EE6702

PROTECTION AND
SWITCHGEAR
SYLLABUS
TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS
 INTRODUCTION
• Switching device: opening/closing and protective device: over-
current protection
• What is “Switchgear”?

• General term covering a wide range of equipments concerned

with switching and protection
• Switchgear – Switching, Protecting and Controlling
 INTRODUCTION

• Transmission and distribution lines: overhead lines

and exposed – breakdown
• Results in mechanical damage, electrical fault
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• PRINCIPLES
• The protective relaying scheme (protective relays, circuit
breakers etc.) - 5% of total cost
• Protective relays and relaying schemes - detect abnormal
conditions and operate automatic switchgear as soon as
possible (normal and fault currents)
• Protective relay – Device, senses abnormal conditions by
constantly monitoring (V, I,  & f) of the system
• Circuit breaker - disconnect the faulty element when it is
called upon to do so by the protective relay
• Entire process (fault occurrence, operation of relay, CB) is
automatic and fast
• Relay does not anticipate or prevent fault (action after fault)
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• Most visible effect of fault: sudden build-up of
current - over-current relaying
• Fault current magnitude - function of type of fault
and the source impedance (no. of generating units in
service - keeps changing)
• Operating time of o/c relaying keep changing - think
of other principles of protection
• Another very natural and appealing principle -
differential protection: current entering = leaving
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• Impractical for transmission lines (ends far apart, not
easy to compare)
• To solve above problem, a distance relay (compares
voltage with current at the same end) - measures the
impedance between relay location and fault point
• In case of double-end feed system or parallel lines, fault
gets fed from both sides
• In order to be selective, relay must be sensitive to
direction of fault power flow - termed as “directional
relays”
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• An electrical power system (generators,
transformers, transmission and distribution lines,
etc.) undergo abnormalities
• Examples:
– Worn out bearing: overloading of motor
– Tree falling or touching
– Lightning strike: insulation failure
– Pollution: degradation in performance of insulators
(breakdown)
– Under or over frequency of generators: mechanical
damage to it's turbine
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES (Contd.)
• Fault: automatic protective device - isolate faulty
element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy
section in normal operation.
• Fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second
• Short circuit for longer period – damages important
sections of system (fire)
• Fault spread and damage - system voltage may reduce
to low level and generators may lose synchronism
• Uncleared heavy short circuit – total failure of system
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES (Contd.)
• Protection needed also against abnormal conditions
• Examples:
– over-speed of generators and motors,
– over-voltage,
– under-frequency,
– loss of excitation,
– over-heating of stator and rotor of alternator, etc.
• Conclusion: every electrical equipment has to be
monitored to protect it and provide human safety under
abnormal operating conditions
 TYPES OF PROTECTION
• Protection systems can be classified into apparatus and
system protection
 Apparatus Protection
 Detection of a fault in the apparatus and consequent
protection
 Apparatus protection can be further classified into
following:
 Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection
 Transformer Protection
 Generator Protection
 Motor Protection
 Busbar Protection
 Types of Protection
 System Protection
 Detection of system unstable operating region and
consequent control actions and/or prevent damage
 Loss of system stability - partial or complete system
blackouts
 Under-frequency relays, out of-step protection,
islanding systems, rate of change of frequency relays,
reverse power flow relays, voltage surge relays etc. are
used for system protection
 Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are also
deployed for system protection
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• The nature of fault - any abnormal condition causes a
reduction in basic insulation strength
• Results in either excess current flows or impedance between
conductors or conductors to earth reduce to a lower value
• Probability of failure or abnormal condition is more on power
lines (greater length and exposure to atmosphere)
• According to causes of fault incidence, causes of failures is
classified as,
a. Breakdown may occur at normal voltage on account of
(i) Detoriation of insulation &
(ii) Damage due to unpredictable causes (perching of birds,
accidental short circuit by snakes, kite strings, tree branches,
ice & snow loading etc.)
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
b. Breakdown may occur because of abnormal voltages
caused by either (i) switching or (ii) lightning surges
• Faults are generally caused either by insulation failures
or by conducting path failures
• Failure of insulation - short circuit
• Most of the faults on T&D lines are caused by over
voltages due to lightning or switching surges (causes
flashover on the insulators surface - short circuits,
puncture or break), or by external conducting objects
falling on O.H. lines.
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• The line and apparatus insulation may be subjected to
transient over-voltages (switching operations) - peak value:
3 Vph - higher insulation level (3-5 times the nominal value)
• But still pollution on the insulator string (deposited soot or
cement dust) and by salt deposited by wind-borne sea spray
in coastal areas cause the insulation strength to decrease
• This will initially lower the insulation resistance and cause a
small leakage current or flashover - hastening deterioration
• Even if the insulation is enclosed (sheathed and armoured
cables and metal-clad switchgear), deterioration of insulation
occurs because of ageing
• Void formation in the insulating compound of UG cable
(unequal expansions and contractions) caused by rise and fall
of temperature is another cause of insulation failure
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• Lightning produces very high voltage surge (millions of volts) -
not feasible to provide an insulation. These surges travel with
velocity of light (limiting factors are surge Z and line R)
• Birds may cause faults on O.H. lines - bodies touch one of the
phases & earth wire (or metallic supporting structure).
• Broken conductor falls to the ground – short circuit
• Joint failures on cables or O.H. lines are also a cause of failure
• The opening of one or two of the 3 phases – unbalanced
• Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines set up
harmonics - heating the machines in short periods of time
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• Other causes of faults on O.H. lines are: aircraft, ice & snow
loading, snakes, lightning strokes, abnormal loading, storms,
earth quakes, creepers, etc.
• In case of cables, transformers, generators & other
equipments, the causes of failure are: Failure of solid
insulation (ageing, heat, moisture or over-voltage, mechanical
damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens,
flashover due to over-voltages, etc.)
• Sometimes CBs trip due to errors in the switching operation,
testing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in
the protective devices, etc.
• Certain faults occur due to poor quality of system components
or because of a faulty system design
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
CAUSES OF FAULTS
SN Equipment Causes of fault
Lightning stroke, Earth quake, icing, Birds, tree
1 Over head lines
branches, kite strings, Internal over voltages
Under ground Damage due to digging, Insulation failure due to
2
cable temperature rise, Failure of joints
Stator faults, Rotor faults, Abnormal conditions,
3 Alternator
Faults in associated equipment
Insulation failure, faults in tap-changer, faults in
4 Transformer
bushings, over loading
Over voltages, insulation failure, breaking of
5 C.T.’s and P.T.’s
conductors, wrong connection
Insulation failure, leakage of air/oil/gas, mechanical
6 Switchgear
defect, lack of maintenance
 TYPES OF FAULTS
Different types of faults are
(i) Symmetrical faults
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults
(iii) Multiple/Simultaneous faults
(i) Symmetrical faults
A three-phase fault (three phases are short circuited with or
without ground - to determine the “System fault level”)
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults
– Single-phase to Ground (L-G) fault
– Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) fault
– Phase-Phase (L-L) fault
– Open circuited phases – Break in the conducting path (joint
failures) and CB’s or isolators fails to close
– Winding faults – short circuit in machine winding
 TYPES OF FAULTS
(iii) Multiple/Simultaneous faults
• Two or more faults occurring simultaneously (same or
different types/points)
• For example, two L-G faults on same section or in different
lines (cross-country earth fault)
 Frequency of occurrence of different types of faults on OH
lines
TYPE OF FAULTS % OF TOTAL FAULTS
Line to Ground 85
Line to Line 8
Double Line to Ground 5
Three Phase 2
 TYPES OF FAULTS
• % distribution of faults on various elements of a power system

ELEMENTS % OF TOTAL FAULTS

Overhead Lines 50
Transformers 10
UG Cables 9
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, PTs, Relays, Control 12
equipment, etc.
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Fault impedance and fault current estimates form input
for the setting and coordination of protective devices
like over-current relay, distance relay etc.
• The equipment rating are decided based on Fault
Current.
• Symmetrical Components:
• Introduced by Dr. Charles L. Fortescue - analysis of
unsymmetrical (unbalanced) poly phase network
• “Fortescue Theorem” - an unbalanced system of ‘n’
related vectors can be resolved into ‘n’ system of
balanced vectors called symmetrical components of
original vectors
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• In a 3 system, 3 unbalanced vectors (Va, Vb & Vc or Ia, Ib
& Ic) can be resolved into 3 balanced system of vectors
called symmetrical components.
• Let Va, Vb and Vc be the set of unbalanced voltage vectors
with phase sequence abc. Each voltage vector can be
resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence
components as,
• Let, Va1, Vb1 & Vc1 = Positive sequence components
• Va2, Vb2 & Vc2 = Negative sequence components
• Va0, Vb0 & Vc0 = Zero sequence components
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
1. Positive sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120 in phase & having same phase
sequence as the original vectors (Phase sequence: abc)
2. Negative sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120 in phase & having phase sequence
opposite to that of the original vectors (Phase sequence:
acb)
3. Zero sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude and also are in-
phase with each other (zero phase displacement)
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Significance of Positive, Negative and Zero sequence Components
• Positive sequence voltage corresponds to generated voltages of an
alternator. If a set of positive sequence voltage is applied to the
stator windings of an alternator, the direction of rotation of the
stator field is same as that of the rotor or alternatively, if the
direction of rotation of the stator field is same as that of rotor, the
set of voltages are positive sequence voltages.
• On the contrary, if the direction of rotation of stator field is
opposite to that of rotor, the set of voltages are negative sequence
voltages.
• The zero sequence voltages are in-phase voltages, and therefore
they give rise to an alternating field in space, does not produce any
rotating field.
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• From the vector diagram of symmetrical components, the following
conclusions can be made
1. On rotating the vector Va1 by 120 in anti clock wise direction
(ACW), we get Vc1
2. On rotating the vector Va1 by 240 in anti clock wise direction, we
get Vb1
• Similarly for Va2 also. Therefore on rotating the symmetrical
components of one vector by 120 or multiples of 120, we get the
symmetrical components of other vectors.
• Operator ‘a’ is defined, causes a rotation of 120 in ACW direction,
whose magnitude is unity
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Computation of unbalanced vectors from their symmetrical
components

• Computation of symmetrical components from unbalanced

vectors

• Similarly, we can compute the expressions for current also

FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Since the phasor sum of 3 line-to-line voltages or 3 line
currents in 3 - 3 wire system is always zero, there will
be no zero sequence component in line voltages or line
currents of a 3 - 3 wire system
• In case of 3 - 4 wire system, sum of phase voltages
(line to neutral) may not be zero so that zero sequence
component (Va0) may exist. Also the sum of 3 line
currents equals the current in the Neutral wire
• Ia0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 1/3 In (or) In = 3 Ia0
• In the absence of neutral connection, zero sequence
line current is always zero
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks
• Positive sequence impedance is impedance offered to
the flow of positive sequence currents (Z1)
• Similarly negative and zero sequence impedance is
impedance offered to the flow of corresponding
sequence currents (Z2 & Z0)
• For static devices (transformer and transmission lines),
the sequence has no significance (Z1 = Z2); Z0 includes
impedance of the return path through the ground.
• In a symmetrical rotating machine, impedances are equal
in all the three phases
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Single phase equivalent circuit (Z or X diagram) formed
using Z1 is called positive sequence network, similarly for
negative and zero sequence networks
• In unsymmetrical fault analysis of power system, positive,
negative and zero sequence networks of the system are
determined and interconnected
• Voltage of the Neutral
• The potential of the neutral is given as, Vn = -InZn,
• Negative sign is used as the current flows from the
ground (higher potential) to the neutral (lower potential)
of the system (opposite)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• For a 3 phase system,
• I n = I a + Ib + I c
= (Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0) + (a2Ia1 + aIa2 + Ia0) + (aIa1 + a2Ia2 + Ia0)
= Ia1(1 + a + a2) + Ia2 (1 + a + a2) + 3 Ia0 = 3 Ia0
• Vn = - 3 Ia0 Zn
• Since positive and negative sequence components of
currents through neutral are absent, drops due to these
currents are also zero
• Also for a balanced set of currents or voltages, neutral is
at ground potential; therefore, for +ve and –ve sequence
networks, neutral will be taken as reference
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Sequence Network equations (Unloaded alternator)

• These equations will be derived for an unloaded alternator as

shown in fig. assuming that the system is balanced.
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Let Ea, Eb and Ec be the generated emf/phase
• In a balanced system, sequence impedance per phase are
same for all the three phases (analysis on single phase basis)
• At the fault point, +ve sequence component of voltage,
Va1 = Ea1 (emf) – Ia1 Z1 (drop) = Ea – Ia1 Z1
• Similarly, -ve sequence component of voltage, Va2 = Ea2 – Ia2 Z2
= – Ia2 Z2, Ea2 = 0 (since a synchronous machine is designed
with symmetrical windings, it induces emf of +ve seq. only, no
–ve or zero seq. voltages)
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Similarly, for zero sequence component of voltage, Ea0 = 0;
Va0 = Vn – Ia0 Zg0 = -3Ia0Zn – Ia0 Zg0 = -Ia0 (Zg0 + 3Zn)
• Where, Zg0 is the zero seq. impedance of the generator,
• Zn is the neutral impedance
• The 3 sequence network equations are:
Va1 = Ea1 – Ia1 Z1 = Ea – Ia1 Z1
Va2 = Ea2 – Ia2 Z2 = – Ia2 Z2
Va0 = – Ia0 Z0, where Z0 = Zg0 + 3Zn
and the corresponding sequence networks are:
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

• For all types of faults the sequence network equations will be the
same but the 3 equations describing the boundary conditions will
be different for different types of faults
• Sequence Networks of Transmission lines
• Sequence Networks of Loads
• Sequence Networks of Transformers
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Single Line to Ground Fault
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• A 25 MVA, 13.2 KV alternator with solidly grounded neutral
has a sub-transient reactance of 0.25 p.u. The negative and
zero sequence reactances are 0.35 and 0.1 p.u. respectively. A
SLG/LL/LLG fault occurs at the terminals of an unloaded
alternator; determine the fault current and line-to-line
voltages. Neglect resistance.
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Line to Line Fault
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Double Line to Ground Fault
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Three Phase Fault (Symmetrical Fault)
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Conclusion:
1. Positive sequence currents are present in ALL types of faults
2. Negative sequence currents are present in ALL
Unsymmetrical faults
3. Zero sequence currents are present when the neutral of the
system is grounded and the fault also involves ground, the
magnitude of neutral current is 3Ia0
 POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING OR
EARTHING
• The process of connecting the metallic frame (non-current carrying
part) of electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system
(neutral point) to earth (soil) is called “Grounding” or “Earthing”
• Connection to earth may be through a conductor or some other
circuit elements (resistor, CB) depending upon the situation.
• Advantages :
1. Protection to power systems
2. Ensures the safety of the persons handling the equipment
• Grounding or earthing may be classified as
(i) Equipment grounding
(ii) System (Neutral) grounding
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

• Neutral is not connected to the ground (isolated) - isolated or

free neutral system
• In Fig. - line conductors have capacitances between one
another (delta) and to ground (star)
• Delta connected capacitors have little effect on the grounding
characteristic of the system - neglected
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Circuit behaviour under normal conditions

• The line is assumed to be perfectly transposed so that each

conductor has same capacitance to ground
CR = CY = CB = C (say)
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Since the phase voltages VRN, VYN and VBN have the same
magnitude, the capacitive currents IR, IY and IB will have the same
value, i.e.

• Capacitive currents IR, IY and IB lead their respective phase voltages

VRN, VYN and VBN by 90 as shown in the phasor diagram
• Three capacitive currents are equal in magnitude and are displaced
by 120, therefore their phasor sum is zero
• As a result, no current flows to ground and the potential of neutral
is same as ground potential, therefore it poses no problem under
normal conditions.
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Circuit behaviour under abnormal conditions

• Suppose line to ground fault occurs in line B at some point F as

shown in Fig. (i), the current in phase B has two components: one IR
flows from F to R through CR, second IY flows from F to Y through CY
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• The voltages driving these currents IR and IY are VBR and VBY
respectively.
• Note that VBR and VBY are the line voltages
• Since, the paths of IR and IY are essentially capacitive, they
lead their respective voltages by 90 as shown in Fig. (ii)
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

• The following conclusions can be drawn from the above:

1. The potential of the faulty phase becomes equal to ground
potential. However, the voltages of the two remaining healthy
phases rise from their normal phase voltages to full line value. This
may result in insulation breakdown.
2. The capacitive current in the two healthy phases increase to 3
times the normal value.
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
4. The capacitive fault current (Ic) becomes 3 times the normal per
phase capacitive current.
5. The capacitive fault current Ic flows into earth. Experience shows
that Ic in excess of 4A is sufficient to maintain an arc in the ionized
path of the fault. If this current is once maintained, it may exist
even after the earth fault is cleared. This phenomenon of
persistent arc is called arcing ground. Due to arcing ground, the
system capacity is charged and discharged in a cyclic order,
because the arc extinguishes and restrikes in a repeated regular
manner; This sets up high-frequency oscillations on the whole
system and the phase voltage of healthy conductors may rise to 5
to 6 times its normal value, leads to insulation damage in the line.
6. Earth fault relaying becomes complicated here because the earth
fault current is not enough to operate the relay
• Due to the above disadvantages, ungrounded neutral system is not
used.
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING

• The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth

either directly or through some circuit element is called Neutral
grounding.
• Neutral grounding provides protection to personnel and equipment
(current path is completed through earthed neutral and the
protective devices operate to isolate the faulty conductor from the
rest of the system)
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING
• Advantages of Neutral Grounding:

i. Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to

ground voltages i.e. they remain nearly constant
ii. High voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated
iii. The protective relays can be used to provide protection
against earth faults.
iv. The over-voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth
v. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
vi. It provides improved service reliability.
vii. Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduced.
METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING
• The system neutral can be grounded effectively or
non-effectively
• In effectively grounded systems, the neutral point is
grounded directly (also called solid grounding) to the
earth
• In non-effectively grounded systems, any of the
following three methods can be adopted:
»Resistance grounding
»Reactance grounding
»Resonant or Peterson-coil grounding
(by arc suppression coil)
Solid or Effective Grounding
 Solid Grounding
• When a neutral point of three phase system is directly
connected to earth (soil) through a wire of negligible
resistance and reactance, it is called solid or effective
grounding. (Neutral is held at earth potential under all
conditions)
• Consider a line to ground fault in line B as shown in Fig. The
capacitive currents flowing in the healthy phases R and Y are
IR and IY respectively.
• The current in line B has 3 components:
1. IR from N to R through F and CR,
2. IY from N to Y through F and CY and
3. IF from F to earth, then to N and back to F through phase B
 Solid Grounding

• WKT, IF = 3Vph / z1 + z2 + z0, since z1 + z2 + z0 is predominantly inductive, IF

lags behind phase to neutral voltage of faulted phase (VBN) by nearly 90
• Voltage driving the currents IR & IY are VRN & VYN respectively and since
impedance offered by these currents is predominantly capacitive, they
lead their respective voltages by 90
• IC is the resultant of IR and IY
• Path of IC is capacitive and that of IF is inductive, IC is in phase opposition
to IF, therefore they cancel each other, so no arcing ground or over-voltage
 Solid Grounding
• Advantages:
1. Neutral is effectively held at earth potential
2. No arcing ground or over-voltage conditions
3. When there is an earth fault on any phase, phase to earth
voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero (remaining two
healthy phases remains at normal value because N is fixed at
earth potential) – insulate only for phase voltage (saving in
cost)
4. The flow of heavy fault current permits the use of
discriminative protective gear like earth fault relay
 Solid Grounding
• Disadvantages:
1. Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to earth
faults - large number of severe shocks leads to unstable system
2. Solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the
fault has to be cleared by CB’s, it may cause burning of contacts
3. The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in
the neighboring communication lines.
Applications
• Solid grounding is usually employed where the circuit impedance is
sufficiently high so as to keep the earth fault current within safe
limits.
• This system of grounding is used for voltages up to 33 kV with total
power capacity not exceeding 5000 kVA
Resistance Grounding
 Resistance Grounding
• When the neutral point of a three phase system is connected
to earth through a resistor (to limit the magnitude of earth
fault current), it is called “resistance grounding”
• The resistance may comprise of metallic resistance units. It is
more usual to use liquid resistors if voltage is 6.6 KV or more.
• But metallic resistors do not change with time and little or no
maintenance - inductive in nature poses a problem with O.H
lines exposed to lightning (travelling waves or impulses unduly
stress the insulation of equipment and causes breakdown)
• Liquid resistors are free from these disadvantages and are
normally of simple robust construction, mounted outdoors
 Resistance Grounding
• Fig. shows the grounding of neutral point through a resistor R. the
value of R should be neither very low nor very high.
• If R is very low, E/F current will be large and system becomes
similar to solid grounding system.
• if R is very high, the system conditions becomes similar to
ungrounded neutral system
• The value of R is so chosen such that E/F current is limited to safe
value but still sufficient to permit the operation of E/F relay
• In practice, value of R is selected that limits E/F current to 2 times
the normal full load current of earthed generator or transformer
• Fig. shows an earth fault on phase-B of a resistance grounded
system. The 3 currents at F in phase B are IF, IR and IY
 Resistance Grounding

• Current IF lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted phase

(VBN) by a certain angle depending upon the resistance and
reactance of the system upto the point of fault
 Resistance Grounding
• IR and IY lead VBR and VBY respectively by 90, IC is the resultant of IR
and IY; IF may resolved into a reactive component (IRea) and a
resistive component (IRes)
• At the point of fault IC is in phase opposition to IRea
• By adjusting the value of R to a low value it is possible to nullify the
effect of IC - no transient oscillations due to arcing ground
• However, if the value of earthing resistance R is increased such that
IRea < IC then leads to the effect of ungrounded system
• An important consideration in the resistance grounded system is
the power loss in the resistor during line to ground faults.
• In general, it is common to fix a value which will limit the E/F
current to the full rating of largest generator or transformer.
• Based on this practice, the value of R to be inserted in neutral is, R =
VL/3 I
 Resistance Grounding
• If at some later stage a still larger machine is added, it may
necessary to reduce the ohmic value of resistance.
• Peterson gave the following formula for most favourable
dimensions of the resistance, R = (1 to 2.5) / (CR + CY + CB)
• Advantages:
1. Permits the use of discriminative protective switch gear
2. Minimizes hazards of arcing grounds
3. E/F current is small due to presence of earthing resistance,
so interference with communication circuits is reduced
4. It improves stability of the system
 Resistance Grounding
• Disadvantages:
1. Since system neutral will almost invariably be displaced
during earth faults, the equipment has to be insulated for
higher voltages
2. This system is costlier than solidly grounded system
3. A large amount of energy is produced in earthing resistance
during earth faults – energy loss
• Applications:
• It is used on a system operating at voltages between 2.2 kV
and 33 kV with power source capacity more than 5000 kVA
• Neutral Grounding Resistors (NGR) are normally designed to
carry their rated current for a short period, usually 30 seconds
 Reactance Grounding

• Reactance grounding means grounding through impedance, the

principal element of which is reactance
• It implies insertion of a reactance in between N and ground as
shown in fig. The purpose of reactance is to limit the E/F current
 Reactance Grounding
• By changing the earthing reactance, the E/F current can be changed
to obtain the conditions similar to that of solid grounding
• Advantages:
• It ensures satisfactory relaying, partial grounding of apparatus
insulation, reduced interference with communication lines as
compared to that in solidly grounded systems and intermediate cost
• Disadvantages:
1. In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective
device is higher than that of resistance grounding for the same
fault conditions
2. The transient voltages resulting from arcing increases as the
reactance is increased
3. During switching operation, higher values of reactance are
expected to result in higher values of surge voltages
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding

• Capacitive currents between each line and earth are

responsible for producing arcing grounds
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel with
capacitance of the system, fault current IF flowing through L will be
in phase opposition to the capacitive current IC of the system.
• If L is so adjusted that IL= lC then resultant current in the fault will
be zero. This condition is known as Resonant grounding.
• Circuit details: An arc suppression coil (Peterson coil) is an iron-
cored coil connected between the neutral and earth
• The reactor is provided with tappings to change inductance of coil.
• The function of Peterson coil is to make the arcing earth faults self
extinguishing and in case of sustained fault to reduce E/F current to
a lower value
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Operation: Fig. shows B phase earthed by a SLG fault at point F. IF, IR
and IY flows as shown. Note that IF flows through Peterson coil to
neutral and back through fault.
• The total capacitive current lc is the phasor sum of IR and IY as
shown in phasor diagram.
• The voltage of the faulty phase is applied across the arc suppression
coil. Therefore, fault current lags the faulty phase voltage (VBN) by
approximately 90°, IF is in phase opposition to IC
• By adjusting the tappings on the Peterson coil, the resultant current
in the fault can be reduced. If inductance of the coil is so adjusted
that IF = IC, then resultant current in the fault will be zero.
• In practice, there will be a small resultant current present at the
fault since absolute tuning may not be possible.
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Value of L for resonant grounding: For resonant grounding,
system behaves as an un-grounded neutral system. Therefore,
full line voltage appears across capacitors CR and CY.
Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Advantages:
i. Peterson coil is completely effective in preventing any
damage by an arcing ground.
ii. Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral
system.
• Disadvantages:
i. Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of
the network changes from time to time. Therefore,
inductance L of Peterson coil requires readjustment.
ii. The lines should be transposed.
iii. It requires high insulation level
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the reactance of Peterson coil suitable for a 33 KV
3-phase transmission line having a capacitance to earth of
each conductor as 4.5 F. Assume supply frequency to be 50
Hz.
2. A 230 kV, 3-phase 50 Hz, 200 km transmission line has a
capacitance to earth of 0.02 F/km/phase. Calculate the
inductance and kVA rating of the Peterson coil used for
earthing the above system.
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
1. Voltage transformer earthing

• Primary of a single-phase voltage transformer is connected

between neutral and ground
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding

• A low resistor in series with a relay is connected across the

secondary of the voltage transformer
• The voltage transformer acts as a very high reactance
grounding device and does not assist in mitigating the over-
voltage conditions
• A system grounded through voltage transformer operates
virtually as an ungrounded system
• A ground fault on any phase produces a voltage across the
relay which causes operation of the protective device
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
2. Grounding through an earthing transformer
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding

• In cases where neutral of a power system is not available for

grounding or where transformer/generator is delta connected, an
artificial neutral grounding point is created using zig-zag
transformer called 'grounding transformer’
• This transformer does not have secondary winding and it is a core-
type transformer having 3 limbs similar to power transformer.
• Each limb of the transformer has two identical windings wound
differentially (directions of current are opposite to each other)
• Since two identical windings on each limb are wound differentially,
under normal conditions, total flux in each limb is negligibly small
(transformer draws very little magnetizing current)
• The grounding transformer is of short-time rating, usually 10
seconds to 1 minute. Therefore, the size of such transformer is
small as compared to the power transformer of same rating.
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
• If a zig-zag transformer is not available for grounding, a special
small size star-delta transformer can be used without loading
the delta side as shown in the Fig. below
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
• This transformer is also known as grounding transformer
and it is a step-down transformer.
• Star connected primary is connected to the system and its
neutral is grounded.
• Secondary is in delta and generally does not supply any
load but provides a closed path for triple harmonic currents
to circulate in them
• Under normal conditions, the current in the transformer is
only its own magnetizing current
• However, large current may flow in the event of single line
to ground fault condition
• Hence, it should be of sufficient rating to withstand the
effect of line to ground faults.
 PRESENT PRACTICES IN NEUTRAL GROUNDING

i. Generally, one grounding is provided at each voltage

level. In power system, there are various voltage Levels
between generation and distribution. At least one
grounding is normally provided at each voltage level
ii. Grounding is provided at the power source end and not at
the load end. If power source is delta connected,
grounding is provided by means of grounding transformer
rather than grounding at load end
iii. Grounding is provided at each major source bus section
iv. Generators are normally provided with resistance
grounding whereas synchronous motors and synchronous
capacitors are provided with reactance grounding.
 PRESENT PRACTICES IN NEUTRAL GROUNDING
v. When several generators are operating in parallel, only one
generator neutral is grounded. If more neutral are grounded,
disturbance is created by the zero sequence components of
circulating currents.
vi. When there are one or two power sources, no switching
equipment is used in the grounding circuit
vii. When several generators are connected to a common neutral
bus, the bus is grounded either directly or through reactance.
viii. Effectively (solid) grounding is used for the systems of low
voltages up to 600 volts and for systems of high voltages above
33 kV whereas resistance or reactance grounding is used for
systems of medium voltages between 3.3 kV and 33 kV.
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
• A power system contains generators, transformers, bus-bars,
transmission and distribution lines etc.
• There is a separate protective scheme for each element of the
power system, such as generator protection, transformer
protection, transmission line protection, bus-bar protection, etc.
• Thus a power system is divided into a no. of zones of protection.
• Also in order to delimit the no. of elements disconnected by the
protective system during a fault, the protective system is divided
into a no. of zones
• A protective zone covers one or at the most two elements of a
power system.
• The zones are arranged to overlap so that no part of the system is
left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power
system are shown in fig.
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
• Circuit breakers and relays are located at zone boundaries
• Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing
which a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any
of the zones (due to errors in measurement of actuating
quantities, etc.) and hence no CB’s would trip
• If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly
protected scheme, more CB’s than the minimum necessary to
isolate the faulty element of the system would trip
• A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of
faults in this region and consequently, tripping of too many
breakers does not occur frequently
 ZONES OF PROTECTION

• When it becomes desirable for economic or space saving reasons to

overlap on one side of a breaker “blind spots” occur as shown in
fig.
• If a fault occurs at point ‘x’, CB’s of zone B including breaker ‘c’ will
be tripped - fault current from zone A is not interrupted (relaying
equipment of zone B must also trip certain breakers in zone A)
• But for faults in zone B to the right of CB ‘c’ the operation of
breakers in zone A is not useful
• How far this unnecessary operation can be tolerated will depend on
the particular application
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
• Primary and Back-up Protection
• Protection provided by each zone to its element(s) is known as
‘Primary Protection’
• Rarely, some components of a zone protection scheme fail to
operate when called upon to do so
• In order to almost 100% protect the power system elements and to
prevent extensive damage, ‘back up protection’ is provided which
takes over only in the event of primary protection failure
• Back up relays should not employ or control anything that is
common with primary relays that are to be backed up - located at a
different physical location (so when it operates a large chunk of
power system will get disconnected)
• Back up relaying should function with sufficient time delay (first
opportunity is given to primary relays)
• Also back up relaying need to be provided for only the most severe
kind of faults (short circuits), not for other abnormal conditions
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
• The basic requirements of a protective system are
1. Reliability
2. Selectivity
3. Sensitivity
4. Stability
5. Fastness of operation
6. Discrimination
1. Reliability: Qualitative term. Quantitatively it is a probability of
failure (due to breaker defects). Failure can be reduced by
inherently reliable designs backed by regular and thorough
maintenance. Quality of personnel must not be taken for reliability.
Some requirements of reliability are: high contact pressures, dust
free enclosures, well braced joints and impregnated coils.
Precautions in manufacture and assembly reduce liability to failure.
Components should be treated to prevent contamination. Acid
fluxes and acid producing insulation should be avoided. On
assembly direct handling of components should be avoided as far as
possible. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is 95%
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
2. Selectivity: This is the property by which only the faulty
element of the system is isolated and the remaining healthy
sections are left intact. Selectivity is ‘absolute’ if the
protection responds only to the faults within its own zone,
and ‘relative’ if the protection responds to the faults of
several zones.
• System of protection in which selectivity is ‘absolute’ are
known as “Unit Systems” (differential protection and frame
leakage protection) and systems in which selective is
‘relative’ are “Non Unit Systems” (current time graded
protection and distance protection)
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
3. Sensitivity: A protective relay should operate when the
magnitude of the current exceeds the preset value (pick-up
current). The relay should not operate when the current is
below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive
to operate when the operating current exceeds pick-up value
4. Stability: A protective system should remain stable even when
a large current is flowing through its protective zone due to an
external fault (not in its zone) . The protective system will not
wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which
fault has occurred fails to operate. After a preset delay the
relay will operate to trip the CB.
 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
5. Fastness of Operation: A protective scheme should be fast
enough to isolate the faulty element of the system as quickly
as possible to minimize damage to equipment and to maintain
system stability, due to the following reasons:
i. Critical clearing time should not be exceeded to avoid the
loss of synchronism
ii. A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting in crawling
and overloading of industrial drives
• The operating time of protective relay is usually one cycle.
Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems
the operating time may be more than one cycle. The shorter
the time a fault is allowed to persist, the more load can be
transferred between points without loss of synchronism.
 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

• It can be seen that 3 phase faults have a more effect on the system
and they must be cleared faster than the SLG fault
• Relays should not be made extremely fast (<10 msec), because
when there is any lightning surge on the line, surge diverters must
have sufficient time to discharge the lightning to ground, otherwise
the relay will operate unnecessarily for transient conditions
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
6. Discrimination: A relay should be able to distinguish
between a fault and an overload. In case of transformers
inrush of magnetizing current (5 to 7 times full load current)
may be comparable to fault current. The relay should not
operate for inrush currents.
• In interconnected systems, there will be power swings,
which should also be ignored by the relay. The discrimination
may either be an inherent characteristic of relay or may be
achieved by connecting auxiliary devices (minimum voltage
relay). It may be noted that the word ‘discrimination’ is
sometimes used to include ‘selectivity’
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• Protective scheme comprises set of ‘protective
systems’ and the protection schemes are named
according to the protected equipment. For example,
– Generator protection (scheme)
– Transformer protection (scheme)
– Motor protection (scheme)
– Bus bar protection (scheme)
• The term ‘protective system’ or simply ‘protection’ is
also named according to the principle of operation
or abnormal condition
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• Names based on abnormal condition:
– Over-current protection
– Earth-fault protection
– Reverse-power protection
– Under-voltage protection
– Under-frequency protection
• Names based on principle of operation:
– Differential protection
– Distance protection
– Power line carrier protection
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• A protective scheme includes one or more relays of the same
or different types. The following are the most common
schemes.
1. Over current protection: An O/C relay may operate when the
current increases above a certain magnitude. It is used for
protection of distribution lines, motors, equipments, etc.
2. Distance protection: A distance relay measures the distance
between the relay location and point of fault in terms of
impedance, reactance, etc. and operates if the point of fault
lies within the protected section of the line. It is used for the
protection of transmission or sub-transmission lines; usually
33 KV, 66 KV and 132 KV lines. The important types are:
— Impedance, Reactance and Mho type relays
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
3. Carrier-current protection: Relay operates depending on the
information available in generated carrier signal (50-500 kHz).
• A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a
transmission line to be protected. Information regarding the
direction of fault current is transmitted from one end of the line
section to the other.
• Depending on the information, relays placed at each end trip if the
fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not trip in case
of external faults.
• Relays are of distance type and their tripping operation is
controlled by ‘carrier signal’.
• Used for protection of EHV and UHV lines (132 KV and above)
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
4. Differential protection: Relay operates by comparing the current
entering and leaving a machine.
• Used for protection of generators, transformers, motors of very
large size, bus zones, etc.
• CTs are placed on both sides of each winding of a machine. The
outputs of their secondaries are applied to the relay coils
(compares current entering and leaving the machine winding )
• Under normal conditions or during external fault, the current
entering the winding is equal to the current leaving the winding.
• In case of an internal fault on the winding, these are not equal.
This difference in the current actuates the relay