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 “Venomous” Bites from
“Non-Venomous” Snakes
This page intentionally left blank
 “Venomous” Bites from
“Non-Venomous” Snakes
Second Edition

Scott A. Weinstein
Women’s and Children’s Hospital, North Adelaide, Australia

David A. Warrell
Emeritus Professor of Tropical Medicine and Honorary Fellow of St
Cross College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom

Daniel E. Keyler
Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies
and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
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any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-822786-2

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Dedication

This contribution is respectfully dedicated to the fond memory of

Professor Sherman A. Minton, Madge R. Minton, and Professor Alan
W. Bernheimer. All were innate naturalists, humble, talented scientists,
brilliant teachers and mentors, and, most importantly, generous,
treasured friends.

Sherman A. and Madge R. Minton, 1985. An outstanding

herpetologist of historical importance, Sherman (1919e99) was a
pioneer in twentieth-century research of venomous snakes and snake
venoms. He had a special interest in the medical importance of non-
front-fanged snakes and pioneered the modern investigation of their
venoms. A highly respected faculty member in the Department of
Microbiology and Immunology at the Indiana University School of
Medicine, he was a compassionate physician and accomplished
microbiologist/parasitologist. Madge (1920e2004) was a keen
herpetologist, pilot, ethnologist, and lapidary-gemologist. She served
in the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) program during World
War II, while Sherman was a naval medical officer on the USS Brooks
deployed on the Coral Sea. Their shared intense passion for
herpetology and toxinology formed one of the deep links of their
greater than 50-year loving partnership. Their professional
collaborations produced two popular books and multiple scientific
contributions and also contributed significantly to the conservation of
the herpetological fauna of Indiana. Sherman published over 150
papers, including a major comprehensive monograph on the
herpetology of Pakistan, and co-authored and edited several books on
vi Dedication

snakebite as well as regional herpetology guides. To date, his book,

Amphibians and Reptiles of Indiana, is the most comprehensive study
of the herpetology of that state. His engaging autobiography was
published posthumously (for detailed information on Sherman A.
Minton’s life and career, see Bechtel, 1999; Stewart, 2000; Karns,
2001; Weinstein, 2003, and Minton, 2001; photo copyright to
Brian Marian and Scott A. Weinstein).

Sherman A. Minton and Scott A. Weinstein (1984) discussing the

extraction of venom samples from a pair of midget faded
rattlesnakes, Crotalus oreganus concolor
(photo copyright to Brian Marian).

Group photo at the First World Congress of Herpetology,

Canterbury, UK (1989), after the symposium on venomous snakes.
Pictured from left: Herbert Rosenberg, David A. Warrell, Sherman A.
Minton, Dietrich Mebs, Julian White, Elazar Kochva, and David L.
Hardy, Sr. (photo copyright to David A. Warrell).
 Dedication vii

Alan W. Bernheimer (date unknown). One of the great

microbiologists of the twentieth century, Alan (1914e2006) was one
of the pioneers of modern bacterial toxinology. Strongly interested in
hemolytic toxins, his research had no boundaries and encompassed
the study of toxins from numerous micro-organisms as well as
cnidarians (jellyfish, anemones), hymenopterans (especially ants), and
snake venoms. He was the recipient of a National Institutes of
Health career award and a two-time recipient of the Eli Lilly Award,
given to outstanding microbiologists for their noteworthy
accomplishments. He contributed over 130 scientific papers and
edited several books (see Linder [2006] for further information about
Alan W. Bernheimer’s life and career; photo copyright to Alan W.
Bernheimer, Jr.).
viii Dedication

Alan W. Bernheimer (1967). Alan was appointed Professor of

Microbiology at New York University School of Medicine in 1941 and
remained Professor Emeritus until his passing in 2006. In addition to
his insightful approach to research, he was a talented, patient teacher
and was popular among the medical and graduate students who
attended his information-packed microbiology lectures. He was also
an erudite lepidopterist (with a particular interest in South American
butterflies) and a talented creative/experimental (“reflectographs”)
photographer. His wife, Harriet (1919e2009), was an accomplished
microbiologist who specialized in the characterization of the
biological roles of the capsular antigens of Streptococcus pneumoniae
(photo copyright to Alan W. Bernheimer, Jr.).

Memoriam
During the last 2 decades, the World has very sadly lost several
distinguished herpetologists and toxinologists who contributed
essential works about non-front-fanged snakes, their glands, dentition,
venoms, and evolutionary biology. Their legacies will continue to
impact the fields to which they made enduring contributions.

Prof. Kenneth V. Kardong (image copyright to the late Kenneth V. Kardong, and thanks to
Prof. Stephen P. Mackessy).
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 Dedication ix

Kenneth V. Kardong (1943e2018)dA brilliant functional

morphologist, herpetologist, and vertebrate anatomist, Ken’s ethical
and dedicated approach to research was matched by his warmth,
genuineness, and generosity. Ken’s singular contributions to the
functional significance of low-pressure and high-pressure venom
glands comprise only a portion of his studies into the biology of non-
front-fanged snakes. His passing is not only a profound loss to science
but also that of a warm, close friend (for detailed information about
Ken’s life, career, and reflections of friends and colleagues, see
Young et al., 2019).

Prof. Elazar Kochva (image copyright to Prof. David A. Warrell).

Elazar Kochva (1926e2018)dAn insightful and thorough

investigator of venomous snakes and the functional morphology of the
venom apparatus, Elazar Kochva methodically characterized key
aspects of venom delivery and its evolution among diverse ophidian
lineages. His carefully documented research is an indicator of his
depth of comprehension especially about the evolution, venom
apparatus, and venoms of unusual forms such as the burrowing asps
(Atractaspis spp.). Elazar Kochva was an important and influential
member of the Israeli scientific community (for further details
about Elazar Kochva’s life and accomplishments,
see Weinstein and Warrell, 2019).
x Dedication

Dr. William (Bill) Roy Branch (image copyright to Johan Marais).

William (Bill) R. Branch (1946e2018)dFrom the beginning of his

scientific training, Bill Branch seemed to be destined to be a force in
African herpetology, a destiny that he clearly was committed to
realize. His interest in African herpetofauna defined his career and
resulted in his switch from a post-doctoral cell biologist studying
hepatocellular carcinoma to a renowned herpetologist who
reinvigorated African herpetological research. He had a talent for
detecting the hidden features of secretive African fossorial snakes and
had a particular interest in non-front-fanged snakes, as well as
unusual species such as the burrowing asps or mole vipers, Atractaspis
spp., and the quill-snouted snakes, Xenocalamus spp. Bill was a warm
and generous colleague (for further information about Bill’s life and
his important contributions, see Bauer and Rödel, 2019, Rogers, 2018,
and Weinstein and Warrell, 2019).
 Dedication xi

Dr. Donald Broadley (image copyright to Johan Marais).

Donald G. Broadley (1932e2016)dOne of the most historically

important herpetologists who specialized in African species, Donald
Broadley epitomized detailed, meticulous research and analysis of
African herpetofauna. His skillful observations and care in reporting
his voluminous data stand as an example of the significant difference
one individual can make with such careful and methodical research. In
heart-felt narratives, close colleagues and friends have vividly
described Donald Broadley’s warmth and amiable collaborative spirit
(for additional information about Donald Broadley’s life, career, and
his personal impact on the lives of friends/colleagues, see Branch,
1991, Branch and Bates, 2018).
xii Dedication

Prof. Garth Underwood (image copyright to Prof. Judith Gobin and the Department of Life
Sciences, St. Augustine Campus, The University of the West Indies).

Garth Underwood (1919e2002)dA prescient squamate reptile

systematics biologist and erudite herpetologist with a comprehensive
perspective, Garth Underwood was also a keen evolutionary biologist
and highly respected academician. He had an early interest in the
evolution of snake cephalic glands and contributed some of the most
commonly cited (to this day) investigations of these organs. After his
passing, contributed memorials by colleagues and friends highlighted
his talent as a teacher and his previously unknown role in British
military intelligence operations in WW II (for further information
about Garth Underwood’s life and career,
see Thorpe, 2003 and Branch, 2003).
Contents
About the authors .................................................................................. xix
Foreword.............................................................................................xxiii
Preface to the second edition ...................................................................xxv
Acknowledgments for the second edition..................................................xxix
Introduction....................................................................................... xxxiii

CHAPTER 1 A summary of taxing taxonomic considerations:

non-front-fanged snakes and the shifting sands
of systematics ........................................................ 1
1.1 The shifting sands of taxonomic reassignments and their
relevance to the envenomed patient .....................................16
1.2 Brief glimpses of a vast landscape: the basics of taxonomic
reassignments and discordance of morphological and
molecular systematics investigations....................................24
1.3 Outlined inventory of a recent higher phylogeny of
Caenophidian snakes.........................................................33
1.3.1 Classification.......................................................... 33
1.4 General phylogenetic inventory of Caenophidian snakes:
comments and consideration of known medical
significance .....................................................................34
CHAPTER 2 Differences between buccal gland secretion and
associated venom delivery systems of front-fanged
snakes and non-front-fanged snakes: Low- versus
high-pressure gland function and canaliculated
versus solid dentition.............................................41
2.1 Basic considerations regarding gland structure and
function ..........................................................................42
2.2 Overview of hypotheses for the evolution of venom-delivery
systems and other adaptive gland functions...........................68
2.3 Theories considering the evolution of canaliculated fangs
and enlarged grooved teeth ................................................71
2.4 Low-pressure ‘Duvernoy’s glands’ and high-pressure
venom glands: a question of semantics? ...............................79

xiii
xiv Contents

CHAPTER 3 A brief overview of the history of non-front-fanged

snake venom research ...........................................81
3.1 Background and beginnings ...............................................81
3.2 The modern era: advances and attributions............................85
3.3 A brief overview of major classes of non-front-fanged
colubroid venom components .............................................95
3.3.1 Three-finger-fold toxins (3-FFTXs)........................... 95
3.3.2 Cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRiSPs).................. 97
3.3.3 Snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs), matrix
metalloproteases (MMPs), and snake venom serine
proteases (SVSPs).................................................. 98
3.3.4 Phospholipases A2 and B (PLA2 and PLB) ...............102
3.3.5 ‘Other’ components ..............................................104
3.3.6 A comment on the hypothesized assignment of snake
venom toxins to clinical effects of envenoming:
causality and strength of association ........................105
3.3.7 Illumination of biological function: prey-specificity
and research trends ...............................................130
3.3.8 Immunology of non-front-fanged snake venoms.........146
3.3.9 Commercial antivenoms against medically
important elapids and viperids: possible use for
envenoming by non-front-fanged snakes; utility or
futility?...............................................................149
3.3.10 Future research.....................................................152
CHAPTER 4 Medically significant bites by non-front-fanged
snakes (NFFCs) .................................................... 155
4.1 Typical features of documented cases and evidence-based
risk .............................................................................. 160
4.1.1 Published and communicated or managed cases of
medically significant non-front-fanged colubroid
bites: summaries and strength of evidence ..................161
4.1.2 Epidemiology of bites from non-front-fanged snakes....320
4.1.3 Circumstances associated with species capable of
inflicting life-threatening envenoming........................345
4.2 Some representative genera: typical features of bites and
an overview of their natural history and toxinology.............. 347
Colubridae, Ahaetuliinae..................................................347
4.2.1 Genus Chrysopelea (Boie, 1826): background and
general features of documented bites .........................347
 Contents xv

Colubridae, Colubrinae....................................................350
4.2.2 Genera Boiga (Fitzinger, 1826), and Toxicodryas
(Hallowell, 1857): background and general features
of documented bites................................................350
4.2.3 Genera Hemorrhois (Boie, 1826), Platyceps
(Blyth, 1860), Hierophis (Fitzinger in Bonaparte, 1834),
Dolichophis (Gistel, 1868), and Coluber
(Linnaeus, 1758): background and general features
of documented bites................................................363
Dipsadidae ....................................................................369
4.2.4 Genus Philodryas (Wagler, 1830): background and
general features of documented bites .........................369
4.2.5 Genus Heterodon (Latreille, 1801): background and
general features of documented bites .........................385
4.2.6 Genera Borikenophis and Cubophis
(Hedges et al., 2009): background and general
features of documented bites ....................................395
Natricidae......................................................................401
4.2.7 Genus Thamnophis (Fitzinger, 1843) and comments
on genus Nerodia (Baird and Girard, 1853):
background and general features of documented
bites.....................................................................401
Psammophiidae ..............................................................407
4.2.8 Genus Psammophis (Boie, 1825): background and
general features of documented bites .........................407
4.2.9 Summarized consideration of representative
species with limited evidence ...................................410
4.3 Life-threatening and fatal cases: non-front-fanged snakes
with lethal potential and assessment of
evidence-based risk......................................................... 417
4.3.1 Dispholidus typus (Smith, 1828), Thelotornis
capensis (Smith, 1849), and Thelotornis kirtlandii
(Hallowell, 1844); Colubridae, Colubrinae:
background and general features of documented
bites.....................................................................417
4.3.2 Rhabdophis subminiatus (Schlegel, 1837),
Rhabdophis tigrinus (Boie, 1826), and Rhabdophis
ceylonensis (Günther, 1858); Natricidae: background
and general features of documented bites ...................435
xvi Contents

4.3.3 Comparison of major features of hazard level 1

non-front-fanged snakes (Dispholidus typus, Thelotornis
capensis, Thelotornis kirtlandii, Rhabdophis tigrinus,
Rhabdophis subminiatus, and Rhabdophis
ceylonensis)...........................................................457
4.3.4 Guilty without a trial: three additional unsupported
reports of fatal outcomes after bites by Tachymenis
peruviana (Wiegmann, 1834) (Dipsadidae), Oligodon
arnensis (Shaw, 1802) (Colubridae, Colubrinae), and
Xenodon severus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Dipsadidae) ..........458
4.4 Aberrant cases and representative cases without clear
etiology: a critical assessment of risk................................. 464
4.4.1 Boiga irregularis (Bechstein, 1802) (Colubridae,
Colubrinae) ...........................................................464
4.4.2 Malpolon monspessulanus (Hermann, 1804)
(Psammophiidae)....................................................475
4.4.3 Hydrodynastes gigas (Duméril et al., 1854),
Dipsadidae ............................................................481
4.4.4 Philodryas olfersii latirostris (Cope, 1863),
Dipsadidae ............................................................486
4.4.5 Platyceps najadum (Eichwald, 1831) [Colubridae,
Colubrinae]: a fatal case of progressive neuropathy
from a colubrid bite? ..............................................492
4.4.6 Hierophis viridiflavus (Lacépède, 1789) [Colubridae,
Colubrinae]: a case of neurotoxic colubrine bite or
a more common etiology?........................................497
4.4.7 “Venomous” bites by non-venomous lizards? ..............503
4.5 Pitfalls noted in documented cases: Differentiating
Perceived versus Evidence-Based Risk............................... 528
4.5.1 Examples of pitfalls noted in documented cases ..........528
4.5.2 Perceived versus evidence-based risk: human
response to trauma and somatosensory
amplification .........................................................546
4.6 Recommendations for management of medically
significant non-front-fanged snake bites.............................. 550
4.6.1 General.................................................................550
4.6.2 Specific ................................................................552
 Contents xvii

CHAPTER 5 Summary and conclusions .................................... 595

Appendix A Representative unverified cases of medically significant

non-front-fanged snake bites posted on the internet ...................601
Appendix B Representative lethal potency ranges and yields of venoms
and other oral products from selected non-front-fanged
colubroid snakes..................................................................609
Appendix C Strategies for management of gram-negative septicemia:
are there lessons to be learned for managing venom-induced
coagulopathies?...................................................................615
Appendix D Legal considerations regarding private ownership of
venomous snakes (including hazard level 1 non-front
fanged snakes): an opinionated essay ......................................619
Appendix E List of examined osteological specimens .................................623
Additional recommended reading .............................................................625
Bibliography.........................................................................................633
Glossary...............................................................................................719
A call for cases .....................................................................................737
Index...................................................................................................739
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This page intentionally left blank
About the authors

SCOTT A. WEINSTEIN, BA, MSc, PhD, MBBS, MD, DIP, ABFM,

FAAFP

Scott Weinstein was consumed from earliest childhood by an interest in reptiles and
amphibians. A member of the New York Herpetological Society by age 11, he was
one of a lucky cadre of young members who were gently mentored by the
well-known curator of the Staten Island Zoo, the late Carl Kauffeld. His studies
of “rear-fanged colubrids” started in Junior High School where he started to compare
the sparse information in the available herpetology literature with collected living
specimens. These interests rapidly focused on the biology of venomous snakes
and herpetological toxinology. This led to his studies in herpetology with Prof.
Edmund D. Brodie, Jr. at Adelphi University (Garden City, NY), where he earned
his BA in biological sciences and comparative religion. Shortly thereafter, he
became the late Prof. Sherman A. Minton’s last student at the Indiana University
School of Medicine, where he earned an MSc in Medical Microbiology and Immu-
nology. His PhD in Medical Microbiology and Immunology was earned with the late
Prof. Alan W. Bernheimer at the Sackler Institute of Graduate Biomedical Sciences
of New York University School of Medicine (New York, NY), his MBBS was earned
at Flinders University School of Medicine, Adelaide, Australia, and the Board of
Regents of the University of the State of New York conferred his MD. He completed
family medicine residency at South Nassau Communities Hospital, Oceanside, NY
and served as chief resident. He also completed two postdoctoral research

xix
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PLATE XX.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

Variation of Former Plan.—This plate shows the development and

variation of the inside houses of the block of four shown on Plate
xiv., with a superior arrangement of larder, and with projecting coals.
The long sloping roof has been hipped back to give a pleasing line,
especially in perspective.
The Long Sloping Roof.—The long sloping roof, a feature frequently
introduced at Bournville, has several advantages. If it were not
employed, and the front walls were carried up level with the ceiling
line of the bedroom, the proportions of the elevation would not be
so happy, while an additional expense would be incurred by the
extra brickwork. Such a height, moreover, would be wholly
unnecessary. In the case of cottages with the long sloping roof the
height of bedrooms to the point of intersection of roof and wall need
only be 5 ft. 6 ins. Ample ventilation is obtained by the simple
insertion of a 9 in. by 7 in. air-brick on the outside wall, and a
Sheringham ventilator or Tobin tube within, about 5 ft. 6 ins. from
the floor, the cost of the latter being about 3s., and of the former a
little more. The long sloping roof can rarely be treated tastefully
without boldly projecting the eaves. The projection gives a verandah
in front of the house which affords a pleasant shelter. Wooden posts
may be used as supports, and by training climbing plants up them,
and allowing them to festoon, a really delightful summer bower may
be formed. As the roof is broad, pantiles may be used with safety so
far as good taste is concerned: bold roof, bold covering. By omitting
the gutters at the dormer eaves a pleasing effect is gained, and
gutters are quite unnecessary with an eaves projection. The cheeks
of the dormers should be dressed with lead. The cottages in
question are whitewashed, and have a tarred plinth of about 2 ft. to
prevent the unsightliness of mud splashes.
 FRONT ELEVATION
GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XX.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 30.

The Large Living Room.—In view of the gain to health of one

spacious living room over the parlour plan, a number of these
cottages has been built in varying design at Bournville, and no
difficulty has been found in letting them. There has been, however,
considerable discussion with regard to their convenience to the
artisan in other districts where they have been introduced. Although
cottages in the past had no third room, there having been, as here,
one large comfortable room (often with the ingle nook) and a small
kitchen at the back—all the accommodation really required—yet at
the present time many artisans are not content without the useless
parlour, which they appear to think adds dignity to the house, but
which is used by them chiefly as a store-room for gim-cracks. There
is, perhaps, a reasonable objection to a single large living room on
the part of a particular class who let the front room to a lodger.
Nevertheless, for a model village or a garden city it is strongly
recommended that the plan should be adopted freely, and the
preference for the useless front room in small cottages discouraged.
Total cost of the example given, including all extras, £268 per
cottage.
Laying out of gardens, £10 each.
Cubical contents, 28,587 ft., at 4½d. per foot cube, £536, or £268
per cottage.
Instances of the last two types of cottages dealt with appear in
the view given on Plate iv.
PLATE XXI.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

PLATE XXI.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 32.

The smaller cottage shown here is planned on similar lines to the

foregoing, but with the additional accommodation of an attic, and bay
windows to the two storeys. This is an instance of how a smaller
cottage may be joined to a larger one in treating a corner site, the
larger one on the corner giving importance to each road.
PLATES XXII., XXIII., I. (FRONTISPIECE), XXIV., XXV., AND XXVI.
BLOCKS OF FOUR.

PLATE XXII.
BLOCK OF FOUR COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 32.
 PLATE XXIII.
BLOCK OF FOUR COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 32.
 PLATE XXIV.
BLOCK OF FOUR COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 32.

These plates show examples of cottages in blocks of four rather

larger in size than the last type, and treated in different materials.
Plate xxvi. shows the details of the cottages on Plate xxv.
 PLATE XXV.
BLOCK OF FOUR COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 32.
 PLATE XXVI.
DETAIL VIEW.
SEE PAGE 32.
PLATE XXVII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

FRONT ELEVATION
GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XXVII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 33.

Plate xxvii. gives the plan and elevation of a pair of cottages also
having similar accommodation to those with the long sloping roofs
shown on Plate xx. The cost, however, is here considerably reduced
by each house having a side entrance, and by the omission of the
ingle nook, verandah and bay, while the living room, though smaller,
is not a passage room. By approaching the stairs from the lobby, not
only is more privacy secured, but the space beneath is made
available in the kitchen for a “Cabinet” bath, which is so placed as to
occupy it when in use instead of projecting into the kitchen. The
planning is simple and square, which, with the omission of bays and
the introduction of plain casements, all helps to reduce the cost.
The accommodation is:—
Ground Floor.
Living Room, 12 ft. 4 ins. × 16 ft. Kitchen, 10 ft. 3 ins. × 11 ft. 6 ins. Lobby.
Larder, w.c. and Coals.
Bedroom Floor.
First Bedroom, 12 ft. 4 ins. × 16 ft. Second Bedroom, 7 ft. 8 ins. × 11 ft. 6
ins. Third Bedroom, 8 ft. × 8 ft. 3 ins. Linen Closet.
Total cost, including all extras, £250 per cottage.
Laying out of gardens, £10 each.
Cubical contents, 24,000 ft., at 5d. per foot cube, £500, or £250
per cottage.
PLATE XXVIII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

FRONT ELEVATION
GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XXVIII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 34.

This plate shows the plan and elevation of a pair of cottages

having the parlour in addition to the living room and scullery. The
living room, which should always be the larger, is here the full width
of the house. The measurements are:—
Ground Floor.
Living Room, 11 ft. 5 ins. × 16 ft. 6 ins. Parlour, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 13 ft. 3 ins.
Scullery, Outside Larder, w.c. and Coals.
Bedroom Floor.
First Bedroom, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 13 ft. 3 ins. Second Bedroom, 8 ft. 6 ins. × 11
ft. 5 ins. Third Bedroom, 7 ft. 8 ins. × 8 ft. 6 ins. Linen Closet.
Total cost, including all extras, £230 per cottage. Cubical contents,
33,918 ft. at 3¼d. per ft. cube. £460, or £230 each. (Built in 1899.)
The stairs in this instance descend to the entrance lobby, but they
may be planned the other way about in order to avoid the necessity
of traversing the parlour to get to the bedrooms, and to insure
children crying upstairs being heard in the living room or the
scullery. This, however, would necessitate the cutting of 3 ft. off the
large front bedroom, while the respective spaces for the larder and
the lobby below would be reversed, the position of the former being
undesirable.
Ordinary roofing tiles and common bricks have been used. The
living room is boarded, and the scullery quarried.
It might be pointed out that there is but little scope for variety of
plan in these smaller cottages. The variations must be obtained in
the treatment of elevations. As already stated, to build cheaply the
main point is to get the walls as long and straight as possible.
 FRONT ELEVATION
BLOCK OF THREE COTTAGES.

PLATES XXIX. AND XXX.

BLOCK OF THREE COTTAGES.
 GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XXIX.
BLOCK OF THREE COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 35.

Plate xxix. and the accompanying scale-drawing give the plan and
elevation of a block of three cottages, a sketch of which appears in
Plate xxx. The inner one occupies an exact third of the land, and is
double fronted. By putting the inner one with its axis to the front, an
equal garden-space is given to all the houses without incurring a re-
division of the land.
 PLATE XXX.
BLOCK OF THREE COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 35.

The inner and left-hand houses have practically the same

accommodation, but the right-hand has several advantages: there is a
wider hall, the living room is not a passage room, while the kitchen is
reached from the hall, and the wash-house is entered from the yard.
Accommodation of left-hand and inner houses.
Ground Floor.
Parlour, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 15 ft. 3 ins. Living Room, 10 ft. × 14 ft. 6 ins. and bay.
Scullery, 10 ft. × 6 ft. and recess for Bath. Coals, Tools, and w.c.
Bedroom Floor.
First Bedroom, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 15 ft. 3 ins. Second Bedroom, 7 ft. 6 ins. × 14 ft.
6 ins., and bay. Third Bedroom, 7 ft. 5 ins. × 11 ft. 6 ins. Fourth Bedroom, 9 ft.
6 ins. × 6 ft. (middle house only). Linen Closet.

Cost of left-hand and inner houses, including all extras, £293 per
cottage. (Built in 1904.)
 The right-hand house, owing to the extra conveniences, works out
at rather more.
In the middle house the recess between the range and small
window makes a very convenient space for a writing table, especially
if curtains are dropped from a rod to screen it off, its proximity to the
range making it a warm and cosy retreat in winter. There is a bay
window to the living room of the outside houses.
Two of the houses in this block are fitted with Cornes’ Patent
Combined Scullery-Bath-Range and Boiler, described on page 52, and
the third with the “Cabinet” bath.
The elevation, with the forecourt formed by the projection of the
two outside houses, may be made very pleasing. From the perspective
it will be seen that the inner house is covered with rough-cast, making
an agreeable contrast with the outer ones of plain brickwork. Rough-
cast, while fairly economical, is very effective, and helps to brighten
the forecourt. The projection of the outer houses affords a break, the
abruptness of which does not attract attention, but which gives an
opportunity of stopping the rough-cast, which would otherwise have
to be carried round to the back of the whole block.
It is not advisable to introduce a variety of colour upon exteriors.
Colour is best disposed in masses—that is, it should be treated
broadly, not distributed in isolated portions, or in sharply contrasting
tints. (See page 59.)
The roof of this block is of green slates of varying sizes, diminishing
towards the ridge.
Aspect in the placing of the house is here studied as well as the
site. The axis runs south-west and north-east, and the front
commands a pleasing perspective of one of the principal Bournville
roads, and an admirable view of the Lickey Hills in the distance.
D E S C R I P T I O N S O F P LAT E S
X X X I .-X X X I I I .
PLATE XXXI.
PAIR OF COTTAGES (SHALLOW SITE).

PLATE XXXI.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 38.

The view shown in this plate illustrates the treatment of a shallow

corner site, the block being a pair of semi-detached, double-fronted
cottages. The plan is similar to the middle house of the foregoing
block.

PLATE XXXII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
 PLATE XXXII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 38.

A pair of cottages also planned on the same lines as the middle

house shown in Plate xxix. and the foregoing shallow-site pair, but
placed at right angles instead of lengthwise, and occupying a corner
position.

PLATE XXXIII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
 PLATE XXXIII.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 38.

An example of a pair of cottages treated in the Dutch style.

D E S C R I P T I O N O F P LAT E S
X X X I V. A N D X X X V.
PLATE XXXIV.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

FRONT ELEVATION
GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XXXIV.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 40.

The accommodation of the pair of cottages shown in this plate is as

follows:—
Ground Floor.
 Parlour, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 13 ft. 6 ins., and bay. Living room, 11 ft. 6 ins. × 14 ft. 5
ins. (French Windows). Kitchen, 10 ft. 8 ins. × 12 ft. 3 ins. Larder. Porch, Hall,
and Clock Space under stairs. Tools, w.c., and Coals (Enclosed yard).
Bedroom Floor.
First Bedroom, 11 ft. 4 ins. × 13 ft. 6 ins. Second Bedroom, 11 ft. 6 ins. × 14 ft.
5 ins. Third Bedroom, 8 ft. 6 ins. × 10 ft. 8 ins. Bath Room (hot and cold
water).
Height of rooms: Ground floor, 8 ft. 9 ins.; first floor, 8 ft. 6 ins.
Total cost, including all extras, £375 per cottage.
Laying out of gardens, £12 10s. each.
Cubical contents, 34,285 ft., at 5¼d. per foot cube = £375 per
cottage. (Built in 1903.)
Materials.—Whitewashed common bricks are here used. Whitewash
is cheap and may be used very effectively, especially where there are
trees in the background. The roofs and dormers are hipped, and
covered with Welsh green slates and blue half-round ridges; the
chimney pots are buff-colour.
Sills.—The sills, as in many of the other houses, are formed of calf-
nosed bricks set on edge in cement, with two courses of tiles beneath,
which form a drip under the sill, and with a backing of slate in
cement. By bringing the window-frame forward to reduce the size of
the top of the sill, damp and the driving in of rain are prevented. This
makes an inexpensive sill, and adds to the homely appearance of the
cottage.
Interior Wall Decoration.—The interior wall decoration is Duresco
throughout. Plain ingrain paper, of which there is a number of very
cheap kinds now on the market, might be used with a frieze. A good
effect is obtained by bringing down the white from the ceiling as far
as the picture rail, which gives light to the room and improves its
proportions.
The exterior woodwork is painted a Verona green.
Fireplaces.—Fireplaces suitable for this or any of the six-roomed
cottages are as follows:—
 Front Room: interior grate, slabbed surrounds, tiled hearth, and white wood
chimney piece. Living Room: iron tiled mantel-sham. Kitchen: 3 ft. range with
white tiled coves and York stone shelf and trusses. Front Bedroom: 30 in.
mantel-sham and tiled hearth. Back Bedrooms: 24 in. mantel-sham and tiled
hearth.
The total cost of the whole should not amount to more than £12.
The scullery is lengthened by a projection in the nature of a bay.
The outbuildings, which are carried to right and left of the pair, give
privacy to the garden near to the houses.

PLATE XXXV.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.

This plate illustrates one of several different treatments of the last

plan.
 PLATE XXXV.
PAIR OF COTTAGES.
SEE PAGE 41.
PLATES XXXVI., XXXVII., AND XXXVIII.
SINGLE COTTAGE.

FRONT ELEVATION
SIDE ELEVATION
GROUND PLAN
BEDROOM PLAN
PLATE XXXVI.
SINGLE COTTAGE.
SEE PAGE 42.

Plate xxxvi. gives the plan of a single cottage occupying a corner

site. It contains:—
Ground Floor.
 Drawing Room, 12 ft. 6 ins. × 13 ft. 6 ins., and bay. Dining Room, 13 ft. × 13
ft., and bay (French casements). Kitchen, 10 ft. × 11 ft. Scullery, 8 ft. × 10 ft.
Larder. Porch and Hall, with Cloak Space under stairs. Coals, Tools, and w.c.
Bedroom Floor.
First Bedroom, 13 ft. 6 ins. × 15 ft. 9 ins. Second Bedroom, 11 ft. 6 ins. × 13 ft.
Third Bedroom, 10 ft. × 13 ft. Dressing Room. Cupboards. Bathroom, with w.c.
and Lavatory (hot and cold water).
As will be seen, there is very little space wasted in the planning of
the rooms.
The whole of the exterior is rough-cast. The front bedroom is
enlarged and projects over the ground floor, giving a pleasant shade
to the lower portion of the elevation, while the roof is continued over
one side and carried down to form the porch. The gable is of half-
timber framing.
The roof is covered with Hartshill hand-made tiles, which, while
richly toning and colouring, have admirably stood the test of several
years’ hard weather, and have proved much more durable than the
pressed tile used for some of the other cottages at Bournville.
The plan of the cottage might be simplified by gabling back and
front, the roof thus covering the whole building, and having no
valleys. The bedroom accommodation could be then increased by the
addition of attics.
Two views of the actual example appear in Plates xxxvii. and xxxviii.
 PLATE XXXVII.
SINGLE COTTAGE.
SEE PAGE 42.
 PLATE XXXVIII.
SINGLE COTTAGE.
SEE PAGE 42.