to the deep.
About this time a brilliant idea occurred to the Pinzons. It was
that the true direction in which to look for land was the south-west,
and that Columbus ought to give orders to steer in that direction. As
they had no conceivable reason for this belief, and could advance no
argument whatever in support of it, they naturally adhered to it with
great persistency. Columbus declined to adopt their views—partly
because they were the independent views of the Pinzons, and, as is
well known, no subordinate officer has any right to independent
views, and partly because they were entirely worthless. The Pinzons
were therefore compelled to console themselves by remarking that
of course the Admiral meant well, but they were sadly afraid he was
a grossly incompetent discoverer. On the 7th of October the spirits of
the sailors were temporarily raised by a signal from the Niña, which
was a short distance in advance, announcing that land was positively
in sight. This also proved to be a mistake, and doubts began to be
entertained as to whether, in case land should be discovered, it
would wait for the fleet to come up with it, or would melt away into
invisibility.
Although Columbus would not change his course at the request
of the Pinzons, he now announced that he had seen several highly
respectable birds flying south-west, and that he had made up his
mind to follow them. This may have pleased the Pinzons, but it did
not satisfy the sailors. They came aft to the sacred precincts of the
quarter-deck, and informed Columbus that they were going home.
Unhappy men! The Admiral instantly began a speech of tremendous
length, in which he informed them that he should continue the
voyage until land should be reached, no matter how long it might
last. The more the men clamored, the more persistently Columbus
continued his speech, and the result was that they finally went back
to their quarters, exhausted and quite unable to carry out their
intention of throwing him overboard.
The very next morning a branch of a thorn-bush; a board which
had evidently been subjected to the influences of some sort of saw-
mill, and a stick which bore the marks of a jack-knife, floated by.
There could be no doubt now that land was near at last, and the
mutinous sailors became cheerful once more.
It was certainly rather odd that those branches, boards, and
sticks happened to come in sight just at the moment when they were
needed to revive the spirits of the men, and that during the entire
voyage, whenever a bird, a whale, a meteor, or other sign of land
was wanted, it always promptly appeared. Columbus expresses in
his journal the opinion that this was providential, and evidently
thought that, on the whole, it was a handsome recognition of his
transcendent merits. Concerning this we are not required to give any
decision.
The wind blew freshly from the east, and the fleet sailed rapidly
before it. In the evening Columbus fancied that he saw a light, which
he assumed to be a lantern in the hands of some one on land. He
called the attention of a sailor to it, who of course agreed with his
commander that the light was a shore light. At about two o’clock on
the following morning—the 12th of October—a sailor on board the
Pinta, named Rodrigo de Triana, positively saw land—this time
without any postponement.
Most of us have been taught to believe that the discovery of the
New World was signalized by the joyful cry of “Land ho! from the
Pinta.” A little reflection will show the gross impossibility that this
exclamation was ever made by anybody connected with the
expedition. In the first place, “Land ho! from the Pinta” is an English
sentence, and, so far as is known, neither Columbus nor any of his
officers or men knew a word of English. Then the expression would
have been meaningless. What was “Land ho! from the Pinta”? and
why should the sailors have referred to vague and unintelligible land
of that nature, when their thoughts were fixed on the land which lay
on the near horizon? Obviously this story is purely mythical, and
should no longer have a place in history.
As soon as it was certain that land was in sight, the fleet hove-to
and waited for daylight. The voyage was ended at last. Columbus
was about to set foot on transatlantic soil, and the sailors were full of
hope that the rum of the strange land would be cheap and palatable.
Perhaps the only unhappy man on board the fleet was Rodrigo de
Triana, who first saw the land but did not receive the promised
reward; Columbus appropriating it to himself, on the ground that,
having fancied he saw a hypothetical lantern early in the evening, he
was really the first to see land, and had honestly and fairly earned
the reward. Let us hope that he enjoyed it, and felt proud whenever
he thought of his noble achievement.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE DISCOVERY.

[Æt. 56; 1492]

WHEN the day dawned, an island was seen to be close at hand,

and the desire to go ashore was so keen that in all probability little
attention was paid to breakfast. The officers put on all their best
clothes, and Columbus and the two Pinzons, each bearing flags with
appropriate devices, entered the boats and were rowed ashore.
What were considered appropriate devices to be borne on banners
such as were used on the occasion of the landing of Columbus, we
do not know, the historians having forgotten to describe the banners
with minuteness. Perhaps “Heaven bless our Admiral” and “Cuba
Libre” were the so-called appropriate devices.
The natives, assuming that Columbus and his companions had a
brass band with them, which would begin to play when the boats
should reach the shore, precipitately fled, and concealed
themselves. As soon as he landed, Columbus threw himself on his
knees, kissed the earth, and recited a prayer. He then took
possession of the island in due form, and announced that it was
called San Salvador; though how he had thus early discovered its
name we are not told. Everybody was then made to take an oath of
allegiance to Columbus as Viceroy, in the presence of the notary
whom he had so thoughtfully brought with him.
Business being thus properly attended to, the sailors were
allowed to amuse themselves by tasting the strange fruits which they
saw before them, and by searching earnestly but without success for
a wine-shop.
 The natives gradually took courage and approached the
strangers, whom they decided to be emigrants from heaven.
Columbus smiled sweetly on them, and gave them beads, pocket-
knives, pin-cushions, back numbers of the Illustrated London News,
and other presents such as are popularly believed to soothe the
savage breast. As, however, they did not seem to appreciate the
Admiral’s speeches, and as the sailors could find no rum, the order
was given to return to the ships. The natives thereupon launched
their canoes and paddled out to the vessels to return the visit of the
Spaniards. They brought with them specimens of a novel substance
now known as cotton, and a few small gold ornaments, which
created much enthusiasm among the sailors. The Admiral promptly
proclaimed that gold, being a royal monopoly, he only had the right
to buy it, and that, in view of the immense importance which he
foresaw that cotton would assume in dressmaking and other
industries, he should conduct the cotton speculations of that
expedition himself. As the natives, when the conversation turned
upon gold, mentioned that, though there was no gold in San
Salvador, the islands farther south were full of it, Columbus only
waited to lay in wood and water, improving the time by a boat
expedition along the coast, and then set sail in search of fresh
discoveries.
During the next few days a number of small islands were
discovered, all of which were flowing with copper-colored natives
and wild fruit, but they did not appear to produce gold. The natives
were in all cases amiable and full of respect for the supposed
heavenly visitors, but they stoutly denied that they had any gold.
Indeed, had they been questioned about chills and fever, instead of
gold, they could not have been more unanimous in asserting that
their particular island was entirely free from it, but that it abounded in
the next island farther south.
All these islands belonged to the Bahama group, but Columbus
assumed that they were in the neighborhood of Japan, and that the
mainland of Asia must be within a few days’ sail. As soon therefore
as the sameness of constantly discovering new islands began to pall
upon him, he set sail for Cuba, where, as the natives told him, there
was a king whose commonest articles of furniture were made of
gold. He thought it would be well to visit this deserving monarch, and
buy a few secondhand tables and bedsteads from him, and then to
sail straight to Asia; and so accomplish the real purpose of his
voyage.
It is a pity that we are not told whether the natives talked
Spanish, or whether Columbus spoke the copper-colored language.
When so many discussions on the subject of gold were had, it is
evident that somebody must have made rapid progress in learning
one language or the other, and from what we know of the Admiral’s
conversational powers, it is quite probable that he mastered the San
Salvadorian grammar and spelling-book, and was able to read, write,
and speak the language within the first twenty-four hours after
landing.
On the 28th of October Columbus reached Cuba, having picked
up a host of small islands on the way. He was delighted with its
appearance, and decided that, instead of being an island, it must be
the mainland. For days he coasted along the shore, frequently
landing and examining the deserted huts from which the inhabitants
had fled on his approach. Judging from the entries made by
Columbus in his journal, there was never such another island since
the world began; but he is compelled to admit that the natives were
not sociable. In fact, he never exchanged words with them until the
interpreter whom he had brought from San Salvador threw himself
overboard and swam ashore. The natives, regarding him as less
ferocious and dangerous than a boat, permitted him to land, and
listened to his account of the Spaniards. They were even induced to
launch their canoes and visit the ships, where they were received by
Columbus, who assured them that he had no connection with the
Emperor of China—a statement which must have struck them as
somewhat irrelevant and uncalled for.
The place where this interview was held is now known as
Savanna la Mar. The harbor being a safe one, Columbus decided to
remain and repair his ships, and to send an embassy by land to
Pekin, which he was confident could not be more than two days’
journey into the interior. Two Spaniards and the San Salvadorian
native were selected as ambassadors, and supplied with a letter and
presents for the Chinese Emperor, and Columbus with much
liberality gave them six days in which to go to Pekin and return.
After they had departed, the ships were careened and caulked,
and other little jobs were invented to keep the men out of mischief.
As to gold, the natives told the old story. There was none of it in their
neighborhood, but there was an island farther south where it was as
common and cheap as dirt. Seeing how the description pleased the
Admiral, they kindly threw in a tribe of natives with one eye in their
forehead, and a quantity of select cannibals, and thus increased his
desire to visit so remarkable an island.
In six days the ambassadors returned. They had found neither
Pekin nor the Chinese Emperor—nothing, in fact, except a small
village, a naked chief, and a community of placid savages who had
no gold and were entirely devoid of interest. They brought back with
them a few cold potatoes, a vegetable hitherto unknown to
Europeans, and they casually mentioned that they had seen natives
in the act of smoking rolls of dark-colored leaves, but they attached
no importance to the discovery, and regarded it as a curious
evidence of pagan degradation. Little did they know that the dark-
colored leaves were tobacco, and that the natives were smoking
Partagas, Villar-y-Villar, Intimidads, and other priceless brands of the
Vuelt Abajo. The sailors were cursing the worthlessness of a new
continent which produced neither rum, wine, nor beer, and yet it was
the native land of tobacco! Thus does poor fallen human nature fix
its gaze on unattainable rum and Chinese Emperors, and so
overlook the cigars that are within its reach.