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HARD
ROCK
EPIC
 HARD
ROCK
EPIC
Western Miners and the
Industrial Revolution,
1860-1910

MARK WYMAN
 University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
University of California Press, Ltd.
London, England
Copyright © 1979 by
The Regents of the University of California
ISBN 0-520-03678-6
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 78-54805
Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
This book is for my family
 CONTENTS
Preface ix
Part One: Impact
Chapter I. Machinery on the Route to the Mines 3
Chapter II. Who Will Work? 32
Chapter III. Payday—Perhaps 61
Chapter IV. Betrayed by the New Technology 84
Chapter V. The Question of Blame 118
Part Two: Organized Responses
Chapter VI. The Union Impulse 149
Chapter VII. Responses to the Dangers Below 175
Chapter VIII. The Dilemma of Political Action 201
Chapter IX. Radicalism and the
"Red-Hot Revolutionists" 226
Chapter X. Epilogue: End of the Pioneer Era 256
Notes 261
Bibliography 301
Index 323

vii
 PREFACE

his book is an attempt to examine the impact of the

Industrial Revolution upon the men who mined
gold, silver, and other metals underground in the
West in the 1860-1910 period. Believing that some previous
studies have emphasized the spectacular and violent at the ex-
pense of historical understanding, I have sought to approach
the topic from many angles while avoiding favoritism to, or
condemnation of, any specific group.
At every step of my research and writing there were
persons who—like those who grubstaked prospectors in the
mountains a century ago—provided encouragement and assis-
tance. Chief among these was Professor Vernon Carstensen of
the University of Washington, whose ideas and suggestions
regarding Western workers as part of larger economic processes
have been absolutely crucial in the genesis and development of
this book. Robert Romig and Merle Wells of the Idaho Histori-
cal Society have repeatedly shared their extensive knowledge
of mining with me, including in Romig's case a trip to his Boise
Basin mine. Professor Rodman Paul of the California Institute
of Technology offered numerous suggestions from his broad
background in mining history, and took the time to read the
finished manuscript. Encouragement and suggestions also
came from Professor Melvyn Dubofsky of the State University
of New York at Binghamton, and Professor Vernon Jensen of
Cornell University.
Earlier there were others who helped stimulate my concern
for workmen caught amid fast-changing technology. During
my stint as labor reporter for the Minneapolis Tribune, my in-
terest in this was especially developed by two men: Clarence
ix
 PREFACE

Meter, then regional director of the National Labor Relations

Board, and Professor John Flagler of the Department of Indus-
trial Relations of the University of Minnesota.
Many institutions provided assistance, chief among them
being Illinois State University. My colleagues in the univer-
sity's Department of History have willingly offered criticisms
of my writing, just as Milner Library staff members have al-
ways been helpful despite my unending demands on them.
The university has provided assistance through financial aid,
released time for writing, and typing.
I am also indebted to the following: the state historical
societies of Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and Wiscon-
sin; Colorado State Archives; University of Washington li-
braries and Northwest Collections; University of Illinois li-
braries; University of Nevada Library Special Collections and
Mackay School of Mines Library; Western Historical Collec-
tions of the University of Colorado (special thanks to curator
John Brennan); Colorado School of Mines Library; Bancroft
Library of the University of California; Beinecke Library of Yale
University; Western History Collections of the Denver Public
Library; Boise Public Library; Helena Public Library; Seattle
Public Library; and the Washoe County Library in Reno. Offi-
cials of St. Peter's Hospital (Helena, Montana) and St. Vincent's
Hospital (Leadville, Colorado) permitted me to scrutinize their
records of the 1880-1910 years. Teller County, Colorado, rec-
ords were made available through the courtesy of Mrs. Grace
Sterrett. Thanks are also extended to the Western Historical
Quarterly for permission to use material that originally ap-
peared in my article, "Industrial Revolution in the West: Hard-
Rock Miners and the New Technology," in Vol. V, No. 1 (Jan-
uary, 1974), 39-57, of that journal.
Finally, many near and distant relatives have encouraged
and helped me over the years; this includes Emil and Edith
Goldschmidt, my parents-in-law, who have aided me in many
ways. My debt is especially great to my parents, Walker D.
and Helen B. Wyman, and to my brother Bryant and his wife
Barbara. During the writing of this book the main burden, of
course, has fallen on my wife Eva and our children Daniel,
Ruth, and Miriam. This book is for all of them.
M. W.
Illinois State University, Normal
x
 CHAPTER I
Machinery on the
Route to the Mines

irst the huge machines were transported up the

rivers, forcing steamboats to struggle against the
currents of the Sacramento, the Missouri, and the
Columbia. When the fall line was reached, or when the water's
course diverged from the route to the mines, the mechanical
devices were landed and transferred to sturdy wagons. Then
they were carried up into the mountains.
These mammoth pieces of mining and milling equipment,
moved in steamboats and wagons, were among the mechanical
wonders of an age that prided itself on technological innova-
tions. Both this fact and their sheer immensity attracted atten-
tion along the way. From San Francisco in 1864 came a steam
engine and shaft bound for the Gould & Curry enterprise on
the Comstock Lode in Nevada; the 300-horsepower engine was
"said to be the largest high-pressure" engine ever made in Cal-
ifornia, and the shaft was described as being "as large around
as an ordinary man's body." When the ship Yosemite landed
the shaft at the Sacramento docks, the reporter for the Bee
called it simply "an immense affair," but he was left little time
to scrutinize it, because "it was at once passed along toward
the mountains," bound for the Comstock across the Sierras. 1
Other routes provided entry for the gigantic and intricate
machinery which Western metal mining required from the
1860s onward. It took from thirty to fifty wagons to transport
3
 HARD-ROCK EPIC

Major Centers and Districts

W E S T E R N LODE M I N I N G
1860-1910

Slocan
_ Roastond
«• - * * Your \ :
)
i j.COEUR D'ALE N C 3

\ Marysville
Granite *•• Helena
wramxe newriu

-'"Butte
. BLACK HILLS
/ S .^l pi-Lead
S »oisc """
i
<, WOOD RIVER i
i

If
•OWYHEE

' 1
Nevada took; white Bingtvam» Central I __
City Austin Hamilton
RINE
Canyon City
I City Black Hawlc i
Grass* Georaetown.T [daho S p T i r g s
Valley ¡Virginia Éureiia; *Ely Leadvtte* '
\City Treasure City Gunnison
BodieV . >1bnopäh ! Laie City * Victor
Candelaria Tetturide * »Creede
\ •Qoldfield ! T I N T I C I
\ Rhyottte I
" J
A

Globe prenci
CUftoS
2 CO I
MILES ^ Tombstone .
^ '.BisbeeJ

ALASKA

Fairtanks^
I
I

4
 MACHINERY ON THE ROUTE TO THE MINES

a quartz mill across the plains to the Montana mines, or from

Fort Benton on the Missouri after a steamboat trip from St.
Louis. The Idaho World eagerly announced in 1865 that "the
forty stamp power crusher belonging to the Pittsburg & Idaho
Gold & Silver Mining Company is within a few days journey
of us." Eighteen wagons were used in this haul, which was
marred by the engineer's death from "complications following
a gunshot wound." When a new eleven-ton roaster made its
way into the Grass Valley district of California in 1869, it was
transported in specially constructed wagons brought from San
Francisco, over bridges that had been strengthened in anticipa-
tion, and pulled by ten yoke of oxen which were aided in turn-
ing corners by blocks and tackles. This slow-moving spectacle
"resembled a circus coming to town" in Grass Valley, where
"an immense crowd" watched the roaster make its way to the
Rivot Company works on Canada Hill.2
Such were the devices that traveled, and occasionally
clogged, the routes to the Western mines. They were the ad-
vance agents of the Industrial Revolution, helping conquer the
mountain fastness of a primitive frontier. While it is true that
the basic changes involved in industrialization occurred over
decades or even centuries, when industrialization entered this
Western frontier the clash of old and new was dramatic. Span-
iards who had moved into the West in the colonial era were not
accompanied by the massive paraphernalia of industrialism;
nor were the early groups of other Europeans and Americans
who came later. Explorers, priests, hacendados, soldiers, fur
traders, placer miners—the noise they knew was the roar of a
gun, the bellow of an injured animal, the shouts of drunken
revelry. Their basic mechanical equipment was limited to fire-
arms, wagons, and traps. 3
More than machines went into the creation of that histori-
cal transformation known as the Industrial Revolution. Atti-
tudes of businessmen, governmental leaders, inventors, and
workmen were also crucial in the shift from animal to machine
power, as was the availability of natural resources, labor, and
paying customers.
The workman was located at a key point in this transfor-
mation. Usually drawn into industrial enterprises from a non-
industrial tradition, the new worker was beset by changing
demands in job skills and work discipline which frequently led
5
 HARD-ROCK EPIC

to severe tensions. These new industrial workers carried with

them habits and values "not associated with industrial neces-
sities and the industrial ethos," in Herbert Gutman's words. 4
Such tensions were not limited to workers in the throbbing
industrial centers of the East. They were present as well as the
industrialization of underground metal mining proceeded on
the Western frontier from the early 1860s through 1910. By the
latter date the basic transformation was completed in tech-
nology, work organization, union formation, and protective
legislation. The changes in lode mining over this fifty-year
span were especially dramatic because of the juxtaposition of
the world's most modern, complex technology alongside con-
ditions matching the most primitive anywhere.* By 1880,
Nevada had thirty-seven mines sunk beyond 1,000 feet in
depth and five below 3,000 feet; outside the West, no American
mine went as deep as 1,000 feet. That same year, Colorado's
growing mine kingdom used 118 steam engines, and Nevada's
used 90. These were outposts of modernity. Short distances
away, however, were unconquered peaks, wild game, and
Indians whose childhood memories included no white men or
steam engines. 5
The brQad impact of this transformation for the Western

*Lode mining refers to underground mining below bedrock, the term

being derived from the lode that occurs where several veins of gold, silver,
or other metals run closely together; these and the ground between them
contain metal-bearing rock, or ore. This differs from placer mining, which is
the recovery of flakes, nuggets, and other particles of gold or silver that
were freed when a vein was exposed to the elements and eroded. A lead
(pronounced leed) is synonymous with a lode, although the term is also
used to refer to an unexplored vein.
Other key mining terms include the following: In a lode mine, a shaft
is a vertical opening from the surface. Occasionally a shaft follows a vein
and is off the vertical; this is called an inclined shaft. Tunnels are horizontal
passageways; adits are tunnels from the surface. Drifts are tunnels that follow
a vein or ore body; crosscuts are tunnels that cross the trend of the ore or
rock structure. Passageways that connect on the same general horizontal
plane constitute a level. Ore is generally extracted in a stope, which is any
enlargement of a drift or crosscut penetrating an ore body. Raises are passage-
ways driven upward from one level to the next; winzes are passageways
driven downward, usually to explore continuation of the ore.
Protection from cave-ins is provided by timbering, which consists of placing
posts, caps, and lagging in excavated areas. Stulls are timber props or
timbers wedged between the walls of a stope; planks laid across the stulls
provide a platform for miners working higher up the sides of the stope.

6
Other documents randomly have
different content
development that is no longer there. Thus from the examples of
Egypt we are able to tell how far it is permissible to argue backwards
to conclusions about the art of Chóu and Vedic times.
208. C. Glaser, Die Kunst Ostasiens (1920), p. 181.
209. Glaser, op. cit., p. 43.
210. See Vol. II, pp. 135 et seq.
211. The monologue-art of very lonely natures is also in reality a
conversation with self in the second person. But it is only in the
intellectuality of the megalopolitan stages that the impulse to express
is overcome by the impulse to communicate (see Vol. II, p. 135)
which gives rise to that tendencious art that seeks to instruct or
convert or prove views of a politico-social or moral character, and
provokes the antagonistic formula of “Art for Art’s sake”—which is
itself rather a view than a discipline, though it does at least serve to
recall the primitive significance of artistic expression.
212. See Vol. II, pp. 138 et seq., and Worringer, Abstraktion und
Einführung, pp. 66 et seq.
213. Imitation, being life, is past in the very moment of
accomplishment. The curtain falls, and it passes either into oblivion
or, if the product is a durable artifact, into art-history. Of the songs
and dances of old Cultures nothing remains, of their pictures and
poems little. And even this little contains, substantially, only the
ornamental side of the original imitation. Of a grand drama there
remains only the text, not the image and the sound; of a poem only
the words, not the recital; and of all their music the notes at most, not
the tone-colours of the instruments. The essential is irrevocably
gone, and every “reproduction” is in reality something new and
different.
214. For the workshop of Thothmes at Tell-el-Amarna, see
Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, No. 52, pp. 28 et
seq.
215. K. Burdach, Deutsche Renaissance, p. 11. The pictorial art of
the Gothic period also has its strict typism and symbolism.
216. E. Norden, Antike Kunst-prosa, pp. 8 et seq.
217. See Vol. II, p. 323.
218. The translation is so far a paraphrase here that it is desirable
to reproduce the German original: “Alles Schöne vergeht mit dem
Lebenspulsschlag (dessen) der es aus dem kosmischen Takt heraus
als solches empfindet.”
219. Hence the ornamental character of script.
220. See p. 188.
221. See Vol. II, p. 104.
222. E.g., the Slavonic round-villages and Teutonic street-villages
east of the Elbe. Similarly, conclusions can be drawn as to many of
the events of the Homeric age from the distribution of round and
rectangular buildings in ancient Italy.
223. See Vol. II, p. 109.
224. See p. 167.
225. See Vol. II, pp. 142 et seq.
226. See p. 128.
227. See p. 62.
228. The same applies to the architecture of Thinite Egypt and to
the Seleucid-Persian sun and fire temples of the pre-Christian area.
229. The combination of scrolls and “Greek keys” with the Dragon
or other emblem of storm-power.—Tr.
230. Dvorák, Idealismus und Naturalismus in der got. Skulptur u.
Malerei (Hist. Zeitschrift, 1918, pp. 44 et seq.).
231. And, finally, ornament in the highest sense includes script,
and with it, the Book, which is the true associate of the cult-building,
and as an art-work always appears and disappears with it. (See Vol.
II, pp. 182. et seq., pp. 298 et seq.) In writing, it is understanding as
distinct from intuition that attains to form: it is not essences that
those signs symbolize but notions abstracted therefrom by words,
and as for the speech-habituated human intellect rigid space is the
presented objective, the writing of a Culture is (after its stone-
building) the purest of all expressions of its prime-symbol. It is quite
impossible to understand the history of Arabesque if we leave the
innumerable Arabian scripts out of consideration, and it is no less
impossible to separate Egyptian and Chinese style-history from the
history of the corresponding writing-signs and their arrangement and
application.
232. See p. 173.
233. Certainly the Greeks at the time when they advanced from
the Antæ to the Peripteros were under the mighty influence of the
Egyptian series-columns—it was at this time that their sculpture in
the round, indisputably following Egyptian models, freed itself from
the relief manner which still clings to the Apollo figures. But this does
not alter the fact that the motive of the Classical column and the
Classical application of the rank-principle were wholly and peculiarly
Classical.
234. The surface of the space-volume itself, not that of the stone.
Dvorák, Hist. Ztschr., 1918, pp. 17 et seq.
235. Dehio, Gesch. der deutschen Kunst, I, p. 16.
236. For descriptions and illustrations of types of Doming and
Vaulting, see the article Vault in Ency. Brit., XI Ed.—Tr.
237. “Mosque of Omar.”—Tr.
238. H. Schäfer, Von Aegyptischer Kunst, I, pp. 15 et seq.
(The bulls are shown in Fig. 18 in the article Egypt in the
Encyclopædia Britannica, XI Edition, Vol. IX, pp. 65-66.—Tr.)
239. Frankl, Baukunst des Mittelalters (1918), pp. 16 et seq.
240. See Vol. II, pp. 361 et seq. The lack of any vertical tendency
in the Russian life-feeling is perceptible also in the saga-figure of Ilya
Murometz (see Vol. II, p. 231). The Russian has not the smallest
relation with a Father-God. His ethos is not a filial but purely a
fraternal love, radiating in all directions along the human plane.
Christ, even, is conceived as a Brother. The Faustian, wholly vertical,
tendency to strive up to fulfilment is to the real Russian an
incomprehensible pretension. The same absence of all vertical
tendency is observable in Russian ideas of the state and property.
241. The cemetery church of Kishi has 22.
242. J. Grabar, “History of Russian Art” (Russian, 1911), I-III.
Eliasberg, Russ. Baukunst (1922), Introduction.
243. The disposition of Egyptian and that of Western history are so
clear as to admit of comparison being carried right down into the
details, and it would be well worth the expert’s while to carry out
such an investigation. The Fourth Dynasty, that of the strict Pyramid
style, B.C. 2930-2750 (Cheops, Chephren), corresponds to the
Romanesque (980-1100), the Fifth Dynasty (2750-2625, Sahu-rê) to
the early Gothic (1100-1230), and the Sixth Dynasty, prime of the
archaic portraiture (2625-2475, Phiops I and II), to the mature Gothic
of 1230-1400.
 244. That which differentiates the Japanese harakiri from this
suicide is its intensely purposeful and (so to put it) active and
demonstrative character.—Tr.
245. See Vol. II, p. 626.
246. Koldewey-Puchstein, Die griech. Tempel in Unter-Italien und
Sizilien, I, p. 228.
247. See Vol. II, Chapter III.
248. See Vol. II, pp. 240 et seq.
249. Stilfragen, Grundlage zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik
(1893). Spatrömische Kunstindustrie (1901).
250. Amida (1910). Die bildende Kunst des Ostens (1916), Altai-
Iran (1917). Die Baukunst der Armenier und Europa (1918).
251. These contradictions of detail are not greater, after all, than
those between Doric, Attic and Etruscan art, and certainly less than
those which existed about 1450 between Florentine Renaissance,
North French, Spanish and East-German (brick) Gothic.
252. See Vol. II, pp. 304 et seq.
253. For a brief description of the components of a Mithræum, the
student may be referred to the Encyclopædia Britannica, XI Edition,
art. Mithras (Section II).—Tr.
254. The oldest Christian designs in the Empire of Axum
undoubtedly agree with the pagan work of the Sabæans.
255. See Vol. II, pp. 143 et seq.
256. See Vol. II, pp. 316 et seq.
257. Kohl & Watzinger, Antike Synagogen in Galilãa (1916). The
Baal-shrines in Palmyra, Baalbek and many other localities are
basilicas: some of them are older than Christianity and many of them
were later taken over into Christian use.
258. Frauberger, Die Akropolis von Baalbek, plate 22. (See Ency.
Brit., XI Edition, art. “Baalbek,” for plan, etc.—Tr.)
259. Diez, Die Kunst der islamischen Völker, pp. 8 et seq. In old
Sabæan temples the altar-court (mahdar) is in front of the oracle
chapel (makanat).
260. Wulff, Altchristliche und byzantinische Kunst, p. 227.
261. Pliny records that this region was rich in temples. It is
probable that the type of the transept-basilica—i.e., with the entrance
in one of the long sides—which is found in Hauran and is distinctly
marked in the tranverse direction of the altar space of St. Paul
Without at Rome, is derived from a South Arabian archetype. (For
the Hauran type of church see Ency. Brit., XI Ed., Vol. II, p. 390; and
for St. Paul Without, Vol. III, p. 474.—Tr.
262. Neither technically nor in point of space-feeling has this piece
of purely interior architecture any connexion whatever with Etruscan
round-buildings. (Altmann, Die ital. Rundbauten, 1906.) With the
cupolas of Hadrian’s Villa at Tibur (Tivoli), on the contrary, its affinity
is evident.
263. Probably synagogues of domical type reached these regions,
and also Morocco, long before Islam, through the missionary
enterprise of Mesopotamian Judaism (see Vol. II, p. 253), which was
closely allied in matters of taste to Persia. The Judaism of the
Pseudomorphosis, on the contrary, built basilicas; its Roman
catacombs show that artistically it was entirely on a par with Western
Christianity. Of the two, it is the Judæo-Persian style coming from
Spain that has become the pattern for the synagogues of the West—
a point that has hitherto entirely escaped the notice of art-research.
264. Generally called the “Basilica of Constantine.”—Tr.
265. The Grail legend contains, besides old Celtic, well-marked
Arabian elements; but where Wolfram von Eschenbach goes beyond
his model Chrestien de Troyes, his Parzival is entirely Faustian. (See
articles Grail and Perceval, Ency. Brit., XI Ed.)—Tr.
266. The relation of column and arch spiritually corresponds to
that of wall and cupola, and the interposition of the drum between
the rectangle and the dome occurs “simultaneously” with that of the
impost between the column and the arch.
267. A. Riegl, Stilfragen (1893), pp. 248 et seq., 272 et seq.
268. The Ghassanid Kingdom flourished in the extreme North-
west of Arabia during the sixth century of our reckoning. Its people
were essentially Arab, and probably came from the south; and an
outlying cousinry inhabited Medina in the time of the Prophet.—Tr.
269. Dehio, Gesch. der deutschen Kunst, I, pp. 16 et seq.
270. Wulff, Altchristl.-byzant. Kunst, pp. 153 et seq.
271. See Vol. II, p. 315, Geffcken, Der Ausgang des griech-röm.
Heidentums (1920), p. 113.
 272. Die bildenden Künste. The expression is a standard one in
German, but unfamiliar in English. Ordinarily, however, “die
bildenden Künste” (shaping arts, arts of form) are contrasted with
“die redenden Künste” (speaking arts)—music, as giving utterance
rather than spatial form to things, being counted among the latter.—
Tr.
273. As soon as the word, which is a transmission-agent of the
understanding, comes to be used as the expression-agent of an art,
the waking consciousness ceases to express or to take in a thing
integrally. Not to mention the read word of higher Cultures—the
medium of literature proper—even the spoken word, when used in
any artificial sense, separates hearing from understanding, for the
ordinary meaning of the word also takes a hand in the process and,
as this art grows in power, the wordless arts themselves arrive at
expression-methods in which the motives are joined to word-
meanings. Thus arises the Allegory, or motive that signifies a word,
as in Baroque sculpture after Bernini. So, too, painting very often
develops into a sort of painting-writing, as in Byzantium after the
second Nicene Council (787) which took from the artist his freedom
of choice and arrangement. This also is what distinguishes the arias
of Gluck, in which the melody grew up out of the meaning of the
libretto, from those of Alessandro Scarlatti, in which the texts are in
themselves of no significance and mostly serve to carry the voices.
The high-Gothic counterpoint of the 13th Century is entirely free from
any connexion with words: it is a pure architecture of human voices
in which several texts, Latin and vernacular, sacred and secular,
were sung together.
274. Our pedantic method has given us an art-history that
excludes music-history; and while the one has become a normal
element of higher education, the other has remained an affair solely
for the expert. It is just as though one tried to write a history of
Greece without taking Sparta into account. The result is a theory of
“Art” that is a pious fraud.
275. This sentence is not in the original. It has been inserted, and
the following sentence modified, for the sake of clarity.—Tr.
276. See Vol. II, p. 110. The aspect of the streets of Old Egypt
may have been very similar to this, if we can draw conclusions from
tesseræ discovered in Cnossus (see H. Bossert, Alt Kreta (1921), T.
14). And the Pylon is an undoubted and genuine façade. (Such
tesseræ, bearing pictures of windowed houses, are illustrated in Art.
“Ægean Civilization,” Ency. Brit., XI Edition, Vol. I, p. 251, plate IV,
fig. 1.—Tr.).
277. Ghiberti has not outgrown the Gothic, nor has even
Donatello; and already in Michelangelo the feeling is Baroque, i.e.,
musical.
278. The struggle to fix the problem is visible in the series of
“Apollo-figures.” See Déonna, Les Apollons archaïques (1909).
279. Woermann, Geschichte der Kunst, I (1915), p. 236. The first
tendency is seen in the Samian Hera of Cheramues and the
persistent turning of columns into caryatids; the second in the Delian
figure dedicated to Artemis by Nicandra, with its relation to the oldest
metope-technique.
280. Miletus was in a particular relation with Egypt through
Naucratis.—Tr.
281. Most of the works are pediment-groups or metopes. But even
the Apollo-figures and the “Maidens” of the Acropolis could not have
stood free.
282. V. Salis, Kunst der Griechen (1919), pp. 47, 98 et seq.
283. The decisive preference of the white stone is itself significant
of the opposition of Renaissance to Classical feeling.
284. All Greek scales are capable of reduction to “tetrachords” or
four-note scales of which the form E—note—note—A is typical. In
the diatonic the unspecified inner notes are F, G; in the chromatic
they are F, F sharp; and in the enharmonic they are E half-sharp, F.
Thus, the chromatic and enharmonic scales do not provide additional
notes as the modern chromatic does, but simply displace the inner
members of the scale downwards, altering the proportionate
distances between the same given total. In Faustian music, on the
contrary, the meaning of “enharmonic” is simply relational. It is
applied to a change, say from A flat to G sharp. The difference
between these two is not a quarter-tone but a “very small” interval
(theory and practice do not even agree as to which note is the
higher, and in tempered instruments with standardized scales the
physical difference is eliminated altogether). While a note is being
sounded, even without any physical change in it, its harmonic co-
ordinates (i.e., substantially, the key of the harmony) may alter, so
that henceforth the note, from A flat, has become G sharp.—Tr.
285. In the same way the whole of Russian music appears to us
infinitely mournful, but real Russians assure us that it is not at all so
for themselves.
286. See articles under these headings in Grove’s “Dictionary of
Music.”—Tr.
287. See Vol. II, p. 238.
288. In Baroque music the word “imitation” means something quite
different from this, viz., the exact repetition of a motive in a new
colouring (starting from a different note of the scale).
289. For all that survives performance is the notes, and these
speak only to one who still knows and can manage the tone and
technique of the expression-means appropriate to them.
290. See articles Fauxbourdon, Discant and Gimel in Grove’s
“Dictionary of Music.”—Tr.
291. Note that Oresme was a contemporary of Machault and
Philippe de Vitry, in whose generation the rules and prohibitions of
strict counterpoint were definitively established.
292. See p. 19 and Vol. II, p. 357.
293. Even the first great troubadour, Guilhem of Poitiers, though a
reigning sovereign, made it his ambition to be regarded as a
“professional,” as we should say.—Tr.
294. See also Vol. II, p. 365.
295. See p. 74.
296. A movement in sonata form consists essentially of (a) First
Subject; (b) Second Subject (in an allied key); (c) Working-out, or
free development of the themes grouped under (a) and (b); and (d)
Recapitulation, in which the two subjects are repeated in the key of
the tonic.
The English usage is to consider (a) and (b) with the bridge or
modulation connecting them, together as the “Exposition,” and the
form is consequently designated “three-part.”—Tr.
297. Einstein, Gesch. der Musik, p. 67.
298. Coysevox lived 1640-1720. Much of the embellishment and
statuary of Versailles is his work.—Tr.
 299. See Vol. II, pp. 357 et seq., 365 et seq.
300. It was not merely national-Italian (for that Italian Gothic was
also): it was purely Florentine, and even within Florence the ideal of
one class of society. That which is called Renaissance in the
Trecento has its centre in Provence and particularly in the papal
court at Avignon, and is nothing whatever but the southern type of
chivalry, that which prevailed in Spain and Upper Italy and was so
strongly influenced by the Moorish polite society of Spain and Sicily.
301. Renaissance ornament is merely embellishment and self-
conscious "art"-inventiveness. It is only with the frank and outspoken
Baroque that we return to the necessities of high symbolism.
302. Jacob Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien. (An
English translation was published in 1878.—Tr.)
303. Inclusive of Paris itself. Even as late as the fifteenth century
Flemish was as much spoken there as French, and the architectural
appearance of the city in its oldest parts connects it with Bruges and
Ghent and not with Troyes and Poitiers.
304. A. Schmarsow, Gotik in der Renaissance (1921); B.
Haendke, Der niederl. Einfluss auf die Malerei Toskana-Umbriens
(Monatshefte für Kunstwissensch. 1912).
305. The colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice.—Tr.
306. Svoboda, Römische und Romanische Paläste (1919);
Rostowzew, Pompeianische Landschaften und Römische Villen
(Röm. mitt., 1904).
307. Environs of Rome. They date from the late 17th and the mid-
18th centuries respectively; the gardens of the V. Ludovisi were laid
out by Le Nôtre.—Tr.
308. That is, the expression for the sum of a convergent series
beyond any specified term.—Tr.
309. See Vol. II, pp. 117 et seq.
310. In Classical painting, light and shadow were first consistently
employed by Zeuxis, but only for the shading of the thing itself, for
the purpose of freeing the modelling of the body painted from the
restriction of the relief-manner, i.e., without any reference to the
relation of shadows to the time of day. But even with the earliest of
the Netherlanders light and shade are already colour-tones and
affected by atmosphere.
 311. The brilliant polish of the stone in Egyptian art has a deep
symbolic significance of much the same kind. Its effect is to
dematerialize the statue by causing the eye to glide along its
exterior. Hellas on the contrary manifests, by its progress from
“Poros” stone, through Naxian, to the translucent Parian and Pentelic
marbles, how determined it is that the look shall sink right into the
material essence of the body.
312. See Vol. II, pp. 314 et seq.
313. The life and teaching of St. Francis were, morally and
æsthetically alike, the centres of inspiration for Cimabue, Giotto and
the Italian Gothic generally.—Tr.
314. Der nordische im Grenzenlose schweifende Pantheismus.
315. On the following page is a translation of this chorus.—Tr.

Raphael. The Sun outsings the brother-spheres

in olden rivalry of song,
and thunder-girt pursues the years
the preordainèd path along.
’Tis from his face the angels gain
their strength; but scan it no one may.
Thought is outranged and Works remain
sublime as on Creation-Day.
Gabriel. And, swift beyond description, flies
the circling scene of land and sea,
in alternance of Paradise
with dark and awful Mystery.
The ocean swings, the billows sway,
back from the cliff the waves are hurled.
But cliff and waves alike obey
the mightier movement of the World.
Michael. And storms arise and swell and ebb
o’er sea and mountain, lake and field,
in wild contention weave a web
of forces purposed though concealed.
The lightning is thy flaming sword,
the thunder veils thee on thy way,
yet ever spare thy envoys, Lord,
 the gentle changing of thy day.
The Three. ’Tis from thy face the angels gain
their strength, but scan it no one may.
Beyond all thought thy Works remain
sublime as on Creation-Day.
 316. His portrait of Frau Gedon, all steeped in brown, is the last
Old-Master portrait of the West; it is painted entirely in the style of
the past.
317. The strings in the Orchestra represent, as a class, the colours
of the distance. The bluish green of Watteau is found already in the
Neapolitan bel canto of about 1700, in Couperin, in Mozart and
Haydn; and the brown of the Dutch in Corelli, Handel and
Beethoven. The woodwind, too, calls up illumined distances. Yellow
and red, on the other hand, the colours of nearness, the popular
colours, are associated with the brass timbre, the effect of which is
corporeal often to the point of vulgarity. The tone of an old fiddle is
entirely bodiless. It is worth remarking that the Greek music,
insignificent as it is, underwent an evolution from the Dorian lyre to
the Ionian flute (aulos and syrinx) and that even in the time of
Pericles strict Dorians blamed this as an enervating and lowering
tendency.
(The horn is an exception, and is always treated as an exception,
to the brass generally. Its place is with the woodwind, and its colours
are those of the distance.—Tr.)
318. The use of gold in this way, viz., to add brilliancy to bodies
standing freely in the open, has nothing in common with its
employment in Magian art to provide glittering backgrounds for
figures seen in dim interiors.
319. The Chinese also attach enormous importance to the patinas
of their old bronzes, which, owing to the different alloys used and the
strong chemical characters of the soil, are of infinite variety and
natural intricacy. They too, in later phases, have come to the
production of artificial patina.—Tr.
320. Pausanias, it should be observed, was neither by date nor by
origin a Greek.—Tr.
321. “In places, as you stand on it, the great towered and
embattled enceinte produces an illusion: it looks as if it were still
equipped and defended. One vivid challenge at any rate it flings
down before you; it compels you to make up your mind on the matter
of restoration. For myself, I have no hesitation; I prefer in every case
the ruined, however ruined, to the reconstructed however splendid....
After that, I am free to say that the restoration of Carcassonne is a
splendid achievement.” (Henry James, “A Little Tour in France,”
xxiii.) Yet if ever there was a reconstruction carried out with piety and
scholarship as well as skill, it was Viollet-le-Duc’s reconstruction of
these old town-walls.—Tr.
322. Home, an English philosopher of the 18th Century, declared
in a lecture on English parks that Gothic ruins represented the
triumph of time over power, Classical ruins that of barbarism over
taste. It was that age that first discovered the beauty of the ruin-
studded Rhine, which was thenceforward the historic river of the
Germans.
323. English readers will very likely think of the case of Shaw’s
“Back to Methuselah,” with its extreme contrast of the cheaply-
satirical present-day scene and the noble and tragic scenes of far
past and far future.—Tr.
324. One need only contrast the Greek artist with Rubens and
Rabelais.
325. Of whom one of his mistresses remarked that he “smelt like a
carcass” (qu’il puait comme une charogne). Note also how the
musician generally has a reputation for uncleanliness.
326. From the solemn canon of Polycletus to the elegance of
Lysippus the same process of lightening is going on in the body-build
as that which brought the column from the Doric to the Corinthian
order. The Euclidean feeling was beginning to relax.
327. See p. 19.—Tr.
328. In other countries, e.g., old Egypt and Japan (to anticipate a
particularly foolish and shallow assertion), the sight of naked men
was a far more ordinary and commonplace thing than it was in
Athens, but the Japanese art-lover feels emphasized nudity as
ridiculous and vulgar. The act is depicted (as for that matter it is in
the “Adam and Eve” of Bamberg Cathedral), but merely as an object
without any significance of potential whatsoever.
329. Kluge, Deutsche Sprachgesch. (1920), pp. 202 et seq.
330. A. Conze, Die Attischen Grabreliefs (1893 etc.).
331. Louvre. Replicas of the pair in the Vict. and Alb. Museum,
London.—Tr.
332. Olympia—the only unquestioned original that we have from
the “great age.” References would be superfluous, for few, if any,
Classical works are better or more widely known.—Tr.
333. Of the several copies that have survived, all imperfectly
preserved, that in the Palazzo Massimi is accounted the best. The
restoration which, once seen, convinces, is Professor Furtwängler’s
(shown in Ency. Brit., XI Ed., article Greek Art, fig. 68).—Tr.
334. A cast of this is in the British Museum (illustrated in the
Museum Guide to Egypt. Antiq., pl. XXI).—Tr.
335. In the Bargello, Florence. Replica in Vict. and Alb. Museum,
London.—Tr.
336. The “Apollo with the lyre” at Munich was admired by
Winckelmann and his time as a Muse. Till quite recently a head of
Athene (a copy of Praxiteles) at Bologna passed as that of a general.
Such errors would be entirely impossible in dealing with a
physiognomic art, e.g., Baroque.
337. In his portrait of Frau Gedon, already alluded to, p. 252.
338. See p. 136 and also Vol. II, p. 354.
339. The so-called “Three Fates” in the British Museum.—Tr.
340. The Orphic springtime contemplates the Gods and does not
see them. See Vol. II, p. 345.
341. There was indeed a beginning of this in the aristocratic epic
of Homer—so nearly akin to the courtly narrative art of Boccaccio.
But throughout the Classical age strictly religious people felt it as a
profanation; the worship that shines through the Homeric poems is
quite without idolatry, and a further proof is the anger of thinkers
who, like Heraclitus and Plato, were in close touch with the temple
tradition. It will occur to the student that the unrestricted handling of
even the highest divinities in this very late art is not unlike the
theatrical Catholicism of Rossini and Liszt, which is already
foreshadowed in Corelli and Händel and had, earlier even, almost
led to the condemnation of Church music in 1564.
(The event alluded to in the last line is the dispute in and after the
Council of Trent as to the nature and conduct of Church music. If
Wagner’s suggestion that Pope Marcellus II tried to exclude it
altogether is exaggerated, it is certain at least that the complaints
were deep and powerful, and that the Council found it necessary to
forbid “unworthy music in the house of God” and to bring the subject
under the disciplinary control of the Bishops.—Tr.)
 342. Harmodius and Aristogiton. At Naples. Illustrated in Ency.
Brit. XI ed., article Greek Art, fig. 50. Cast in British Museum.—Tr.
343. The famous statue now in the Lateran Museum, Rome.—Tr.
344. See foot-note, p. 130. An antique copy is in the British
Museum.—Tr.
345. In the Vatican Museum.—Tr.
346. Even the landscape of the Baroque develops from composed
backgrounds to portraits of definite localities, representations of the
soul of these localities which are thus endowed with faces.
347. It could be said of Hellenistic portrait art that it followed
exactly the opposite course.
348. British Museum.—Tr.
349. Pinakothek, Munich.—Tr.
350. Art Gallery, Vienna.—Tr.
351. Nothing more clearly displays the decadence of Western art
since the middle of the 19th century than its absurd rendering of acts
by masses; the deeper meaning of act-study and the importance of
the motive have been entirely forgotten.
352. By that test Rubens, and, among moderns, especially
Feuerbach and Böcklin, lose, while Goya, Daumier, and, in
Germany, Oldach, Wasmann, Rayski and many another almost
forgotten artist of the earlier 19th Century, gain. And Marées passes
to the rank of the very greatest.
353. Tombs of the Scaligers, Verona.—Tr.
354. National Gallery, London.—Tr.
355. Museo Nazionale, Florence.—Tr.
356. It is the same “noble simplicity and quiet greatness”—to
speak in the language of the German Classicists—that produces
such an impression of the antique in the Romanesque of Hildesheim,
Gernrode, Paulinzella and Hersfeld. The ruined cloisters of
Paulinzella, in fact, have much of what Brunellesco so many
centuries later strove to obtain in his palace-courts. But the basic
feeling that underlies these creations is not something which we got
from the Classical, but something that we projected on to our own
notion of Classical being. And our own notion of peace is one of an
infinite peace. We feel the “Rest in God” to be an expanse of
quietude. All Florentine work, in so far as sureness does not turn into
the Gothic challenge of Verrocchio, is characterized by this feeling,
with which Attic σωφροσύνη has nothing whatever in common.
357. It has never been sufficiently noticed that the few sculptors
who came after Michelangelo had no more than a mere workaday
relation with marble. But we see at once that it is so when we think of
the deeply intimate relation of great musicians to their favourite
instruments. The story of Tartini’s violin, which shattered itself to
pieces on the death of the master—and there are a hundred such
stories—is the Faustian counterpart of the Pygmalion legend.
Consider, too, E. T. A. Hoffmann’s “Johannes Kreisler the
Kapellmeister”; he is a figure worthy to stand by the side of Faust,
Werther and Don Juan. To see his symbolic significance and the
inward necessity of him, we have only to compare him with the
theatrical painter-characters in the works of contemporary
Romanticists, who are not in any relation whatever with the idea of
Painting. As the fate of 19th-Century art-romances shows—a painter
cannot be made to stand for the destiny of Faustian art.
(E. T. A. Hoffmann, the strange many-sided genius who was at
once musician, caricaturist, novelist, critic, wit, able public official and
winebibber, at one time in his career wrote in the character of
“Johannes Kreisler.” See his Fantasiestücke in Callots Manier and
Der Kater Murr, also Thomas Carlyle’s “Miscellanies” and the
biographical sketches of Hoffmann in Grove’s Dictionary of Music
and the Ency. Brit.—Tr.)
358. Although gunpowder is much older than the Baroque, its
application in real earnest to long-ranging fire-arms was only
accomplished during the 16th Century. It cannot be said that there
was any technical reason why 100 years should have elapsed
between the first use of powder in European warfare and the first
effective soldier’s fire-arm. No careful student of this period of
military history can fail to be struck with this fact—the significance of
which, not being technical, must be cultural. Much the same could be
said of printing, which, so far as concerns technical factors, might
just as well have been invented in the 10th as in the 15th Century.—
Tr.
359. Uffizi, Florence.—Tr.
360. Sistine Chapel, Rome.—Tr.
 361. “Doctor Marianus.”—Tr.
362. Vatican.—Tr.
363. In Renaissance work the finished product is often quite
depressingly complete. The absence of “infinity” is palpable. No
secrets, no discoveries.
364. Hence the impossibility of achieving a genuinely religious
painting on plein-air principles. The world-feeling that underlies it is
so thoroughly irreligious, so worthless for any but a “religion of
reason” so-called, that every one of its efforts in that direction, even
with the noblest intentions (Uhde, Puvis de Chavannes), strikes us
as hollow and false. One instant of plein-air treatment suffices to
secularize the interior of a church and degrade it into a showroom.
365. State Museum, Berlin.—Tr.
366. I.e., the “giants” of the great frieze, who were in fact Galatians
playing the part. This Gigantomachia, a programme-work like the
Ring, represented a situation, as the Ring represented characters,
under mythological labels.—Tr.
367. See Vol. II, pp. 138 et seq.
368. See pp. 197 et seq.
369. See pp. 55 et seq.
370. See p. 126.
371. Primitive languages afford no foundations for abstract
ordered thought. But at the beginning of every Culture an inner
change takes place in the language that makes it adequate for
carrying the highest symbolic tasks of the ensuing cultural
development. Thus it was simultaneously with the Romanesque style
that English and German arose out of the Teutonic languages of the
Frankish period, and French, Italian and Spanish out of the “lingua
rustica” of the old Roman provinces—languages of identical
metaphysical content though so dissimilar in origin.
372. See p. 262.
373. See p. 172.
374. That is, discussion of the doctrines of the Eleatic school
regarding unity and plurality, the Ent and Nonent, focussed
themselves, in Zeno, down to the famous paradoxes concerning the
nature of motion (such as “Achilles and the Tortoise”) which within
the Greek discipline were unanswerable. Their general effect was to
show that motion depended upon the existence of an indefinitely
great plurality, that is, of infinitely small subdivisions as well as
infinitely great quantities, and, the denial of this plurality being the
essential feature of the Eleatic philosophy, its application to motion
was bound to produce “paradoxes.”
The enunciations, with a brief but close critique, will be found in
the Ency. Brit., XI ed., Article Zeno of Elea. Here it suffices to draw
attention to the difficulties that are caused by the absence (or
unwelcome presence) of time and direction elements, not only in the
treatment of plurality itself (which is conceived of indifferently as an
augmentation or as a subdivision of the finite magnitude) but
especially in the conclusion of the “arrow” paradox and in the very
obscure enunciation of Paradox 8.—Tr.
375. See Vol. II, pp. 296 et seq.
376. De Boer, Gesch. d. Philos. im Islam (1901), pp. 93, 108.
377. A detailed summary will be found in Ency. Brit., XI ed., article
Kabbalah, by Dr. Ginsburg and Dr. Cook.—Tr.
378. See Windelband, Gesch. d. neueren Philosophie (1919), I,
208; also Hinnebert, Kultur der Gegenwart, I, V (1913), p. 484.
379. See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article Cartesianism (V, 421).—Tr.
380. See Vol. II, p. 296.
381. When, therefore, in the present work also, precedence is
consistently given to Time, Direction and Destiny over Space and
Causality, this must not be supposed to be the result of reasoned
proofs. It is the outcome of (quite unconscious) tendencies of life-
feeling—the only mode of origin of philosophic ideas.
382. See p. 201.
383. See Vol. II, p. 363.
384. In the German, “Vor allem aber sein eignes Ich.” (But in
Luther’s Bible, characteristically, “Auch dazu sein eigen Leben.”)—Tr.
385. Barnasha. The underlying idea is not the filial relation, but an
impersonal coming-up in the field of mankind.
386. ἐθέλω and βούλομαι imply, to have the intention, or wish, or
inclination (βουλή means counsel, council, plan, and ἐθέλω has no
equivalent noun). Voluntas is not a psychological concept but, like
potestas and virtus, a thoroughly Roman and matter-of-fact
designation for a practical, visible and outward asset—substantially,
the mass of an individual’s being. In like case, we use the word
energy. The “will” of Napoleon is something very different from the
energy of Napoleon, being, as it were, lift in contrast to weight. We
must not confuse the outward-directed intelligence, which
distinguishes the Romans as civilized men from the Greeks as
cultured men, with “will” as understood here. Cæsar is not a man of
will in the Napoleonic sense. The idioms of Roman law, which
represent the root-feeling of the Roman soul far better than those of
poetry, are significant in this regard. Intention in the legal sense is
animus (animus occidendi); the wish, directed to some criminal end,
is dolus as distinct from the unintended wrongdoing (culpa). Voluntas
is nowhere used as a technical term.
387. The Chinese soul “wanders” in its world. This is the meaning
of the East-Asiatic perspective, which places the vanishing point in
the middle of the picture instead of in the depth as we do. The
function of perspective is to subject things to the “I,” which in
ordering comprehends them; and it is a further indication that “will”—
the claim to command the world—is absent from the Classical make-
up that its painting denies the perspective background. In Chinese
perspective as in Chinese technique (see Vol. II, p. 627), directional
energy is wanting, and it would not be illegitimate to call East-Asiatic
perspective, in contrast with the powerful thrust into depth of our
landscape-painting, a perspective of “Tao”; for the world-feeling
indicated by that word is unmistakably the operative element in the
picture.
388. Obviously, atheism is no exception to this. When a Materialist
or Darwinian speaks of a “Nature” that orders everything, that effects
selections, that produces and destroys anything, he differs only to
the extent of one word from the 18th-Century Deist. The world-
feeling has undergone no change.
389. Lines 525-534:
ΧΟ. τούτων ἄρα Ζεύς ἐστιν ἀσθενέστερος;
ΠΡ. οὔκουν ἂν ἐκφύγοι γε τὴν πεπρωμένην, etc.—Tr.
390. Iliad, XXII, 208-215.—Tr.
391. The great part played by learned Jesuits in the development
of theoretical physics must not be overlooked. Father Boscovich,
with his system of atomic forces (1759), made the first serious
advance beyond Newton. The idea of the equivalence of God and
pure space is even more evident in Jesuit work than it is in that of
the Jansenists of Port Royal with whom Descartes and Pascal were
associated.
(Boscovich’s atomic theory is discussed by James Clerk Maxwell
in Ency. Brit., XI ed., XVIII, 655—a reference that, for more general
reasons, no student of the Faustian-as-scientist should fail to follow
up.—Tr.)
392. Luther placed practical activity (the day’s demands, as
Goethe said) at the very centre of morale, and that is one of the main
reasons why it was to the deeper natures that Protestantism
appealed most cogently. Works of piety devoid of directional energy
(in the sense that we give the words here) fell at once from the high
esteem in which they had been sustained (as the Renaissance was
sustained) by a relic of Southern feeling. On ethical grounds
monasticism thenceforth falls into ever-increasing disrepute. In the
Gothic Age entry into the cloister, the renunciation of care, deed and
will, had been an act of the loftiest ethical character—the highest
sacrifice that it was possible to imagine, that of life. But in the
Baroque even Roman Catholics no longer felt thus about it. And the
institutions, no longer of renunciation but merely of inactive comfort,
went down before the spirit of the Enlightenment.
393. προσῶπον meant in the older Greek “visage,” and later, in
Athens, “mask.” As late as Aristotle the word is not yet in use for
person. “Persona,” originally also a theatre-mask, came to have a
juristic application, and in Roman Imperial times the pregnant
Roman sense of this word affected the Greek προσῶπον also. See
R. Hirzel, Die Person (1914), pp. 40 et seq.
394. See pp. 127 et seq.
395. W. Creizenach, Gesch. d. neueren Dramas (1918), II, 346 et
seq.
396. See p. 265.
397. We too have our anecdote, but it is of our own type and
diametrically opposed to the Classical. It is the “short story” (Novelle)
—the story of Cervantes, Kleist, Hoffmann and Storm—and we
admire it in proportion as we are made to feel that its motive is
possible only this once, at this time and with these people, whereas