SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY

AND
MODERNIZATION
IN
SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION

AUGUSTINE YAO QUASHIGAH

LUCY EFFEH ATTOM

AND

ISAAC ESHUN
Copyrights© 2017 A. Y. Quashigah, L.E. Attorn & I. Eshun

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrievable system without the prior written information of the authors.

ISBN: 978- 9988-2-5401-8 Cover page

and design by Kizito Ackom

Published by:
Yamens Press Ltd.
Accra

Tel: 0302223222
E-mail: yamenspresslimited@,gmail. com

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To GOD be the GLORY. He has been our strengths and we are

grateful to Him for the Grace He has bestowed on us. Our sincere
thanks also go to some special people in our lives who have
contributed in making life more meaningful to us. We thank Prof
S. M. Quartey, Prof. B. J. Obebe and all the lecturers in Social
Studies Department of the University of Education, Winneba,
friends and students and all well-wishers in Ghana, Nigeria,
Britain, Canada, United States of America, Netherlands and other
places.

iii
 DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to all our children

for their love and endurance.

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
Acknowledgements Hi
Dedication iv
Introduction v

CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY I
Defining Science 2
Defining Technology 7

CHAPTER TWO
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY AND CHALLENGING ISSUES
CONCERNING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 12
Differences between Science and Technology 13
Challenging issues concerning Science and
Technology 18

CHAPTER THREE
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VERSUS BELIEFS
AND VALUES 20

CHAPTER FOUR
THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GHANA 34

CHAPTER FIVE
NEGA TIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY 47

CHAPTER SIX
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ARE BLESSING TO
HUMANITY THAN CURSE 51

v
CHAPTER SEVEN
CHALLENGES CONFRONTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN GHANA 68
CHAPTER EIGHT
STRATEGIES GOVERNMENT CAN ADOPT TO
IMPROVE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN
GHANA 79
Efforts of Government to improve Science
Technology 80
Strategies Government can adopt to improve
Science and Technology in Ghana 81
CHAPTER NINE
SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCIETY (STS), GLOBAL ISSUES
AND GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES 88
CHAPTER TEN
GLOBAL ISSUES FOR SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-
SOCIETY (STS) 94
Environmental Issues 96
Health and Population Issues 97
Economic Issues 98
Transportation and Communication Issues 98
Food and Hunger Issues 99
Energy Issues 100
Military Issues 101

REFERENCES 103

vi
 INTRODUCTION

"We know from history that science, technology and innovation

are the key drivers of economic growth, of poverty reduction, of
rising living standards. Now we must ensure that they are among
the central enablers for realizing the SDGs and that all countries,
particularly the poorest and those furthest behind, can tap into the
benefits of modern science, technology and innovation,"

By the President of the General Assembly, Mogens Lykketof,

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UNDESA/DSD Meeting on 26 Sep 2015)

The content of this book aims at developing in learners an attitude

to re-examine society from the point of view of developments in
science, technology and modernity. Modern life as we know it
would be impossible without science and technology that support
it. Activities of man in all countries have been heavily influenced
by science and technology. Society is in constant state of human
endeavour. Humanity is also constantly destroying and repairing
through science and technology one way and another. Continuing
crisis upon crisis face the global society with conflicting views on
science and technology as it may be. Advances in science and
technology have led to the globalization of the human condition.
Nations and peoples have been brought together in ways
undreamed of by previous generations. Today, nations inhabiting
the planet are often more closely linked by technology. Science
and technology and their interaction with humans cannot be
contained within national borders. Consequently, environment
issues, health and population issues, economics issues, transport
and communications, energy and military issues should be
approached from a global perspective to mirror the complexities
and paradoxes of diverse cultures and interdependent systems.
VII
 CHAPTER
1

DEFINITION OF
SCIENCE
&
TECHNOLOGY

1
 Objectives

After going through this section students

will be able to:
• define science
• define technology
• establish the relationship between
science and technology

Defining Science
The English word "science" originated from the Latin word
scientia which simply means knowledge. Scientia also means
"to know". Similarly, in German, the word Wissenschaft is the
equivalent which is translated as "systematic and organized
knowledge." Science refers to the system of acquiring
knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation
to describe and explain natural phenomena. Again, the term
"Science" refers to the organized body of knowledge people
have gained using observation and experimentation. In this
sense, science is seen as a way of understanding how and why
things happen in the natural world. Science gives answers to
questions such as "What is this?", "How does it work?", and
"Why?" This understanding can be gained by doing systematic
observation and experimentation. Science is a process by which
we discover truths about the natural world. It is a set of mental
disciplines (e.g. deduction/induction) and practices (e.g.
experimentation, peer review) that tends to lead to accumulation
of knowledge. Sometimes, this knowledge helps solve a
problem, but not necessarily. The Science Council defines
science as the pursuit and application of knowledge and

2
understanding of the natural and social world following a
systematic methodology based on evidence.

In the light of the above explanation, we can define science as an

organized body of knowledge humans have gained through
systematic enquiry to produce reliable explanations of the natural
world. With this understanding, the practice of science would
include knowledge about employment statistics as assembled and
published in the form of a table by the Institute of Statistical,
Social and Economic Research (ISSER) or knowledge of matches
played, won, lost, drawn, points for and points against records of
the major league football teams of a season and so on. Science can
also be defined as consisting of knowledge about nature. This
entails discussions about atoms, molecules, and compounds of
anything living or non-living, that occupies space and has weight
or mass. For this we can say that science has to do with the "natural
laws" governing the "behaviour" of matter. However, the
"Science" in Social Studies education is not limited to the
so-called natural sciences, such as chemistry, physics and biology.
Rather, it is equally applicable to much of what is popularly called
social and behavioural science. Moreover, science is not static as
may be implied by the use of terms as "systematic" and organized
knowledge." Instead, science is considered as very dynamic and
continually developing. It involves an ongoing methodology and
processes by means of which the knowledge is obtained. The
practice of science in Social Studies education equally involves
making series of observations and conclusions. Thus, science has
to do with the body of knowledge obtained from observations
(McGeveran & Wiessenheld, 2001).

Ordinarily, science is considered as an activity of individuals who

work in laboratories and whose discoveries have made possible
modern endeavours in industry and medicine for
3
instance. This is true, although there are a lot many people who
clearly must qualify as scientists, yet they do not work in
laboratories. Also, there are many scientific discoveries of
individuals who are scientists, yet those discoveries can hardly
have any applicability in either modern industry of medicine.

Science is a purposeful enterprise in itself, even if the output is

not always useful outside of science. For example, an ecologist
observing the territorial behaviours of bluebirds and a geologist
examining the distribution of fossils in an outcrop, are both
scientists making observations in order to find patterns in natural
phenomenon. These examples are observational science but are
also experimental science. A chemist observing the rates of one
chemical reaction at variety of temperatures, and a nuclear
physicist recording the results of bombardment of a particular
kind of matter with neutrons are both scientists performing
experiment to see what consistent pattern emerges. A biologist
observing the reaction of a particular tissue to various stimulants
is likewise experimenting to find patterns of behaviour. The
critical commonality is that, all these scientists are making and
recording observation of nature in order to learn more about
how nature in broader sense works. In most cases, they are
collecting information to test new ideas or to disprove old ones.
Science is not just observing and experimenting for nothing, but
after the experimentation and observation, there is a need for the
scientist to prove himself by providing principles as evidence.

Archimedes for instance, after observing how an apple is

plucked was able to come out with the force of gravity. Surface
tension, Ohm's law, Archimedes Principle and other principles
are all as a result of experimentation and observation which
have helped to improve the lives of people. Without science,
one may think everything that happens in the natural world is a
miracle or wonder.
4
 There are many methods of gathering facts about nature but that
of the scientist must be systematic, reliable and testable.
Scientific facts are therefore obtained and tested through
scientific methods. The process is based on data gathering,
analysis, testing and other evidence obtained through direct
observation or experiment. The laws of motion and the theory
of gravity are some of the natural laws which were discovered
by Galileo and Newton in the seventeenth (17th) century.

The methods involve in scientific research include making

hypothesis and do experimentation to test the hypothesis under
controlled conditions. In this process, scientists publish their
works so other scientists can do similar experiments in many,
but different conditions to further strengthen the reliability of
results.

Scientific fields are broadly divided into natural sciences (to

study natural phenomenon) and social sciences (to study human
behaviours and societies). However, in both of these divisions,
the knowledge must be obtained through observations and
capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers
working under similar conditions. There are some other
disciplines like health science and engineering that are grouped
into interdisciplinary and applied sciences. Most scientific
investigations use some form of the scientific method. A
scientific method tries to explain the events of nature in
reproducible way and allow using these reproductions to form
predictions.

Scientists make observations of natural phenomenon and then

through experimentation, they try to stimulate natural events
under controlled conditions. Based on observations, a scientist
may generate a model and then attempt to describe or depict the
5
phenomenon in terms of mathematical or logical representation.
A Scientist will then gather the empirical evidence and will
generate his or her hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. This
description is used to form predictions which in turn will be
tested by experiment or observations using scientific method.
Evaluations are made which may prove hypothesis acceptable or
discard it altogether or recommended modifications.

We may also define or describe science as being made of two

parts; science as:
• Body of useful and practical knowledge and a method of
obtaining such knowledge,
• As purely an intellectual activity.
One justification for this definition can be illustrated as follows:
An individual who after a series of observations about any
socio-economic environment, and systematically organized the
information (knowledge) obtained concludes (rightly or
wrongly) about a line of action to take, in a sense has carried out
some science.

Some other authors define science on the basis of knowledge or

on the basis of the methodology used in acquiring knowledge.
Yet, others use both approaches simultaneously. For example, a
chemist will emphasize that science is a process or a way of
looking at the world. A physicist will explain science as having
to do with the store of knowledge of natural phenomena. This
definition plays emphasis on both aspects (knowledge and
methodology) and also upon their interrelationships. That is to
say that, science is the knowledge of natural phenomena and
thus knowledge is dependent upon the processes by which it is
obtained. A biologist once described science as "organized
common sense." This is an illustration of the rationale and
reasoning of obtaining scientific knowledge. A philosopher also
defines science as a mode of inquiry which attempts to reach out
6
to knowledge of the world by the method of observation and by
the method of confirmed hypothesis on what is given in the
observation or series of observations (Lechner & Boli, 2004).

In all these and many more definitions of science the concepts that
keep running through are basically "personal observation",
"methodology /mode/ process" and an "organized conclusion".
Science is the bedfellow of technology. There is therefore the
need to look at the concept "technology" in the next section.

Activity:
1. How would you respond to the question "What is
science " to the following people?
A, A farmer
B. A trader
2. What are some of the common individuals' conception and
misconception about science?
3. Why would you or would you not classify fishermen in the
fishing industry who observe (based on traditional
rudimentary knowledge) the waves before crossing over
the surf for fishing expedition as scientists?
4. What else would you like to say about science and
scientists?

Defining Technology
While science is essentially a mental process, its practice lies in
the technology behind it. Technology is a term with origins in the
Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία” - "techne", "Tέχνη", "craft"
and "logia", "λογία" "study". However, a strict definition is
elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to
humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also
encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of
organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied
generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction

7
technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art techn
ology". Technology, therefore, refers to the totality of tools,
materials, objects and methods available to and used by
individuals or group of individuals in producing items or
providing services that are essential for comfort and survival
(Fellmann, Getis & Malinowski, 2005). Technology also
consists of innovations of new ideas and techniques for carrying
out goods and services. (Here is a bizarre but funny illustration)
In the very olden days of ancient mythology you might want to
consider how to fly with a "magic mat" between Winneba and
Accra. The thinking about how to do this is the science behind
such a service to be provided by a "magic mat" the "power"
behind "what" to use as "magic mat" is inexplicable. The
science behind the service provided by the "magic mat" remains
mysterious, as it defies "common sense" and could best be
described as a fairy tale - an "ananse" (myth) story. Today, if
you fly in an aeroplane, the power behind it can be explained by
comparing it to techniques employed as a bird flies, and this is
just "wonderful" - since the plane's streamlining and the fuel
providing the power are tangible. In other words science can be
mysterious while with technology, there are many objects that
are scientific in nature and observations were made before they
came out with such objects; eg. Fish - ship, Millipede -train,
Mushroom - umbrella, Human being -robot, Brain - computer
chip, Breast - feeding bottle, Womb - incubator, etc. makes it
(science) wonderful. One quick conclusion is that technology is
the application of science.

Technology in some other sense of the word can be considered

as relatively young. For example, during the Industrial
Revolution, the technological differences between cottage "hand
looms" of the 19th century English "villagers" and the "power
looms" of neighbouring facilities is an illustration worth
considering. Also, the technological differences between manual

8
typewriters and the computer revolution must be quite fresh for
what technology entails - innovations, new ways of doing
things, new ideas, etc. The specter of traditional crafts of the
world are comparable to the modern advanced technologies of
industrialized countries in terms of hardwares (stuff, materials,
tools, equipment) and the software (ideas, manipulations,
"common sense", curiosity).

Consequently, there may be technological differences due to

innovations, new ways of doing things, new ideas, etc. For
instance, there are technological differences between manual
typewriters and the computer revolution. The traditional crafts
of the world can be compared to the modern advanced
technologies of industrialized countries in terms of hardwares
(stuff, material, tools, equipment) and the software (ideas,
manipulations, "common sense", and curiosity).

By way of innovations, communication technology has moved

from carrying flames via marathon, through newspaper media,
telephone, telex, fax, radio/wireless, television, teleconferencing
to the cellular and internet facilities. Similarly, information
technology has moved from "audio" only through to "audio-
visual" both "voice and image".

It is obvious that we now live in an information-rich

environment. Information is being provided much more rapidly
than ever before. The rate at which new information is generated
has also increased dramatically. Not only is there more
information, its availability too has increased. An information
superhighway popularly called the World Wide Web (www)
now runs through a number of schools and homes of students
worldwide. There is great expectation about teachers to be
computer and internet users themselves and to guide their
students as well. Teachers are expected also to:

9
 • Load and use curriculum software;
• Keep attendance and achievement records on
spreadsheets;
 Use word-processing and digital-image programmes;
• Search the internet for instructional resources and assist
students to do the same; and
 Make visually rich classroom presentations using digital
technology and teach students to do the same (Parker,
2005:22)

Indeed, almost everything is technology driven one way or the

other, in the world. We can talk of education via e-leaming
(electronic learning) through the technology of virtual
classrooms; buying and selling have become e-commerce
(electronic commerce); posting letters has become e-mail
(electronic mails). These and many more innovations in
technology have made the world almost a hand-held toy. The
complex nature of jobs and occupational structures; the high
levels of specification in jobs; the manner in which natural
resources are used and the levels of sophistications in industries
are all measures of development and of the innovation or
adoption of technology.

The sections discussed so far clearly demonstrate that science

and technology seems to be indispensable pairs and having
differences between them. There is therefore the need to look at
how related they are. This will be discussed in the next chapter.

10
Activity:
1. What is technology?
2. What are some of the common individuals' conception and
misconception about technology?

11
 CHAPTER
2

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY
AND
CHALLENGING ISSUES
CONCERNING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

12
 Objectives

After going through this section students will

be able to:
• state at least four of the differences
between science and technology.
• establish the relationship between
science and technology.

Differences between Science and Technology

The question has been this - Is science and technology related?
One source of confusion is the undoubted relationship that exists
between science and technology. Science and technology
overlap in an area which might be referred to as "applied
science", even though there are a number of important
differences between the two. Science and Technology are
closely linked and function together. Scientific knowledge
manifests in Technology. In the same way, there cannot be any
technology without science. The words "science" and
"technology" can and often are used interchangeably. But the
goal of science is the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake,
while the goal of technology is to create products that solve
problems and improve human life. Simply put, technology is the
practical application of science. However, there are several
differences between the two disciplines and some of them
include the following:

In the first place, scientific activities always occur before

technological activities. Technology refers to the application of

13
scientific knowledge to satisfy human needs. In other words,
technology refers to the diverse ways by which scientific
knowledge is used in inventions and discoveries to satisfy the
needs of humans. It involves the application of tools, machines,
materials and techniques to control and exploit the natural and
artificial world to satisfy human needs. This means the
knowledge required in Science is put to use through technology
by producing the machines and the tools mentioned earlier. In a
research and development organization such as European Space
Agency (ESA), technology is a concept of primary importance,
so by necessity the definition of the word is precise: 'technology
is the practical application of knowledge so that something
entirely new can be done, or so that something can be done in a
completely new way.' As a by-product, human beings create
technology: tools and techniques that help keep solving the
problems efficiently without having to re-invent the solution
multiple times. Most of the human body is pretty unremarkable
really when compared to other animals: it was only the
tool-making abilities of our brain and hands that made us
(humans) different.

Secondly, scientific information is put to use to satisfy human

needs through technology. This means science can be said to be
abstract, whereas technology is concrete. Technologists use
scientific knowledge or findings to invent various tools,
machines, and materials needed by human beings. For example,
the invention of the ship, a wonderful technological revelation
depended on the scientific principle of floatation. Again, the
invention of communication gadgets such as the telephone and
television is based on the scientific principle of sound and its
velocity or sound and how it travels. In addition, it was the
scientific principle of airlift and how birds fly that led to the
invention of the aeroplane.

14
Furthermore, science puts forward explanations of the natural
world, while technology offers solutions to human needs and
desires. For example, technology is used to build houses,
electricity, construct roads and bridges, and manufacture cars,
airplanes, cellular phones, television, computers, laptops, among
others. All these come about as a result of recognizing a need
and creating technological solution.

Moreover, science has an investigative focus, whilst technology

has a practical problem-solving focus. For example, science
raises new questions such as: "Why does the sun appear to move
each day from the Eastern horizon to the Western horizon?"
"Why do most objects released near the surface of the earth later
fall to the ground?" "Why do parents and their offspring look
alike or are similar, for instance, goats reproduce goats and not
cats?" and "Why do some objects float on water and others
sink?" Scientists attempts to find solutions to these questions
using scientific methods, observation and experimentation.

In addition, scientists see nature as the object of research. They

are interested in the discovery of knowledge about natural
phenomena whether directly available to human experience or
through active intervention in natural processes. Through
systematic investigation and experimentation, the natural world
can be discovered and universal laws stated which explain how
the natural world functions. The natural world is a thing in itself
worthy of study, research, and experimentation to uncover
fundamental laws, patterns and structures, because the scientist
is interested in the nature for what it is, all nature is opened for
investigation and all nature is equally valued from the smallest
particle of matter to the vast universe (Bunge, 1979). For
example, to the physicist, friction is a force which is always
opposed to the direction of motion and this happens when two
non-lubricated surfaces meet in motion. On the other hand,

15
technologist approaches nature in a fundamentally different
way. To them, nature is a thing for us. It is not neutral because
value is attached to it depending on the circumstances of use.
This is true for physical laws and natural resources. For
example, in engine design, frictional force is considered
undesirable and efforts are made to reduce its effects. On the
other hand, brake systems are designed to utilize the effects of
friction. In both cases, the physical phenomenon, friction is
valued differently because of the circumstance.

While science is necessarily a mental process, the practice of it

lies in the technology behind it. Technology consists of new
ideas and techniques for carrying out good and service.
Technology is the end result of scientific discovery. It is
technology that uses scientific findings for the benefit of human
kind. Technology is the consequence of science and has to
satisfy requirements such as utility, usability and safety. The
development of technology may draw upon many field of
knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical,
linguistic and historical knowledge, to achieve a practical result.
It must be noted that scientists might study already existing
objects or equipment, tools and knowledge and come out with
an advanced form of the objects through innovations.

Finally, science is an organized body of knowledge humans

have gained through systematic enquiry to produce reliable
explanation of the natural world, whilst technology is the
application of all the knowledge, skills, tools, machines,
materials and conditions required to perform work.

Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species usage

and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species
ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human

16
society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although
several technological advances predate the two concepts.

Activitty

1. State at least four of the differences between science and

technogy
2. With practical-oriented examples, examine four
differences between science and technology.

17
Challenging issues concerning Science and Technology

Objectives
After going through this section students will be able
to:
1. List the challenging issues concerning science and
technology
2. Compare and contrast some given new technology
with old technology in terms of cost, safety, work
output, techniques needed and their multi-purpose
in nature

In spite of the benefits of science and technology there are

challenging issues concerning the perceptions about science and
the use of technology. Some of the challenges are:
• Comparing new technology with old technology in terms
of cost, safety, work output, techniques needed, multi
purpose in nature etc. Compare
I. Typewriter with a computer
II. Grammaphone with CD
• New technology may result in broader social change,
some of which is unanticipated.
I. Serving foods in leaves - polythene bags
II. Water in cups - pure water in sachet
III. Cafe - pornography
IV. "Sakawa"
• Coping with ever-increasing pace of change in terms of
cost, time, personnel, etc.

18
 I. Phone booth - communication centres -
mobile phones
II. Beauty industry - saloon (hair)
pedicure -manicure, facial etc.
• Managing technology so that the greatest number of
people benefits from it.
i. Availability
ii. Cost
iii. Easy techniques for
usage etc. Eg.
iv. TV, mobile phones,
cafe
• Preserving our fundamental values and beliefs in the
midst of technological change. Honesty, decency,
children, family system, compound houses, traditional
games, deities etc.

Activity:
• List the challenging issues concerning science and
technology
• Compare and contrast four given new technology with
old technology in terms of cost, safety, work output,
techniques needed, multi-purpose in nature

19
 CHAPTER
3

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VERSUS

BELIEFS & VALUES

20
 Objectives
After going through this section students
will be able to:
• define beliefs
• define values
• examine influence of science and
technology on our beliefs and
values

A casual look around reveals that the activities of individuals

have been heavily influenced by science and technology and this
of course includes our cultural beliefs and values. Culture has
been casually defined as "the way of life of a group of people"
(Quashigah, 2014:65). It is that complex whole that includes
knowledge, beliefs, art, morality, laws, customs, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a
society. It also includes values and behaviours (Tylor, 1874 in
Obeng n.d.). Culture may be as seen as the total way of life of a
people including the kind of food they eat, their systems of
transport, communication, building designs, common working
tools among others. It also includes the beliefs they hold about
certain activities (Obeng, 2014). For example prohibition of talk
while bathing, no sweeping at night etc. These beliefs are
usually expressed as taboos or forbidden acts whose violations
attracts some consequences they say. It is interesting to note
that, science and technology have come to clear our minds
concerning some superstitions. For instance, through science,
the African has come to understand that singing or talking whilst
bathing is a forbidden act because soap lather, which is

21
poisonous, may enter the stomach which may cause stomach
upset. With the advent and advancement in scientific knowledge
and technology, our cultural beliefs and values have been
influenced profoundly. This, however, is not to say that, our
cultural values and beliefs have no scientific and technological
meanings.

As noted above, beliefs and values are part and parcel of

Ghanaian culture. Beliefs are mental representations of the
attitudes of human beings towards the likelihood or truth of
something (Wikipedia.org). They are specific statements that
people hold to be true whereas values are things we cherish and
hold dear. We pass judgement on the entire nature (amount of
worth) of that thing as compared to something else (Deway,
1966 in Ayaaba 2011). Some of our belief systems and cultural
values which have been influenced by science and technology
includes; medicine, beliefs about life in space and after death,
beliefs about pregnancy and child birth, in the area of worship,
death and performance of funerals, marriage ceremonies, means
of transportation, in the area of communication and also the area
of food preservation. All these beliefs and of course values
associated with them have undergone some modifications as a
result of advances in science and technology. Science is
explained as a body of knowledge about the physical world
which is acquired through systematic inquiry and technology is
described as the process whereby the scientific knowledge is
utilized to satisfy human wants or needs through human
ingenuity and creativity (Boateng, 2011). African society is a
rich cultural tapestry, made up of heterogeneous ethical,
religious, historical and philosophical backgrounds; which can
often lead to divergent positions on ethical issues in science.
The rapid pace of scientific and technological advancement has
induced cultural beliefs and value among the people of Ghana
and Africa at large.

22
To begin with, our transportation system has changed as is
culturally known as a result of science and technology. It can be
realized these days that, interaction between one another has
increased as compared to the past. At first, the means of
transport in our local area was in a remote form and this implies
that, people use donkeys, horses, canoes and other means like
trekking to cover a long distance. Trekking on foot and the other
apparently remote means of transportation such as the use of
donkeys, horses, etc. have been discarded or at best are of very
little use. In the past, people used domestic animals for
thousands of years to help transport goods over longer distances.
Pack-animal caravans using domesticated donkeys originated as
early as 3500 BC. Pack animals are still used today in many
parts of the world including Ghana particularly in the Northern
part of the country and rugged or hilly terrain where motor
vehicles cannot travel. Other pack animals include llamas,
camels, mules, oxen, water buffalo, dogs, goats, elephants,
reindeer, and horses. The horse, with its superior speed and
range, has been a favourite animal for transportation. But with
invention of science and technology, these olden ways of
transportation have now been discarded and given way to
different ways of movement that seem very comfortable and
very fast. For a fact, improved transportation systems such as
the uses of airplanes, ships, and vehicles have led to the idea of a
global village. People can now conceive and believe the idea of a
world culture because humans today interact with one another
more than ever before. Very distant places are now perceived as
really so "near" than before. Now, places that were regarded as
distant are now considered to be very close since one can use
some hours or a day to move to other parts of the world without
any difficulties. Through the emergence of science and
technology in our system, our remote way of transportation has
now been replaced with the use of air planes, vehicles, giant

23
ships, trains, boats, etc. which can move to distant places at a
very fast mode as compared to the use of horses, donkeys,
canoes, etc. The rate at which culture is being transmitted
throughout the world has also changed. It has also become
possible for people not to perceive their culture in isolation
because cultures are now influenced by other cultures with
increased cross-cultural and multicultural interactions. For
example, life styles are now being copied at ease as seen in other
parts of the world.

In addition, human-powered transportation, such as walking

relies entirely on human muscle power for movement. The
earliest footpaths were likely based on animal migration routes,
and ancient cultures developed extensive paths and roads for
both transportation and communication. Today, in many
countries of the world, human-powered transportation remains
the main form of transportation. In African cities, and for that
matter Ghana, two-thirds of daily trips are made by walking.
Even in automobile-dominated North American and European
cities, walking is an important mode of transportation. By
means of water transportation in the past, rafts and canoes are
the simplest means of travel on water. A raft is a simple floating
structure, usually made by tying together floating material, such
as logs or papyrus stalks, to provide buoyancy. Rafts have been
used since the earliest recorded times. In some cases, animal
skins were used to cover a wooden frame or airtight animal
bladders were fastened to wooden planks. Similar designs can
be found from early India and Ireland. Some ancient designs are
still used in remote areas of Ghana and other part of Africa.
However, as noted earlier, advances in science and technology
produced faster, larger, and more convenient means of
transportation. This includes train and trail roads, automobiles
such as cars, lorries, buses etc. Air travels have also
revolutionized global transportation by dramatically reducing

24
the time needed to travel great distances. Journeys across
nations or oceans that might have taken weeks or months can
now be made in a matter of hours. With large number of people
travelling in airplanes, air transportation has become a major
part of the world's transportation system. It uses airplanes,
helicopters, etc. Ships, engine boats and ferries have also
revolutionized water transportation. With this, science and
technology have changed the transportation system as is
culturally known.

Additionally, science and technology have challenged beliefs in

traditional telepathatic communication. These include the use of
mobile phones, e-mail, the television, radio, satellites
teleconferencing, etc. Early societies developed systems for
sending simple messages or signals that could be seen or heard
over a short distance, such as drumbeats, fire and smoke signals,
or lantern beacons. Messages were attached to the legs of carrier
pigeons that are released to fly home (this system was used until
World War I, which started in 1914). African cultures also
employed marathon runners to carry messages in relays over
many kilometers. The earliest were runners or messengers who
carried memorized or written messages from one person to
another, and returned with the reply. The modern technologies
have virtually replaced the indigenous use of the gong-gong,
fire, drums, etc. An old and still existing means of
communication is letter writing which came as a result of early
education. But with the advancement in science and technology,
faster and easier means of communication and information
dissemination now exist. This include newspaper media,
telephone, radio, television, World Wide Web (internet
services), and mobile phones which now become the most
common means of communication.

25
Thus, information dissemination is now faster and of course
with the technology of eaves dropping devices and close circuit
technology networking there is now apparently no secret
anywhere. Community or local area diseases, political issues,
economic concerns and others which used to be the concerns of
specific communities are now worldwide "public secret". With
the invention of science and technology, people now hear of
what pertains in different countries, that is, through the radio,
television and many other scientific and technological means.
For example, due to the existence of internet, television, radio
and others, Ghanaians got to know of the deadly disease called
Ebola that killed a lot of people in Liberia, Sierra Leone and
other parts of the continent. Through this, Ghana was able to
prepare by taking precautions and educating the public on how
to prevent this disease and even treat those who are affected. It
would have been very difficult for Ghana to know this if
Ghanaians still rely on the old ways of communication.
Therefore, science and technology have really influenced our
way of transmitting information among ourselves. Science and
technology have improved social interaction and reduced social
exclusion and isolationism but have introduced corrupt and
inappropriate language use (which perhaps can be offensive)
including "4-sale", "thank u" and "broadband 4 U" and other
such words and jargons.

Large family size is one traditional belief and values dominant

in Africa and for that matter Ghana. The underlying reason for
this practice was that large family sizes serve as a potential
source of labour for undertaking agricultural activities and for
future security against old age. Besides, others who hid large
family sizes were held in high esteem. In addition, large family
sizes in communities, especially those with male children,
served as source of protection for societies in times of war.
Today, with progress in knowledge (science), people now prefer

26
small family sizes to large family sizes contrary to the norm in
the past. Scientific knowledge through education has come to
help man create awareness about the effects or difficulties
associated with caring for large family sizes. Scientific means of
birth control is largely practiced by many people through
technological products such as contraceptives like pills,
injectable, condoms etc. The use of condoms and other family
planning contraceptive devices and services have almost
replaced the traditional withdrawal and the use of culturally
periodic abstinence in sex. Thus, science and technology have
influenced cherished beliefs and values both for good and for
evil. Though, they (science and technology) have brought
improvements in the quality of life by way of excellent
life-saving equipment (developed by medical technology) these
have equally come with objectionable life styles of adultery and
promiscuity.

More so, the field of medicine is one such area where the
Ghanaian tradition, beliefs and values have been influenced.
Ghanaian traditional healing has had to undergo serious
changes. For instance, traditional herbs are now prepared and
stored in bottles as opposed to being served in gourds and
calabash. Many diseases including tuberculosis and leprosy,
believed to be the results of curses have now found cure and
treatment in modern scientific medicine. Historically, there is an
important tradition of healers who specializes in treating mental
illness. Some establish herbal centers to which they admit and
treat patients for lengthy periods. Their therapies include the use
of divination, herbal medicines, physical restraint, work therapy,
and individual, family and group psychotherapy. Healers also
use taboos (bans or inhibitions), massage, incantations (ritual
recitation of charms), ventriloquism, and purgatives (treatments
to clean or purge the body). Their concerns about bodily
well-being cannot be separated from their social, philosophical,
and

27
spiritual beliefs or from their understanding of the causes of
their everyday problems. Illness is seen as a type of misfortune,
the roots of which lie in a multitude of physical, spiritual and
social wrongdoings. In the field of medicine today, science and
technology have led to improvement in the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases. Many of the diseases which were
considered as a curse are now curable through science and
technology (Quashigah, 2014). Computers are now used to
diagnose diseases and drugs are also manufactured for the
hygienic treatment of diseases (Quashigah, 2014). Quashigah
(2014) further contends that, diagnosis of diseases was mainly
done by soothsayers in the past and some form of bone fractures
were (and to some extent presently) treated traditionally. He
continues by saying that, the advent of science and technology
has led to the use of "X-ray" and the Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) in
the treatment of broken bones or fractures instead of traditional
herbal concoctions. For example, diseases such as epilepsy,
small pox and others were considered curses because they were
thought to have no cure and as such were believed to be
punishment from gods and ancestors for crimes committed. But
now, science and technology makes it possible for us to
determine the causes of such diseases and as well find
appropriate treatment for some of these diseases. Today with
science and technology, biomedicine has risen from the
scientific traditional way of beliefs to the basic assumption that
physical phenomena, such as bacteria, viruses, and
malfunctioning or mutating genes, are the cause of disease. This
has caused African governments to spend significant amounts of
national funds to establish and maintain medical, nursing, and
public health teaching and research programmes, hospitals and
clinics including environmental health education. However, it is
pertinent to state that, in Ghana, these advances and more
scientific means of health care delivery does not render the old

28
system obsolete since some still cling to traditional and spiritual
medication.

Furthermore, in the field of agriculture, science and technology

have made significant contribution with regard to the tools,
farming methods, improved seeds and storage facilities among
others. Since ancient times, when cultures first began cultivating
plants, people have used tools to help them grow and harvest
crops. They used pointed tools to dig and keep soil loosened, and
sharp, knifelike objects to harvest ripened crops. Modifications of
these early implements led to the development of small hand tools
that are still used in small-scale gardening, such as the spade, hoe,
rake, trowel, and scythe, and larger implements, such as plows and
larger rakes that are drawn by humans, animals, or simple
machines. The most important implement of modern agriculture is
the tractor.

Another aspect of our belief system which has been influenced by

science and technology is the belief about life in space and life
after death. Previously, the space was perceived to be dwelling
place for spirits. But today, that perception has been changed.
Human can now walk at zero gravity in space (Quashigah, 2014).
Traditionally, we make sacrifices to gods and the deities to
petition them for rain so that our crops can grow. But through
science and technology, we now understand the dynamics of the
climate and weather and thus understand how clouds are formed
and by extension rainfall. People in the past also thought when
people die; they take care and protect the living. They believed
that, these ancestors or dead people usually punish those who
offend the laws of the society or their various families, that is,
putting up bad behaviours and also reward those who put up
positive behaviours or good deeds in the society or family. It was
believed that, the dead had a special place and so buries the dead
with materials like cloth,

29
jewelries, etc. in order to make life after death easy. When
chiefs die, they were buried with the heads of children thinking
that these children will serve the chief in the next world. But
with science and technology, we are now aware that, all those
beliefs we had about the dead some time ago are not real. We
now know that a dead person only decomposes.

It is also believed that, the use of discoveries in science and

technology has led to a revision in our values such as issues
concerning pregnancy and child bearing. It was believed in the
past that when someone was unable to procreate, it was as a
result of curse or punishment from the gods or ancestors. The
discovery has made it clear that the inability to give birth may
be due to impotence on the side of the male or infertility on the
side of the female. In addition, during pregnancy, pregnant
women were prevented from taking some foods because it was
believed these foods can cause the damage of the foetus. But,
through science and technology, we have now noticed that, the
intake of some foods during pregnancy will facilitate the growth
of the foetus and the mother as well. It was also believed that,
water bodies, trees and other objects of worship aid people
especially those seeking for children. Hence, such people were
usually named after these objects of worship and examples
include Ayensu, Densu, Pra, and many others. Therefore, with
knowledge acquired from science and technology, it is known
clearly that, the only way one can give birth is through sexual
intercourse during a woman's ovulation period and if there is
nothing like pregnancy after sex, meaning there is a problem
with either the man's or woman's reproductive system.

Moreover, it is now easy for people to copy and practice the

cultures of other places with a blink of the eye. With the
availability of scientific and technological products like the
internet, television, radio, and others, people now practice the

30
way of life of different places and has accounted for a multi-
cultural interaction globally. For instance, some people in Europe
put on kente and other local made clothing like tie and die whilst
most Africans also put on suits.

Again, science and technology have made American and Western

style democratic cultures a worldwide phenomenon. World trade
has become possible because of improved transportation networks
and systems of delivery. Beliefs and values for Ghanaian local
dishes have virtually collapsed in favour of tea, coffee, and "fast
food" menu.

With the upsurge of science and technology beliefs in the use of

bows and arrows have virtually given way to high precision
nuclear bombs, the AK 47s, and other related arms and
ammunition. The use of these gadgets is threatening the safety of
human life, because of their devastating effects.

Another factor is that the discoveries in and the uses of science and
technology have challenged beliefs in worshipping natural objects
and phenomena. The sea was regarded as a
never-possible-to-be-cross creation and the heavenly bodies (the
planets, sun and moon) were believed to be gods in the sky. Today
with such scientific and technological breakthrough, these natural
objects are hardly being considered as deities as was the case in the
past. Construction of roads, advances in space travels and the fact
that women and men can "walk" or even "float" in zero gravity on
the moon and in "space" the destruction of sacred fetish groves and
subsequent building of churches at such places have challenged the
belief in these places as unreachable and untouchable.

Last but not least, environmental policies on environmental

impact assessment, protection of water bodies
ensuring

31
sustainable use of resources, policies on use of chemicals by
various standards boards and environmental protection agencies
are all pointers to the impact of science and technological
innovations. The beliefs in river gods, flora and fauna, are some
of the things of the past. Breeding grounds of mosquitoes which
are essentially pond and lagoon environments no longer make
malaria fever the consequence of an offended god. All these are
possible through science and innovations in technology.

In summary, as can be observed, science and technology had

influenced and continue to influence Ghanaian cultural beliefs
and values, both the material and the immaterial aspects of life.
Our cultural values and beliefs have scientific and technological
significance but it seems with the dawn and advancement in
scientific knowledge and technology, our cultural beliefs and
values have been influenced greatly. In some respects, the
influence of both science and technology have almost
completely wiped our former beliefs and practices, however,
some beliefs and values have still been the norm but are under
consideration. It is worthy to note also that, these influences
have bestowed both positive and negative effects in the way
Ghanaians do their things. These influences include good ones
like some of the points elaborated above. It has also influenced
the ways people behave negatively that is, due to the
introduction of science and technology people especially the
youth dress in ways that are against the norms and culture of
Ghanaians, internet fraud, change in value placed on
truthfulness, erosion of family cohesion and many others. With
these negative influences, it would be better for the government
of Ghana to adopt strict strategies to control and manage the use
and influences of science and technology in order to achieve its
positive aspect in society.

32
Activity:
1. Define beliefs.
2. Define values.
3. Examine five influences of science an technology on
our beliefs and values as Ghanaians. d

33
ic bomb released by the Americans to
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during the
Second World War destroyed entirely the
twin-city, leaving many people dead, maimed
and homeless
 CHAPTER
4

THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF GHANA
34
 Objective
After going through this section students
will be able to:
identify and discuss at least four roles of
Science and Technology in the
development of Ghana

Science may be defined as a branch of knowledge that discovers

facts about repeated occurrences (whether in nature or the
laboratory) and formulate theories and laws on them. Technology
on the other hand is the utilization of these laws to make device
that enhances our living standards. In most cases science and
technology go hand in hand but a strong scientific base is needed
for technological advancement. Technology also is the application
of scientific knowledge to make life easier and better (Ayaaba &
Odumah, 2013). Talabi (2008), cited in Ayaaba, Odumah and
Ngaaso (2010) considers technology as that complex of human
activities which is concerned with the using of the findings of
science to solve human problems. The goal of science is the
pursuit of knowledge for its own sake while the goal of technology
is to create products that can solve problems and improve human
life. Development is the advancement in all sectors of the
economy. Development to every Ghanaian is simply the quest for
economic, political and social progress and a consequent
translation into higher standard of living. It has to do with the
provision of better infrastructure, education and health systems,
higher levels of employment, efficient national institutions and
modernization of society. In this regard development is a generic
term for human progress.

35
The role of science and technology in Ghana's development is
tremendous and cannot be condoned. Science and technology
are the drivers of development, as they help create wealth, create
jobs and solve national problems. Countries like South Korea,
Japan and China are making waves around the world for their
stupendous output and exports because of their scientific and
technological prowess. In South Korea, for example, companies
like LG, Samsung and Daewoo have become global electronic
giants because of their earlier huge investments in science and
technology. It is a fact that science and technology have
advanced over the past couple of decades in Ghana. Below are
some of the roles of science and technology in the development
of Ghana.

First and foremost, commerce or commercial activities

nowadays have undergone several changes of which science and
technology has been the major actors or agents. Some of these
changes include electronic commerce (E-Commerce), trade
involving complex and sophisticated equipment or materials,
exports and imports. Science and technology has made it
possible for a country to trade with another through importation
(imports) and exportation (exports) of goods and services. In
trade and commerce science and technology have given a major
boost in terms of industrial development. In the field of
commerce, we now have what we call electronic commerce.
There are improvements in trade and commerce with the
introduction of Electronic Commerce. It is simply online
shopping which enables the customer to sit in the comfort of his
home to shop for the latest goods and services all over the
world. The commercial activity is usually done through the
internet or electronically. Sitting behind your computer with
accessed internet, a variety of products are advertised on the
internet (various sites) and then you can order for the products
you want. With the use of this people easily transact business

36
without physical contact. Through E-commerce, people sit at the
comfort of their homes and buy (order for) products they want.
There is no need to spend extra cash travelling to where the shop
is to buy a particular item. What is required of you is your
address and payment which you need to do using credit card and
your goods will be send to you through a shopping agent. This
in a form has helped people maximize better benefits of time. A
whole lot of inconveniences are also avoided. It is now possible
to transfer money through MoneyGram, Western Union and
other money transfer from Ghana to other countries and from
other countries to Ghana and also within Ghana. It is even easier
to transfer and receive money within Ghana with the
introduction of mobile money services by the
telecommunication companies such as MTN, TIGO and Airtel.
As a result of this, there is no need to carry huge sums of money
when travelling. This reduces the risk of armed robbery.
Through trade and commerce the country earn tax, foreign
exchange etc. for its development.

Science and technology is also playing a pivotal role in the field

of business and banking which gears towards the development
of the nation. This is to say that business and banking cannot be
easily facilitated within this complex and modern era without
adequate use of science and technology. In the field of business,
science and technology play roles such as advertisement in both
print and electronic media example via radio, television,
newspapers, magazines and internet for the exposure and
promotions of goods and services, exchange of business
transaction, SMS etc. These include online payment, exchange
of prices of goods and services, partnership agreements and the
location of industries as well. Banking is another area where
science and technology play a vital role. This includes the
following; the use of the Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
system, e-switch, online payment, mobile banking, cross-

37
networking of banks through the use of visa cards, international
money transfers, bank statements, money counting machines,
the use of computers for safe record keeping etc. Currently,
most of the banks in Ghana provide twenty four hour (24 hours)
ATM services which dispenses money even after work and on
the weekend as well as holidays. The judicious use of science
and technology in the field of business and banking has
contribute immensely to the development of Ghana such as the
following; source of government revenue, employment, foreign
exchange and general increase of the gross national income to
support the development agenda.

In addition, science and technology has contributed to the

development of the industrial sector of Ghana. Energy supply
has been possible through science and technology. There is
hydro-electric power, thermal power generation and other
sources of energy in Ghana. Some companies and individuals
rely on energy for survival and comfort. Industries can grow
when there is available energy supply to propel their machines.
The supplies of power from the power stations are acting as a
boost to industrialization in Ghana. Most of the industries in
Ghana rely on power generated and provided by the Akosombo
hydro-electric plant, the Aboadze thermal plant and the Bui
hydro-electric plant for manufacturing their products.

Another essential area science and technology contribute to the

development of the country is industrialization. Science and
technology have helped to improve industrial technology
resulting in the production of better quality of goods in a large
scale. Through technological advancement, factories are able to
resort to the use of machines instead of human hands in their
operation. The invention of numerous machines -have
contributed to the emergence of variety of goods such as clothes,
shoes, vehicles, building materials, farm tools and
many

38
household appliances as well as their accessories to satisfy the
needs and wants of Ghanaians. With the use of machines, these
industrial goods are not only produced on large scale but faster
rate and with high quality. Industrialization has offered
employment to many people and made life more comfortable
than it used to be. People now enjoy better quality of goods and
services as a result of industrial technology.

Also, science and technology has contributed greatly to the

development of Ghana in terms of education. The use of science
and technology in education give instruction a scientific base in
the contemporary Ghanaian society. Many schools in Ghana
have benefited from the role played by science and technology,
in that, there has been the provision of educational facilities such
as school buildings, laboratories and libraries. Most schools are
now equipped with technological facilities such as laboratories,
computers and to facilitate teaching and learning. The use of
instructional technology such as televisions, tape recorders,
films, computers and radio sets significantly give teaching and
learning a scientific touch. The use of these electronic media
makes learning more objective and students' performance to be
more positive, functional and rewarding. Educational films and
computer assisted programs and internet sources etc. certain
subject content which deals with latest scientific discoveries
inventions and research findings. All these media are there for
the dissemination and adoption of new ideas, information and
innovation to enhance teaching and learning in Ghana.

More so, it has helped in distribution of information through the

internet made possible by e-learning portals. Many people can
now access career training and even degree courses online.
These applications also known as "course management systems"
are software that can handle automatically such services and
teaching design, sharing and debating in many forms, registering

39
to class, undertaking research task, going back in history to
review researches and examinations, arranging teaching designs,
keeping records of learning educator and the system and
displaying reports all through the internet (Saritas et al., 2006). .
Most universities now encourage lecturers to place their
teaching materials online' so that students can access them
outside of the regular lecture halls. Anyone can study for a
degree online with the help of the internet. Search engines such as
Google on the internet make the research easier and provide
up'to-date information. Science and technology provide teachers
and learners with suitable environment that satisfy the variations
of learning styles and capabilities of individual by making it
possible to continue learning anywhere and anytime other than
the regular classrooms.

Furthermore, the introduction of science and technology in

Ghana's educational sector has brought tremendous
improvement and development. The use of electronic
technology in education has revolutionized the art of teaching
via the use of world-wide web (internet) and other electronic
devices such as computers has made the task of teaching and
learning very exciting and less challenging. Science and
technology in education caters for individual differences.
Electronic media caters for individual differences among
learners. Computer assisted instruction programmes for instance
are designed in such a way that, they individualize learning.
Both fast and slow learners learn at their own rate and pace. In
this same vein, some learners find learning easier through the
use of films, televisions or over-heard LCD projectors. Indeed,
learning that caters for individual difference means that all
learners are able to utilize their potentials and hence higher
human resource development for the nation.

40
Institutions of science and technology have also grown from small
colleges into full-fledged faculties of science in universities. The
Ghana Science Association (GSA) has been quite instrumental in
facilitating the various activities in the different science
institutions through its annual conferences and workshops. These
are remarkable achievements of science and technology in the
development of Ghana. The Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) with its specialized institutes also conduct
research into food and crops, water, instrument standardization,
industry, infrastructural development among others. Also, Food
and Drugs Board was established in 1992 to check the safety,
quality efficacy etc. of food, drugs cosmetics, household
chemicals and medical appliances. This ensures safety and
benefits of goods produce through scientific and technological
advancement.

More so, through science and technology there is considerable

improvement in transportation and communication systems such
as the uses of vehicles, ships, air planes, telephones and internets.
The road network has improved and there is easy transportation
system to facilitate trade and tourism locally and internationally.
Science and technology has provided a modern means of transport
that facilitates movement from one area to another. Cars, trains,
airplanes, ships etc. are now in use. Footpaths have been
reconstructed into roads. Airports and railways have also been
constructed. All these facilitate the movement of goods and
services even across countries. In addition, science and
technology have improved the process of communication in
Ghana. Now, the whole world has been reduced to a global village
of which Ghana is part. Science and technology have opened the
doors for telecommunication through the use of faxes, e-mail,
television, satellites, radio, telephone, modems/internet, cellular
phones and laptops / computers which saves time and money of
customers and

41
 traders, employers and the employees. The improvement in
transport and communication has helped improve commercial
activities in Ghana. Also, there are so many people employed in
the transport and communication sectors.

Additionally, science and technology have improved the

availability and the use of information communication
technology. For example, records show that by year 2000, there
were 3 computers for every 1000 people in Ghana. Over
250,000 telephone lines, more than 100,000 mobile phones
subscribers, 20, 000 satellite disc, 80 radios per 100 people, 40
TV per 1000 people in the country. Today, there are
improvement in the aforementioned equipment in terms of
quality and quantity available to Ghanaians.

Moreover, science and technology have played a vital role

towards the development of the nation in the field of agriculture.
This vital role played in agriculture has helped people to make
improvement that allows them to produce more with less land,
labour and capital. Through science and technology there are now
several experiments in Ghana including experiment in areas of
plant and animals. There is development of high yielding crops,
hybrid and cross breeding of animals. The creation of machines
such as combine harvesters, ploughs, spraying machines etc. has
enabled Ghanaian farmers to work or cultivate larger fields which
contributes to the production of enough food in shorter period of
time. This reduces the amount of manpower, needed in food
production to be channeled into other areas of economic
development. Through the introduction of scientific knowledge
and technological advances in agriculture, agricultural scientists
have been able to introduce crops which are resistant to poor or
harsh weather conditions in Ghana. Agricultural activities in the
northern parts of Ghana where the weather conditions are not
favourable for crop production has

42
improved as a result of the acquisition of scientific knowledge
and application of technology such as irrigation and the use of
resistant crops. The expansion of irrigation in Ghana has been
one of the greatest achievements of science and technology.
Tono and Vea in the Upper East region are examples of
irrigation facilities in Ghana. This makes the farmers to employ
many to produce all year round ensuring that they remain in
business even in the dry season. This has minimized the problem
of food shortages in most parts of Ghana thereby reducing
famine and hunger.

Ghana's cocoa production has been a major improvement due to

science and technology. The use of pesticides in the spraying of
cocoa farms to kill pests such as capsid has minimized swollen
shoot infections. Application of fertilizers has increased the
yields of cocoa. This has resulted in the increase in government
revenue leading to a massive infrastructural development.
Through science and technology there has been cross breeding
of animals. Cross breeding is the process whereby two different
breeds of animals are made to meet in order to get a type of
offspring which is stronger and better than its parents. They are
able to grow faster, more productive and be able to resist some
diseases that might quickly kill the parents. For instance the
poultry farmers are introduced to new types of breeds that grow
faster and bigger within a shorter period of time. Advanced seed
technology has brought variety of improved seeds to farmers.
The packing, processing and marketing of agricultural products
are closely related activities which are also influenced by
science. Method of quick-freezing and dehydration has
increased the market for farm produce. This is helping to reduce
post-harvest loses facing farmers.

Again, considering medical care and population control, there

has been a breakthrough in terms of medicine, medical

43
role in the development of the nation, its negative effects should be
checked to achieve maximum satisfaction.
Activity:
With practical examples, examine five ways through which
science and technology have helped in the development of
Ghana

46
 CHAPTER
5

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

47
 Objectives
After going through this section students
will be able to:
 List and discuss at least five of the
negative effects of science and
technology.

Notwithstanding the noteworthy roles science and technology

have played in the development of Ghana, there have been some
negative effects on the nation as a whole. Some of the negative
effects of science and technology are as follows:

Firstly, Science and technology brings about diseases. Science

and technology has led to environmental pollution in Ghana.
The establishment of industries and factories cause water
pollution, air pollution and land degradation. The growing
industries produce fumes which cause lung diseases. Emission
from cars causes lung cancer, pneumonia, asthma and
bronchitis. Exposure to industrial noise also causes hearing
problem. For instance, the emission of gaseous substances from
factories and industries such as Volta Aluminum Company
(VALCO), Akosombo Textiles Limited (ATL) contaminates the
air and depletes the ozone layer to increase global warming
which in turn causes skin cancer etc. Agricultural and industrial
wastes cause water pollution to rivers which human and animals
rely on for survival. Industries discharging industrial waste such
as cyanide, mercury from mining industries, and application of
fertilizer from farms into some water bodies make it unsafe for

48
humans, animals and aquatic life. Inorganic fertilizers,
herbicides, insecticides and weedicides that are used by farmers
are washed into water bodies therefore causing water pollution.
People use this polluted water for domestic and industrial
purposes which gives them infections. Due to the invention of
polythene bags the environment is being littered.

Another negative effect of the inventions in science and

technology has to do with the destruction of our ecological
beauty. There are evidences of deforestation and the destruction
of biodiversity. In the construction of roads and other
infrastructure many trees are always cut down. The mining of
mineral also cause land degradation. The use of scientific and
technological advances has led to the creation of pressure on the
environment. The use of sophisticated mining and construction
machines such as excavators, bulldozers render the land
infertile.

Also, the use of scientific and technological equipment and

items can cause accidents. The manufacturing of airplanes,
vehicles, ship and trains which are products of science and
technology has led to loss of lives and properties through
accidents. People die while others get maimed for life. Other
people also get injured by machines in the workplace. People get
buried in mining pits. Discoveries and their uses have made life
more expensive than most individuals can afford. These include
fees accumulation from education, utility charges, transport
fares, accommodation and basic needs in general.

Furthermore, science and technology have led to unemployment

problems. The invention of computers, combine harvesters,
mobile phones, heavy industrial machines which are products of
science and technology has led to labour retrenchment. For
example, combine harvester can do the work of thousand
49
labourers. This can lead to many people becoming jobless.
Another example is that invention of computers has rendered
many people jobless. Secretaries are not needed in some offices
because of computers; post offices are collapsing because most
people do not post letters again due to the invention of mobile
phones and internet facilities. In addition, the use of the internet
has brought about cyber fraud such as "sakawa", e-mail hacking
just to mention but a few in Ghana. These practices make the
security of peoples' personal accounts unsecured.

Moreover, science and technology brought about

industrialization and this in turn leads to urbanization, with its
associated social vices/evils. Most people always troop to urban
centers to search for jobs because of the increasing rate of
industrialization. Most of the people who go to such centers do
not get jobs and are tempted to be involved in social vices such
as pick-pocketing, robbery, drug abuse and prostitution for
survival. These are causing the nation a lot of problems.

Also, the advancement in science and technology had led to the

invention of sophisticated weapons. For example, biological,
chemical and nuclear weapons can end the world in just a
minute. During violent conflicts, people often use weapons such
as AK47s and machine guns to kill a lot of people. Robbers in
Ghana use guns and other weapons to cause havoc and pain
daily. Terrorists use these weapons to topple governments.

Activity:
• Examine five negative effects of science and technology
in the Ghanaian society.

50
 CHAPTER
6

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ARE

BLESSING TO HUMANITY THAN
CURSE

51
 Objective
After going through this section students will
be able to:
• Examine why science and technology
must be seen as blessing to humanity.

• Examine why science and technology

must be seen as a curse to humanity.
• Argue with practical examples why
science and technology are blessing to
humanity than a curse

Science and technology are currently described as bed fellows or

the twin propellers that move development in the world. The
so-called advanced nations like the United States, Great Britain,
Japan, Russia and others attain that level through science and
technology. However, Ghana's contribution in these positive
knowledge ventures or exploits has been very negligible because
the nation has not been able to fully utilize its scientific
knowledge for development. Science is a process of acquiring
knowledge from the nature through observations, investigations,
gathering of data and drawing of conclusions. Technology on
the other hand is the application of scientific findings, methods
ideas, principles and techniques to produce or invent a given
product. Science and technology are part of our everyday living.
According to Webster, science is a knowledge gained by
systematic experimentation and analysis, and the formulation of
general principles while technology is the application of the
mechanical and applied sciences to industrial use. Based on the
definitions, will there be technology without science? The

52
answer is NO! Application of the information gathered came
about one's imagination to help humanity. This application is
known as technology. In short, technology is the practical use
of science. One good example of this is the computer. It can be
used everywhere thus offices, libraries, schools and banks.
Science and technology examine how humanity's understanding
of the natural world (science) and ability to manipulate it
(technology) have changed over the centuries^ Science and
technology are academic disciplines and also studies the
cultural, economic and political impact of scientific innovation.

Science and technology are interrelated and therefore it becomes

difficult to separate the two since they go hand-in-hand to
perform a function or role together. Science and technology
have contributed immensely to the global development and
civilization. It is undeniable fact that the tentacles of science and
technology which are development oriented have touched every
sector and global activity. Science and technology, have
impacted both blessings and curse on mankind and their
activities. In Ghana, science and technology cannot be over
emphasized in the life of humanity since it continues to play
significant roles in the various sectors of the economy, thus, in
the agriculture, health, industry and other sectors of the
economy. At the moment, there is a serious debate as to whether
science and technology is a blessing or a curse to the human
population. For one to actually discuss this topic objectively
there is the need to look at some of the advantages and
disadvantages of science and technology and thereafter compare
and contrast in order to take a position with regards to the topic
and this has been expatiated.

To begin with, science and technology have improved

communication over the years. We cannot develop without
communication. Unlike the olden days where one had to travel

53
many miles to deliver a simple message, modern technology has
blessed us with advanced communication technology tools.
These include: e-fax machines, electronic mail, mobile phones,
videoconferencing, instant text messaging applications and
social networking applications. All these modem
communication technology tools have simplified the way
humans and businesses communicate. One can easily talk to
relatives oversees using a mobile phone or video chatting
services like Skype. In all, this helps to save time, resources and
energy.

Again, science and technology brought about easy access to

information. It has become very easy to get access to relevant
information at any time anywhere. This has been possible
because of modern-technologies like broadband internet. Lots of
data is being published and indexed online, sites like Wikipedia
and YouTube have great original content which can be used in
research or entertainment. Information is power, and those who
find information and use it well always succeed. With smart
gadgets like the iPod, iPhone, galaxy tablet, users can easily
have access to information through these smart gadgets because
they use internet. So a user on a train can easily read breaking
news while travelling, they can also buy and sell stocks while in
the bedroom using the internet. These smart gadgets make it
easy to access internet and these simplifies the way we get
information. Science and technology has developed efficient
communication systems in the form of phones, fax, telex,
internet and others. These communication systems have bridged
the gap between the people and countries people can now use
these gadgets for fast communication and business transactions.

In the field of agriculture, science and technology is seen to

have brought a lot of improvement in terms of crop production,

54
introduction of improved methods of fishing and farming as well
as hybridization. Science and technology has made it possible
for farmers to cross two or more crop lines to produce hybrid
crops with more favorable traits compared to open-pollinated
varieties. The combination of hybrid seeds with plant breeding
techniques have increased crop yields since hybrid crops can
resist diseases and environmental stresses. The emergence of
crop protection products such as fungicides, herbicides and other
non-chemical tools like biological pest control and barrier based
approaches are all used by farmers to combat pest, diseases and
weeds that is affecting crop yield. Science and technology also
enable farmers to increase their production/yield through
modern irrigation practices, mobile technology, fertilizer and
mechanization. Fertilizers have also contributed to doubling and
tripling crop yield, supplying crops with the essential nutrients
missing from the soil as well as facilitating the more efficient
use of land and water.

Also, with regard to animal rearing, science and technology has

made it possible for new breeds of farm animals and the type of
feeding that are provided for them and this has resulted in high
yield. Science and technology have played significant roles like
genetic improvement in animal and plant species. Through
science and technology, there has been cross breeding and
genetic improvement of plant and animal species. The result of
cross-breeding is the productions of pest and disease resistant
animals and crops, to enhance agricultural development. For
example, in cattle production, the hunched back can crossed
with the short horn and the new breed that results will be able to
withstand pests and disease.

Also, the application of science and technology has led to the

introduction of agricultural machinery to increase production
and reduce drudgery associated with the use of cutlasses and

55
hoes. Mechanization has enabled farmers to produce more crops
with less manpower. These have helped to increase agricultural
productivity to feed the growing population in Ghana.
Agricultural machines such as combined harvesters, tractors,
planters have contributed greatly to large scale production. With
science and technology, there have been improved and more
efficient methods of crop processing and preservation to prevent
post-harvest losses. The construction of storage facilities such as
silos has helped to preserve large quantities of grains including
maize, rice among others. .Industrial equipment has also been
developed to process fruits and vegetables into pastes and juices.
There has also been an improvement in soil quality and
management because farmers have been trained to discard
farming practices that deplete the soil of its nutrients and adopt
practices that conserve soil nutrients. For example, they have
been taught how to use both organic and inorganic fertilizers to
improve the quality of soil. Also, there has been the
development and application of fertilizers. The introduction of
fertilizer, developed by science and technology has helped in the
improvement of crop performance. The application of fertilizers,
such as NPK to crops by farmers, has led to high yields,
resulting in increase in output.

Jn addition, science and technology have led to the invention of

life saving machines in the health sector. Machines such as the
x-ray, ultra sound, cardiovascular equipment and others enable
health personnel to detect diseases that have affected any part of
the body including the lungs, kidney, brain, bone uterus and the
liver. This will help the health personnel to prescribed drugs for
the patient. Science and technology has made it possible for men
with low sperm count or weak sperms to have their own children
through artificial insemination. Moreover, such men can also
activate their sperms or improve their sperm count by taking
drugs. Women who cannot also give birth due to complications

56
with their fallopian tubes can have their babies through the
in-vitro fertilization. This is where the foetus is developed outside
the womb and introduced into the womb to be nurtured by the
woman. Drugs and vaccines have also been manufactured to cure
and prevent disease such as measles, tuberculosis, tetanus,
diabetes, hypertension and others. It is noted that through science
and technology, hepatitis and the six childhood killer diseases
such as whooping cough, poliomyelitis, tetanus, and others which
used to increase Ghana's infant mortality rate have been reduced
and this has contributed to an increase in the life expectancy of
Ghanaians as compared to the past. There is also the advancement
in science and technology in our lives every day as new
developments are constantly infiltrating our lives. Knowledge in
science and technology is transforming the way we behave. Take
healthcare for example, breakthroughs in information gathering,
research, treatment and communications have given medical
providers new tools to work with and fresh ways to practice
medicines. Public clinics, doctors and other health service
workers take advantage of social media tools to reach wider
populations. Healthcare facilities particularly, hospitals are using
social media to establish contact with patients, answers questions
about practices, launch public awareness campaign and perform
community outreach. Some sophisticated sites offer instant chat
with nurses and doctors about medical issues and provides
information to the general public on the need for regular medical
checkup. Technology in the medical field has allowed individuals
with chronic illness to have productive and healthier lives. These
individuals can now live independent lives without any need for
physical, emotional and financial support. An advanced medical
aid also enables patients to continue recovery at home reducing
their hospital stay and at the same time saving money on hospital
bills. An example of medical technology that has benefited lives is
the treatment of cardiovascular disease, the

57
use of coronary stents - artificial tubes used in cases of coronary
heart disease to keep the arteries open, have halved the number
of those dying from heart attacks or suffering from heart failure.
Patients with an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD), a
small device implanted for those at risk of sudden cardiac death,
now have a 98% chance of surviving a cardiac arrest, compared
to only 5% without the implantable device.

Science and technology has made patient care safer and more
reliable than before. Doctors and nurses now use hand held
computers to record a patient's medical history and check that
they are administering the correct treatment. Results of
laboratory tests, records of vital signs and medicines and others
are all electronically put into a main data base that can be
referred to later. And as more institutions are adopting
electronic health records, patients have easier access to their
own information so they can understand what is being done to
them. These electronic databases are also consolidating large
amount of information that are used for medical research. With
vast patient history, scientists can better study trends and causes
of ailments; this means more breakthroughs to come. With
science and technology, doctors can consult experts from all
over the world to diagnose diseases and come out with
treatments for such diseases. Telemedicine was used effectively
after the 2010 Haiti earthquake and will no doubt be refined for
future use.

Furthermore, science' and technology brought about the

introduction of heavy equipment for the industrial sector to
process raw materials into finished goods and to reduce the
problem associated with the use of simple industrial tools in
order to increase industrial products in the form of textiles,
vehicles and agricultural equipment. It has also led to the
introduction of machines such as robot which are able to do

58
 work that are dangerous to human survival. Manufacturing
industries such as the Accra breweries and food processing
plants use scientific basis for the processing and packaging of
their products.

Again, in transportation, science and technology is being applied

in the manufacturing of automobiles. Science and technology
have contributed to the manufacture of vehicles, trains,
aeroplanes, helicopters, and ships that enable people to move
from place to place. The technological devices also move goods
from place to place, thereby facilitating trading activities within
countries and among countries. Moreover, transportation has
been a technology intensive industry and over the years,
advances in science and technology have brought about
numerous improvements in our transportation system.
Continuing research and development in materials and processes
and in computers, telecommunication and operations now offer
dramatically expanded possibilities for efficiently moving
people, goods, ideas and services. Cellular phones and special
purpose Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have been
introduced to help ease transportation. GPS is a satellite
navigation system that is developed and operated by the United
States of America's Department of Defense. This serves as a
travel aid that provides information on routes and travel times.
Some GPS systems are also linked to vehicle locators offering
the motorist a chance of retrieving the vehicle in case of theft.
GPS is also been used in data collection and recording. Some
vehicles with in-built mobile devices are widely used as safety
or security devices by motorists, who call for help in case of an
emergency or report a roadway hazard or accident to authorities
or traffic reporters who then broadcast the information on radio.

Similarly, the introduction of smart cars (Intelligent Vehicles)

has helped to reduce road accidents especially in developed

59
countries drastically if not eliminate them completely. Most of
these smart cars uses the latest technology that helps in
preventing collision which is likely to occur by detecting
operator inattention which includes drowsiness, fatigue, using
the mobile phone as well as help in enhancing vision of the
driver in adverse weather conditions and in darkness. The main
focus of these technologies is to provide safety on our roads.

Education and academic research has also been made more

simple and interesting in all stages of learning. Learners can use
computer applications such as Microsoft Encarta, Mavis Beacon
and other interactive computer software with ease. With these
interventions, students learn with ease and without difficulty to
comprehend. This goes a long way to consolidate lessons or
knowledge acquired. Academic research is easily conducted by
the help of the internet via computer and mobile phone without
physically travelling to any place for information which helps
man to save time and other resources which are channelled into
other ventures.

Virtual classroom can also be made mention of by the help of

technology. It is an online learning environment which can be
web-based and accessed through a portal or software. Just like a
real world classroom, a student in a virtual classroom
participates in synchronous instruction, which means that the
teacher and students are logged into the virtual learning
environment at the same time. This technology has helped
students and teachers who travel far distances to learn, saves
time and money. This technology has also help to teach large
groups of people at the same time and also offer opportunities
for learners to learn from friends all over the world as well as
seek clarifications. Examples of such technologies include
University of Education Winneba's "Moodle", the President's
Special Initiative on Distance Learning.

60
With the introduction of Electronic Commerce (e-commerce),
there has been tremendous improvement in trade. E-commerce
simply refers to buying and selling of products, goods and
services via electronic means such as internet or other electronic
services. This may include business to business, trader to
consumer transactions. These transactions can include retails,
sales, supplier purchase, online bill paying. As online activities
increases, companies saw the internet marketing potential.
Subsequently, there was a rush to take products and services into
this expanding electronic realm and to redefine business itself.
For example, "Tonaton.com" and "OLX" all sell a wide range of
products online such as flat screen televisions, mobile phones,
electronic irons, clothing's and many other products. Customers
only need to log onto their websites and select the products they
want; make payments for it and the products will be delivered to
them at the comfort of their homes. This increases flexibility and
ease shopping for the customer. It thus helps the organization to
have customers all over the world and not limited to specific
region. Similarly, it helps organizations identify new suppliers,
partners and customers by exposing their products and services
to a wide range of people.

There has been an improvement in the supply of power as a (j) result of

science and technology. Through science and technology, industries
have benefited from power provided by electricity. Most of the
industries in Ghana rely on power generated and provided by the
Akosombo hydroelectric plant, the Bui hydroelectric power, the
Aboadze thermal plants and other sources of energy for manufacturing
their products.

Science and technology have also affected household activities

positively. Thus, science and technology have made it possible for
people to enjoy life, as they live in comfort. Scientific items, such as,
cookers, blenders and microwaves enable people
61
prepare their food with ease. The refrigerator helps in the
preservation of food, meat, fruits, vegetables, drinks and juices.
The washing machines have saved people from the drudgery of
washing many items. The radio and television have provided
people with a lot of information and entertainment.
Air-conditions, fans and other coolants have saved people
from living in warm conditions.

However, in spite of all the good things that science and

technology have brought to enhance the survival of the
mankind, it has certain shortcomings or bad aspect as well
which are worthy to be discussed. As the adage goes, fire is a
good servant but a bad master, so is science and technology.
Science and Technology have been a boon and blessing in
certain fields and it has also proved to be a curse and bane in
many ways. Currently, almost all our activities are being
directed by our knowledge of science and technology. Computer
virus has been created to damage information whilst some
people are able to hack and steal people's information.

Also, negative effect of science and technology is that it has

contributed to environmental pollution. Emissions from
factories, automobile and testing of nuclear weapons by
countries contain poisonous gases that contaminate the
environment, especially, the atmosphere. This has led to global
warming and the destruction of the ozone layer, exposing people
to a lot of the health hazards. Examples of diseases caused by
environmental pollution are buruli ulcer, skin cancer, asthma,
and bronchitis.

Also, science and technology have also led to the occurrences of

many accidents with the introduction of vehicles, trains, ships
and aeroplanes. The world has witnessed an alarming rate of
accidents on roads, rails, on the sea and the air, that have

62
destroyed the lives of many people and have maimed others.
The increase in transportation technology has brought stressful
traffic congestion in some areas. New technologies have been
applied to the management of such diverse problems such as
traffic congestion, air pollution, fuel use, accident risk both for
passenger and freight transport.

Another reason is that it has given us many dangerous and

destructive weapons like atomic and hydrogen bombs and
missiles. The invention of the AK47 guns and other
sophisticated guns, chemicals have also led to many civil wars
across the world. A clear example is the coup d'etat that
occurred in some African countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Somalia and Nigeria among others which brought about untold
hardship to some part of the African continent. Science and
technology has also led to the production of dangerous weapons
such as atomic and nuclear bombs, biological and chemical
weapons. These weapons when misused can cause mass
destruction to human beings and property. For instance, during
the Second World War about 300,000 people died in Hiroshima
and Nagasaki when the United States of America dropped
atomic bombs there in 1945. The atoms. The biological and
chemical weapons are still more destructive. The bombs and
other chemical weapons as a means of mass destruction being
produced now are far more lethal and powerful than what they
used in 1945. The biological and chemical weapons are more
dangerous and destructive. Such weapons and the technology
they use for destruction make the source of attack to remain
hidden and unidentified to a great extent. These weapons can be
used to cause global havoc and destruction without any open
declaration of war. Also, there are well-organized terrorist

63
groups spread all over the world. They use these weapons in
their desperation and cause unprecedented deaths and ruin.

There is also negative effect of leaking and explosions from

technological devices such as, nuclear and chemical plants that
pollute the environment and kill many people. For example, the
Union Carbide Chemical Plant leakage in 1984 released a
poisonous gas that killed about two thousand people in Bhopal,
India. Another example is the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
disaster in Japan in the year 2011. The worst has been the
Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986 near Pripyat in Ukraine.

Moreover, various forms of accidents can be attributed to

science and technology. For instance, many people die or get
maimed forever through road, sea, rail and air accidents. Also
accidents in factories and laboratories are common. Electrical
shocks and chemical poisoning have also caused the death of
many people. A recent example of air plane accident is the
missing of the Malaysian air plane in March, 2014.

Science and technology have brought displacement of labour

and unemployment. It has contributed to the high rate of
unemployment in the world. This is because, with the
introduction of scientific equipment such as; computers, heavy
industrial machines and combine harvesters, many people have
been displaced from their jobs. These new equipment which
have been employed work faster and more efficiently than
human beings.

The storage of nuclear waste is also one of the negative effects

of science and technology. Even after nuclear waste is treated, it
is still highly radioactive. It needs to be stored somewhere,
preferably deeply underground. Still, it remains highly
dangerous as the radioactive material can cause many health and

64
environmental risks. Since governments have to find a way to
store the waste, they reward authorities or organizations that help
store the radioactive nuclear waste, without the knowledge of the
citizens. Citizens living near the radioactive waste then suffer
from burns, cancers or even death after being regularly exposed to
the radioactive material. An example would be Dounreay nuclear
power station in Scotland. The government said the plans for
nuclear burial sites amount to offering "bribes" to communities.
This resulted in many unhappy citizens, feeling that they were
being treated unfairly due to the exposure to radioactive material.
This resulted in protests, demonstrations and even riots.

New forms of danger existing as a consequence of innovative

forms of technology, new types of nuclear reactors, unforeseen
genetic mutations as the result of genetic engineering, or perhaps
something more subtle which can destroy the ozone or warm the
planet.
There have been many scientific researches and discoveries which
have unfortunately been hijacked to harmful destructive paths. It
is reported that about half a million scientists are now employed
on weapon research throughout the world. The huge amount of
money spent on these dangerous researches far exceeds the
amount of money being spent on developing technologies for new
energy resources, improving human health, raising agricultural
productivity, controlling pollution, etc.

New forms of entertainment, such as video games and internet

access could have possible social effects on areas such as
academic performance. Students are most often found playing
with technological gadgets such as mobile phones during lessons
which take their attention off the lessons being taught. Some
students even go to the extent of watching pornographic movies
on their mobile phones. Some students also rely on the

65
social media to cheat during examination. For example, a bizarre
event occurred in Ghana in August, 2014 when students of Holy
Family Nursing and Midwifery Training College in Berekum in
the Brong Ahafo Region were involved in examination
malpractices. This illegal and immoral act was successful
through the use of WhatsApp, a social media to communicate
questions to collaborators outside for assistance when they were
writing their Registered General Nursing (RGN) Licensing
Examination leading to the cancellation of the results of 56 out
of 89 students (graphic.com).

People can easily invade privacy and infringe copyrights. It

makes a lot of people over concentrate on computering, and then
lost of friendly and face to face communication. A lot of people
also continue to develop eye complications as a result of long
hours working with computers and watching movies on
Television.

The misuse of science has ushered in our life many undesirable

elements. Human values have been pushed to the background
and wo/ man has become more selfish, cruel, sensual, violent and
destructive. Majority of our ethics have been marginalized and
materialism has increased unprecedented. Rapid, unplanned and
indiscriminate industrialization has resulted in pollution on a
vast scale. No doubt, science and technology has taken giant
strides in recent times, but it has dehumanized human life in the
same proportion.

In conclusion, it is very evident that science and technology has

brought about improvement in the life of human beings. It is
obvious from the entire discussion that the benefits of science
and technology in this dynamic society to humanity far
outweigh its disadvantages to human race and therefore must be
encouraged in all spheres of human endeavour. Notwithstanding

66
that, it has caused some damage to humans as well. Science and
technology benefits the society in various ways but it only
becomes harm to society when misused by users. It can then be
argued that science and technology is a double-edged sword.
Often the proponents of technology argue that misuse of science
and technology is to be condemned, not technology itself. In
reality there is nothing wrong with science and technology. It is
up to the wo/man to decide whether s/he wants to use it for
peaceful purpose or for destructive purposes. That is why
technology is likened to a knife, in the hand of a murderer, it
kills but in the hands of a surgeon, it cures. This shows that,
science and technology have been more of a blessing than a
curse because its positive impacts like improvement in our
agricultural, health, education, commerce, transport and
communication sectors of the economy is more than its negative
impacts. Arguably, science and technology have been a blessing
to humanity than a curse.

Activity:
• Examine four reasons why science and technology must
be seen as blessing to humanity.
• Examine four reasons why science and technology must
be seen as a curse to humanity.
• With practical examples, argue why science and
technology are blessing to humanity than curse.

67
 CHAPTER
7

CHALLENGES CONFRONTING THE

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
IN GHANA

68
 Objectives
After going through this section students will be
able to:
• Lists at least five of the challenges confronting
the development of science and technology in
Ghana.
• Discuss at least four of these challenges
confronting the development of science
and technology in Ghana.

In most cases, science and technology go hand-in-hand but a

strong scientific base is needed for technological advancement.
Science and technology are not just interrelated words but also
concepts that are inexplicably intertwined. This is because, the
foundation of technology is science and science only becomes
manifest when made useful and that is the core of technology.
The challenges that confront science and technology are
discussed in two fronts here. There are challenges that serve as
drawbacks to the efforts of government, corporate entities and
individuals to promote science and technology in Ghana and
make useful gain out of it. On the other front, there are
challenges in terms of difficulties and nuisances that science and
technology impose on our societies or the harmful outcomes
often unanticipated, the development of science and technology
is likely to result in. The challenges confronting the
development of science and technology in Ghana can also be
grouped into constraints on the side of industry, constraints on

69
the side of scientists, institutional constraints, social and cultural
constraints on the side of the citizens.

In the first place, a constraint on the side of scientists to access

funding is a challenge to the development of science and
technology in Ghana. A major problem facing scientists is lack
of funding from the expected sources such as government,
university administration, research institutions and industries.
Research and development thrives on the funding for the
purchase of research tools, travel and other expenses associated
with the work. Without funding it is difficult for scientists to
undertake research. The kind of linkage between productivity
and career progression that drives the private sector is missing.
What we need is an arrangement that requires the state to define
objectives and provides funds, but allows the scientists freedom
to operate and be rewarded on the basis of competence.
Scientific and technological researches are quite expensive such
that it becomes a challenge to these institutions. For example,
financial institutions like the Commercial Banks which could
have given loans to Ghanaian Scientists and inventors to
develop their technologies always consider the risks first and the
long term effects of such technological readiness to hit the
market. This phenomenon usually impedes the development of
science and technology.

Another challenge is that, the government does not also show

recognition to Ghanaians who have managed to come out with
new inventions. This is also accompanied by low public
recognition of such Ghanaians. These Ghanaians are also left on
their own with no help and commitment from government. This
does not boost the morale of such Ghanaians to strive to come
out with new technologies to arrest the difficulty of satisfying
human needs. To make matters worse, the product of such
Ghanaian inventions are greeted with all kinds of disdain,

70
consequently Ghanaians do not patronize such commodities or
products, forcing such companies or persons to go bankrupt. The
Ghanaian technological icon - Sarfo Kantanka can be used as an
example. Therefore, our low level of technological advancement
as a country can partly be blamed on the failure of successive
governments to initiate policies and measures to tap technology.

In addition, science and technology is not developed just

because of the perceptions that when science and technology are
far advanced in Ghana, it will destroy our rich culture, belief
system and values which will create problems in the nation.
Government sees that as a threat and therefore will not commit
itself in projecting such development. For example, creating
robots to give commands and operation in certain aspect of our
lives will be seen as bad. Thus, in Ghana, where cultural, values
are cherished, it will be very difficult for governments to go into
scientific research in such specific area, let alone develop the
technology for it. Therefore, the challenges confronting the
development of science and technology has to do with the fact
that successive governments in Ghana lack the political will to
make radical reforms in the policies that will help to develop
science and technology. Again, we can mention institutional
politics for instance where departmental rivalries can also
frustrate the technology development process. Some useful
results are often shelved, while others with less promise are
pushed forward or promoted for political reasons. In the end it
may not result in any useful endeavour that can promote
development of science and technology in the country.

Again, a major identifiable challenge facing the development of

the full potential of science and technology for education,
research and development in the country has been the brain
drain syndrome. Brian drain refers to a situation whereby
scientific and technological experts migrate from their country

71
to the developed world or other countries where they think their
knowledge can fully be utilized. The effects of the brain drain
can be argued to have contributed not only to lack of medical
and other critical professionals in the country but also scientific
and technological gurus. This has resulted in the lack of the
critical mass of scientists needed for undertaking science related
projects professionally. It has also been found out that if the
most talented people in the area of science and technology have
not left Ghana for more attractive environments, they could not
pursue their private agenda.

Furthermore, it is quite obvious that there are a lot of external

forces or influence emanating from international politics that is
either suppressing the development of science and technology in
certain key fields. These external forces may force and control
the production and processes of scientific and technological
advancement which eventually threatens the survival of our
society. For instance, Nkrumah envisaged nuclear energy
production during the 1960s and had put in place well equipped
institutions, trained scientists and other resources to begin
nuclear reactor project which would have been completed and
commissioned by the end of 1966. But the excesses of Ghana's
autocratic rule led to the abandonment of this project. Yet the
democracy today is unable to pursue the programme because,
the world has the fear of nuclear weapons proliferation and the
possibility that non-nuclear weapon states with even civil
nuclear programmes might acquire nuclear weapon especially
those having reprocessing technology. This brought about the
Non-proliferation Treaty, an international agreement which
appear to be an endorsement of nuclear weapons for the world's
most powerful nations, while outlawing them to the industrially
developing nations. A lot of pressure was put on countries to
ratify this treaty which is serving as an impediment in the way

72
of most emerging economies like Ghana to delve into this field
of technology.

Also, the nature of our education is one of the challenges

confronting the development of science and technology in
Ghana. Science students in our various Senior High Schools pay
high tuition fees than Arts students. This makes some students
who are from poor family but have the desire to learn science to
divert into different courses. Some schools do not have science
laboratory let alone equipment for doing the practicals, they
only learn the theories without the practical aspects. In addition
to that, access to trained science teachers serves as setbacks.
Thus, some schools lack science teachers and this does not
motivate students who are interested in learning science. One
example about the failure of our educational system to develop
science and technology is the mode of admission into the Senior
High Schools and tertiary institutions. A student may have the
visible inclination in science with high potentials, having well
performed in Science and Mathematics subjects but with a weak
grade in English Language will not be able to further develop
this potential because he will not be admitted into the
institutions. There exist in the educational system inadequate
numbers of well-prepared and highly motivated science and
technology teachers.

More so, disagreement among researchers is perceived as

problematic. Scientists debate and disagree on many
contemporary socio-scientific issues (like causes of global
warming, effects of radiation, possible dangers of GM food
etc.). The issue of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
foods being introduced into our food chain is as hazardous to
our health as to the environment. Several empirical evidence
attest to this fact. But we have Monsanto, Syngeta and other
multimillion dollar Agribusiness Firms from outside the country

73
pushing for the acceptance of this technology into our food
system. They do this through their surrogates and academic
cronies to influence the top echelons of the country like
ministers and parliamentarians to get their will done. Plant
Breeders Bill currently in parliament is one controversial issue
linked to the GMOs. Even so, there are vigorous resistance to
this Genetic engineering technology by some environmental
protection organizations and others like Food Sovereignty
Ghana (FSG) which is on campaign to get farmers resist the
technology. They even resort to other legal means to get the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the National Biosafety
Committee to rescind their decision of adopting GMO
technology. IMF and the World Bank advance loans to Ghana
and set conditionalities that are not scientifically and
technologically viable. This has been a calculated Agenda by the
Briton-woods organization to derail scientific and technological
breakthrough of emerging economies like Ghana in order to
keep them in the current states they are.

It is also imperative to acknowledge that, the cultural factor is

also one of the issues that is hindering the development of
science and technology in Ghana. The cosmopolitan nature of
Ghana makes it difficult to have a common belief, traditions and
practices, rather different people from different background with
a common goal and belief in a set of traditions at certain parts of
the country. These practices may include festivals, funeral
ceremonies, naming ceremonies, marriage ceremonies and
several others; and norms and values such as humility, respect,
high esteem. In other words most Ghanaians are conservative in
nature and this prevents them from embracing change in their
communities. It is normally felt that anything that is not part of
their already existing culture should never be entertained.
Festinger (1956) stated that, if there is a conflict between ideas,
actions and thoughts, it produces an unpleasant dissonance and a

74
community will take drastic measures to protect its ideals,
attitudes and values. This therefore explains why the
development of science and technology is a problem.

Additionally, beliefs and culture of some Ghanaians undermines

the development of science and technology in the country.
Ghana is made up of diverse ethnic group which came together
as one entity by the actions of colonialism. These ethnic groups
still have their culture and beliefs which the force of colonialism
could not merge. Examples are language, farming system,
dressing, and kinship, among others. For instance in the
traditional system, judgment was entrusted into the hands of the
gods and ancestors who have the final say but with the advent of
technology people now rely greatly on scientific methods such
as DNA test which are easily manipulated threatening the
traditional justice system in the society. Also a woman's dignity
and respect rested solely on the number of children she had.
The introduction of some contraceptives and drugs has reduced
the fertility rate of woman in some parts of the world. As a
result of this Ghanaians are of the view that when science and
technology is allowed to rule the world, women will be denied
the opportunity of giving birth as many as they wish all in the
name of family planning. Also our way of dressing has taken a
different dimension. Traditional dresses such as "Fugu",
"Kente", "Kaba" and "Sleet" have apparently been extinct due
to the advent of science and technology which has brought
fashion into the Ghanaian communities. Initially wo/man used
leaves and leader to cover certain body parts because there was
no cloth. It is however surprising to note that, people now wear
pieces of cloth whiles exposing certain vital body parts all in the
name of fashion. These foreign ways of dressing lead to several
social vices such as rape, prostitution and immorality in our
communities. Source of entertainment which use to be
storytelling, playing of indoor games as well as outdoor games

75
have shifted to foreign forms of entertainment such as watching
movies which have an adverse effect on the lives of Ghanaians
especially the youth. The youth end up adopting foreign culture
to the detriment of their culture.

Moreover, high illiteracy rate has also hindered the development

of science and technology in Ghana. Some technological tools
such as mobile phones, computers, washing machines and other
electrical gadgets require expert knowledge on their operation of
which many Ghanaians lack due to high rate of illiteracy in the
country. For instance, many Ghanaians still prefer natural
means of washing cloth not because they enjoy doing so but
probably, they have no idea on the existence of washing
machine or they have little knowledge on its operation. Also,
technology has made available an easier, faster, convenient and
more reliable means of storing information but many people
including office workers still prefer storing information on paper
because they have little knowledge on the use of computers.

There is also the problem of low patronage of science and

technology related courses in Ghana. Most students entering into
Senior High School and Tertiary level normally do not prefer
science courses on the grounds of inability and fear of academic
future. Some parents even go to the extent of advising their
wards against pursuing science related courses especially the
vocational and technical courses. This has seriously strained the
development of science and technology in Ghana. In addition,
there are very limited employment opportunities in science and
technology related courses. This trend tends to discourage most
people from pursuing science and technology as a field of study.

With regard to the institutional challenges, science education

also faces some problems in Ghana. Inputs such as chemicals,
books and other materials needed for the study of science are

76
inadequate. As a result, there is very little laboratory or practical
application of knowledge in our schools. Besides, we also have
inadequate professional science teachers to teach in various
schools.

Last but not least, poor management of fund is another problem

that affects our institutions in terms of science and technology.
There have been cases where funds meant for a particular
science project were temporary diverted to other activities.
Institutional policies like departmental rivalries and several
others can also frustrate the technology development process.
Some useful results are often shelved while others with less
promise are pushed forward for political reasons.

In conclusion, Ghana as a country should streamline our cultural

practices, allocate adequate funds to the study of science,
necessary incentives and recognition of Ghanaians excelling in
the field of science and technology and patronize science and
technological related courses. These will enhance the growth of
science and technology as the driving tools for our national
development.

77
Activity:
• Mention five challenges confronting the development of
science and technology.
• Discuss five challenges confronting the development of
science and technology in Ghana.

78
 CHAPTER
8

STRATEGIES GOVERNMENT CAN

ADOPT TO IMPROVE SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
IN GHANA

79
 objectives
After going through this section students will
be able to:
• Give at least five of the strategies that can
be adopted to improve Science and
Technology in Ghana.
• Examine five of the strategies
government can adopt to improve
science and technology in Ghana.

Efforts of Government to Improve Science and Technology

There have been some efforts of government to improve science
and technology in Ghana. The following are some of them:

• There is a Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR) with its specialized institute for research into food
and crops, water, instrument standardization, industry,
infrastructural development among others.
• Food and Drug Board was established in 1992 to check
the safety, quality, efficacy, etc. of goods, drugs,
cosmetics, household chemicals, health products and
medical appliances.
• There are now several experiments in Ghana including
experiment in areas of plants and animals. There is also
development of plant and animal science. Examples are in
the area of plants hybrid and cross breeding of animals.
• The Forestry Research Institute of Ghana carries out
research to ensure sustainable use of the forest.

80
 • The Ghana Standard Board also conducts research using
products that are manufactured to find out whether they
are of the desired quality and standard. Ghana's
regulative framework is also mandated to monitor the
post market surveillance of food, drugs and investigate
into consumer complains.
• The Government of Ghana and other corporate bodies
sponsor programmes such as Science and Maths quizzes,
Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for
girls, distance learning programmes in science etc.
• There are scholarship packages for science and
mathematics students in some institutions.
• Science Resource Centres have been provided in various
districts in Ghana.

Strategies Government can adopt to improve Science and

Technology in Ghana

Many nations including Ghana have stepped up measures to

improve science and technology. According to
Ameyaw-Akumfi and Enstua-Mensah (2004), the country's
development depends on the understanding and utilization of
science and technology and the capacity to contribute to
innovation and change. The solution to Ghana's development
therefore lies with the promotion of science and technology
education at all levels especially at the pre-tertiary level. Some of
the strategies that should be adopted by the government to
improve upon the development of science and technology in
Ghana include making science a compulsory subject in the
Basic and Senior High School levels of education,
establishment of science educational institutions such as the
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
(KNUST), the University of Ghana Institute for Medical
Research at Legon and the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR).

81
To begin with, the basic problem inhibiting promotion of
science and technology is inadequate research funding.
According to Ameyaw-Akumfi and Enstua-Mensah (2004)
adequate funding for scientific and technological advancement
in Ghana is a necessary strategy geared towards promoting
science and technology revolution in Ghana. Research in
research institutions and the universities should be adequately
funded. The Government should challenge our scientists and
provide funds to carry out research on problems confronting the
country. This can be done through the provision of research
funds to be competed for by all scientists in the country
(Ameyaw-Akumfi & Enstua-Mensah, 2004). There is therefore
the need for the government to provide more funds for research
institutions to carry out their research works and also to
establish more research centres. Since the government alone
cannot provide adequate funding for research, private companies
and entrepreneurs should support the government in research
funding. To promote science and technology in the country,
science and technology educational endowment fund should be
established and the money realized thereof be used to support
and develop science and technology. Also, to be able to improve
the quality of science education at all levels, research in science
and technology should include research on teaching and learning
science, technology and mathematics. The methodology of
teaching science, technology and mathematics in our
educational institution must be more practical than theoretical.
Students who have performed extremely well in Science and
Mathematics and related subjects should be encouraged to
pursue these courses.

Another strategy that can be adopted is the establishment of

more science and technology institutions and research centres to
augment the existing ones such as the Noguchi Memorial

82
Institute for Medical Research at Legon, the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), KNUST, the Atomic Energy
Commission at Kwabenya and the Cocoa Research Institute at
Tafo among others. New universities of science and technology,
colleges of science and technology education should be
established across all the regions of Ghana. District technology
transfer institutes and more scientific research centres should also
be set up in the districts. The private sector should be encouraged
to venture into the establishment and running of science and
technology institutions to complement government efforts at
promoting the development of science and technology.

There is also the need to attract and retain high quality science and
technology teachers as a means to improve science and technology
revolution in Ghana. Quality teachers and quality teaching are
important determinants of a good science and technology
education in Ghana (Ameyaw-Akumfi & Enstua-Mensah, 2004).
Strengthening the teaching of science and technology in the
schools will require consideration of the preparation, continuing
professional learning and improvement in the conditions of
service of teachers. Quality teachers make a difference. They are
the single most important determinant of student performance.
They are the ones who manage the resources, adopt appropriate
delivery methods and interpret the content of the curriculum
(Anamuah-Mensah, 2004).

Furthermore, science and technology can be promoted through

adequate provisions of the necessary inputs such as
well-equipped, good Science, ICT, Mathematics, computer and
science laboratories as well as adequate textbooks among others. It
is an undeniable fact that, most schools and institutions lack good
Science, ICT, Mathematics, computer and science laboratory
equipment to facilitate and promote effective science

83
and technology education in Ghana. It is therefore important for
government and private individuals to provide adequate
computer and science laboratory equipment such as computers,
microscopes, chemicals, beakers and others in order to improve
the teaching of science and technology in our schools.

Again, one other strategy that can be adopted to promote the

development of science and technology in Ghana is motivation. It
seems most Ghanaians lack interest in science and technology
education. It is therefore very necessary for the government and
private investors to provide incentives to science
students, teachers and all persons involved in scientific and
technological activities. There should be best teacher award
scheme for teachers and students in science, mathematics, ICT,
vocational and technical skills at the circuit, district, regional and
national levels to whip up people's interest in science and
technology. The existing scholarship award scheme and
bursaries for deserving science students should be expanded to
cover more people. Payment of good salaries to teachers, scientists
or would be scientists as well as technologist are necessary steps to
promote science and technology. Material and moral assistance
should also be given to the local technologist to develop their
skills. Additionally, as a means of sustaining interest in science
and technology education, graduates in science and technology
should be provided with job opportunities upon completion. This
means that both the government and private entrepreneurs should
create job opportunities to absorb science graduates. This will
motivate many people to choose science as their area of
specialization and also reduce the brain drain menace in the
country.

Moreover, science education should not be made the preserve of

institutions of higher learning but should start from the primary
schools by generating and sustaining interest and attention

84
particularly in mathematics, science, technical drawing,
technical and vocational skills. Also, the allocation made of 60%
science and 40% arts for admission into all the higher
institutions of learning should be strictly adhered to and
maintained to emphasize the importance of science and
technology in Ghana's development.

Also, science workshops and fairs such as inter schools science

and technology fairs sponsored by government and corporate
bodies should be organized annually for both teachers and
students, and emerging scientists and technologists awarded.
This will lead to the application of scientific knowledge and the
development of technological skills resulting in inventions.
Students and teachers who emerge winners should be sponsored
abroad to upgrade their knowledge in science and technology.

More so, the content of science and technology curriculum

should be relevant to local or indigenous knowledge and
resources. According to Anamuah-Mensah (2004), the content
of the science and technology curriculum should include
indigenous content and issue of current health and industrial
importance such as HIV/AIDS. This will bring relevance into
the curriculum and make the students perceive science as a
phenomenon that they encounter in their everyday activities
whether at work or in the home. People will come to know how
palm fruit becomes margarine, soap, frytol or toothpaste. Such
an approach will help in cultivating a culture of science among
the people. It is said that the only way to improve the
meaningfulness of science and technology education to people is
to "allow community culture and knowledge to contribute to its
content and delivery" (Jegede & Solomon, 1999). Science
content tends to underestimate the potential of local or
indigenous knowledge and practices. In many cases the practices
in the schools tend to marginalize such knowledge thus making

85
science and technology abstract and foreign to the Ghanaian
student (Anamuah-Mensah, 2004).

There should be a clear and pragmatic policy direction for

science and technology education in Ghana. The production of
well-informed citizens with the capacity to solve problems, to
create and generate new and better ways of doing things will
increasingly depend on a unifying vision and focus for science
and technology education. Such a policy direction should ensure
the cultivation of a culture of innovation in the school; facilitate
professional learning; place emphasis on partnerships and
networks with internal and external agencies to boost quality
and breadth of learning (Anamuah-Mensah, 2004). It should
also address the three goals of science education, that is,
production of research scientists and technologists, people for
science and technology vocations and creating scientific and
technological awareness among the general populace. It should
also address the inadequacies in the proportion of females in
science and technology as well as the use of information and
communication technologies in teaching (Anamuah-Mensah,
2004).
The vision of the National Science and Technology Policy is "to
support national socio-economic development goals with a view
to lifting and sustaining Ghana as a middle income status by the
year 2020 through the perpetuation of a science and technology
culture at all the levels of society, which is driven by the
promotion of innovation and the mastery of known and proven
technologies and their application in industry, and other sectors
of the economy" (Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology [MEST], 2000). This vision can become a reality
when science education is given a boost at all levels of
education.

86
Activity:
• Give five strategies that can be adopted to improve
science and technology in Ghana.
• Examine five strategies government can adopt to
improve science and technology in Ghana.

87
 CHAPTER
9

SCIENCE - TECHNOLOGY - SOCIETY

(STS), GLOBAL ISSUES AND GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVES

88
 Objectives
After going through this section students will be
able to:
• Examine any two of the generalizations
that should inform us of the current
trends in terms of science, technology
and modernization.
• Examine how science and technology
can be used to address global issues.

To achieve global perspectives in education, we must go

beyond simply including global issues in the curriculum. Rather,
the issues need to be seen from a global rather than ethnocentric or
nationalistic perspective. Students also need a historical context
for dealing with contemporary global issues. Times have changed;
revolutionary advances in science, technology, communications,
and transportation have brought nations and peoples together in
ways undreamed of by previous generations. A lesson on global
hunger could be taught simply as a current STS issue or could be
viewed within the historical context of colonial empires, cultural
norms, and the globalization of world markets. World trade and
finances, economic and political developments have transformed
disparate economic systems into a highly interdependent global
marketplace. Today, nations inhabiting the planet are often more
closely linked by technology than neighbouring states or villages
were at the turn of this century.

89
Global perspectives in education recognize the important roles
played by many categories of global actors, ranging from
individuals in the local community, cities and states,
corporations and religious and service organizations to regional
and global organizations of nations. A lesson on technology
transfer, for example, could be taught as an arrangement
between two nation-states or as a complex interaction among the
cultural norms and agendas of individual workers, their unions,
aid organizations, local and national political leaders,
multinational corporations, and the technicians of donor nations.

Global perspectives also include serious attention to values

-both universal human values that our species shares, such as a
need for social relationships and a concern for family, and
diverse human values, such as differences in cultural norms and
beliefs. Global issues are by their very nature value laden, with
value conflicts rooted in many global issues.

For example, deforestation could be taught as a physical

process, focusing on certain predictable environmental effects,
or it could be studied through the eyes of a variety of
stakeholders, ranging from timber companies and their workers
in the American Northwest, to cattle ranchers, tour operators,
and Indians in Brazil, to villagers, scientists and political leaders
in Kenya. Deforestation, as with most global issues go beyond
science and technology to issues dealing with human values.
Without attention given to both universal and diverse human
values, the topics will not be fully understood.

Although the choice of which global issues to address depends

on the course and the level of the students, it is critical that
educators work together to provide students with STS education
from a global perspective. In this current world, we cannot
afford to limit the study of science, technology and society to a

90
national context. What STS content will best prepare today's
5-year-olds to make decisions as adults in the world of 2030?
Will an understanding of the American or African technologies,
scientific achievements, energy policy, and environmental
choices be sufficient? Or do they need to understand Americans
or Africans progress as part of a dynamic, interactive framework
of technology issues in South Korea, Germany, India and Nepal,
energy policies of countries such as Japan, Saudi Arabia,
Nigeria, and Ghana, and environmental concerns of local people
and scientists from many countries? Which STS auricular
choice will lead to better informed decisions for our youths'
personal and professional lives?

STS within a global perspective is essential in the education of

youth for the 21st century. Yet these important changes rarely
are reflected in the way most schools prepare students for the
21st century. Schools largely ignore the viewpoints, languages,
cultures, values, traditions and even the location of other
peoples. Not surprisingly, schools and universities reflect the
same lack of understanding of global dynamics that
characterizes the perspectives of leaders in government and
industry (National Governors' Association, 1989). The
Science-Technology-Society (STS) movement recognizes the
need for education that prepares young people for the challenges
of an ever-changing, interdependent world. If today's students
are to become tomorrow's decision makers, they need
knowledge of science, technology and society that is global in
scope. Whether students recognize it or not, global connections
affect their daily lives. Without knowledge of these connections
and the perspectives of other peoples, students cannot make
informed decisions. As we face the 21st century, uninformed
decisions not only endanger our way of life but also threaten the
survival of our planet.

91
The following are some of the generalizations that should
inform us of the current trends in terms of science, technology
and modernization.

1. We are living in an age of increasing globalization in

which all people are interacting with transnational,
multicultural and cross-cultural phenomena.
2. The world stage includes a variety of actors beyond
nation-states. Individuals, local groups, church groups,
scientific and technological organizations, trade unions,
multinational corporations, and regional organizations
are increasingly interacting and influencing both local
and global events.
3. Humans are dependent upon a world environment
characterized by finite natural resources; the planet's
ecosystem both affects and is affected by humankind.
4. There are relationships between present social, political,
technological, and ecological choices and alternative
futures for individuals and the planet.
5. Because of the globalization of the human condition,
individuals and communities have increased
opportunities and responsibilities to take action in
improving their world. The curriculum needs to go
beyond knowledge of globalization to develop students
who will be active decision makers and participants in
their world.

In order to think with a global perspective, students need to

understand the historical development and current trends of
global systems, to recognize that other peoples may have
different viewpoints and that those viewpoints need to be
considered, and to appreciate that we all - as individuals,
members of organizations, and nations - have an active role in
improving our world.

92
Global issues in an STS curriculum can provide a framework for
teaching students to think globally while acting
locally.
Educators have identified a number of global issues that are
central to science education (Barman, Harshman & Rusch,
1982; Bybee, 1984; Bybee & Bonnstetter, 1986; Bybee & Mau,
1986; Hickman, 1982), social studies (Alger & Harf, 1986;
Anderson, 1979; Becker, 1979; Hanvey, 1976; Kniep, 1986,
1989; Muessig & Gilliom, 1981; Woyach & Remy, 1989), and
technology education (Waks, 1987). Although some global
issues are especially pertinent to different disciplines - such as
deforestation in biology, technology transfer in technology
education, or international trade in economics - a number of
global issues are particularly appropriate to the integration of
science, technology and society.

Activity:
• Examine any two of the generalizations that
should inform us of the current trends in
terms of science, technology and
modernization.
• Examine how science and technology can
be used to understand global issues.
• Discuss five global issues that are central to
science and technology.

93
 CHAPTER
10

GLOBAL ISSUES FOR

SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCI
ETY (STS)

94
 Objectives
After going through this section students will be
able to:
• Explain the concept of global issues
• Lists at least five of the global issues that are
relevant to an STS curriculum.
• Discuss at least four of the global issues that
are relevant to an STS curriculum.

Only a few centuries ago, people lived in relative isolation from

the rest of the world. An outbreak of disease, an ethnic conflict, or
a drought might have occurred locally, but may not have affected
the rest of the world or even been heard of beyond a local
community. However, current technologies, economic and
political interdependence have transformed the world. An
outbreak of diseases such as AIDS and Ebola is a global concern.
Ethnic conflicts often boil over into international disputes as
nations around the world align themselves and participate in
sending aid or setting up boycotts. A drought in Brazil may send
coffee prices spiraling upward in countries far detached from the
coffee plantations.

Global issues spring from the concept of interdependence and can

be characterized as issues that (a) affect the lives of persons in
many parts of the world and (b) cannot be adequately understood
or addressed solely in a local of national context.

95
What global issues are relevant to an STS curriculum? The
following sections provide examples of global issues in an STS
curriculum and illustrate how global issues can be integrated
into a variety of courses. Many of these issues raise ethical
questions. Can teachers effectively address such topics as the
exportation of toxic wastes, use of fetal tissue in research, or
military aid to governments known to use torture without
exploring alternative viewpoints and the values upon which they
rest?

Environmental Issues
Environmental issues evolve as people interact with and change
the physical geography of the planet. Many of the environmental
issues facing the planet today are related to the interaction of
technologies and population growth. Examples of global
environmental issues include the following: soil conservation,
land use/degradation, deforestation, pollution (air, water, land),
the greenhouse effect, global warning, ozone depletion, acid
rain, pesticides, waste disposal, deep well disposal of nuclear
wastes, toxic wastes/hazardous substances, relationships
between poverty and environmental decay, natural resources as
raw materials, displacement of indigenous species, extinction of
plants or animals, loss to the gene pool, exportation of toxic
wastes.

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global

environmental issues into coursework include the following:

Science education: Senior High Form Two Science students

studying acid-base reactions research the relationships between
coal-burning power plants and evidence of acid rain in some
parts of the world.

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Social Studies education: Senior High Form One General Arts
students examine how communities in South Africa, Malaysia,
Mexico, regulate the environmental impact of mining
operations.

Health and Population Issues

Two of the most significant trends of the 21st century are the
accelerated development of technology and the spiraling
expansion of global population. Although both of these trends
pose hazards to the planet's ecosystems, improved health care is
one of the major technological achievements of our time.
Examples of global health and population issues include the
following: communicable diseases, malnutrition, ADDS,
sanitation/sewage, safe drinking water, water fluoridation,
toxicity of water, irradiation of foods, food additives, genetic
counselling and research, drug abuse, aging, population growth,
birth control, abortion, health hazards in building materials such
as asbestos and lead, use of fetal tissue, trade-offs between finite
resources being used for primary health care versus high-tech
health care, resources for prolonging life versus quality of life,
governmental policies on family planning.

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global health

and population issues into coursework include the following:

Science education: Senior High Form Two Science students

learn about genetic mutations and examine case studies of
development and effects of sickle cell anemia in West Africa
and the United States.

Social Studies education: Senior High Form Two General Arts

students collect data on beliefs and practices related to family
size over three generations in their own community and compare

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their findings to similar data from India, Japan, Sierra Leone,
and Switzerland.

Economic Issues
A fundamental goal of each succeeding generation is to improve
the quality of life in terms of such basic human needs as food,
shelter, health care, security, education and leisure. The ability
to send one's children to school or build a better house depends
upon one's individual, national and international economic base.
Economic issues are central to the universal human concern that
we can improve our standards of living. Examples of global
economic issues include the following: economic development,
environmental and resource issues, water rights, poverty and
homelessness, urbanization, technology transfer, appropriate
technology, the global assembly line, debt, productivity, global
distribution of wealth, investment, trade barriers, North-South
economic gap, European economic unification, international
markets (labour, goods, services, neocolonialism, choices for
scientific and technological research, and questionable trade
practices (the sale of out-of-date pharmaceuticals to developing
nations).

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global

economic issues into coursework include the following:

Social Studies education: Senior High Form Two Business class

interview persons in local multinational industries to learn how
global connections relate to a company's decisions to purchase
raw materials, construct plants, hire labour, and find markets.

Transportation and Communication Issues

Perhaps nowhere are the achievements of technology and more
dramatic than in transportation and communication. Undreamed
of at the turn of the 21st century,
technologies in

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telecommunications and travel have created a new information
age. Yet the unequal distribution of these technological
advances further stratifies the world's peoples into "haves" and
"have nots". Examples of global issues in transportation and
communication include the following: effects of innovation on
people's lives, global distribution of technology, mass public
transit versus private transit, effects of a country's relative
wealth on its communication and transportation, governmental
restraints on technology or information transfer, and access to
confidential information on a person's medical, financial or
criminal records.

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global

transportation and communication issues into coursework
include the following:

Science education: Senior High Form Two Science class studies

the implications of hydrogen as a fuel through a case study of
hydrogen fueled taxicabs in Japan.

Social Studies education: Senior High Form Two General Arts

students trace the innovations in transportation and
communication from 4000 B.C. to the present. They debate
which are the 10 most significant innovations affecting their
lives and their friends in other parts of Africa.

Food and Hunger Issues

Science and technology have greatly impacted global
agriculture. However, as the world's farmers increased world
output of grain 2.6-fold from 1950 to 1984, the share of hungry
and malnourished people grew in Africa, Latin America, and
parts of Asia (U.N. World Food Council, 1988). Feeding the
world's peoples remains a critical STS issues. Examples of
global food and hunger issues include the following: the world

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food supply, surpluses and deficits, effects of natural and
human-made disasters, governmental policies, global markets
and trade, food aid, cash crops versus food crops, and the
practice of stockpiling food in some countries while people in
other countries starve.

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global food

and hunger issues into coursework include the following:

Science education'. Senior High Form Three Science class

examine case studies of agricultural diffusion in Kenya, the
United States, and Argentina, then debate the global effects of
new crop strains developed through genetic engineering to
increase production.

Social Studies education: Senior High Form Two Business class

looks at the effects of hunger and famine in Somalia and other
countries.

Energy Issues
The technologies of 21st century demand tremendous outputs of
energy. The search continues for dependable, cost-effective
sources for energy that do not degrade the environment.
Examples of global energy issues include the following: sources
of energy, short-term and long-term effects of using different
sources, the use of wood, coal, hydrogen, natural gas, oil,
nuclear energy, solar energy, geo-thermal energy, and
hydroelectric plants, research on alternative sources of energy,
renewable energy versus non-renewable sources, energy
conservation, the relationships between energy and
environmental problems or health problems, and issues related
to people being harmed by energy plants or the transmission of
electricity over power lines.

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Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global energy
issues into coursework include the following:

Science education: Senior High Form Three Science students

examine combustion as a source of energy and the effects of its
by-products on global climate.

Social Studies education: Social studies major students in

colleges of education create and pilot-test a simulation of a
community's hearing over whether or not to build a nuclear
power plant.

Military Issues
Advances in military technology have led us into an age where
weapons of mass destruction are used. The 1991 crisis in the
Persian Gulf is a vivid illustration of the interconnections and
consequences of global arms trade. Examples of global military
issues include the following: war technology, weapons sales,
chemical and germ warfare, terrorism, human rights, use of
space, arms control, international uses of military forces,
military aid, support for governments known to use torture and
repression.

Classroom Applications: Examples for integrating global

military issues into coursework include the following:

Social Studies education: Social studies major students in

colleges of education compare current military and social
expenditures with quality of life indicators in a stratified sample
of the world's nations.

Technology education: In an eleventh grade communications

class, students experiment with lasers in order to transmit

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signals and then hypothesize what effects such laser technology
might have globally.

The foregoing analogy clearly shows that there is the need for
the 21st century students to be highly abreast with how important
global issues are in relation to local and global perspectives.

Activity:
1. Explain the concept of global issues
2. Lists five global issues that are relevant to an STS
curriculum.
3. With practical examples, discuss five global issues that
are relevant to an STS curriculum.

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