Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Food Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/afres

Advancements in fruit preservation technologies: Harnessing chitosan, aloe

vera gel, and plant-based essential oils for coating applications
Wen Xia Ling Felicia a , Kobun Rovina a, * , Hasmadi Mamat a , Ahmad Hazim Abdul Aziz a ,
Leong Seng Lim b , Abdul Aziz Jaziri c , Rahmi Nurdiani c
a
Food Security Research Lab, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
b
Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
c
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang 65145, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This work is centred on an eco-friendly method of preserving fruits via chitosan and aloe vera gel coating
Edible coatings reinforced with plant-based essential oils. It analyzes the correlation of physicochemical properties, structure,
Plant extracts composition and biological activity of chitosan, aloe vera gel and plant-based essential oil. Extensive under­
Antioxidant
standing on this particular topic shows that edible coatings, specifically their physicochemical properties,
Antimicrobial
structure, composition, play an important role in postharvest quality maintenance of fruits. The research looks
Postharvest quality
into the binding mechanisms and interaction modes of such coatings and this gives evidence about their effec­
tiveness in preserving fresh produce, slowing down food spoilage and implying the overall nutritional value of
fresh produce. The article deals with the development of sustainable coatings in the process of which fruit shelf-
life and quality are improved, and resources are made more efficient while generating as little waste as possible.
It highlights the value of putting the wastes to work in bioactive chitosan and essential oil production, promoting
an environmentally conscious as well as less costly approach in food processing. The findings of this study
therefore represent a very timely contribution to existing practices and future directions in environmentally
friendly processes of fruit preservation, which may eventually usher in an innovative and sustainable alternative
to the conventional thinking about food packaging and preservation.

1. Introduction including carcinogenicity. When combined with nitrate inside the body,
morpholine forms nitrosomorpholine, a genotoxic carcinogen (Li &
In the realm of fruit preservation, surface coatings play a critical role Hecht, 2022). Additionally, the disposal of synthetic coatings contrib­
in maintaining freshness, extending shelf life, and safeguarding against utes to environmental pollution, exacerbating the risks to both human
external contaminants. Traditionally, wax and synthetic coatings have health and ecosystem integrity. In response, researchers and practi­
been prevalent due to their sealing efficacy and preservation capabil­ tioners are turning to natural and sustainable alternatives for fruit
ities. However, recent scientific studies have raised concerns regarding coating and preservation. Among these alternatives, biodegradable
their impact on human health and the environment, prompting a shift polymers derived from renewable sources, such as chitosan—a poly­
towards sustainable alternatives. Studies have highlighted potential saccharide extracted from crustacean shells—show promise. Addition­
health risks associated with synthetic fruit coatings, notably the inclu­ ally, natural plant extracts including aloe vera and plant-based essential
sion of additives like glycerols, lactic acid, or acetic acid to adjust pH, oils, present attractive options for eco-friendly fruit coatings.
along with traces of preservatives, antimicrobial agents, and texture Chitosan and aloe vera gel have been extensively studied for their
enhancers (Adhikari, 2021). Moreover, the presence of morpholine, an physicochemical properties and potential applications across several
emulsifier and glazing agent, have been linked to adverse health effects, disciplines (Felicia et al., 2022a; Panda et al., 2022). Chitosan, a

Abbreviation: Degree of deacetylation, (DD); Molecular weight, (MW); reactive oxygen species, (ROS); 1-1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, (DPPH); 2-2′-Azino-bis(3-
ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid, (ABTS); Valeriana officinalis essential oil, (VOEO); Heracleum persicum essential oil, (HPEO); HPEO-loaded chitosan nano­
particles, (HPEO-CSNPs).
* Corresponding author at: Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Rovina).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100439
Received 6 December 2023; Received in revised form 9 June 2024; Accepted 17 June 2024
Available online 22 June 2024
2772-5022/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

biopolymer obtained from chitin, is widely recognized for its biocom­ 2. Chitosan/aloe vera gel/plant-based essential oil edible
patibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity, making it suitable for coating
biomedical, food, agricultural, and environmental applications (Bahar­
louei & Rahman, 2022). Aloe vera gel, a mucilaginous substance ob­ 2.1. Structure and physicochemical characteristics of chitosan
tained from the aloe vera plant leaves, is reported to maintain various
therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, antibacterial, Chitosan, commonly found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans, in­
anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities, due to the presence of sects, and fungi (Iber et al., 2022), has garnered widespread interest in
polysaccharides and phenolic compounds (Sánchez et al., 2020). Both the realm of food coating. Chitosan, a derivative of chitin, is extracted
chitosan and aloe vera gel have been explored for their potential use as via deacetylation process under alkaline conditions with a DD of above
coatings to enhance the shelf-life and quality of food products, including 50%. Achieving complete deacetylation to form 100 % chitosan is not
mango, pineapple and tomatoes (Felicia et al., 2024; Basumatary et al., feasible; hence, chitosan remains a copolymer composed of N-acetyl­
2022; Khatri et al., 2020). Recent studies have highlighted that the glucosamine and glucosamine units (Cheng et al., 2020). Despite this,
addition of plant-based essential oils to these coatings can further chitosan demonstrates remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability,
enhance their properties, showing a promising strategy for developing and adsorption capabilities. The major commercial sources of chitin are
functional coatings with enhanced bioactivity and improved properties shrimp and crab shells, where the chitin molecules are covalently linked
(Alkaabi et al., 2022; Popescu et al., Mohammadi et al., 2021). to protein, forming proteoglycan structures, often accompanied by
Previously, researchers sourced sustainable by-products from fruit layers of calcium carbonate (Behr & Ganesan, 2022). However, the
waste, such as peels, seeds, pomace, and kernels, to extract essential oils quality of chitin extracted from shrimp and crabs varies significantly
for use in various industries (‘Aqilah et al., 2023). This sustainable uti­ depending on their growth stages (Soetemans et al., 2020), posing a
lization of waste is essential in the context of the circular economy, challenge for its application and the development of its derivatives due
which emphasizes reducing waste and promoting resource efficiency. to the inherent heterogeneity caused by differences in raw materials.
Plant-based essential oils are fascinating natural products that possess a Chitosan, a polycationic and hydrophilic polymer, is insoluble in
diverse range of volatile organic compounds, including monoterpenes, most organic or inorganic solvent at neutral pH but becomes soluble
sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids, and other aromatic and aliphatic under acidic conditions due to the amino group protonation and pres­
compounds which play important role in ensuring safe and effective ence of intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding within the mole­
preservation (Felicia et al., 2022b; Ju et al., 2019). These compounds are cules (Ardean et al., 2021; Qian et al., 2023). The solubility of chitosan is
synthesized through various metabolic pathways, and their composition linked to its acetylation level and MW (Román-Doval et al., 2023)
can vary widely depending on factors such as plant species, environ­ (Fig. 1). Chitosan oligomers exhibit solubility across a broad pH spec­
mental conditions, and extraction techniques (Sanli & Karadoğan, trum, spanning from acidic to alkaline conditions, including the physi­
2017). Essential oils have been valued for centuries for their medicinal ological pH of 7.4 (Antonov et al., 2023). Conversely, chitosan samples
and culinary uses (flavouring and aromatizing), and their use has with higher MW only dissolve in acidic aqueous solutions, even at
expanded to various industries, including the food and cosmetic in­ elevated DD (Lim et al., 2021). This limited solubility at neutral and
dustries. Current investigations indicate that essential oils are valuable alkaline pH levels has impeded the utilization of chitosan in various
for their bioactivities, such as antifungal (Gao et al., 2024), antimicro­ applications requiring neutral physiological conditions. The DD, MW
bial (Li et al., 2022), and antioxidant activities (Chaudhari et al., 2020) and distribution of acetamide groups in the chitosan molecules dictates
in food preservation techniques. The main bioactive compounds present its functional properties (El-Araby et al., 2022). With a linear chain
in essential oils have been shown to retain a range of health-promoting structure composed of β(1→4)-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and
effects, including antiviral, anticancer, and immunomodulatory effects D-glucosamine units, chitosan exhibits a random distribution of acetyl
(Tariq et al., 2019; Algahtani et al., 2019). groups along the chain (Tabassum et al., 2021). The random distribution
In light of these considerations, this review aims to comprehensively of acetamide groups within the chitosan structure modulates its physi­
evaluate the structure and physicochemical characteristics of the edible cochemical characteristics and biological activities, ultimately shaping
coating components in the efficacy of sustainable fruit preservation its utility in various applications, including the biomedical field. The
methods utilizing chitosan and aloe vera gel as the matrix for fruit presence of acetamide groups allow chitosan to form hydrogels through
coatings. This could lead to a better understanding of the structure- crosslinking or ionic gelation (Voros-Horvath et al., 2022), enhancing its
activity-application relationship of the edible coating components and utility in drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering (Peers
provide insights into their future potential. Previously, Bajaj et al. et al., 2020; de Sousa Victor et al., 2020).
(2023) and Patil et al. (2023) published articles demonstrating the po­ Many researchers have highlighted the potent antimicrobial and
tential applications of edible coating in preserving postharvest quality of antioxidant properties exhibited by chitosan (Abd El-Hack et al., 2020;
fruits; however, these papers offer limited exploration of the Omidi & Kakanejadifard, 2019; Wei et al., 2019). The antimicrobial and
physicochemical-structural-biological properties of the coatings. Addi­ antioxidant properties of chitosan are linked to its DD and MW. Amor
tionally, binding mechanisms and factors influencing the binding sys­ et al. (2023) reported that chitosan with a DD of 88.2 % exhibits the
tems between chitosan, aloe vera gel and plant-based essential oils are most potent antibacterial efficacy against Salmonella typhimurium,
included in the manuscript for a deeper understanding of how complex Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtiliis, Staphylococcus aureus, and
interactions between the edible coating components contribute to Listeria innocua, followed by chitosan with a DD of 87.1 %, and subse­
forming a cohesive composite material with diverse applications. quently chitosan with a DD of 84.1 %. A higher DD of chitosan results in
Furthermore, the review will also discuss the current knowledge an increased density of positively charged amino groups, enhancing its
regarding using chitosan and aloe vera gel coatings enriched with antimicrobial activity by facilitating interactions with negatively
plant-based essential oils for food preservation and their potential for charged microbial cell surfaces. This leads to membrane disruption and
future applications. The review provides comprehensive knowledge into inhibition of microbial growth (Yilmaz Atay, 2019). Additionally, chi­
the development of sustainable, functional coatings that can improve tosan with higher DD levels exhibits greater potential as an antioxidant
the shelf-life and quality of fruits while also promoting waste reduction due to the elevated number of reactive amino groups available for
and resource efficiency. scavenging free radicals, thereby mitigating oxidative stress (Hao et al.,
2021).
Conversely, the MW of chitosan influences its physicochemical
properties, including solubility and interaction with biological systems.
Lower MW chitosan molecules often display enhanced antimicrobial

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

Fig. 1. Physicochemical and biological properties of chitosan influenced by deacetylation process of chitin.

activity as they can more readily penetrate microbial cell membranes, slowing down the diffusion of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other
while also exhibiting improved solubility and bioavailability for effi­ oxidative stressors (Lim et al., 2021). Specifically, Pu et al. (2019) and
cient scavenging of free radicals (Confederat et al., 2021). However, Chaiwong et al. (2020) proved that lower MW exhibited high antioxi­
higher MW chitosan may form protective barriers against oxidative dant properties of chitosan; chitosan with a MW of 47.8 kDa showed the
stressors due to extensive entanglements and interactions with water highest antioxidant activity of 20.3 ± 1.9 % at concentration of 0.3 %
molecules, thus providing a shielding effect against cellular damage by (w/v); chitosan with a MW range of 50–190 kDa demonstrated the

Fig. 2. Main composition of aloe vera gel.

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

lowest IC50 values of 1.70 mg/mL and 1.37 mg/mL for DPPH and ABTS Candida albicans due to its abundant chemical composition in phenolic
radical scavenging activities. Moreover, chitosan oligomers, smaller and flavonoid compounds including aloin, emodin, quercetin, and
fragments resulting from lower MW, have been reported to possess kaempferol (Danish et al., 2020; Ahmad et al., 2022). These properties
particularly potent antimicrobial activity due to increased mobility and make aloe vera gel a valuable coating as a preservative in various ap­
ease of interaction with microbial targets. Overall, the interplay between plications. The plant is also rich in antioxidants, including flavonoids,
DD and MW of chitosan critically influences its antimicrobial and anti­ phenolic compounds, vitamins, calcium, magnesium, and potassium
oxidant properties, offering avenues for tailored applications in (Ceravolo et al., 2021; Anwar et al., 2020), making it useful in appli­
biomedicine, food preservation, and other relevant fields. cations such as food preservation and as an ingredient in antioxidant
supplements. Kamble et al. (2022) reported that aloe vera gel contains
2.2. Composition and physicochemical characteristics of aloe vera high concentrations of several macro minerals, including phosphorus
(213.53 ± 1.53 ppm), potassium (214.53 ± 9.11 pppm), magnesium
Aloe vera is a succulent plant used for medicinal purposes for cen­ (202.15 ± 1.70 ppm), sodium (115.18 ± 5.81 ppm), and calcium (90.61
turies due to its various therapeutic properties. Aloe vera leaves are ± 1.43 ppm). Additionally, aloe vera gel contains various micro min­
composed mainly of three main layers: an outer green rind that protects erals, with chromium (275.36 ± 87.83 ppm) being the most abundant.
the plant and synthesizes carbohydrates and proteins; a middle layer of Other micro minerals found in aloe vera gel include manganese (8.23 ±
latex, which is a yellow sap containing glycosides and anthraquinones; 0.32 ppm), iron (36.73 ± 0.21 ppm), cobalt (0.09 ± 0.04 ppm), nickel
and an inner clear gel composed of parenchyma tissue, which is the part (1.54 ± 0.09 ppm), copper (4.51 ± 0.25 ppm), zinc (3.78 ± 0.09 ppm),
most commonly used for its therapeutic properties (Mosaad, 2021) and molybdenum (0.58 ± 20.73 ppm), each present in differing con­
(Fig. 2). The plant uniquely contains various bioactive compounds, centrations. Additionally, aloe vera gel comprises a rich array of vita­
including polysaccharides, anthraquinones, organic acids, vitamins, and mins, including vitamin B12, vitamin A, assorted B-group vitamins,
minerals that significantly contribute to its antibacterial and antioxidant vitamin C, vitamin E, and folic acid. It also contains 19 out of the 20
properties (Nizam et al., 2021). In addition to its substantial water essential amino acids necessary for the human body for various physi­
content, aloe vera contains glycoproteins and polysaccharides, primarily ological functions (Saleem et al., 2022). These components contribute to
composed of acemannan, a linear polysaccharide made up of mannose, its antioxidant properties, further enhancing its effectiveness in fruit
glucose, and galactose. These compounds give aloe vera gel its high preservation.
viscosity, making it thick and resistant to flow, which allows it to form a Aloe vera gel coating has a slightly acidic pH of around 4.5–5.5, as
protective layer when applied to the surface of fruits. (Goyal et al., 2022; reported by Abdel-Mohsen et al. (2020). This acidic pH helps maintain
Sadgrove & Simmonds, 2021). Bista et al. (2020) highlighted that aloe the natural pH balance of any substrate, making it a suitable coating
vera gel has a high water content of 97.5 %, leaving only 2.47 % of dry substance. The slightly acidic nature of aloe vera gel also inhibits mi­
matter for fresh aloe vera leaves. Similarly, Kamble et al. (2022) re­ crobial growth by creating a less favorable environment for the growth
ported that the moisture content and carbohydrate content of aloe vera of spoilage-causing microorganisms, thereby aiding in fruit preservation
gel are 97 ± 0.17 g/100 g and 0.60 ± 0.02 g/100 g, respectively, (Kahramanoğlu et al., 2019). Mohammadi et al. (2021) found that the
showing high water content due to its richness in mucilage, which al­ polysaccharides in aloe vera gel coating can form a protective barrier on
lows the retention of water. Additionally, aloe vera gel has total phenol any substrate, preventing moisture loss and promoting hydration.
and flavonoid contents of 9.71 ± 0.053 mg GAE/lit and 100.87 ± 0.023 Furthermore, aloe vera gel has enzymatic, antioxidant, and anti-cancer
mg GAE/lit, respectively, as well as a high antioxidant activity of 6309 properties. According to Altinkaynak et al. (2023), Mosaad (2021), and
± 0.011 µmoles. Ebrahim et al. (2020), aloe vera gel contains various enzymes such as
Acemannan, primarily composed of acetylated mannose units, stands amylase, lipase, and catalase, which can have applications in industries
out as the principal bioactive compound found in aloe vera (Minjar­ such as food processing and biotechnology. Moreover, aloe vera gel
es-Fuentes & Femenia, 2019). Acemannan has been shown to have exhibits anti-cancer properties due to the presence of compounds such as
various therapeutic properties, including immunomodulatory, antiviral, aloin and emodin, which have been shown to induce cell death in
and wound-healing activities. These polysaccharides are believed to various types of cancer cells, as reported by Majumder et al. (2019) and
stimulate the production of white blood cells, which help to fight in­ Charron et al. (2023).
fections and other pathogens (Kumar et al., 2019; Mehrabi & Fir­
ouzbakhsh, 2019). The biological activities of acemannan include its 2.3. Structure and biological activity of plant-based essential oils
ability to scavenge free radicals, chelate, and reduce iron ions (Liu et al.,
2019). Cellular studies have indicated that acemannan can inhibit the Recently, researchers have been actively investigating the applica­
production of ROS, thereby mitigating oxidative stress-induced damage tions of plant-based essential oils in crop protection, as the structure and
(Gomes et al., 2023). There is compelling evidence suggesting that composition of these oils reflect their biological activity. Analyzing the
acemannan is effective in reducing radiation-induced oxidative damage structure-activity relationship of commonly used essential oil profiles
in vivo, a consequence of radiation’s ability to disrupt biological mac­ and their antimicrobial performance, as well as the structure of their
romolecules through free radical generation (Kumar & Kumar, 2019). major constituents, has enabled the identification of compositional
Studies have shown that multiple acetylated polysaccharides possess components with high antimicrobial activity. According to research
antioxidative properties and can mitigate DNA damage. Specifically, the conducted by D’Addabbo et al. (2020) and Perestrelo et al. (2019), the
acetyl and hydroxyl groups within acemannan play key roles in scav­ toxic activity of natural terpenoids depends on the position and subtype
enging free radicals and facilitating their formation, respectively (Li of groups in their molecular structure. Notably, the presence of
et al., 2023). oxygen-related functions such as aldehyde, ketone, or alcohol in the
Aloe vera also contains anthraquinones, which are responsible for molecules of monoterpenoids has been shown to potentiate biocidal
the plant’s laxative effects. The most abundant anthraquinone in aloe activity. Additionally, the addition of a double bond might improve the
vera is aloin, which has been shown to have antibacterial, antifungal, transfer of electrons, thereby enhancing the reactivity of terpenes to­
and antiviral properties (Mitra et al., 2022; Kahramanoğlu et al., 2019). wards nematodes. Previous in vitro assays have indicated that essential
Additionally, aloe vera contains organic acids such as malic acid, citric oils rich in citronellal, citronellol, linalool, geraniol, and E-cinna­
acid, and succinic acid, which contribute to the plant’s pH-balancing maldehyde, as found in Cymbopogon citratus (Li et al., 2021), Pelargonium
and antimicrobial properties (Añibarro-Ortega et al., 2019). Aloe vera graveolens (Kačániová et al., 2023), Coriandrum sativum (Silva et al.,
gel can fight against a range of bacteria and fungi such as Staphylococcus 2020) and Ocimum basilicum (Mohammadi et al., 2021), exhibit high
aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger and activity against bacteria and fungi. Moreover, several essential oils

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

extracted from plants are reported to have excellent nematicidal activ­ based essential oils (Fig. 3) involve a range of complex interactions,
ity, including Artemisia herba-alba, Citrus sinensis, Rosmarinus officinalis contributing to forming a cohesive composite material with diverse
and Thymus satureioides. Thujone, a ketone monoterpenoid, has been applications. One fundamental binding mechanism is hydrogen
found to have similar toxicity to young root-knot nematode J2 and eggs, bonding, where the hydroxyl groups in aloe vera gel, particularly in
as reported by Avato et al. (2017). polysaccharides like acemannan, form hydrogen bonds with the amino
Additionally, acyclic monoterpenoids are known to be more active and hydroxyl groups of chitosan (Yahya et al., 2022; Saha et al., 2023).
than terpenoids when two functional groups are attached to the cyclic This intermolecular bonding enhances compatibility and adhesion be­
ring (Perestrelo et al., 2019). This may explain the comparatively weak tween the two components, fostering a synergistic relationship. A
nematocidal/antimicrobial activity of menthol and menthane-type hydrogen bond is an interaction stronger than the van der Waals force
monoterpenoids or 1,8-cineole containing essential oils produced by but weaker than most ionic bonds (Bulusu & Desiraju, 2020). Bajer et al.
Mentha piperita or Eucalyptus globulus (D’Addabbo et al., 2020). This was (2020) reported an intense band at 3000–3600 cm− 1 for aloe vera when
observed when there was low activity of Eucalyptus globulus essential oil observed under Fourier Transform Infrared, attributed to the presence of
on Meloidogyne incognita J2 compared to Corymbia citriodora, charac­ hydroxyl groups. Additionally, the N-H stretching of amino acids and
terized by E-cinnamaldehyde. However, contradictory results were -NH groups of chitosan indicated the formation of intermolecular
observed, with Avato et al. (2017) describing time-dependent 1, hydrogen bonds due to dipole-dipole interaction forces. These findings
8-cineole toxicity on three nematodes such as Meloidogyne incognita, were supported by Zarandona et al. (2021), who stated that the
Pratylenchus vulnus, and Xiphinema index. Additionally, it has found that hydrogen bonding between chitosan and aloe vera gel provides poly­
125 µL/L of Mentha piperita L. essential oil showed zero inhibition zone meric networks resistant to degradation.
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Mehrishi et al., 2022), meanwhile, the Electrostatic interactions also play a pivotal role, facilitated by the
same concentration of Cymbopogon citratus essential oil showed greater polycationic nature of chitosan and the anionic components present in
inhibition zones of 4.33 ± 0.58 mm (Valková et al., 2022). As regards to aloe vera gel. Positively charged amino groups (NH3+) in chitosan
structural activity requirements, terpenes deprived of reactive func­ engage in electrostatic attractions with negatively charged groups in
tional groups, along with essential oils containing most of them, did not aloe vera gel, such as carboxyl groups (COO− ) or sulfate groups (SO−4 ),
indicate the sufficient nematicidal activity, similar to findings on γ-ter­ contributing to the binding forces that stabilize the composite structure
pinene, α-pinene, limonene, and ο-cymene, along with the (Huang et al., 2021; Chu et al., 2021). Yoshida et al. (2021) highlighted
limonene-rich oils of Citrus aurantium and Citrus sinensis (Avato et al., the electrostatic interaction between chitosan and aloe vera gel, noting
2017). However, in inhibiting fruit pathogens, terpenes rich essential that aloe vera gel tends to have a negative charge at a pH of 4 and 8.
oils are the potent weapons against pathogen invasion on fruit surfaces. Similarly, Darwish et al. (2023) found that adding aloe vera to dextran
Furthermore, terpenes are involved in the prevention and treatment of sulfate/chitosan nanoparticles demonstrated ionic and physical inter­
illness through antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antialler­ action when observed using Scanning Electron Microscopy. Lilhare et al.
genic, and immunomodulatory activities (Mewalal et al., 2017). (2022) employed aloe vera functionalized magnetic nanoparticles
Similarly, the nematicidal and antimicrobial properties of essential entrapped calcium alginate beads to remove copper (II) ions from
oils consisting of phenolics have been found to be very high in essential aqueous solution through electrostatic attraction between aloe vera and
oils such as Satureja montana (Navarro-Rocha et al., 2020), Origanum copper (II) ions. These findings reflect the importance of electrostatic
vulgare (Sosa et al., 2020) and Thymus linearis Benth (Saleem et al., interactions in creating a robust and cohesive material.
2023). Furthermore, the antibacterial action of Vitex agnus-castus Van der Waals, or London dispersion forces, occur due to the mutual
essential oil was attributed to the major components found in the attraction between the temporary dipoles on neighboring molecules or
extracted oil, with the antibacterial activity of each compound in the atoms. As molecules approach each other, their electron clouds may
following order: phenols > alcohols > aldehydes > ketones > esters > become distorted, leading to the induction of temporary dipoles. These
hydrocarbons (Zhelev et al., 2022). For successful treatment of fungal induced dipoles can induce temporary dipoles in nearby molecules,
diseases, essential oils with more phenolic chemicals, such as thymol, resulting in an attractive force between them (Ángyán et al., 2020;
eugenol (2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) phenol), and carvacrol, might be of Fabbrizzi, 2022). Van der Waals interactions contribute to the cohesion
great help (Cordery et al., 2018; Elmowafy et al., 2022). Phenols can also and interaction between chitosan and aloe vera molecules. Although van
interact with membrane proteins, leading to structural changes and der Waals forces are generally weaker than covalent bonds or ionic in­
functional disturbances (Kowalczyk et al., 2020). Studies have shown teractions, they significantly impact the overall stability and structure of
that essential oils with high content of phenolic compounds (e.g., the composite material (Hadi et al., 2022; Giteru et al., 2021). De
carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol) are three times more effective in killing Matteis et al. (2023) highlighted that adding aloe vera silver nano­
bacteria and neutralizing free radicals compared to those with lower particles to chitosan film increased the thermal resistance of the films
content of phenolic compounds (Basavegowda & Baek, 2021; Čabarkapa due to van der Waals forces and other chemical bonds, including
et al., 2020). The reactivity of phenolic molecules involves redox hydrogen bonds. Roy et al. (2023) found that the addition of aloe
properties determined by the presence of the hydroxyl group connected vera-mediated silver nanoparticles in the polymeric suspension of
to the aromatic ring and, possibly, other spacing groups, such as the chitosan-based biohybrid nanofibers improved surface tension due to
methoxyl group in the eugenol structure (Parcheta et al., 2021). Eval­ attractive van der Waals forces. Nizam et al. (2021) noted that aloe vera
uation of the structure-activity relationship has proven that the bioac­ gel is compatible with other biopolymers, including chitosan, in edible
tivity of eugenol and its analogs is based on the allylic double bond, coatings and films due to van der Waals interactions between the mol­
which, together with the phenolic proton, is considered indispensable ecules. The strength of van der Waals interactions depends on factors
for molecule interaction with cellular components (Di Consiglio et al., such as the polarizability of the molecules or atoms involved and their
2023; Prasetya et al., 2022). These factors play a role in the capability of distance. Generally, larger and more polarizable molecules experience
phenols to scavenge free radicals and related reactive species formed in stronger van der Waals forces, while greater distances result in weaker
biochemical processes, which can contribute to the toxic effect of these interactions (Della Volpe & Siboni, 2022).
compounds on phytonematodes, bacteria, and fungi. Chitosan is a common material for edible coatings due to its excep­
tional ability to encapsulate essential oils. Encapsulation involves
2.4. Binding mechanisms of chitosan/aloe vera gel/plant-based essential entrapping essential oils within chitosan matrices, allowing for
oil edible coating controlled release. For instance, Das et al. (2023) embedded VOEO in
chitosan nanoemulsion coating to control the delivery of VOEO, inhib­
The binding mechanisms between chitosan, aloe vera gel and plant- iting the growth of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

Fig. 3. Factors influencing the binding mechanism of chitosan/aloe vera gel/plant-based essential oil.

versicolor, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium italicum and AFB1 production. Pavoni et al., 2021). Sindhu et al. (2023) observed a downward shift in
The successful entrapment of VOEO in chitosan nanoemulsion coating peaks associated with amide groups in the spectra of cross-linked chi­
was proven by the enlargement of particle size observed under dynamic tosan nanoparticles with sodium tripolyphosphate, attributed to elec­
light scattering based zeta sizer. Additionally, the addition of VOEO into trostatic interactions between NH3+ groups of chitosan and phosphate
the chiton matrix reduced the zeta potential value from +38.17 ± 0.23 groups of sodium tripolyphosphate forming the complex. The FT-IR
mV to +24.81 ± 0.18 mV, indicating a stable emulsion within the matrix spectra showed a shift of the amide I peak from 1658 cm− 1 to 1627
due to the presence of electrostatic repulsive forces, thus preventing cm− 1, with a new bonding peak at 2376 cm− 1, demonstrating the
particle agglomeration. presence of amide I group.
This encapsulation process relies on complex interactions such as
electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic forces between 2.5. Factors influencing the binding mechanisms
essential oil molecules and chitosan. Electrostatic interaction results
from the positively charged amino groups of chitosan and the negatively The binding mechanisms between chitosan, aloe vera gel and plant-
charged functional groups of essential oil components, which bind them. based essential oils are influenced by various factors that dictate the
Li et al. (2024) confirmed electrostatic interactions between chitosan nature and strength of their interactions. Key factors include the mo­
and clove essential oil liposomes under Fourier Transform Infrared lecular structure and composition of the edible coating components, the
Spectroscopy. Clove essential oil showed a peak corresponding to pH of the environment, temperature, concentration of the composite
phosphate at 1249.80 cm− 1, whereas a combination of chitosan-clove mixture, choice of solvent, modification of physical structure of mole­
essential oil showed the peak shifted to 1251.73 cm− 1, implying the cules, and presence of additives or crosslinking agents (Fig. 3). The
removal of water from phosphate and the replacement of hydrogen molecular structure and composition of chitosan,aloe vera gel, and
bonds with electrostatic interactions between both groups of phosphate plant-based essential oils components are crucial. Variations in the
and ammonium. Solvent casting technology is one of the most techni­ arrangement of functional groups, such as amino, hydroxyl, and anionic
cally feasible and economical techniques for forming polymer structures groups, significantly impact the types and strength of interactions
and interactions between chitosan and essential oils (Zhang et al., 2021). formed (Wang et al., 2020). Understanding the chemical
It is used in the creation of chitosan films containing essential oils such structure-function relationship in the crosslinked polymeric network is
as clove, oregano, and rosemary in several studies (Hua et al., 2021; Di essential for determining the effectiveness of natural biopolymer films or
Giuseppe et al., 2022; Hernández et al., 2023). coatings (Hoque et al., 2023). The DD of chitosan, representing the
Hydrogen bonding, predominant in both chitosan and essential oil percentage of acetyl groups removed, plays a key role in its interactions.
systems, helps maintain the stability of encapsulation structures. Higher DD potentially leads to increased positively charged amino
Essential oils containing polyphenols may form covalent and hydrogen groups, which influence electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions
bonding interaction with film components, improving film compactness (Lingait et al., 2023; Namli et al., 2023). The presence of highly reactive
and homogeneity (Moalla et al., 2021). The addition of phenolic com­ amino and hydroxyl groups tends to form intramolecular and intermo­
pounds into the film increases the intensity of the band at 3438 cm− 1, lecular hydrogen bonds.
related to the hydrogen bonding interaction between the polymers, The composition of aloe vera gel extract, including the concentration
representing enhanced hydrogen bonding among chitosan/pheno­ of polysaccharides and phenolic compounds, is crucial. For example,
lics/zein (Xue et al., 2021). The crosslinking process of chitosan mole­ acemannan, a polysaccharide in aloe vera, contributes to hydrogen
cules makes encapsulation more efficient by creating a network where bonding (Bai et al., 2023). Hydrogen bonds between polylactic acid) and
essential oils are entrapped. Cross-linkers such as sodium tripolyphos­ aloe vera compounds have been found to enhance defensive effects of
phate, genipin, glutaraldehyde assist in forming stable chitosan net­ aloe vera (Nicácio et al., 2023). The chemical profile of plant-based
works, allowing progressive release of loaded oils and enhancing the essential oils affects the binding mechanisms of the whole coating sys­
stability of fruit coatings (Negi & Kesari, 2022; Roy & Rhim, 2022 tem. Volatile organic compounds such as terpenes and phenols form

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

hydrogen bonds with chitosan and aloe vera gel, increasing encapsula­ composite mixture is significant. Higher concentrations may lead to
tion efficiency (Felicia et al., 2024). Essential oils rich in polyphenols increased interactions, while lower concentrations may result in fewer
may form strong hydrogen bonds and covalent interactions with the binding opportunities (Yoshida et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2023).
coating matrix, improving the homogeneity and compact structure of Additionally, the choice of solvent during the extraction and preparation
the coating (Moalla et al., 2021). The pH of the environment is a critical process is another crucial factor, impacting the solubility of chitosan and
factor influencing the solubility of chitosan and aloe vera gel. Chitosan aloe vera gel components and influencing the conformation of mole­
becomes soluble in acidic conditions due to the protonation of amino cules. Environmental pH strongly affects inter-polymeric interaction due
groups, affecting electrostatic interactions (Kudłacik-Kramarczyk et al., to the different solubility of polymers (Potaś et al., 2020). Interactions
2021; Macêdo et al., 2021). The pH also influences the binding behavior between chitosan and various acids, including hydrochloric acid, acetic
of pH-sensitive aloe vera gel, making the composite responsive to acid, and citric acid, provide different pH values that might affect the
changes in environmental acidity (Felicia et al., 2024). Temperature interaction between chitosan and pH-sensitive aloe vera gel. Various
impacts the kinetic energy of molecules, influencing the frequency and processing techniques, such as blending methods or crosslinking, can
strength of molecular collisions, and altering the binding kinetics and modify the physical structure of the coating matrix, affecting the
thermodynamics (Cao et al., 2023). exposure of binding sites and the overall binding efficiency (Mirhaji
Moreover, the concentration of chitosan and aloe vera gel in the et al., 2023). Previously, Tang et al. (2023) employed Ca-based

Table 1
Extraction of essential oils from plant parts with its major bioactive compounds.
Plant Plant used Major bioactive compounds Extraction methods References
parts

Barks Cinnamomum trans-Cinnamaldehyde (81.86%) Ultrasound-assisted hydrodistillation Chen et al. (2021)

cassia extraction
Barks Cinnamomum cinnamaldehyde (74.31 %), linalool (1.72 %), camphor (1.3 %), Hydrodistillation Seshadri et al. (2020)
loureirii borneol (1.25 %), bisabolol (1.31 %)
Barks Cinnamomum trans-cinnamaldehyde (50.2–92.9%), α-copaene (0.5–21.3%) Solvent extraction Li et al. (2021)
loureirii
Stem Solanecio gigas methylene chloride (49.2%), sabinene (10.5%), 1-nonene (11.3%), Maceration Molla Yitayeh & Monie
barks Terpinen-4-ol (6.9%), Camphene (4.3%), γ-terpinene (3.6%) Wassihun (2022)
Whole Evolvulus alsinoides cis-α-necrodol (13.06 %) Hydrodistillation Seshadri et al. (2020)
plant
Seeds Coriandrum linalool (HD: 49%; MAHD: 52.6%) Hydrodistillation (HD); Microwave-assisted Ghazanfari et al. (2020)
sativum L. hydrodistillation (MAHD)
Seeds Azadirachta indica 5,6-dihydro-2,4,6-triethyl- (4H) 1-3,5-dithiazine Hydrodistillation Diedhiou et al. (2023)
A. Juss (39.1%), cis 1,2,4-Trithiolane, 3, 5-diethyl (7.9%), 1-H-indole 2,3-
dione (7.9%),
trans 1,2,4-Trithiolane, 3,5-diethyl (6.2%), ethyl thioisobutyrate
(4%).
Peels Punica granatum Phenolic compounds, tannins, flavones and flavonoids Solvent extraction Ramya et al. (2020)
Peels Citrus aurantifolia Phenolic compounds, tannins, flavones and flavonoids Solvent extraction Ramya et al. (2020)
Peels Citrus microcarpa D-limonene (29.52%), (R)-(+)-citronellal (13.76%) Water distillation Husni & Yeni (2021)
Bunge
Peels Punica granatum L. Phenolics (gallic acid, caffeic acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid) and Solvent extraction Mahmood et al. (2021)
flavonoid compounds
Peels Sweet orange 17-octadecynoic acid (36.04%), 8 methyl-6-nonenoic acid (10.4%), Solvent extraction Oligie et al. (2023)
pentadecanoic acid (9.34%)
Peels Citrus limon L. limonene (55.40%), neral (10.39%), trans-verbenol (6.43%), Hydrodistillation Paw et al. (2020)
Burmf decanal (3.25%)
Peels Lemon limonene (65.082 wt.%), β-pinene (14.517 wt.%) and γ-terpinene Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation Martínez-Abad et al.
(9.743 wt.%) (MAHD) (2020)
Leaves Citrus microcarpa citronellal (25.74%), citronellol (12.94%), Water distillation Husni & Yeni (2021)
Bunge
Leaves Pimpinella anisum E-anethole (93.00%), ¥-himachalene (2.85%), Hydrodistillation Figueredo et al. (2020)
methyl chavicol (1.13%), appiol (0.22%)
Leaves Cuminum cyminum E-anethole (62.63%), fenchone (13.27%), Hydrodistillation Figueredo et al. (2020)
methyl chavicol (11.19%), limonene (7.98%)
Leaves Foeniculum vulgare beta-pinene (36.46%), ¥-terpinene Hydrodistillation Figueredo et al. (2020)
(36.29%), p-cymene (10.43%), terpinene-7-al-¥ (3.48%), sabinene
(2.02%), α-pinene (1.92%)
Leaves Petroselinum α-pinene (39.27%), β-pinene (29.61%), limonene (9.73%), Hydrodistillation Figueredo et al. (2020)
crispum Mill. myristicin (6.70%), appiol
(4.75%), myrtenal (1.82%), sabinene (1.59%)
Leaves Citrus hystrix DC. isopulegol (44.61-59.01%) Subcritical water extraction Halim et al. (2021)
Fruits Etlingera linalool formate (41.2 %), α-terpineol (17.9 %), δ-elemene (14.4 %) Solvent extraction Li et al. (2020)
sayapensis and octyl formate (12.8 %)
Fruits Litsea cubeba m-cymene (22.01%), trans-linalool oxide (12.32%) Deep eutectic solvent-homogenate based Guo et al. (2021)
(Lour.) Pers. microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (DES-
HMAHD)
Fruits Elaeagnus (− ) Caryophyllene oxide (39.4%), (− )-Caryophyllene (31.2%), Hydrodistillation Nazir et al. (2021)
umbellata Thunb. Humulene Epoxide (25.4%),
Tricosanoic acid (19.5%), (L-Ascorbyl 2,6-Dipalmitate) (+)-Ascorbic
acid 2,6-dihexadecanoate (15.4%)
Fruits Elettaria α-Terpinyl acetate (27.14%), 1,8-Cineole (15.4%), α-Terpineol Hydrodistillation Alam et al. (2021)
cardamomum (7.44%), terpinen-4-ol (5.05%), linalyl acetate (4.49%), β-pinene
(3.55%), β-selinene (3.23%)

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crosslinking agents and crosslinking modification with CA2+ to reinforce bioactive compounds, including less volatile or more polar compounds
the aloe vera polysaccharide-based packaging film. Additives or cross­ such as phenolics and flavonoids. For instance, ethanol solvent extrac­
linking agents can introduce additional functional groups or alter the tion can yield glycosides, alkaloids, and carbohydrates. When water is
spatial arrangement of molecules, enhancing the electrostatic forces and used as the solvent, the extraction can produce terpenoids, alkaloids,
producing a stable emulsion (Cheng et al., 2023). glycosides, and carbohydrates. Methanol extraction, on the other hand,
can obtain phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, and
3. Source of plant-based essential oil amino acids. This method demonstrates its effectiveness in obtaining a
broad spectrum of compounds from peels like those of Punica granatum
Edible coatings fortified with plant extracts have indeed shown great (Ramya et al., 2020). Meanwhile, maceration typically involves soaking
potential in enhancing the quality and extending the shelf life of food plant material in a solvent at room temperature, which helps in
products. These extracts, derived from different parts of plants like extracting heat-sensitive compounds without degradation (Molla
barks, seeds, peels and leaves, contain a diverse array of bioactive Yitayeh & Monie Wassihun, 2022). The bioactive components extracted
compounds with various functional properties (‘Aqilah et al., 2023). from plants using the maceration method can vary depending on the
Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of various plants, their solvent used. One study done by Uahomo et al. (2023) compared the
active compounds, and the specific plant parts utilized for extract yield and chemical compositions of Citrus aurantifolia essential oils
preparation. The bioactive compounds present in these plant extracts extracted by Soxhlet extraction and maceration. The study revealed that
primarily consist of phenolics, aromatic hydrocarbons, flavonoids, ste­ the Soxhlet extraction method produced a greater yield of oil compared
roids, and tannins, among others (Kandar, 2021). Phenolic compounds, to the maceration method. However, oil obtained through maceration
a key component of these plant extracts, have gained significant atten­ had a lower acid value and free fatty acid content, as well as a higher
tion for their potent antioxidant activity and their ability to scavenge saponification value. Additionally, the oil extracted using the Soxhlet
free radicals, thereby retarding lipid oxidation and preserving food method was found to be more acidic than the oil obtained from
quality. Studies by Wu and Zhou (2021) and Gutiérrez-del-Río et al. maceration. Subcritical water extraction is also another green extraction
(2021) have highlighted the importance of phenolic compounds in technology used to extract essential oil from various parts of the plant.
enhancing the functionality of edible coatings. Moreover, the extraction This extraction method uses high-temperature, high-pressure water
process plays a crucial role in determining the yield and composition of below its critical point to extract bioactive compounds efficiently
bioactive compounds in plant extracts. Various extraction methods, such without organic solvents (Halim et al., 2021). Subcritical water extrac­
as solvent extraction, hydrodistillation, and microwave-assisted hydro­ tion shows high potential in recovering lipophilic fractions from essen­
distillation, result in different concentrations and profiles of bioactive tial oils such as limonene, isopulegol and eugenol (Liu et al., 2023;
compounds (Lefebvre et al., 2021; Daud et al., 2022). Halim et al., 2021). Several parameters such as particle size, time, liquid
Different extraction methods yield various chemical profiles of to solid ratio, pressure and temperature are critical to achieve the
essential oils due to differences in solubility, temperature, and extrac­ optimal conditions. These conditions take part in determining the re­
tion duration. For instance, hydrodistillation, a common method used to covery efficiency of lipophilic fractions of essential oils (Díaz-Reinoso
isolate volatile compounds effectively without decomposing them, et al., 2023).
making it suitable for extracting essential oils from seeds and leaves
(Ghazanfari et al., 2020; Figueredo et al., 2020). Hydrodistillation is 4. Application and effect of chitosan/Aloe vera gel coating
highly effective for extracting essential oils from a variety of spices, infused with plant-based essential oil
including cloves, cumin, ginger, mint, dill seeds, lemongrass, and basil
(Katekar et al., 2023). Meanwhile, ultrasound-assisted hydrodistillation Various preservation methods, including the use of chitosan and aloe
enhances this process by using ultrasonic waves to disrupt plant cell vera gel infused with plant-based essential oils, have been utilized to
walls, releasing more compounds, as seen with Cinnamomum cassia enhance the produce’s postharvest quality and shelf life. Table 2 shows
(Chen et al., 2021). This method is preferred over traditional techniques the application and effect of chitosan and aloe vera gel coatings infused
to ensure that the active components within the cell come into contact with plant-based essential oils. These coatings and treatments reduced
with the solvent more effectively and transfer into the solvent with ease. decay, weight loss, and microbial proliferation while maintaining the
Recently, Yakoubi et al. (2024) investigated the yield, chemical profiles biochemical properties of the fruits. Additionally, they improved anti­
and the biological activities of Mentha rotundifolia essential oils obtained oxidant activity and preserved sensory quality. Overall, these preser­
by using conventional technique of hydrodistillation and advanced vation techniques showed promise for extending the storage life of fruits
technique of ultrasound-assisted hydrodistillation. It has been found out and enhancing their postharvest characteristics. In one study, bell pep­
that the GC/MS analysis revealed that the essential oil extracted using pers were packaged using filter papers impregnated with HPEO and
ultrasound-assisted hydrodistillation predominantly contained piper­ HPEO-CSNPs with a weight ratio of 1:0.75 chitosan to HPEO. The HPEO-
itenone oxide (21.53 %) and camphor (26.52 %). In contrast, the CSNPs demonstrated the most favorable results, including minimal
essential oil extracted by traditional hydrodistillation was primarily changes in color, firmness, weight loss, and the highest concentrations of
composed of piperitenone oxide (22.60 %) and trans-caryophyllene phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and ascorbic acid. It was reported that
(21.79 %). Moreover, the antioxidant capability of the essential oil ob­ the untreated samples experienced the highest loss of firmness and
tained by ultrasound-assisted hydrodistillation was notably superior to weight loss at 26.6 % and 14.4 %, whereas the HPEO-CSNPs treatment
that of the essential oil extracted using hydrodistillation. On the other showed significantly lower loss at 6.8 % and 6 %, respectively,
hand, microwave-assisted hydrodistillation combines microwave energy compared to the initial measurement after 18 days of storage. In addi­
with traditional hydrodistillation to increase yield and reduce extraction tion, antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD, CAT, POD) was highest in bell
time. The use of microwave-assisted hydrodistillation was reported to peppers treated with HPEO-CSNPs, indicating enhanced antioxidant
yield higher quality oil in a shorter time while using less energy and activity and extended shelf life (Taheri et al., 2020).
producing less wastewater compared to traditional hydrodistillation due A second study focused on the synthesis of a chitosan nanoemulsion
to its direct effect on the sample molecules via ion transport and dipole coating embedded with Valeriana officinalis essential oil (Ne-VOEO) to
rotations (Martínez-Abad et al., 2020). According to Ortega-Medrano protect Citrus sinensis fruits from fungal infestation and aflatoxin B1
et al. (2023), microwave-assisted hydrodistillation stands out as the (AFB) contamination. Fabrication of the coating was done using the
most economically viable extraction method in terms of cost analysis, ionic gelation method by preparing 1.5 % chitosan and Ne-VOEO (0.06,
offering the lowest cost per 100 g of product. 0.12, 0.18, 0.24, and 0.30 g) was subsequently added to the chitosan
Furthermore, solvent extraction can dissolve a wider range of solution. The nanoemulsion effectively inhibited the proliferation of

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Table 2
Application and effect of chitosan/Aloe vera gel coating infused with plant-based essential oil.
Matrix Essential oils Mode of incorporation Targeted fruits/ Effects on fruits/vegetables References
vegetables

Chitosan Sea buckthorn or Oil/water emulsion with Strawberry and • Reduced the microbial load of yeast and mold of the coated Popescu et al.
grape seed essential Tween-20 as emulsifying apple slices strawberries during storage period. (2022)
oils agent • Delayed the increase of water activity of the coated samples.
Chitosan Torreya grandis Oil/water emulsion with Loquat • Reduced decay index and respiration rate of fruits. Wang et al.
essential oil (TEO) Tween-80 as surfactant • Delayed the increment of polyphenol oxidase and (2022)
peroxidase activities.
Nano-chitosan Eryngium campestre Ion gelation method Cherry • Reduced microbial counts for coated cherries. Arabpoor et al.
L. • Retained the titratable acid. (2021)
Chitosan Heracleum persicum Oil/water emulsion with Bell peppers • HPEO-CSNPs improved the antioxidant enzyme activity of Taheri et al.
nanoparticles essential oil (HPEO) Tween-80 as surfactant sweet bell peppers. (2020)
(CSNPs) • HPEO-CSNPs demonstrated the overall acceptability of bell
peppers to stand up to 24 days of storage.
Chitosan/ Citrus and Direct mixing Strawberry • CHI-EOs-AgNPs composite films demonstrated excellent Shankar et al.
AgNPs cinnamon extract antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli, Listeria (2021)
monocytogens, Salmonella Typhimurium and Aspergillus niger.
• Preserved the weight loss, firmness, percentage decay,
color, anthocyanin and total phenol content during 12 days
of storage.
Chitosan Valeriana officinalis Ionic gelation Citrus sinensis • Ne-VOEO coating inhibited fungal and AFB1 contamination Das et al. (2023)
nanoemulsion essential oil (VOEO) in C. sinensis.
(Ne) • Ne-VOEO coating inhibited the growth of Aspergillus flavus,
A. niger, A. versicolor, Penicillium italicum, and Fusarium
oxysporum.
Aloe vera gel Lemongrass Oil/water emulsion with Strawberry • Retained total soluble solids and total anthocyanins Hassan et al.
Tween-80 as surfactant contents of strawberry. (2022)
• Preserved the antioxidant activity of the strawberry.
Aloe vera gel Orange peel Oil/water emulsion with Button • Extended the shelf life of mushrooms up to 4 days. Kumar et al.
essential oils glycerol as emulsifier mushrooms • Preserved antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of (2023)
mushrooms.
Aloe vera gel Basil essential oil Direct mixing Strawberry • Reduced weight loss and softening of strawberries. Mohammadi
• Inhibited fungal growth on strawberries. et al. (2021)
Aloe vera gel Garlic oil Direct mixing Bananas • Inhibited the mycelial growth and spore germination of Khaliq et al.
bananas. (2019)
• Reduced anthracnose disease incidence and severity in
bananas.
Aloe vera gel Heracleum persicum Direct mixing Fresh-cut • Reduced total viable count, psychrotrophic bacteria and Abdollahi et al.
essential oil (HEO) oranges yeasts/molds population on the fruits. (2022)
• Retained the carotenoids, firmness and overall acceptability
of orange slices.
Chitosan/Aloe vera Mint leaf extract Direct mixing Sponge gourd • Retained firmness of sponge gourd. Salaria et al.
gel • Reduced respiration rate of sponge gourd. (2022)
Chitosan/Aloe vera Eugenol Direct mixing Pineapple • Extended the shelf-life of pineapple by up to 3 weeks at Basumatary
gel ambient conditions. et al. (2022)
• Enhanced the antimicrobial activities against Escherichia
coli, Alcaligenes faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus
subtilis and two fungal isolates.

numerous fungi (Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. versicolor, Penicillium ita­ with medium MW chitosan with 1 % acetic acid and sea buckthorn
licum, and Fusarium oxysporum) and AFB1 production. It also preserved essential oil (Popescu et al., 2022).
the fruits’ biochemical and sensory properties during storage, including For the packaging of strawberries, the incorporation of silver nano­
weight loss, respiration rate, soluble solids, acidity, pH, and phenolic particles (AgNPs) and essential oils into chitosan-based films was
content. As storage time increased, control fruits exhibited a noticeable investigated. During storage, the composite films exhibited antimicro­
increase in weight loss. Conversely, C. sinensis fruits coated with Ne- bial activity against multiple pathogens (Escherichia coli, Listeria mono­
VOEO showed minimal weight loss at 10, 20, and 30 days of storage cytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Aspergillus niger) and preserved
periods. The delay in weight loss was due to the reduced infestation of the integrity of the packaged strawberries. They decreased weight loss
A. flavus and AFB1 secretion, which retained the membrane integrity of and decomposition, and they preserved firmness. Strawberry shelf life
fruits. The nanoemulsion coating exhibited antifungal properties and and quality were further improved by gamma irradiation. On day 12 of
enhanced AFB1 mitigation, making it a potentially environmentally storage, treatments T1 (chitosan film), T2 (chitosan/citrus EO/cinna­
benign coating for fruit preservation (Das et al., 2023). In a separate mon EO film), T1+I (chitosan + γ-irradiated film), and T2+I (chitosan/
study, strawberries and apple slices were coated with 2 % citrus EO/cinnamon EO γ-irradiated film) exhibited significant re­
chitosan-based edible coatings containing 7.5 % sea buckthorn or 7.5 % ductions in the weight loss of strawberries compared to control samples.
grape seed essential oils. During cold storage, these coatings reduced Additionally, results indicated that strawberries subjected to γ-irradia­
microbial load, preserved antioxidant activity, and maintained the tion at 1 kGy showed decreased weight loss compared to non-irradiated
physical-chemical properties of the fruits. Compared to the control samples (Shankar et al., 2021). Furthermore, chitosan was combined
samples, the coated samples exhibited lower water activity and longer with Torreya grandis essential oil (TEO) to increase the shelf life of loquat
shelf life. The highest total polyphenol content (597 mg GAE/L) was fruit. It was determined that the treatment containing 1.0 % chitosan
shown in strawberries coated with high MW chitosan with the addition and 1.0 % TEO was the most effective at preserving quality attributes,
of 2 % ascorbic acid and grape seed essential oil stored at 4◦ C at day 7, including fresh weight, soluble solids, ascorbic acid content, and sensory
while the least (approx. 390 mg GAE/L) was shown in samples coated quality. This treatment also inhibited enzymatic activities related to

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

fruit deterioration and enhanced antioxidant activity (Wang et al., fruit preservation methods.
2022). These various preservation methods demonstrated their efficacy
in enhancing the postharvest quality and extending the shelf life of 5. Preservation mechanisms of chitosan/Aloe vera gel coating
various fruits by retaining its physical properties, preserving biochem­ infused with plant-based essential oil
ical properties, and inhibiting microbial growth.
The use of aloe vera gel-based coatings for preserving various fruits, Chitosan, aloe vera gel, and essential oils are widely acknowledged
including strawberries, bananas, and oranges, has been investigated. for their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Felicia et al. (2024)
Aloe vera gel alone or combined with lemongrass essential oil (EO) has have previously illustrated the preservation mechanisms of chitosa­
shown promise as a strawberry coating. These coatings effectively n/aloe vera gel and orange peel essential oil, as shown in Fig. 4. These
inhibited deterioration, prolonged the fruit’s shelf life, and preserved its mechanisms apply to other types of essential oils combined with chito­
resilience. Specifically, a combination of 40 % aloe vera gel and 1 % san/aloe vera gel composite. Chitosan and aloe vera gel exhibit multiple
lemongrass EO produced outstanding results, resulting in reduced antioxidant properties. Chitosan’s antioxidant activity is predominantly
weight loss, preservation of firmness and acidity, and an increase in total due to its amino groups, which can effectively trap and neutralize free
soluble solids and total anthocyanins (Hassan et al., 2022). Another radicals by donating electrons, thereby reducing oxidative stress (Tamer
study investigated the effects of orange peel essential oils (EOs) on an et al., 2023). Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that can dam­
aloe vera gel-based edible coating. The coating (50 % aloe vera gel) age cells and contribute to developing numerous diseases. In addition to
without essential oil maintained the quality of button mushrooms dur­ its antioxidant activity, chitosan has metal-chelating properties. It can
ing storage due to its superior properties. The addition of the maximum bind to transition metal ions like iron and copper, preventing their
concentration (1500 µL/L) of orange peel essential oil in the 50 % of aloe participation in the Fenton and Haber-Weiss reactions that produce
vera gel further enhanced postharvest quality and prolonged the shelf highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. By chelating metal ions, chitosan in­
life of the button mushrooms up to 4 days as compared to the control hibits metal-induced oxidative damage and reduces the formation of
sample (50 % aloe vera gel) (Kumar et al., 2023). damaging free radicals (Grange et al., 2023). Similar to chitosan, aloe
Another study examined the effects of aloe vera gel coating alone and vera gel functions as a free radical scavenger and can boost endogenous
in combination with basil essential oil on strawberries. The treatments antioxidant defences. Chitosan and aloe vera gel can stimulate the ac­
substantially impacted the fruit’s respiration rate, weight loss, softening, tivity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD),
and fungus development. The coatings preserved the strawberries’ catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, which play essential roles in
acidity, flavor, color, and sensory qualities. The combination of aloe neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS), maintaining cellular redox
vera gel and basil oil, especially at a higher concentration, improved the balance, and protecting against oxidative stress (Mahgoob et al., 2023).
efficacy of the treatment (Mohammadi et al., 2021). Additionally, using Due to their high concentration of phenolic compounds such as terpenes,
aloe vera gel coatings alone or combined with garlic oil (GO) proved phenols, and flavonoids, essential oils simultaneously manifest antioxi­
effective against anthracnose disease induced by the fungus Colleto­ dant activity. These compounds function as radical scavengers,
trichum musae on bananas. Aloe vera gel exhibited more potent anti­ neutralizing and stabilizing free radicals to protect cellular components
fungal activity when combined with GO than Aloe vera gel alone. This from oxidative damage (Sivapalan et al., 2023; Iordache et al., 2023).
treatment reduced the incidence and severity of anthracnose disease, Additionally, essential oils can chelate metal ions, such as iron and
weight loss, firmness, soluble solids concentration, and titratable acid­ copper, involved in producing free radicals, thereby diminishing their
ity. The coatings also improved the fruits’ total phenolic content and detrimental effects (Yücel, 2021). By reducing oxidative stress and
total antioxidant activity (Khaliq et al., 2019). Fresh-cut oranges were protecting against free radicals, essential oils help maintain cellular
coated with Aloe vera gel containing Heracleum persicum essential oil health and minimize oxidative damage.
(HEO). These coatings precluded the oranges’ physical, chemical, mi­ The antioxidant properties of chitosan/aloe vera gels and essential
crobial, and sensory changes throughout the storage period. The most oils in plants can effectively preserve fruit antioxidant properties
effective treatment was a combination of 100 % Aloe vera gel and 2 % through several mechanisms. Firstly, these coatings form a protective
HEO. It exhibited the lowest weight loss, respiration rate, and microbial barrier on the surface of the fruit to prevent exposure to oxygen and
populations, as well as the highest levels of ascorbic acid, antioxidant other reactive molecules in the environment. They reduce oxidative
capacity, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, firmness, and sensory rat­ stress by creating barriers and slow oxidative reactions that lead to the
ings (Abdollahi et al., 2022). degradation of fruits’ antioxidants (Yousuf & Qadri, 2020). Further­
To this day (2019–2023), only two studies have been conducted on more, antioxidants in essential oils, such as phenolic compounds, ter­
combining essential oils with chitosan and Aloe vera gel coatings. One penes, and flavonoids, are known to remove free radicals and stabilize
study investigated the application of a composite coating made from reactive oxygen species. Injections into chitosan/aloe vera gel coatings
chitosan, aloe vera, and mint leaf extract to increase the shelf life of strengthen the antioxidant capacity of the coating and synergize these
sponge gourd fruits. The formulation that contained chitosan in a 0.75 % antioxidant compounds. As a result, the coating can continuously release
concentration, aloe vera in a 2.5 % concentration, and mint leaf extract antioxidants to the fruit surface and provide a long-term protection
in a 1 % concentration exhibited significantly better outcomes in pre­ against oxidative damage. Furthermore, because of its amino group,
serving firmness and lowering the respiration rate compared to other chitosan itself has antioxidant properties and can effectively capture and
concentrations. It was also successful in maintaining various physical, neutralize free radicals. Aloe vera gel is rich in antioxidants, such as
chemical, and sensory characteristics (Salaria et al., 2022). Another line vitamins C and E, and contributes to coating’s antioxidant activity.
of research produced chitosan-based nanocomposite coatings featuring Together, chitosan and aloe vera gel strengthen fruit’s antioxidant de­
antibacterial compounds such as eugenol (the essential oil of clove) and fenses, maintain cellular redox balance, and protect against oxidative
aloe vera gel. These coatings featured antibacterial compounds such as stress. In addition, the antimicrobial properties of chitosan/aloe vera gel
eugenol (the essential oil of clove) and aloe vera gel. These coatings coatings help prevent microbial degradation, which contribute to
successfully prevented the growth of foodborne diseases and fungi such oxidative damage in fruits. These coatings inhibit the growth of bacteria
as Escherichia coli, Alcaligenes faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus and reduce the risk of infection, thereby prolonging the shelf life of fruits
subtilis. They maintained the pineapple’s quality and freshness, and preserving their antioxidant content.
increasing the fruit’s shelf life by up to three weeks when stored in Chitosan’s interaction with microbial cell membranes confers anti­
ambient conditions (Basumatary et al., 2022). Therefore, researchers microbial properties. At physiological pH, chitosan possesses cationic
should proactively investigate more potential plant-based essential oils properties, meaning it conveys a positive charge. Due to the presence of
to incorporate in chitosan/aloe vera gel coating to promote sustainable phospholipids, microbial cell membranes typically bear a negative

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W.X.L. Felicia et al. Applied Food Research 4 (2024) 100439

Fig. 4. Preservation mechanisms of coating solution (Felicia et al., 2024).

charge. This electrostatic interaction between chitosan and microbial reducing the ability of microorganisms to cause infections and boosting
cell membranes can lead to membrane disruption, intracellular the efficacy of the immune response against them (Hu et al., 2022).
component leakage, and eventual cell death. Chitosan can also interfere
with the enzyme systems of microorganisms, inhibiting essential cellular 6. Conclusions
processes and microbial growth and replication (Saha et al., 2021).
Moreover, chitosan’s metal-chelating properties exhibit outstanding This study has, therefore, conducted a detailed examination of the
antioxidant properties and positive antimicrobial effects. By disrupting physicochemical properties, structure and composition of chitosan, aloe
microbial cell membranes and interfering with vital cellular functions, vera gel and plant-based essential oils coatings for sustainable fruit
the complexation of chitosan with metal ions can enhance its antimi­ preservation. The outcomes of our research proved that chitosan has the
crobial activity (Zhang et al., 2022). Aloe vera gel has broad-spectrum various properties ideal for fruit coating as well as its film-forming
antimicrobial properties, disrupting microbial cell membranes and property and biodegradability. Consolidated with that, aloe vera gel
inhibiting critical microbial enzymes. It causes membrane per­ manifested interesting properties for fruit coatings formulations,
meabilization and leakage of cellular contents by penetrating the cell including high water-holding capacity as well as bioactives with anti­
walls of microorganisms (Anju et al., 2021). oxidants and antimicrobial substances. The chemical composition and
Additionally, aloe vera gel contains compounds that inhibit vital biological activity of volatile essential oils extracted from plants
microbial enzymes involved in cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and showing desirable antioxidant and antibacterial activities were identi­
energy metabolism, thereby inhibiting microbial growth and replica­ fied among them. This study discovered the binding mechanisms pro­
tion. Aloe vera gel also stimulates the immune system, boosting the posed in the formation of edible coatings composed of chitosan and aloe
activity of immune cells such as macrophages and lymphocytes to vera gels with plant-based essential oils, notably including physical
combat microbial infections (Darzi et al., 2021). Essential oils, like entrapment, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. The
chitosan and aloe vera gel, possess antimicrobial activity by disrupting influencing factors were identified in relation to the molecular action,
microbial cell membranes via their lipophilicity and volatile constitu­ the concentration of coating components, pH, and temperature, which
ents. They can penetrate and disrupt the lipid bilayer of microbial impact the stability and quality of coating. Furthermore, this study
membranes, resulting in cell death (Hou et al., 2022). Furthermore, confirmed that these coatings possess significant antioxidant and anti­
essential oils inhibit microbial growth and replication by interfering microbial properties, effectively extending the shelf life of fruits.
with critical cellular functions such as protein synthesis, DNA replica­ Nevertheless, this study has certain limitations which should be taken
tion, and cell wall synthesis. They can also modulate the expression of into consideration. This review has, however, availed information on the
microbial genes involved in virulence and pathogenesis, thereby efficacy of these coatings, nonetheless, more research needs to be done

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to fully understand their long-term impact on fruit quality and shelf life. Alam, A., Jawaid, T., & Alam, P. (2021). In vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities of green cardamom essential oil and in silico molecular docking of its
Furthermore, the combination of components in the coating and their
major bioactives. Journal of Taibah University for Science, 15, 757–768. https://doi.
effect on various fruits need to be evaluated in detail. Toxicity test of the org/10.1080/16583655.2021.2002550
coating shall be tested thoroughly and extensively prior to human Alkaabi, S., Sobti, B., Mudgil, P., Hasan, F., Ali, A., & Nazir, A. (2022). Lemongrass
consumption of fruits coated with edible coatings. Future research essential oil and Aloe vera gel based antimicrobial coatings for date fruits. Applied
Food Research, 2, Article 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100127
should focus on improving formulations, exploring new plant sources, Alqahtani, F. Y., Aleanizy, F. S., Mahmoud, A. Z., Farshori, N. N., Alfaraj, R., Al-
and integrating advanced technologies to enhance fruit preservation Sheddi, E. S., & Alsarra, I. A. (2019). Chemical composition and antimicrobial,
methods. antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of Lepidium sativum seed oil. Saudi
Journal of Biological Sciences, 26, 1089–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sjbs.2018.05.007
Ethical statement Altinkaynak, C., Haciosmanoglu, E., Ekremoglu, M., Hacioglu, M., & Özdemir, N. (2023).
Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant and wound healing capabilities of Aloe vera-
incorporated hybrid nanoflowers. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 135,
Studies in humans and animals 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2023.01.004
The authors declare the studies does not involved in humans and Amor, I. B., Hemmami, H., Laouini, S. E., Abdelaziz, A. G., & Barhoum, A. (2023).
animals. Influence of chitosan source and degree of deacetylation on antibacterial activity and
adsorption of AZO dye from water. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 1–11. https://
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CRediT authorship contribution statement Ángyán, J., Dobson, J., Jansen, G., & Gould, T. (2020). London dispersion forces in
molecules, solids and nano-structures: an introduction to physical models and
computational methods. Royal Society of Chemistry.
Wen Xia Ling Felicia: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Añibarro-Ortega, M., Pinela, J., Barros, L., Ćirić, A., Silva, S. P., Coelho, E., &
Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Ferreira, I. C. (2019). Compositional features and bioactive properties of Aloe vera
Kobun Rovina: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding leaf (fillet, mucilage, and rind) and flower. Antioxidant, 8, 444. https://doi.org/
10.3390/antiox8100444
acquisition, Conceptualization. Hasmadi Mamat: Writing – original Anju, T. R., Parvathy, S., Veettil, M. V., Rosemary, J., Ansalna, T. H., Shahzabanu, M. M.,
draft, Visualization, Formal analysis. Ahmad Hazim Abdul Aziz: & Devika, S. (2021). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Aloe vera leaf
Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Leong Seng Lim: extract and its antimicrobial activity. Materials Today: Proceedings, 43, 3956–3960.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.665
Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. Abdul Aziz Jaziri:
Antonov, Y. A., Zhuravleva, I. L., Bezrodnykh, E. A., Berezin, B. B., Kulikov, S. N., &
Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Rahmi Nurdiani: Writing – Tikhonov, V. E. (2023). Complexation of oligochitosan with sodium caseinate in
review & editing, Supervision. alkalescent and weakly acidic media. Carbohydrate Polymers, 302, Article 120391.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120391
Anwar, D. A., Eid, H. R., & Ghadir, A. (2020). Nutritional and antioxidant properties of
Declaration of competing interest mango juice and aloe vera gel and their effect on diabetic rats. Letters in Applied
NanoBioScience, 9, 1602–1614. https://doi.org/10.33263/LIANBS94.16021614
Aqilah, N. M. N., Rovina, K., Felicia, W. X. L., & Vonnie, J. M. (2023). A review of the
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­ potential bioactive components in fruits and vegetable wastes as value-added
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: products in the food industry. Molecules, 28, 2631. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Kobun Rovina reports financial support and article publishing molecules28062631
Arabpoor, B., Yousefi, S., Weisany, W., & Ghasemlou, M. (2021). Multifunctional coating
charges were provided by University of Malaysia Sabah Faculty of Food composed of Eryngium campestre L. essential oil encapsulated in nano-chitosan to
Science and Nutrition. prolong the shelf-life of fresh cherry fruits. Food Hydrocolloids, 111, Article 106394.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106394
Ardean, C., Davidescu, C. M., Nemeş, N. S., Negrea, A., Ciopec, M., Duteanu, N.,
Data availability Negrea, P., Duda-Seiman, D., & Musta, V. (2021). Factors influencing the
antibacterial activity of chitosan and chitosan modified by functionalization.
No data was used for the research described in the article. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, 7449. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijms22147449
Avato, P., Laquale, S., Argentieri, M. P., Lamiri, A., Radicci, V., & D’Addabbo, T. (2017).
Nematicidal activity of essential oils from aromatic plants of Morocco. Journal of pest
Acknowledgement science, 90, 711–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-016-0805-0
Baharlouei, P., & Rahman, A. (2022). Chitin and chitosan: Prospective biomedical
applications in drug delivery, cancer treatment, and wound healing. Marine Drugs,
This work was supported by the Universiti Malaysia Sabah 20, 460. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20070460
GUG0558-1/2022 and Higher Institutuion Centre of Excellence (HiCoE) Bai, Y., Niu, Y., Qin, S., & Ma, G. (2023). A new biomaterial derived from Aloe
vera—Acemannan from basic studies to clinical application. Pharmaceutics, 15,
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Bajaj, K., Adhikary, T., Gill, P. P. S., & Kumar, A. (2023). Edible coatings enriched with
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