Arturo Rey Da Silva

Abstract
The study of ancient shipbuilding techniques and their development in the ancient
Mediterranean has mainly been based upon a technical analysis of the archaeological
and historical evidence available, concluding normally in a sort of logical and linear
evolution. However, the new perspective given to the research of ancient maritime
societies by the growing discipline of maritime archaeology and the study of the most
recent archaeological finds leas us to reconsider the development of nautical technology
in Antiquity and to understand the importance of the social component in its historical
evolution.

Resumen
El estudio de las antiguas técnicas de construcción naval y su desarrollo en el
Mediterráneo Antiguo ha estado principalmente marcado por un análisis técnico de
los vestigios históricos y arqueológicos, resultando así en una visión lineal y lógica de
su evolución. Sin embargo, el nuevo enfoque mostrado en el estudio de antiguas
sociedades marítimas por la creciente disciplina de la arqueología marítima y el estudio
de los hallazgos arqueológicos más recientes nos llevan a replantearnos el desarrollo
de la tecnología naval en la Antigüedad y comprender la importancia del componente
social en su evolución histórica.

Introduction studied and interpreted boats remains with a

mere technical approach. Hence, the overview
The different techniques used during the that has traditionally been given of the
Ancient Mediterranean World in shipbuilding development of naval technology in the Ancient
have long been assumed to manifest a sort of Mediterranean, from the first evidences of
linear “evolution”. The research on ancient bundle rafts in Egypt to the construction of big
watercrafts and the field of maritime plank boats, firstly using sewn joints as The
archaeology in itself, until very recently, have Cheops Ship (2600 BC) and then the mortise

33
 Shipbuilding in the Past

and tenon fastenings technique, used for period onwards (McGrail, 2001, pag. 163-164;
instance in The Kyrenia Ship in Cyprus (300 Muckelroy, 1978, pag. 64).
BC), is that of a consecutive and related
process. Throughout this paper it will be examined how
the continuity of sewn fastenings and the
In the last decade, however, the maritime evidence on the transition from shell-first ship
archaeology discipline and the study of ancient construction to framing-first techniques can
boats have broadened its scope looking for tell us about the social implications that their
the social patterns and anthropological traits use entails. For that purpose it will be briefly
behind the evident material culture. summarised the shipbuilding techniques used
Furthermore, new archaeological finds and in the Ancient Mediterranean until the Medieval
other sort of evidences are showing us that Period and some of the evidence we have of
the nautical scene of the Ancient Mediterranean them, analysing some specific examples to
Sea was rather more complex than we had approach this better understanding of the
thought. Although it appears evident that relationship between ship technology and
shipbuilding techniques among mediterranean society in the Ancient World.
communities moved towards improvements
in the manoeuvrability and the rigidity of the
vessels, we often find that technology is
restricted by the society that uses it, together Shipbuilding techniques in the Ancient
with its socioeconomic systems, and also by Mediterranean
the environment where they interact
(Westerdahl, 1992 & 1994; Adams, 2001). Befor e the archaeological evidence
Factors such as religion, tradition, political or
economic system, which are in continuous There is little evidence for the use of watercrafts
relation with themselves, shape and constrain in the Mediterranean before the Bronze Age.
the ideas, symbols and uses that a specific Iconographic and literary studies, however,
society gives to its watercrafts. suggest that during the Mesolithic times
complex log rafts, as the ones that Hiram of
Despite technological progresses in the Tyre used to send cedar to Solomon (I Kings
mediterranean region new evidence shows 5:23), buoyed boats, as the ones described
that sewn-plank boats continued to be widely by Pliny used to transport elephant from
in use from the late centuries BC, in Roman Calabria to Sicily (NH 8. 16) or bundle rafts, as
times and even earlier, to the eleventh century we see in some depictions in Malta or, for
AD, right into the medieval period (McGrail, example, on a Minoan gold ring found at
2001, pag. 136-137). At the same time, from Mochlos, Crete (McGrail, 2001, pag.103;
the first century BC we can perceive a Johnstone, 1988, pag. 59) were in use. These
progressive abandonment in the use of the bundle rafts, which were widely used in Early
mortise and tenon fastenings, gaining crucial Egypt and Mesopotamia, continued in use in
importance the internal structure of framing many parts of the Mediterranean during all the
and longitudinal timbers. This appears to be classical period as it is clearly shown in a
clear in the evidence from the seventh century graffito dated to the Roman Age from She´arim,
AD. By the beginning of the eleventh century in Israel, and in a boat representation from the
AD the old shipbuilding technique of shell-first rock-paintings group of La Laja Alta, Southern
construction was completely abandoned and Spain, dated probably to the end of the Second
shifted to frame-first techniques, which were Millennium BC (Almagro-Gorbea, 1988, pag.
to be of great influence in the new social and 398; Barroso, 1980, pag. 42; Dams, 1984;
political situation of Europe from the medieval Luzón, 1988, pag. 455). Nowadays, bundle

34
 Shipbuilding in the Past

rafts still in use in some marginal parts of the shown. The hull used to be rounded with a
Mediterranean, in societies with long-standing higher end (may be the stern?) and they could
indigenous traditions as for example in the have been propelled also by human force if
Oristano Region, in Sardinia (McGrail, 2001, we interpret the angular lines underneath the
pag. 105; Riccardi, 1988, pag. 275-286). hull as oars (McGrail, 2001, pag. 113;
By Neolithic times it is probable that seagoing Wachsmann, 1998).
extended logboats or even simple plank vessels
were technologically possible and took part in But, without doubt, the representations that
the colonization of Islands as Crete, carrying have raised more discussion on the Middle
the obsidian, a clear indicator of early sea Bronze Age seafaring scene are those ones
voyages (Johnstone, 1988, pag. 55). The direct found at Akrotiri, in Thera. Leaving aside the
evidence for these crafts, nevertheless, has to controversies about its precise chronology or
be found much later. Although there is evidence about the meaning of the scene itself, we have
for seagoing travels in the Early Bronze Age here vessels with a flat bottom whose ends
(c.3800-2000 BC) we only count with curve upwards. The stern is slightly higher than
iconographic material in order to interpret the the bow. They were probably plank boats, built
type of vessels used at that time. The study with plank-first techniques. Whether if they
of the lead models from Naxos, the terracotta had sewn fastenings or mortise and tenon
models from Palaikastro and Mochlos or the ones, is impossible to tell from these depictions.
depictions on the Cycladic “Frying Pans” They could be propelled by sail, oar or paddle,
suggests that the vessels used in the Early and were steered by a steering oar when it
Bronze Age were either logboats extended in was necessary (McGrail, 2001, pag. 122).
height and length or planked boats with cargo Although there have been many interpretations
capacity and probably propelled by oars and for the purposes of these ships (Wachsmann,
with a helmsman (McGrail, 2001, pag. 106- 1980, pag. 287-295), their peculiarities, as for
111; Casson, 1995, pag. 30-39). Unfortunately, example the decoration, the stern cabin or the
at present there are no excavated boats that central awning, the old fashioned method of
can prove or give more light on the shipbuilding propulsion (paddling) and the stern projections
techniques used on these ships. (Casson, 1975, pag. 3-10), suggest that they
were taking part in a sort of special event or
This iconographic and documentary evidence ceremony instead of being intended for long-
is more evident in the eastern Mediterranean distance crossings.
at the beginning of 2000 BC, in what it is known
as the Middle Bronze Age. This increase in the Sometimes, the practical and technical
evidence comes associated to a growth in the shipbuilding methodology is placed in the
number of seafaring activities, especially in background when facing profound cultural
the Levant Coast and in Crete. It is also in this manifestations or needs (Adams, 2001). We
time when we find the first evidence for the can appreciate in this example how the society
use of the sail in the Mediterranean, although exerts a big influence on the use of boats, and
it was probably in use much earlier in the late therefore, in the way they were depicted.
fourth millennium BC in Egypt. This first
evidence is a Syrian cylinder seal from Tel el
Daba (1800 BC). From these times are also
the first depictions of masts and rigging features Mortise and tenon plank fastenings
in the Mediterranean. They are on a series of
Minoan seals dated to the beginning of the The end of the Middle Bronze Age is usually
second millennium BC. On them, the mast taken to be the fall down of the Minoan
appears amidships but normally the sail is not “thalassocracy” based on Crete. This event is

35
 Shipbuilding in the Past

been related to the volcanic explosion of the mortise and tenon joints, however, were not
Island of Thera dated to 1628 BC and by locked. Therefore, it was used together with
Egyptian correlation to 1450 – 1500 BC. Thanks other types of fastenings in order to give more
to the excavation of several eastern rigidity to the hull. One example of this is the
Mediterranean wrecks dated between 1550- Cheops Ship (2600 BC). Her cedar planking
1100 BC, the evidence and data that we have was fastened together by unlocked mortise
from the Late Bronze Age is more extensive, and tenon and, mainly, by two types of lashings:
making the picture more complex at the same between adjacent strakes and, transversally,
time. Two of these shipwrecks, The Cape
Gelidonya and the Uluburun (1200 and 1300
BC respectively), excavated off the south-west
Turkish coast by George Bass, are the first
planked vessels remains to have survived. The
planking of both ships was fastened together
by mortise and tenon joints, with the tenons
locked in position by treenails (McGrail, 2006,
pag. 60) (Plate 1). The Romans called to this

Plate Section of the Cheops Ship, with sewn fastenings

(after McGrail, 2001, Fig 2.10)

from sheer to sheer (McGrail, 2001, pag. 26-

54; 2006, pag. 58) (Plate 2). In 1850 BC the
boats found at Dashur also had unlocked
mortise and tenon joints, which were deeper
than those in Cheops, and some of the objects
found with them had locked ones. As Haldane
has suggested (1996) is more than probable
that this way of shipbuilding went on in Egypt
for millennia and it was not until when the
Plate Uluburun wreck remains (after McGrail, 2001, Fig. strong influence of the phoenicians was felt in
4.22) the Eastern Mediterranean that the Egyptians
began to build their vessels with locked mortise
way of joinery Coagmenta punicana, which and tenon. One example of this is the mid-first
means “the Phoenician joint”, and it may have millennium Egyptian boat found at Matariya,
been transferred to the eastern Mediterranean which not only has locked mortise and tenon
World from Egypt via the Levant The earliest plank fastenings but also contains frames
known use of this type of joints in the Levant (McGrail, 2001, pag. 40).
region is in a table from a middle of the second
millennium BC tomb at Jericho. (Casson, 1995). The Phoenicians could have developed
therefore this technique of using locked mortise
This fastening technique, certainly, is quite and tenon fastenings (influenced by the
similar to the one used in Egypt in the third Egyptians), which gives to the hull more
and early second millennium BC. The Egyptian structure integrity, around the Middle Bronze

36
 Shipbuilding in the Past

Age. The wrecks of Cape Gelidonya and as for example Homer (Iliad 2:135; Odyssey
Uluburun, according to the current evidence 5:234-257)), Virgil (Aeneid 6.413-414) or Pliny
available, were Levantine in origin (Bass, 1997, (NH 24-65), suggest that Greek fleets had sewn
pag. 269; Wachsmann, 1998, pag. 206-208). planking and that the use of sewn techniques
Then, with the enrichment of their city-states remained in Classical times (Casson, 1995,
in the Levant coast and the consequent pag. 43-68). The wrecks dated to this period
development of their maritime trade among have been found off the Eastern Mediterranean
the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond, this shores, as the mentioned Ma´agan-Michael
technique was widespread and generally used wreck; in Italy, as the ships of Giglio, Gela or
by the mid-first millennium BC. in the Venice Lagoon; France, as for example
the shipwreck Bon-Porté or Place Jules-Verne,
During the fourth and third centuries BC Greek in Marseilles (Plate 3); and in Spain, as the
culture and technology dominated the eastern greek wreck of Cala Sant Vicenç, off the
and central Mediterranean while Rome began northern coast of the Island of Mallorca (Nieto,
to gain force in the Italian Peninsula. From this 2002), or the seventh century BC Carthaginian
period we have a wreck site found off the shore wreck of Playa de La Isla (Negueruela,.1995),
of Cyprus, near Kyrenia, that represents the although this latter only has lashed framing
general nautical features that were to persist whereas her planking is fastened together by
for half a century or so in the Mediterranean: mortise and tenon joints.
Shell-first construction, planking fastened
together by locked mortise and tenon
fastenings and framing mostly fastened to the
planking by metal nails. The Kyrenia ship (300
BC) is quite similar in shape to the one found
in Ma´agan-Micheal (400 BC) off the Levant
coast but her hull is solely fastened by mortise
and tenon joints, without the help of any sewing
technique. The Ma´agan-Micheal wreck
presents sewing fastenings at the bow and
the stern what has been interpreted as to gain
further strengthening of the hull and to prevent
lateral opening of the strakes on the sides
(Kahanov, 2004, pag. 45).

The continuity of sewing techniques

During the mid-first millennium BC, however,

most of the archaeological evidence that we
have from wrecks, especially from the Central
and Western Mediterranean, suggest a rather
different picture. Several ships dated from the
sixth century BC right into Roman times, which
are either fully or partially sewn, have been
excavated in the last decades giving new light
and more complexity to the study of watercrafts Plate Sewn fastenings on the Place Jules-Verne 9 wreck
in the Mediterranean World. Ancient sources, (after McGrail, 2001, Fig. 4.32)

37
 Shipbuilding in the Past

Sewing techniques were still fastened frames instead of being lashed needed better skills
in use during Roman times in the way the timber was elaborate. The development of these
until the Medieval Period as techniques increased the cohesiveness of the planking shell,
we can see in the wrecks of both in strength and watertightness (McGrail, 2001, pag. 148).
Cavaliere (100 BC), Jeanne-
Garde B (Second century BC) These changes in the hull structure and in the shipbuilding
or in the Cap Bear C techniques from mid-second century until the Roman times
shipwreck (First century BC). are directly related to the social and cultural transformations
In these times, when the that were going on in the Mediterranean World. The growth of
mortise and tenon technique the cities-states in the Levant Coast and in The Aegean region
was the main way of plank and the increase in the maritime trade competence led to the
joinery and the influence of necessity of more rigid vessels, with major capacity and better
frames within the hull
construction was growing,
sewing was used mostly for
repairs and in areas of the
vessel where leaks were most
likely to occur (underwater hull
and ends) (McGrail, 2001, pag.
138). Nevertheless, several
entire sewn-plank boats have
been excavated from coastal
sites in the Adriatic, in Croatia,
and in the delta of the River
Po despite the advances in
nautical technology (Plate 4).
Probably, these late sewn-
vessels are the answer of
indigenous societies to their
environment and to the
importance of their
economical position within the
Mediterranean community.
Normally they are found in
rivers, lakes, lagoons or deltas,
being very improbable their
use in long-distance voyages. Plate Sewn fastenings details of the Nin boats, in Croatia (after McGrail,
2001, Fig. 4.35)
At first, mortise and tenon
joints were used together with
sewn fastenings. With the
improvement of woodworking manoeuvrability. This also led to a need of protection of the
in the Eastern Mediterranean trading goods and of the wealth of the cities-states. As McGrail
Sea, the technique of locked has pointed out, some of these changes would have been
mortise and tenon joints was stimulated by warship requirements. A ship built shell-first with
used as the only plank a fastening system of locked mortise and tenon would have
fastening in the hull. Also, the been “a better fighting machine than one with sewn-planking
subsequent change to metal- and lashed framing” (2001, pag. 148).

38
 Shipbuilding in the Past

Transition from Shell to Skeleton Construction in shipbuilding, we begin to have some

evidence from the third and fourth century AD
The Roman Age, from mid-second century BC of the new importance given to the frames in
to the fourth century AD, was characterized in determining the ship’s lines (Muckelroy, 1978,
nautical technology by a general continuity in pag. 64). At the end of this period there were
building techniques from the Hellenistic period several changes in the social and economic
(Muckelroy, 1978, pag. 65-75; McGrail, 2001, prevailing systems along the roman
pag. 154; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199- Mediterranean that were reflected in the
218). To this period belongs most of the technology used in shipbuilding (León &
archaeological evidence that we have from Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218). Certainly, there
Mediterranean shipwrecks. And, certainly, the was a tendency during the Roman Empire to
increasing domination of Rome over the look for less costly and faster methods of
Mediterranean World, defeating Greece and construction, giving less importance to the
Carthage at the end of the first millennium BC, durability of the vessel herself (Muckelroy,
influenced in the quantity and quality of the 1978, pag. 65; Casson, 1995, pag. 141-148;
ships the were built at this time. McGrail, 2001, pag. 158). With the decline in
slavery at the en of the Roman Empire, the
During this period, apart from small boats expensiveness of shipbuilding process
which followed the same shipbuilding increased making the ship-owners prefer
techniques observed in the Kyrenia Wreck, the smaller and cheaper vessels. Wrecks of big
increasing demand for cargo space can be
seen in the bigger tonnage of the merchant
ships. Examples of this are the first century
BC shipwrecks of La Madrague de Giens (400
tonnes) or Albenga (500-600 tonnes) (Parker,
1992). This resulted in the use of thicker
planking or in the construction of a hull with
inner and outer planking leaving some wool or
other fabric saturated in wax in between. This
would has given more strength to the hull
structure and integrity (Steffy, 1994, pag. 62-
65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218),
being thus more capable or carrying bigger Plate Mortise and tenon joints from (right to left) Kyrenia
and heavier cargoes. At the same time, planking (300 BC), Yassi Ada 2 (Fourth Century AD), and Yassi
Ada 1 (Seventh Century AD) (www. ).
strength was increased, either in double-
planking ships or in single-planking ones, with
the use of more fastenings per unit length, as
we see in wrecks like La Madrague de Giens merchant ships are uncommon after the second
or Antikythera I, in Greece (First century BC) century AD. Furthermore, other social and
(McGrail, 2001, pag. 156). With these greater natural factors that could have influenced this
hulls we also observe an increase in size of change in ship technology could have been
the frames an in its use. They are internal and for example: new types of goods that were
discontinuous and begin to be fastened to the traded, improvements in tools and techniques
keel giving more structural strength to the used for construction, deforestation or the
vessel. introduction of fore-and-aft sail, what would
have reduced also considerably the use of
While the construction technique of shell-first human force in the propulsion of the ships
was still generally used in the Mediterranean (McGrail, 2001, pag. 158).

39
 Shipbuilding in the Past

All these social and economic changes can

be implied in the study of a wreck found off
Turkish shores, The Yassi Ada 2, dated to the
fourth century AD, and of other ones from the
fifth century AD such as Fiumicino I or Dramont
5 and 6 (Parker, 1992). These ships were small
cargo vessels, built shell-first with planking
fastened by mortise and tenon joints and
frames alternately floors and half-frames. The
major importance given to the frames can be
seen in the bigger distance that can be
appreciated between the joints and their smaller
size. Finally, we find mortises and tenon joints
not locked whose mere purpose was to help
the plank alignment, as it was when they first
appeared in Egypt. Plate Half a Section of the Serçe Limani ship (after
McGrail, 2001, Fig. 4.45)
The frame-first construction technique was
known by the Greeks in the fifth century BC,
as we can infer from Herodotus (1.194) but
only in relation to the building of skin boats
(Basch, 1972, pag. 47). It is, however, in the
seventh century AD when we find the first social interaction with the technology, was
archaeological evidence for ships built frame- going to play an important role in the history
first. Wrecks as St. Gervais 2, Tantura I or of the incoming centuries. Frame-first
Pantano Longarini had their planking treenailed construction made possible to build bigger
and nailed to a pre-erected framing instead of ships in a quicker way. The resulting vessels
being fastened together (McGrail, 2001, pag. had more seaworthy hulls appropriate for the
161). Other wrecks, as Yassi Ada I (c. AD 625), ocean crossings that later on were going to
were plank-first built in their lower hull, while take place (McGrail, 2001, pag. 160; Muckelroy,
frame-first in the upper part where there were 1978, pag. 65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag.
simpler shapes. By 1025 AD, the technique of 199-218).
fastening planks by locked mortise and tenon
joints was abandoned almost completely. The
best evidence that we count with from this
period is the Serçe Limano wreck, entirely built Conclusion
frame-first (Steffy, 1994, pag. 85-91) (Plate 6).
According to Seán McGrail, Maritime
The consequences of frame-first construction Archaeology can be defined as “the study of
can be followed during the next centuries, with the nature and past behaviour of Man in his
the disintegration of the Roman Empire and use of those special environments associated
the development of the Medieval Europe. The with lakes, rivers and seas” (2001, pag. 1). This
technological changes that have happened relationship between human societies and
during the first centuries AD were influenced water environments can take many different
by the new social and economic systems that forms. One of them, probably the most evident
were being shaped at that moment. Now, the and difficult to interpret at the same time, is
new shipbuilding method of frame-first the use of technology to interact with such
construction, consequence of the continuous environments. Along this paper we have tried

40
 Shipbuilding in the Past

to summarise the development and complexity shelter of southern Iberian Peninsula. La Laja
of techniques employed in the Ancient Alta is located right in an area of cultural
Mediterranean Sea to build that product of the contacts between eastern mediterranean
interaction between society and environment people and indigenous groups and dates to
that ships are. The study of boats, and their the end of the Second millennium BC and the
building techniques, does not have to answer beginning of the first millennium BC, when
only questions about their technical there was an increase in the eastern influences
construction and their operating systems; it and presence in Iberia (Almagro-Gorbea, 1988,
has to take us to wonder the foundations upon pag. 391). The panel represents seven different
which maritime societies are based. types of boats approaching what is interpreted
as a port structure (Plate 7).
In the Mediterranean, the method of fastening
planks together by sewing, appreciated firstly
in Egypt, in The Cheops Ship, seems to have
spread to the Aegean during the Bronze Age
and from there to the Western Mediterranean
where we find great number of sewn wrecks
dated to the mid-first millennium BC. The other
technique, also found in Egyptian vessels with
the purpose of aligning the planks and
reinforcing the sewn fastening, was the method
of mortise and tenon joints. This system was
taken and improved by the Canaanites, in the
Levant coast, and spread over the
Mediterranean with the development of the
Phoenician cities-states and their trade
Plate 7.Three ships approaching a harbour. Another one,
expansion. These shipbuilding methods with the sail lowered, is docked inside the structure (after
influenced peoples with different cultures Barroso, 1980).
settled along the Mediterranean shores. The
access to them, as well as to their use, was
constrained in many cases by the sources
available in determine environments and by
the societies themselves. Analysing this Although the quality of the paintings is very
statement can make us understand for example vague we can distinguish several sorts of rigs,
the continuous use of bundle rafts or sewn- propulsion methods (paddles, oars or different
plank vessels in times when more sophisticated types of sails), and hull structures. Some of
techniques were already developed. them seem to have rams (single one or triple),
lateen sails and some emblems or figureheads
Changes in the Mediterranean ship structure in their stem-posts. A boat propelled by paddles
did not follow any evolutional track. seems to have a hull built of bundle reeds
Shipbuilding techniques were developed (Plate 8).
according to the demands and needs of the
societies that were using them. It is true, This panel was possibly made within the
though, that nautical technology seems to Tartessian horizon. The representations were
have moved towards a greater complexity and, depicted by people who were still impressed
indeed, towards a bigger diversity in the by the first ships of westerner seafarers who
Mediterranean. This variety can be seen, for they traded with and were settled in the south
instance, in the panel represented in a rock of the Iberian Peninsula. Without doubt, this

41
 Shipbuilding in the Past

panel represents the great complexity of ancient attract attention about how different traditions
mediterranean seafaring (Almagro-Gorbea, and necessities converged together to form a
1987, pag. 398) and also makes us wonder rich and varied technical panorama.
about the especial significance that the author,
and the society to which he or she belongs,
gave to these boats and why did they chose
this specific and remote location to depict
them, as if their understanding of boats joined
some other social practices, as religious
ceremonies or offerings (Rey da Silva, 2006).

Vessel with paddles and a bundle reed hull (after Barroso,

1980).

Again, we appreciate that a mere study of

ancient boats and their technology can take
us to address more profound issues about the
people who construct them and use them,
even indirectly.

The new evidence of the continuous use of

sewing techniques in vessels of the first
millennium BC and even later, and the study
of the long process that led to a shift in the
way of shipbuilding from shell-first to skeleton
or frame-first construction, make us understand
how technology and its changes are directly Notes
related to the social interaction and the series 1 Temple of Hal Tarxien
of historical events which past human cultures 2 The earliest known use of this type of
went through. The nautical picture of the
joints in the Levant region is in a table
Mediterranean Sea in Ancient times is not from a middle of the second millennium
longer considered to be that of a static and BC tomb at Jericho.
unilinear process. Instead, this paper tried to

42
 Shipbuilding in the Past

Bibliografia Gibraltar", Ceuta, 1988. Universidad Nacional a

Distancia, Madrid.

ADAMS, J. (2001): “Ships and boats as McGRAIL, S. (2006): Ancient Boats and Ships.
archaeological source material”, World Shire Publications, Buckinghamshire.
Archaeology. 32(3).
McGRAIL, S. (2001): Boats of the World. From
ALMAGRO-GORBEA, M. (1988): the Stone Age to Medieval Time,. Oxford
Representaciones de Barcos en el Arte Rupestre University Press, New York.
de la Península Ibérica. Aportación a la navegación
precolonial desde el Mediterráneo Oriental, MUCKELROY, K. (1978): Maritime Archaeology,
Universidad Española a Distancia, Madrid Cambridge University Press: London

BARROSO RUIZ, Cecilio. (1980): “Nuevas Pinturas NEGUERELA, I. et al. (1995): “Seventh century
rupestres en Jimena de la Frontera (Cádiz): Abrigo BC Phoenician vessel discovered at Playa de la
de la Laja Alta”, Zephyrus, XXX-XXXI. Isla, Mazarron, Spain”, International Journal of
Nautical Archaeology. 1995; 24.
BASCH, L. (1972): “Ancient wreck and the
archaeology of Ships”, International Journal of NIETO, Xavier; et al. (2002): “El pecio de Cala
Nautical Archaeology (2). Sant Vicenç, Revista de arqueología 258.

BASS, G. (1997): “Mediterranean Sea”, PARKER, A.J. (1992): Ancient Shipwrecks of the
Encyclopaedia of Underwater and Maritime Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces, BAR.
Archaeology, British Museum Press, London. International Series 580, Oxford.

CASSON, L. (1975): “Bronze Age ships. The REY DA SILVA, Arturo (2006): Boats of the Iberian
evidence of the Thera wall paintings”, The Peninsula in Prehistory. The Iconographic
Internaional Journal of Nauical Archaeology. 4(1). evidence, Unpublished MA Dissertation,
Southampton University, Southampton.
CASSON, L. (1995): Ships and Seamanship in
the Ancient Worl,.The John Hopkins University RICCARDI, E. (1988): “Fassone” L´Embarcation
Press, London. de Jonc de Oristano-Sardigne-Italie. Local Boats.
Fourth International Symposim on Boat and Ship
DAMS, L. M. (1984): "Ships and boats in the Archaeology. Porto 1985, BAR International Series
prehistoric rock-art of southern Spain". Papers 438(ii), Oxford.
in Iberian Archaeology. BAR International Series,
Oxford. STEFFY, J.R. (1994): Wooden Shipbuilding and
the Interpretation of Shipwrecks, Texas A&M
JOHNSTONE, P. (1988): The Sea-craft of University Press: College Station.
Prehistory. Routledge, London.
WACHSMANN, S. (1980): “The Thera waterborne
HALDANE, C. W. (1996): “Ancient Egyptian Boat procession reconsidered”, The International
Construction”. Tropis, 4. Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater
Exploration. 9 (4).
KAHANOV, Yaacov (2004): “The Sewing of the
Ship”, The Ma’agan Mikhael Ship. The Recovery WACHSMANN, S. (1998): Seagoing Ships and
of a 2400-Year-Old Merchantmen, Volume II, Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant,. Texas A
Israel Exploration Society and University of Haifa, & M University Press: College Station.
Haifa.
WESTERDAHL, C. (1992): “The maritime cultural
LEON, C. & DOMINGO, B. (1992): “La landscape”, International Journal of Nautical
Construcción Naval en el Mediterráneo Greco- Archaeology. 21(1).
Romano”. CuPAUAM 19.
WESTERDAHL, C. (1994): “Maritime cultures and
LUZÓN NOGUÉ, José María (1988): “Los Hippoi ship types: brief comments on the significance
Gaditanos”. Ripoll Perelló, Eduardo, (Ed.). Actas of maritime archaeology”, International Journal
del I Congreso Internacional "El Estrecho de of Nautical Archaeology. 23(4).

43