Session 9: Islamic Law and Jurisprudence

•Sharīʿa:

•Literal meaning is "path to the watering place" or "a clear path"

•Religious meaning is a path to be followed by believers with Divine

guidance, including principles, values, commands, and prohibitions

•Human beings are entrusted with establishing justice on earth through

right practice

•Source of guidance is the Qur’an and Sunna

•Fiqh:

•Understanding of Sharīʿa

•Several schools of Fiqh, comprising various juristic frameworks

•Sharia is fixed and timeless, while Fiqh is changing and time-bound

•Right behavior and practice are within a pietic framework based on the
interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunna

•Masters of Fiqh:

•Exercising Ijtihād (intellectual effort)

•Several schools of Fiqh, madhhab

•Schools of Fiqh (Madhhab):

•Sunni schools including Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi`i, Hanbali

•Shi`i school is Ja`fari

•Objectives of Sharīʿa (Maqāsid):

•Preservation of religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property

•Attainment of good, welfare, benefits; warding off evil, injury, and loss of
creatures

•Nurturing the pious individual, establishing justice, and realizing benefits

•Welfare and justice for all people and creations, education, establishing
justice, public good, and prevention of harm

•Theoretical Principles of Jurisprudence (Fiqh):

•Sources of Fiqh include the Qur`an, Sunna, and sometimes customary
law

•Methodologies such as Ijtihad, consensus of scholars (Ijmāʾ), opinions of

imams, analogy (Qiyās), istihsān, and istislāh

•Principles of Jurisprudence (sources and methods):

•Usul al-Fiqh

•Rulings of Jurisprudence based on the theory and method: Furu` al- Fiqh

•Legal Maxims:

•General legal maxims (al-qawa’id al-fiqhiyya)

Structure and Components of Islamic Jurisprudence

•The development of legal maxims in Islamic jurisprudence provided a set
of general guidelines for the diverse discipline.

•Five main maxims accepted by all schools of law are: matters

determined on intentions, certainty not overruled by doubt, hardship
begets facility, harm shall be eliminated, and custom as a basis for
judgment.

•Fiqh encompasses religious and juridical obligations, with religious

obligations primarily addressing the individual's relationship with God.

•Juridical obligations, enforceable by the court, pertain to the relationship

between humans and are denoted by halal and haram designations.

•Fiqh considers a range of positions from obligatory to forbidden, with

only the extremes enforced based on clear injunctions of the Quran and
Sunnah.

•The remaining designations, such as recommended, neutral, and

reprehensible, serve as moral guidelines rather than enforceable
obligations.

•The development of new ijtihad has largely depended on frameworks

defined by traditional schools of law, with public good identified as the
prime objective in the new paradigm.

•Ijtihad committees and individual muftis issue non-binding Fatwas, which

are legal opinions in response to questions and may be used in a judicial
decree, making it binding in certain situations.

•The methodology of Fatwa rulings changes based on sources, methods,

time, circumstances, societal customs, hardship, and necessity,
influencing the mufti's opinion.

Short summary
Divine Guidance and Legal Interpretation in Islamic Law:
Exploring the Concepts of Sharīʿa and Fiqh
This text discusses Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, specifically the
concepts of Sharīʿa and Fiqh. It explains that Sharīʿa is the divine guidance
for humans to establish justice on earth, and Fiqh is the understanding of
Sharīʿa. There are various schools of Fiqh, and Islamic Law and
Jurisprudence is based on the interpretation of Qur'an and Sunna. The text
also touches on the objectives of Sharīʿa and the theoretical principles of
jurisprudence, such as ijtihad, consensus of scholars, analogy, and
istihsān.

Insights into Islamic Law: Legal Maxims, Fiqh, and Fatwas

Jurists use legal maxims as general guidelines in Islamic law, which
consists of religious and juridical obligations. The five main maxims
accepted by all schools of law help fill gaps in diverse legal rulings. Fiqh
discusses matters from obligatory to forbidden, with only the two
extremes enforceable. The scope of ijtihad has remained within traditional
school frameworks, with few new paradigms. Fatwas are non-binding legal
opinions issued by qualified jurists, and the role of a mufti is significant in
clarifying Islamic law.

Session 10: islamic philosophy, theology and sciences

Reading 1: presentation
Islamic Intellectual History Notes
•Ancient Greek Philosophy includes Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

•Aristotle was part of the Peripatetic movement and his philosophy was later interpreted,
explained, and refined by proponents such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd.

•The Neoplatonic movement appealed to Muslims due to its profound religious and mystical
pathos, influencing Islamic tradition.

•The philosophical curriculum included logic, ethics, natural philosophy, psychology, and
metaphysics, involving the dialectical method and investigative discourse.

•The transmission flowchart of philosophy involved influential figures such as Al-Kindi, Al-
Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, and Ibn Rushd.
•Andalusian philosophers were attracted to both reconstructing Aristotle’s thought and
Sufism.

•Ibn Tufayl considered human reason capable of knowing the truth through logical
demonstrations and the knowledge of God residing in the soul.

•Averroes wrote commentaries on Aristotle and engaged in the discussion of Reason vs.
Revelation.

•Muslim philosophers can be categorized in three categories, with revelation being supreme
for some and philosophy and reason being sufficient for others.

Theological Schools and Philosophical Methods

•Reason is supreme; truth can be reached through rational minds, making

revelation redundant

•Revelation and reason parallel and overlap

•Al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Ibn Rushd support the validity of the philosophical
method and revealed truth

•Philosophical and revelation both reach the same truth, with prophets
being considered better philosophers

•Social and political contexts giving rise to theological discussions

•Kharijis, Mu`tazila, Shi’ites, and Qadaris – theological and political

implications and responses

•Mu`tazila beliefs and principles, including free will and the createdness of
the Quran

•The state and the theologians, focusing on the rise of `Asharism and the
Mihna tribulation

•`Asharism's beliefs, including God's attributes, free will and fatalism, and
the uncreatedness of the Quran

Short summary
The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Islamic Intellectual History:
Exploring Reason and Revelation
This text discusses the influence of Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle
and Plato, on Islamic intellectual history. Key figures such as Al-Kindi, Al-
Farabi, and Ibn Sina contributed to the development of Aristotelian and
Neoplatonic thought in the Islamic tradition. The dialectical method,
questioning and responding through logical discourse, was central to
Islamic philosophy, as seen in works such as Ibn Tufayl's "Hayy ibn
Yaqzan". The text highlights the tension between reason and revelation in
Islamic philosophy, with some scholars arguing that revelation is supreme
and cannot be fully understood through reason and philosophy.

The Clash of Islamic Theological Schools

The text discusses various Islamic theological schools of thought,
including Mu'tazila, who believe in reason supremacy and revelation
redundancy, and their contrasting views with Al-Kindi and others who see
philosophical and revelation methods leading to the same truth. It also
covers topics such as the Kharijis, Shi'ites, Qadaris, and the rise of
Asharism, as well as the influence of political context and Caliph Ma'mun's
support for Mu'tazila and the tribulation period known as Mihna.

Reading 2
Early Religious and Political Conflicts
•The translations discussed in chapter 1 were a major factor in the
development of Muslim philosophical and theological thought.

•Political conflicts began to play an important role in shaping the

theological outlook of rival parties as early as the seventh century.

•The first serious issue to split the Muslim community following the death
of the Prophet in 632 CE was the question of the legitimate successor to
the caliphal office.

•The question of the legitimate successor came to a head in the wake of

the assassination of the third Caliph, ‘Uthman Ibn ‘Affan, in 656.

•This act pitted against each other the two claimants to the caliphate, ‘Ali
Ibn Abi Talib, and Mu‘awiyah, Governor of Damascus and kinsman of the
assassinated Caliph.

•The arbitration which followed the Battle of Siffin in 657 confirmed

Mu‘awiyah’s right to the succession and split ‘Ali’s army into two rival
factions, loyalists and mutineers.

•The mutineers, known as Kharijites or Secessionists, rejected ‘Ali’s

original consent to arbitration and developed an elaborate theory of
legitimacy fraught with moral and theological consequences.

•The Kharijites asserted that the Muslim community had the right to
depose or even assassinate a Caliph deemed guilty of a grave sin, political
or other, and viewed such sin as calling into question the status of the
sinner as a true Muslim.

Development of Islamic Caliphate

•The Kharijites challenged the official view of the caliphal office being
confined to members of Quraysh, instead asserting that the Muslim
community should have the freedom to elect anyone they deemed worthy
of the office.

•The Shi'ite or 'Alid party pledged unconditional allegiance to the 'Alid

branch of Quraysh, believing that the caliphal office was divine and
necessary, with the Imam being the infallible leader and teacher of the
community.

•Shi'ite doctrine stipulates the Imam will appear at the end of time to fill
the earth with justice. In the absence of a 'visible Imam', Shi'ite doctrine
holds that he is in 'temporary concealment'.

•The Shi'ites rejected the Kharijites' appeal to the Book of God and the
Sunnite view on the consensus of the Muslim community, with the Imam
being the only infallible interpreter of the 'hidden' meaning of sacred
texts.

•The Isma'ilis, followers of the Seventh Shi'ite Imam, pushed the notion of
the 'hidden truth' of sacred texts to its logical extreme, often being
referred to as Batinis or Occultists.

Theological Implications of Political Conflicts in the Seventh

Century
•The Murji'ites challenged the Kharijites' rigid definition of orthodoxy,
defining 'right belief' as the knowledge of God, submission to Him,
abandoning arrogant defiance of Him, and cordial love for Him. They
believed that right belief depended on inner assent, not external
performance or practice. Acts of disobedience or sin would not negate
right belief, nor would acts of obedience profit an infidel.

•The seventh-century political conflicts had theological implications,

leading to rival positions supported by arguments based on common
sense and reason. The Qur'an's allowance for differing interpretations led
to endless conflicting interpretations and the rise of numerous factions,
one of which was assured of salvation.

•The Qadaris of Damascus and Basrah, including Ma'bad al-Juhani and

Ghaylan al-Dimashqi, along with al-Hasan al-Basri, sparked a new
revolutionary spirit of speculation. They focused on the question of qadar,
or the ability of individuals as free agents to carry out their designs and be
held responsible for their actions. The Umayyad Caliphs favored the view
that all actions, including their own, were predestined by God, and
therefore not their responsibility.
•Al-Hasan al-Basri censured the Umayyad Caliphs for their actions, stating
that the enemies of God were lying in their claims that their actions were
part of God's fore-ordination.

The Controversy Over Qadar and Predestination in Islamic

Philosophy
•The controversy over qadar had political implications and entailed the
incrimination of the Umayyad Caliphs.

•Adherents to predestination were accused of being influenced by Greek

philosophy or Christian theology.

•Contacts with Christian theologians at Damascus and elsewhere shaped

the early discussions of free will and predestination.

•The controversial topic of qadar involved debates between Muslims and

Christians, as well as within Arabic sources.

•The Qadari movement received fresh impetus from the Mu‘tazilite

successor movement led by Wasil Ibn ‘Ata’.

•Ethical debates were central to the controversy, with different groups

holding various positions on the concept of power and the ability of
humans to carry out their designs.

Mu'tazilite Theology and Controversial Positions

•The conflict between Jahm and Wasil transformed theological positions
into advocates of free will (qadar) and predestination (jabr).

•The theological developments based on Mu'tazilite theology revolved

around the two antithetical positions.

•The Mu'tazilite theology was grounded in divine justice and divine unity,
leading to the movement being referred to as the People of Justice and
Unity.

•Mu'tazilite factions agreed on five fundamental principles: God’s justice

and unity, the intermediate position, God’s immutable threats and
rewards, His commanding the right, and His prohibiting the wrong.

•The Mu'tazilah opposed Determinists and argued that God must

command what was right or commendable and prohibit what was
reprehensible.

•Mu'tazilah held that right and wrong were intrinsic qualities, known
through reason, and God must have regard for His creatures' welfare.

Mu‘tazilite Theology
•The Mu‘tazilah believe that God punishes or rewards people in the
Hereafter based on the merits and demerits of their actions, and these
punishments and rewards are irreversible and everlasting.

•They reject the concept of intercession (shafa‘ah).

•Revelation, as embodied in the Qur’an, confirms people’s moral insights

and details moral and religious obligations incumbent upon individuals.

•Some Mu‘tazilite theologians believe in the philosophical notion of

generation (tawallud) to rationalize the way in which individuals, as free
agents, could carry out their designs effectively.

•The two branches of Mu‘tazilite theology, Basrah and Baghdad, are in

agreement on two fundamental principles: individuals are free or capable
of choice in the domain of willing, and in the domain of outward action or
doing, they are capable of carrying out their freely chosen designs.

Mu‘tazilah Theology
•Ibrahim al-Nazzam proposed the theory of nature (tab‘) which stated that
actions were forms of motion and every such motion was caused by God
through a 'necessity of nature'.

•Al-Nazzam believed that God created all things initially together and
imparted specific powers or faculties to them, latent until they are ready
to become manifested in human actions or physical occurrences.

•Mu‘ammar Ibn ‘Abbad refined the theory of nature by arguing that God
was the Author or Cause of bodies only, with the accidents being products
of bodies either naturally or voluntarily.

•The aim of Mu‘tazilite scholars in formulating these theories of

generation or causation was to counter the Determinists' claim and to
relieve God of the responsibility for evil in the world.

•The Mu‘tazilah believed in the inseparability of God's attributes from His

essence, unlike their opponents who contended that God possessed a
series of eternal attributes distinct from His essence.

•The Mu‘tazilah insisted on the identity of essence and attribute in God to

safeguard His unqualified unity.

Divine Attributes in Mu‘tazilite Theology

•Mu‘tazilite theology emphasizes the unqualified unity and simplicity of
God, akin to the philosophers Aristotle and Plotinus

•Attributes of God divided into essential and active categories by

Mu‘tazilah, with some division posing challenges to unquestioned
immutability
•Abu’l-Hudhayl of the Mu‘tazilite School of Basrah viewed divine will as a
contingent accident, reducible to God’s command expressed in the Qur’an

•Other Mu‘tazilites distinguish between essential and active aspects of

divine will, while some maintained that God’s will is synonymous with
creative power or command

•Mu‘tazilite theologians, such as Abu’l-Hudhayl, also differentiated

between two aspects of divine speech: primordial creative command and
a secondary aspect for commanding or prohibiting actions

The Eclipses of Theological Rationalism

•Kalam, or systematic theology, was associated with the rise of the
Mu‘tazilite movement in the ninth century and received intellectual
impetus from Greek philosophy and, to a lesser extent, contact with
Christian theology.

•Political impetus for Kalam came from the patronage and support of the
'Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun and his two immediate successors.

•The Mu‘tazilite thesis of the created Qur’an was proclaimed as the official
policy of the state by al-Ma’mun, leading to the creation of the Mihnah, or
Inquisition, in 827 and 833.

•The Mu‘tazilite theological ascendancy continued during the reign of al-

Ma’mun and his two immediate successors.

•The Mu‘tazilite theological ascendancy continued during the reign of al-

Ma’mun and his two immediate successors, but with the accession of al-
Mutawakkil in 847, the official policy of the state was completely reversed.

•Theological rationalism was eclipsed by the instinctive suspicion of the

masses towards philosophy and the reservations of scholars like al-
Sijistani and al-Tawhidi.

Reconciliation of Philosophy and Religion

•Some argue that religious belief does not require the skills of
philosophers, logicians, or astrologers, as it is a matter of divine
revelation.

•Attempts to reconcile philosophy and religion have been largely

unsuccessful, with even Christians and Magians avoiding the use of
philosophy in their disputes.

•The political espousal of the Mu‘tazilite cause by al-Ma’mun led to

religious opposition and resistance, particularly from Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
who staunchly defended the Qur’an as the uncreated and eternal Word of
God.
•Al-Mutawakkil's accession in 847 reversed the theological policies of the
state, leading to the rise of the Ash‘arism movement founded by Abu’l-
Hasan al-Ash‘ari.

•Al-Ash‘ari, a former Mu‘tazilite, continued to engage in theological

discourse and systematic theology, leaning on logical deduction as the
Qur'an and Hadith recommended it.

•Al-Ash‘ari believed that the use of logical deduction was restrained in the
Qur'an and Hadith, as the Muslim community had not yet been exposed to
the problems and doubts that would necessitate such methods.

The Theology of al-Ash'ari

•Al-Ash'ari refers to the body of principles consecrated by reason, sense-
experience, or common sense, as well as the explicit pronouncements of
the Qur’an and Hadith.

•He treads a middle course between traditionalists and rationalists on

substantive issues raised by Mu‘tazilite theologians.

•Al-Ash'ari rejects the views of anthropomorphists and corporealists

regarding divine attributes, instead adopting a nuanced view, known as
bila kayfa or 'ask not how'.

•He objected to the Mu‘tazilite view, arguing that rendering the attributes
of God equivalent to His essence would allow petitions to be addressed to
God's power, knowledge, or life instead of God Himself.

•Al-Ash'ari rejects the Mu‘tazilite thesis that individuals, as free agents,

were the creators of their deeds, charging them with being akin to the
Manichaeans or Magians of Islam. He holds that God's power is absolute
and His decrees irreversible.

Islamic Philosophy
•Muslims believe in the Qur'an 37:94 quote that asserts that God created
humans and their actions, indicating that humans have no independent
creative power.

•It is believed that God has the power to reform unbelievers to believers
and has foreknowledge of their disbelief but still wanted them to be
unbelievers.

•Good and evil outcomes are believed to be pre-ordained and decreed by

God, and humans are unable to benefit or harm themselves independently
of God's will.

•Al-Ash'ari's theological views present predestinarian implications, but he

struggled with the question of free will and predestination, eventually
formulating the "acquisition" thesis as a middle ground between the
traditional predestinarian and libertarian positions.

•According to the acquisition thesis, humans can distinguish between

compulsory and voluntary actions, with the latter being the product of
God's creative power and considered to be created by God but "acquired"
by humans.

•This concept was further developed by Al-Baqillani and others. They

believed that humans, through natural reason alone, were unable to
discern between right and wrong, and that it was presumptuous to
consider God's actions as just or unjust, as those terms did not apply to
God.

•The Ash'arites developed an elaborate atomic theory with Greek and

Indian influences, countering the Aristotelian view of the world.

Ash'arite Philosophy of Atoms and Accidents

•The Ash'arite philosophy defines anything other than God as being made
up of atoms and accidents.

•They define the atom as the 'bearer' of accidents and recognize a long
list of positive and negative accidents, none of which the atom is ever
'denuded' of.

•Accidents are divided into primary and secondary categories, with

primary accidents being inescapable from body, while secondary
accidents are separable from the body by way of transformation or
change.

•The most important property of the Ash'arite accidents is their

impermanence or transiency, and al-Baqillani defines an accident as 'that
whose permanence is impossible; it supervenes upon atoms and bodies,
but ceases to exist in the second instant of its coming-to-be'.

•Al-Baghdadi argues that the assertion of the opposite property of

permanence would entail the impossibility of the destruction of accidents.

•Ash'arites maintained that the permanence of the atom itself depended

on the continuous supervention of the accident of permanence upon it.
God had to create the accidents continuously so long as He wished the
body in which these accidents inhere to endure.

•The destruction of bodies raised a cluster of problems with which

theologians grappled, including the argument that the destruction of a
body depended on God's creating in it the accident of impermanence,
whereupon it ceased to exist at once. Later Ash'arite scholars continued
this line of speculation.
The Islamic Assault on Neoplatonism
•The later Ash‘arite scholars continued to oppose the Mu‘tazilah and the
philosophers despite the triumph of Ash‘arism, which became identified
with orthodoxy.

•The voluminous output of later Ash‘arite theologians constitutes a vast

theological legacy, with scholars such as al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali, al-
Shahrastani, al-Razi, and al-Iji being the most noteworthy.

•These impressive writings continued to be taught at institutions such as

al-Azhar in Egypt and al-Zaytuna in Tunis for centuries and remain studied
and commented upon throughout the Muslim world.

•The struggle between philosophy and theology, or Kalam, has continued

since Aristotelian logic found its way into learned circles in Islam.

•Theologians and grammarians viewed logic with suspicion and

considered Arabic grammar and linguistic disciplines adequate for higher
learning, deeming metaphysics in its Aristotelian or Neoplatonic form as
inimical to the Islamic worldview.

•The theologians perceived that metaphysics rested upon notions

irreconcilable with the Qur’anic concept of God's power and His
inscrutable ways, and the very goals of philosophy were seen as impudent
attempts to probe the mysteries of creation and the supra-rational way in
which God managed the physical world and human affairs.

•Anti-philosophical perceptions can be heard in the works of most leading

Ash‘arite theologians, with al-Ghazali epitomizing the spirit of anti-
philosophical dissent as the greatest theologian of Islam and the most
eloquent champion of Ash‘arism.

Life and Philosophy of al-Ghazali

•Al-Ghazali was appointed head of the Nizamiyah School in Baghdad by
Nizam al-Mulk and taught jurisprudence and theology from 1091 to 1095.

•His association with Nizam al-Mulk and the Shafi‘i cause prompted him to
give up his position when Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated.

•After wandering as a Sufi for ten years, al-Ghazali returned to Nishapur

and resumed teaching before his death in 1111.

•Al-Ghazali spent three years studying Greek–Arabic philosophy and wrote

philosophical works such as Mi‘yar al-‘Ilm, Maqasid al-Falasifah, and Mizan
al-‘Amal.

•He also wrote Tahafut al-Falasifah, an onslaught on the philosophers,

aiming to lay down the groundwork for the refutation of Neoplatonism and
other philosophies in Islam.

Al-Ghazali's Tahafut and Philosophical Sciences

•Al-Ghazali discusses the three main areas of the philosophical sciences

•The first part of the philosophical sciences contains the fine maxims and
true principles derived from the teachings of the prophets or Sufi masters

•Al-Ghazali advises caution in approaching this part of the philosophical

sciences

•The second part contains the bulk of the philosophers’ errors, namely
physics and metaphysics

•In the Tahafut, Al-Ghazali summarizes the main ‘questions’ on which the
philosophers should be declared infidel or heretical, and reduces them to
twenty

•The three most pernicious issues are the eternity of the world, God’s
knowledge of universals but not of particulars, and the denial of the
resurrection of the body

•Al-Ghazali argues that the thesis of the eternity of the world logically
entails that it is uncreated and therefore has no Maker, making those who
adhere to this view Godless

•On the issue of God’s knowledge, al-Ghazali accuses the philosophers of

restricting the scope of God’s knowledge to such an extent that they have
reduced Him to the status of the dead

•Regarding bodily resurrection, Al-Ghazali argues that the only recourse

open to the philosophers is to defer to the authority of revelation, which
asserts the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body, as
Qur’an 3, 169 implies

Resurrection and Philosophy in Islamic Theology

•The Day of Judgement entails the soul uniting with a body of the same or
different matter from the original body, allowing bodily resurrection and
the restoration of the ability to experience bodily pleasures and pains.

•Al-Ghazali refutes the philosophers' claims that bodily pleasures and

pains referenced in the Qur'an are impossible and bound to rebut by
regaining the ability to experience these sensations.

•The necessary connection of causes and effects is a major issue between

Ash‘arite theologians and philosophers, with al-Ghazali asserting that the
alleged correlation is born of ingrained habit and observation does not
prove the alleged effect occurs due to the alleged cause.
•Al-Ghazali denies necessary causation to vindicate the consensus of all
Muslims that God can act miraculously and without possible limits in the
world.

Short summary
Origins and Influences: The Development of Muslim Philosophical
and Theological Thought
This text discusses the development of Muslim philosophical and
theological thought, tracing its origins to the translations of Greek
philosophical and theological works in the 8th and 9th centuries. It also
explores the role of early political conflicts in shaping theological outlooks,
particularly the debate over the caliphate's legitimacy after the Prophet's
death in 632 CE, and the rise of the Kharijites, who advocated for the right
to depose or execute a Caliph deemed guilty of grave sin.

"The Power Struggle: Caliphs, Imams, and Diverging Paths in

Islamic History"
The Kharijites believed in electing a Caliph from the Muslim community,
regardless of tribe, and held that he could be removed if he strayed from
the right path. The Shi'ite party disagreed, insisting that the Caliphate
belonged to the 'Alid branch of Quraysh and that a hidden Imam would
appear at the end of time to bring justice. The Shi'ites rejected the
consensus of the Muslim community as the ultimate warrant of religious
truth, instead following the teachings of the Imam as the infallible
interpreter of sacred texts.

"The Murji'ites vs. Kharijites: Rethinking Orthodoxy and the

Concept of Right Belief"
The Murji'ites challenged the Kharijites' orthodoxy by defining right belief
as inner assent rather than external performance or practice. They
believed no act of disobedience or sin could negate right belief or entry to
paradise, differing from the Umayyad Caliphs' predestination belief. This
theological debate arose due to political conflicts and the rise of new
thought by scholars such as al-Hasan al-Basri, who questioned the free
agency of individuals and responsibility for actions.

The Controversy of Qadar: Exploring Predestination and Free Will

in Islamic Theology
The text discusses the controversy over qadar, or predestination, in
Islamic theology. It notes that some believed in a strict predestination
(jabr), while others, like the Qadari movement, argued for human free will.
The text highlights the influence of Greek philosophy and Christian
theology on these debates, and the role of key figures such as Wasil Ibn
'Ata' and Jahm Ibn Safwan in shaping these theological arguments.
Theological Conflict and the Mu'tazilite Movement
The text discusses the conflict between Jahm and Wasil, which divided
theological ranks into two groups: those supporting free will (qadar) and
those supporting predestination (jabr). It highlights the Mu'tazilite
movement, which emphasized divine justice and unity, and focused on
God's justice, unity, intermediate position, immutable threats and
rewards, commanding the right, and prohibiting the wrong. The Mu'tazilah
argued against determinists, asserting that right and wrong are intrinsic
qualities of human actions, and that God, as a merciful creator, must
consider the welfare of His creatures.

"The Mu'tazilah: Embracing Moral Insights and Upholding Free

Will"
The Mu'tazilah believed that God's commands and prohibitions were
inherently right or wrong, and that punishment and reward would be
based on individual actions. Revelation, as embodied in the Quran,
confirms people's moral insights and provides detailed obligations. The
Mu'tazilite school of thought emphasized human free will and choice,
differing from their deterministic opponents.

"The Mu'tazilite Theologians: Bridging the Gap Between Human

Freedom and God's Agency"
Mu'tazilite theologians, such as Ibrahim al-Nazzam, proposed a theory of
nature which reconciled human freedom and natural efficacy with God's
ultimate agency in the universe. This theory, along with others, aimed to
counter the determinists' claim that nothing happens without God's direct
intervention and to protect God's justice by not holding Him responsible
for evil in the world. The Mu'tazilah also emphasized divine unity, arguing
that God's essence and attributes were inseparable to maintain His
unqualified unity.

Divine Attributes and Challenges to God's Immutability in

Mu'tazilite Theology
The Mu'tazilite school of thought in Islamic theology divided God's
attributes into essential and active categories, with essential attributes
being inseparable from God's essence and active attributes being
associated with God's command and justice. The concept of divine will
and speech posed challenges to God's immutability, with different
Mu'tazilite scholars proposing various solutions, such as viewing will as
synonymous with God's command and His creative power. Divine speech
was considered a created accident, with some scholars distinguishing
between the primordial creative command and secondary command or
prohibition of actions.

The Intersection of Philosophy and Theology in Islamic Thought:

The Rise and Decline of the Mu'tazilite Movement
The text discusses the interaction of philosophy and theology in Islamic
thought, specifically focusing on the Mu'tazilite movement. It highlights
the political influence of the 'Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun and the challenges
faced by the movement due to popular suspicion and philosophical
reservations. The text also mentions the eventual decline of the
Mu'tazilite movement and the rise of the Ash'arite school as a more
moderate form of theological rationalism.

The Intersection of Religion and Philosophy: Perspectives and

Tensions
The article discusses the relationship between religion and philosophy,
particularly in reconciling religious beliefs with philosophical ideas. It
highlights the stance of al-Tawhidi, who rejects attempts to reconcile the
two and emphasizes the importance of divine revelation in religious belief.
It also touches on the political implications of religious beliefs, such as the
tension between religion and politics under Caliph al-Ma'un and the
opposition led by Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. The article concludes with the rise of
Ash'arism, a post-Mu'tazilite theological movement, and the views of its
founder, al-Ash'ari, who encourages theological discourse and the use of
logical deduction.

"Bila Kayfa: Rejecting Anthropomorphism and Embracing Divine

Decrees"
Al-Ash'ari, a middle-of-the-road Islamic theologian, rejected
anthropomorphism and corporealism regarding divine attributes, arguing
for a nuanced belief known as "bila kayfa". He also disagreed with the
Mu'tazilite view on free will and predestination, maintaining that God's
power was absolute and His decrees irreversible. Al-Ash'ari believed that
all actions were pre-ordained by God, thus rejecting the claim that
individuals create their own deeds as a form of polytheism or dualism.

"The Ash'ari School of Thought: Navigating the Boundaries of

Human Free Will and Divine Creation"
The text discusses the Ash'ari school of thought, which views humans as
being created by God and having limited free will. This school rejects the
Mu'tazili belief in complete free will and also the predestinarian belief of
complete lack of free will. Instead, Ash'arites propose the concept of
"kasb," which states that humans can make voluntary actions but they are
actually created by God. This school of thought emphasizes that humans
cannot determine right and wrong without divine guidance and that
attributing justice or injustice to God is presumptuous.

"The Impermanence of Accidents and the Theological Debate on

the Destruction of Bodies"
The Ash'arite school defined accidents as transient properties that exist
on top of atoms and bodies, emphasizing their impermanence. They
divided accidents into primary (inseparable from body) and secondary
(separable through transformation) categories. The permanence of atoms
depended on the continuous creation of the accident of permanence,
requiring God to create accidents continuously for bodies to endure. The
destruction of bodies raised complex theological issues, with various
scholars proposing different mechanisms for their cessation.
"The Conflict Between Theology and Philosophy in Islam"
Later Ash'arite scholars, including al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali, al-Shahrastani,
al-Razi, and al-Iji, continued to attack the Mu'tazilah and philosophers.
Their extensive theological writings are still studied at universities such as
al-Azhar and al-Zaytuna. The struggle between theology and philosophy in
Islam began when Aristotelian logic was introduced through Syriac
translation. Theologians and grammarians viewed logic with suspicion and
believed Arabic grammar and related fields were sufficient for higher
learning. Metaphysics was seen as inimical to the Islamic worldview and
teachings of the Quran. The most notable anti-philosophical figure is Abu
Hamid al-Ghazali, who studied with al-Juwayni and al-Farmadhi.

The Philosophical Journey of Al-Ghazali

Al-Ghazali was a renowned Sufi teacher and scholar, appointed head of
the Nizamiyah School in Baghdad. He taught jurisprudence and theology
with success until the assassination of Nizam al-Mulk and the death of
Sultan Malik Shah, after which he wandered as a Sufi for ten years before
resuming teaching in Nishapur. Al-Ghazali studied all philosophical
sciences and was proficient in refuting Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism.
His philosophical writings include summaries of logic, Neoplatonic
teachings, and an ethical treatise based on Platonic-Aristotelian synthesis.

"Misguided Philosophical Sciences: Al-Ghazali's Condemnation

and the Power of Revelation"
Al-Ghazali criticizes philosophical sciences in his Tahafut, arguing that
physics and metaphysics contain the philosophers' errors. He highlights
three main issues that make some philosophers heretical: the eternity of
the world, God's knowledge of universals but not particulars, and the
denial of bodily resurrection. Al-Ghazali uses logical arguments, Qur'an
verses, and Hadith to refute these ideas, emphasizing the importance of
revelation in understanding immortality and resurrection.

"The Reunion of Soul and Body on the Day of Judgement and the
Question of Necessary Causation"
On the Day of Judgement, the soul will reunite with a body, regaining the
ability to experience bodily pleasures and pains. Al-Ghazali argues that
the correlation between cause and effect is not necessary, but rather a
result of ingrained habit. The Ash'arite theologians denied necessary
causation to vindicate the belief in God's ability to act miraculously, with
no limits in the world.
Session 11 sufism
Reading 1 kashani tafsir
The Prophet's Comparisons and Miracles
•The Prophet compared the one who hamstrung a camel with the one who
slew ʿAlī, peace be upon him. The former was deemed the most wretched
of the earlier generations and the latter the most wretched of the later
generations.

•Moses's casting down of his staff was an allusion to his soul, symbolizing
his virtuous governance and disciplining. It became like a serpent
swallowing the false lies and vanquishing his disputants.

•Moses also drew forth his hand, thus manifesting his dazzling power and
the light of the truth of his summoning.

•Each prophet's miracle must be of the same nature as the prevalent

aspect of his time, to ensure greater success in having his call responded
to.

Fasting and Revelation

•Fasting, as explained in the given text, was first practiced by Moses. In
response to him using a toothbrush to clean his teeth during a 30-day
fast, God reprimanded and commanded him to add an additional 10 days
of fasting.

•It is suggested that during the initial 30 days of fasting, Moses had
attained a certain level of spiritual purity but still retained a remnant of
existence. This concept is illustrated by his yearning for further divine
revelation with his plea, "My Lord! Show me that I may behold You!"

•In the latter 10 days of his extended 40-day fast, it is said that Moses
attained the complete vision of God's essence and was thus annihilated of
any remnant of existence, prompting his recovery of senses and
exclamation, "Glory be to You."

Islamic Belief and Repentance

•The text discusses the concept of repentance and being the first of the
believers, not in terms of time, but in terms of level.

•It mentions being in the first file of the files of the various levels of
spirits, which is the station of the folk of [God’s] unity, being the station of
pure election.

•The text refers to the station of pure election as the first degree of
prophetic calling (istinbāʾ) that follows sanctity (walāya).
•It quotes [7:144] ‘I have elected you from among mankind for My
messages, this is the first degree of prophetic calling (istinbāʾ) that follows
sanctity (walāya). So take what I have given you, through fixity, and be of
the thankful’.

•The text emphasizes the importance of being upright in fulfilling the due
of servanthood, as the Prophet, peace be upon him, once said, ‘Should I
not be a thankful servant?’.

Reading 2
Reading 3

(Lo! I, even I, am thy Lord. So take off thy shoes) for his shoes were
made of the skin of a dead ass, (for Lo! thou art in the holy valley of
Tuwa) Tuwa is the name of the valley; it also said that Tuwa means:
this valley has been crossed (tawathu) by prophets before you; it is
also said that Tuwa is a well which was filled with stones (tuwiyyat
bi'l-sakhr) in the valley where he found the tree.

Indeed read as inni if one understands nudiya 'he was called' as meaning qila 'it was said'; or read it as anni
because of an implied prefixed ba' I am anã reiterates the first person indicator ya' of inni used by the direct
speaker your Lord. So take off your sandals for lo! you are in the holy meaning either the pure or the blessed
valley of Tuwa this is either a substitution or an explicative supplement; read Tuwan with nunation or Tuwa
without it is considered declinable on account of it being a location; but alternatively considered indeclinable if
taken as considered a feminine proper noun denoting a place name.

Surely I am thy Lord. Take off thy shoes!

Moses had reached the head of tawHid's drinking plake when he heard the words, "Surely I
am thy Lord." He was commanded to step into the world of solitariness. He placed his feet
on the two worlds and made his aspiration one for the Patron. Take off thy shoes!
That is, empty your heart of talk of the two worlds and become disengaged for the Real with
the attribute of solitariness. O Moses, be one for the One, first in the disengagement of the
intention, and second in the breeze of intimacy. Disown the two worlds so that the breeze of
intimacy may begin to blow from the desert of the Endless. The veil of division has been
lifted, and the call of gentleness has reached the spirit.
Reading 4
Sufism - A Beginner's Guide
•A Beginner's Guide

•More than a thousand years ago, a teacher called Ali the son of Ahmad,
who hailed from the town of Bushanj in eastern Persia, complained that
few people had any idea of what "Sufism" was all about.

•Sufism is a name without a reality, but it used to be a reality without a

name. The name has become better known in the West, but its reality has
become more obscure than it ever was in the Islamic world.

•The reality of Sufism will not be found in definitions, descriptions, and

books. The divide between our own times and the times of Ali ibn Ahmad
Bushanji may make it impossible to recover anything more than the
dimmest trace of it.

•Labels such as "mysticism," "esoterism," or "spirituality" with the

adjective "Islamic" do not adequately capture the diverse teachings and
phenomena that have been identified with Sufism over history.

•Using alternative names would require a detailed and careful definition

and analysis of the new term, which would lead to picking and choosing
among Sufi and scholarly writings to support our own definition. Even
then, we may not get closer to the reality that Bushanji was talking about.

The Complexity of Defining Sufism

•Sufism resists domestication and definition, making it difficult to label or
categorize within other traditions such as Kabbalah, Christian mysticism,
Yoga, Vedanta, or Zen.

•The word Sufism has gone through various interpretations and meanings
in Islamic civilization, with no consensus on its definition or legitimacy.

•Western scholars, particularly British Orientalists, elevated the term

Sufism to refer to aspects of Islamic civilization that they found attractive,
propagating a more positive image of it and avoiding negative
stereotypes associated with Islam.

•The modern studies of Sufism also reflect the disagreements over the
word, with scholars providing multiple definitions and descriptions.

•Despite the lack of a definitive meaning, the author chooses to use the
term to try to understand the reality behind it and provide a series of
pointers at the moon.

•Many in the West are familiar with Sufi teachings and practices but may
be ignorant of or deny the strong relationship between Sufism and Islam,
perpetuating stereotypes about the religion.
•This view of Sufism has also been reinforced by modern-day Muslims
who have reacted against it, perpetuating misconceptions about the true
relationship between Sufism and Islam.

Sufism's Role in Islam

•Many people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, consider "Sufism" as alien
to "Islam," however these two terms have always claimed to speak for the
heart and marrow of the Islamic tradition.

•Gibb implies that Sufism is equivalent to "authentic religious

experience," according to early Sufi teachers.

•Sufism is identified with Islam's spirit, prefigured in a famous saying of

the Prophet known as the "Hadith of Gabriel."

•The religion of Islam can be understood to have three basic dimensions:

"submission" (islam), "faith" (iman), and "doing the beautiful" (ihsan).

•Sufism's reality and role need to be situated in relation to these three

dimensions as outlined in the "Hadith of Gabriel."

Understanding the Tripartite Division of the Islamic Tradition

•The Prophet Muhammad defines faith as having faith in God, His angels,
His scriptures, His messengers, and the Last Day, as well as having faith
in the measuring out, both the good of it and the evil of it.

•The five pillars of Islam include voicing the testimony of faith, doing the
daily prayers, paying the alms tax, fasting during Ramadan, and making
the pilgrimage to Mecca.

•The three principles of Islam are the assertion of divine unity (tawhid),
prophecy, and eschatology.

•"Doing the beautiful" is a third category that is just as important as the

other two, but its meaning is not as clear and is not discussed by the
jurists or theologians.

•The Sufis take "doing the beautiful" as their special domain and consider
themselves genuine Muslims deeply involved with everything that God
and Muhammad have asked from human beings.

•The Sharia is a compendium of systematic law based on Koranic

teachings and prophetic practice, and supports the tradition's life and
awareness.

•On a deeper level, Islam is a religion that addresses the spiritual and
moral conduct of individuals, beyond just the physical requirements
outlined by the Sharia.

The Three Domains of Faith in Islam

•The second dimension of Islam corresponds to the mind and is
traditionally called "faith," focusing on faith's orientation points, such as
God, angels, scriptures, prophets, etc.

•Investigation of faith's objects became the domain of various disciplines,

such as Kalam, philosophy, and theoretical Sufism.

•Theoretical knowledge of faith's objects was essential for great

philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, physicians, and famous Sufis
of Islam.

•Islam is a religion that aims to teach people how to transform themselves

to come into harmony with the ground of all being.

•Neither activity nor understanding alone are sufficient, but both must be
focused to bring about human goodness and perfection.

•The third dimension of Islam aims to guide people towards achieving

nearness to God through terms like sincerity, love, virtue, and perfection.

•The Hadith of Gabriel describes "faith" in terms of its objects, pointing to

three distinct yet intertwined domains within humans: heart, tongue, and
limbs.

•Acting with the limbs is the domain of jurisprudence, where people

submit to God's will through obeying the commands in the Sharia.

•Voicing with the tongue is the realm of expressing faith through rational
speech, which is unique to humans and sets them apart from other
animals.

•The three domains, though distinct, are thoroughly intertwined and were
studied by different disciplines and judged by different standards.

The Heart and Three Domains of Religiosity

•Voicing faith was the domain of Muslim scholars who sought to
understand God, the universe, and the human soul.

•"Acknowledging with the heart" is recognizing the truth and reality of

faith's objects at the deepest level of human awareness.

•The heart, in Koranic terms, is the center of life, consciousness,

intelligence, and intentionality.

•Faith's core is found only in the heart, and is referred to as "Faith is a

light that God casts into the heart."
•The Prophet's definition of faith designates body, tongue, and heart as
the three domains, expressing right doing, right thinking, and right seeing.

•These domains are crucial in realizing the potentialities given to human

beings by God.

•The domain of right activity was the specialty of jurists, right thinking for
theologians, and right seeing for Sufis.

•"O God, show us things as they are," is a quote by Sufis, emphasizing

right seeing with the core of the heart.

•The Shahadah, or "testimony of faith,” - "There is no god but God" and

that "Muhammad is the messenger of God" - is given great importance in
Islam.

The Shahadah in Islamic Perspective

•The Shahadah is the first required act of Muslims, listing the definition of
"submission."

•It acknowledges the reality of God and the prophetic role of Muhammad,
making the other four pillars and the Sharia incumbent upon oneself.

•The Shahadah defines the content of faith, with primary faith in God and
in the prophetic role of Muhammad.

•Human goodness and perfection depend upon putting the Shahadah into
practice to actualize the divine image inherent in the soul.

•All three dimensions of Islam engage bodies, minds, and hearts,

historically differentiated in many forms.

•The diverse expressions of Islam, with tremendous historical and regional

variation, have been given many names and undergone modern scholars'
investigations.

•Islam embraces the whole range of human activities and concerns with a
special affinity for diversity of expression.

The Nature of Sufism and Islamic Civilization

•Islamic civilization lacks a centralized authority like a priesthood or the
Catholic Church, but has produced various institutional forms that have
influenced practice, understanding, and the interior life.

•The three dimensions designated by the Hadith of Gabriel gradually

came to be reflected within society as distinct, yet interrelated aspects of
Islamic civilization.
•The third dimension, "doing the beautiful," remained an intangible inner
sanctum for Muslims who practice their religion for God's sake alone.

•Sufism is an invisible spiritual presence that animates all authentic

expressions of Islam, with historical forms demonstrating its fundamental
importance.

•Achieving human perfection has made it difficult for individuals and

institutions historically connected with Sufism to fully actualize its true
nature.

•Some Sufi teachers explain Sufism's role in the context of tawhid, the
assertion of God's unity, emphasizing that God's creative power is
manifested in the universe's diversity.

Divine Attributes and Their Manifestation

•Divine attributes such as beauty and majesty, or mercy and wrath, or
gentleness and severity are found in the created world.

•Mercy and wrath are interconnected and can be likened to the yin-yang
symbol, with no pure mercy or pure wrath in the created domain.

•Certain things in the world display the attribute of wrath more directly,
while others are dominated by mercy.

•The external and material realms tend to manifest wrath, while the
spiritual world leans towards pure mercy.

•God's wrath is associated with the world's distance from God and is
closely linked to the Sharia, concerned with bodily activity, but it derives
from God's mercy.

•Though mercy and wrath have a yin-yang relationship, God's mercy

takes precedence over His wrath.

•The stern face of the Sharia displays God's majesty and severity, but
beneath its surface lies the promise of precedent mercy.

•All things came forth from mercy and will return to mercy in the end.

•There is a relationship between the spiritual perfection sought by Sufis

and divine mercy, gentleness, and beauty, with love central to Sufi
teachings and its connection to mercy and creation.

The Sufi Path

•Mercy flows in one direction from God to the world, while love moves in
both directions

•Human love for God closes the gap between God and His creatures
•Love is often taken as a synonym for doing the beautiful

•Westerners can be simultaneously attracted by Sufism and repelled by

"Islam"

•Sufism's characteristic expressions are found in beauty, love, poetry, and

music

•When drawn to Sufism, people enter delightful gardens hidden by the

walls surrounding traditional Muslim houses

•Sufi theory provides a map of the cosmos, explaining what human beings
are and what they should aspire to be

•The first Shahadah discerns between the Real and the unreal, or
between the Absolute and the relative, or between God and "everything
other"

The Shahadah in Sufism

•The Shahadah, or Islamic declaration of faith, is traditionally divided into
two halves: the negation, which denies the inherent reality of the world
and self, and the affirmation, which affirms the ultimacy of the divine
reality.

•The Shahadah states that there is "no creator but God," "none merciful
but God," and "none knowing but God," emphasizing that all so-called
realities are secondary and derivative.

•Koranic verses and hadiths support the discernment in the Shahadah and
explain its implications, such as the verse "Everything is perishing but His
face" (28:88), indicating the temporary nature of worldly existence
compared to the eternal presence of God.

•Sufi masters interpret the saying of the Prophet, "God was, and nothing
was with Him," to emphasize that only God has true existence, with
everything else being nonexistent.

•The second part of the Shahadah, "Muhammad is the messenger of

God," asserts that Muhammad is a clear manifestation of the One Real,
and that prophets and divine revelations provide guidance and reveal
God's mercy to humanity.

•The Koran refers to its own verses and divine revelations as "signs,"
similar to how it refers to the things of the universe, highlighting the
subtle distinction between divine revelation and everything that does not
reveal God.

Sufi path
•The world can be viewed from two points of view: "other than God" and
hence unreal, and as "signs" of God and therefore real to some degree.

•There is a distinction between phenomena as “signs” and phenomena as

"veils."

•Sufis explain this distinction using many sets of terms, such as the
"eastern face" and the "western face" of existent things.

•The vast majority of people see only the "western face" of things, while
prophets and great Sufis see the "eastern face," and witness God in
everything

•Islamic anthropology depicts human beings as the only creatures who

have freely chosen God over the world, the Real over the unreal, the East
over the West.

•Human beings have accepted their human condition as a given and

possess a degree of freedom, with each volitional act demonstrating this
acceptance.

•Rumi provides arguments to show that attempts to shuck off

responsibility are self-serving and hypocritical, and people freely enter
into choices knowing that they will have consequences.

Understanding the Distinction Between God and the World

•The initial discernment between God and the world leads to two
secondary discernments.

•These secondary discernments involve distinguishing between revelation

and human knowledge, as well as discerning between eastern faces and
western faces.

•Once these discernments are made, they need to be put into practice
through religious teachings and institutions.

•The difference between the general Islamic viewpoint and the specifically
Sufi perspective lies in a certain self-conscious application of principles.

•The Sufi path involves deepening understandings, purifying hearts, and

doing what is beautiful, going beyond blind religious following (taqlid).

•The Shahadah becomes a concrete expression of the reality of God and a

tool to cut away the illusory from the Real.

•Sufi practice is built on the foundations of Islam (submission to God and

the practice of Sharia and the prophetic model) and faith (accepting basic
Islamic teachings).
•Seeking to eventually "worship God as if they see Him,” driven by
sincerity and love.

The Sufi Path

•Sufi practice is rooted in the Shahadah, combining two perspectives:
negation and affirmation, or "no god” and “but God."

•The false reality that needs to be negated is the individual self or ego,
which dominates self-awareness, preventing people from seeing the sun's
light and perceiving a multitude of shadows, false realities, and "idols."

•The path of Sufism entails a process of inner transformation whereby the

powers of the soul are turned toward God.

•Devotional and spiritual exercises are added to strictly Shariite practices,

with the "remembrance" (dhikr) of God as the most important. The
remembrance was taught by the Prophet to his close companions in
specific forms that make up the kernel of Sufi discipline.

•Seekers must forget the unreal in order to remember the Real in Its
fullness, and the actual means of remembering God is the mention of
God's name (or names), considered to be the direct manifestation of the
divine on the human level.

•Awareness is the fundamental reality of human nature, and its content

determines who we are. Constant focus on God leads to the goal of the
Sufi path, which is “union" with God, or the full realization of human
perfection.

Sufism and the Sufi Tradition

•The Sufis can say with Hallaj (d. 922), "I am the Real," meaning "I am
God," after having realized the truth of their own situation. They have
negated their illusory selfhood and affirmed God alone.

•Hallaj's ultimate love for God led him to become his own enemy and
annul himself, declaring, "I am the Real," which signifies his own
annihilation and the affirmation of the Real.

•Sufism can be broadly described as the internalization and intensification

of Islamic faith and practice, with the word sufi originally likely meaning
"one who wears wool" and later used to differentiate a group of Muslims
who stressed specific teachings and practices of Islam.

•By the eighth century, those called Sufis began to stress certain specific
teachings and practices of the Koran and the Prophet, adopting the term
tasauuuf, or "Sufism," as an appropriate designation for their activities
and aspirations.

•The derivation of the term Sufi is not completely clear but took on the
aura of a proper name, reflecting the focus and interests of the Sufis in
various approaches to Islamic learning by the ninth century.

The Reality of Islam's Beginning

•The concept of "reality" in Islam existed from its inception, as noted by
Bushanji.

Short summary

The Essence of Sufism: Unveiling the Spiritual Path of Islam

Sufism: A Beginner's Guide by William C. Chittick explores the reality of
Sufism, a spiritual path within Islam. The guide clarifies that Sufism is
more than just a label and that its reality cannot be found in definitions or
descriptions. The divide between modern times and when Sufism began
may make it impossible to recover its true essence, but the book aims to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the diverse teachings and
phenomena associated with Sufism throughout history.

"The Enigma of Sufism: Unraveling its Essence within the Islamic

Context"
Sufism, a spiritual tradition within Islam, lacks a universally agreed-upon
definition and has varied interpretations within the Islamic texts. Though it
shares some resemblance with other spiritual traditions like Kabbalah and
Yoga, it has been given prominence by Western scholars rather than
Islamic texts. Modern studies of Sufism similarly have differing definitions,
and understanding its reality requires looking beyond the label and
examining its teachings and practices within the Islamic context.

The Authenticity and Role of Sufism Within Islam

Sufism, often considered alien to Islam, is seen by many as authentic
religious experience. Early Sufi teachers believed they represented the
heart of Islamic tradition. The famous "Hadith of Gabriel" highlights three
dimensions of Islam: submission, faith, and doing the beautiful. Sufism
flourishes where these values are alive, and understanding its role within
Islam can help appreciate its reality in relation to other Islamic realities.

The Role of "Doing the Beautiful" in the Islamic Tradition

The text discusses the importance of "doing the beautiful" in Islam, which
is often overlooked by scholars. This category, along with "submission"
and "faith," forms the basis of the Islamic tradition. The Sharia focuses on
external religious practices, while doing the beautiful is considered the
Sufis' special domain. To understand the role of doing the beautiful, one
must grasp the tripartite division of the Islamic tradition.

Dimensions of Islam: Faith, Understanding, and Self-

Transformation
The text discusses the three dimensions of Islam: faith, understanding,
and self-transformation. It highlights the role of faith in comprehending
the world and oneself, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging,
articulating, and acting on one's beliefs. Understanding involves various
disciplines like philosophy and theoretical Sufism, while self-
transformation aims to bring harmony with the ground of all being.

"The Key to Perceiving Reality: The Power of the Heart in Islamic

Tradition"
The Islamic tradition acknowledges three domains of religiosity: body,
tongue, and the depths of the heart, corresponding to right doing, right
thinking, and right seeing. Muslim scholars, including jurists, theologians,
and Sufis, deeply examined these domains. The heart holds the key to
right seeing, in which one perceives reality from the core of the heart and
subsequently influencing thought and activity. The Shahadah, or
testimony of faith, holds a primary place in this understanding of Islam.

The Shahadah: Understanding Faith, Muhammad, and the

Foundations of Islam
The Shahadah, a key element in understanding the Islamic perspective,
defines faith and highlights the primary element of faith as believing in
God. It also establishes the role of Muhammad as a messenger. The
Shahadah serves as the foundation for the five pillars of Islam and the
Sharia. It plays a crucial role in understanding human beings, God's
influence on them, and the nature of human goodness and perfection.

The Spiritual Essence: Sufism's Role in Islamic Civilization

The text discusses the various institutional forms and practices within
Islamic civilization, emphasizing the importance of Sufism as a spiritual
presence that animates all authentic expressions of Islam. It highlights the
difficulty of achieving human perfection and the risk of institutionalizing
Sufism, which can lead to corruption. It also explains the role of Sufism in
the context of tawhid, emphasizing God's unity and the nature of creation.

The Divine Attributes: Exploring the Interconnection of Mercy,

Wrath, and Love
The text discusses the relationship between divine attributes, such as
mercy and wrath, and their connection to the created world. It highlights
that these attributes are interwoven, with no pure form of one or the other
existing in the created domain. The text further explains the association of
God's wrath with the Sharia and how it ultimately leads back to God's
mercy. The concept of love is emphasized in the text, connecting it to
both God's mercy and the cause of creation.

"The Role of Love and Mercy in the Sufi Path"

In Sufism, love and mercy are central attributes of God. While mercy flows
only from God to the world, love moves in both directions, closing the gap
between God and His creatures. Sufism emphasizes love, beauty, poetry,
and music, creating a dimension of divine beauty and mercy that
contrasts with the sternness and severity of the Sharia. The Sufi path
provides a map of the cosmos and a practice to guide people towards
human perfection.

"The Shahadah: Affirming the Divine Reality and the Role of

Revelation"
The Shahadah, a key Islamic belief, asserts that only God is real and all
other realities are secondary and derivative. It denies the inherent reality
of the world and self, and affirms the ultimacy of the divine reality. The
second Shahadah states that Muhammad is the messenger of God,
representing Him more directly than other creatures. Revelation plays a
crucial role in human becoming, as it provides guidance and mercy,
preventing people from wandering in ignorance and illusion.

Seeing the Divine: Discovering the Signs and Veils of the World
The text discusses the Sufi perspective on the world and human beings,
emphasizing the importance of viewing everything as signs of God and
distinguishing between phenomena as "signs" and phenomena as "veils."
It highlights the significance of human beings' free choice to accept their
human condition and take responsibility for their actions. The text also
refers to the Quran's verse on the "Trust" and the importance of living up
to freely chosen responsibilities.

The Path to Sincere Worship: Embracing Islam and the Spiritual

Virtues of Sufism
Embracing the Islamic faith demands submission to God, faith in the
teachings of the Quran, and following the example of Muhammad as a
spiritual virtue. As a Sufi, one must go beyond mere blind submission and
strive for deep understanding, purification of the heart, and spiritual
growth. This involves discerning between revelation and human
knowledge, and practicing the guidelines set by the Sharia law. A
combination of Islam and faith forms the foundation of Sufism, where the
ultimate goal is to worship God with sincerity and love.

The Path to Divine Union: Sufi Practices of Remembrance,

Transformation, and Perfection
The Sufi path aims for inner transformation through devotional and
spiritual exercises, with remembrance of God being the most important.
The goal is union with God, overcoming the separation between divine
and human, and achieving human perfection. This entails a process of
forgetfulness and heedlessness, focusing on the divine while negating the
ego and false reality.

The Intensification of Islamic Faith: Exploring the Journey of Sufi

Self-Realization
The text discusses the Sufi tradition, describing it as the intensification of
Islamic faith and practice, and explains the journey of self-realization. It
emphasizes the importance of negating illusory selfhood and affirming
God's existence. The text also provides historical context on the origins
and uses of the term "Sufi" throughout the centuries.

The Enduring Core: The Consistent Essence of Islam

Bushanji explains that the "reality," or fundamental beliefs and principles,
of Islam have been present since its inception, emphasizing its consistent
essence throughout history.

Islamic Aesthetic and Cultural Expressions

Reading 1
The Silent Theology of Islamic Art
•The silent theology of Islamic art communicates the beauty and truth of
Islamic revelation with a profound directness simply unmatched by
articles or books about Islam.

•Despite the dissemination of propaganda against Islam in the West,

many people queue for hours to admire the architecture of the Alhambra
in Spain and the Taj Mahal in India, as well as exhibitions of Islamic
calligraphy and miniature paintings, due to these representing the most
subtle, inward, and essential realities of the Islamic tradition.

•Islamic art can speak more profoundly and clearly than the most dazzling
treatise, and its beauty can be more evident and persuasive than the
strongest argument.

•The Qur’an was not revealed as a set of syllogisms or prosaic rational

proofs but as a recitation of unmatched linguistic beauty, filled with
symbols, stories, metaphors, and poetic phrasing.

Islamic Art and Imagination in Islamic Tradition

•Islamic arts are essential and important to the Islamic tradition, yet they
have been neglected in recent times, resulting in a significant loss for
humanity and particularly tragic for Muslims.

•The sense of beauty and excellence in the Islamic tradition is

encapsulated by the untranslatable Qur’anic term iĥsān, which is
described in the hadith of Gabriel as “to worship God as if you see Him, for
if you do not see Him, He sees you.”

•The Islamic arts cultivate iĥsān through the patterns on traditional prayer
carpets, geometric designs, calligraphy, and architecture of mosques and
homes, allowing worshippers to see God through displays of beauty, as
“God is Beautiful and loves beauty.”

•The term “imagination” (khayāl) in Islamic discourses refers to a creative

and perceptual faculty that clothes pure meanings and spiritual realities in
sensory forms, allowing the perceptions of visible forms back to their
invisible meanings.

•Imagination serves as a liminal reality between the visible and invisible

worlds, matter and spirit, and sensory forms and intelligible meanings,
representing everything other than the divine essence as imagination that
must be interpreted.

•Just as our dreams represent or manifest different aspects of our

individual consciousness, the dream of everything other than God reflects
and represents different aspects of the aspectless divine unity.

The Role of Imagination in Islamic Art

•The dream is composed of signs and symbols that allow contemplation of
the divine

•The Qur’an encourages contemplation of the signs of creation

•Imaginative interpretation helps in recognizing the aspects of the divine

manifest in creation

•Islamic arts bring elements of surroundings back to their archetypal

realities, aiding in integration with the divine unity

•Islamic arts make things metaphysically transparent, allowing perception

of the light of God

•Imagination renders the invisible divine visible in Islamic arts

•Imagination is contrasted with reason, being synthetic and multivalent,

grasping the self-disclosure of God

•Imagination, not reason, is best suited to encounter the ambiguities of

manifest multiplicity and perceive unity within them

The Islamic Arts and the Understanding of God

•The rise of extreme sectarianism and mutual misunderstanding across
the Muslim world has coincided with the decline in the appreciation and
production of the Islamic arts.

•Reason and imagination must work together to correctly understand and

interpret the signs of God, both in His books and the books of the cosmos
and the human soul.

•A profound paradoxical verse in the Qur’an illustrates the necessity of

understanding both God's incomparability and transcendence, as well as
God’s likeness and immanence, through reason and imagination.

•Reason can deduce that God must be above and distinct from everything
we perceive, but it is unable to perceive the presence of the divine in
phenomena or state anything positive about the nature of God.

•Through poetic prophetic revelations and reports, and through using the
imaginal faculty to contemplate God’s signs, we can understand and
perceive the positive attributes of the divine.

•The twofold miracle of the Islamic arts is that they make the divine truth
and the truths of its revelation present and tangible to us, while imbuing
our tangible surroundings with the beauty of divine truth.

•Jalāl (divine majesty and rigor) corresponds to the pole of truth, while
jamāl (divine beauty) corresponds to that of presence, inspiring love,
which moves everything in the religious context.

Love, Beauty, and Islamic Art

•In Islamic tradition, beauty is connected to love and vice versa

•God is beautiful and loves beauty, according to the hadith and the Qur'an

•Islamic art attracts both human and divine love

•The harmony of Islamic architecture brings peace and sacred presence

•Love permeates nearly all of the traditional Islamic literary genres

•Love is essential to the cultivation of iĥsān and ikhlāś

•Worship motivated by pretentious arrogance or selfish desires limits love

and enslaves individuals to their own selves
•The Prophet was directed to give love as the reason and reward for
following him

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•Love always attaches itself to beauty of one kind or another.

•Beauty inspires love, and love moves our souls.

•Supra- sensible divine beauty is what Islamic arts try to make sensible.

•Distinguishing between liberating beauty of Islamic art and the shallow

beauty of the dunyā is important.

•Islamic art is defined and demarcated by scholars such as Seyyed

Hossein Nasr and Titus Burckhardt.

•The Islamic arts incorporated techniques and methods of various artists

to give birth to a new art depicting the new religion’s vision of reality.

•The true source of Islamic art is the Islamic revelation, not its historical
precedents or influences.

•Art made by Muslims or even art made in Muslim societies is not

necessarily Islamic art.

•The distinctiveness of Islamic art comes from the form of the art, shaped
by revelation and not the identity of the artist.

•Religious art includes items of religious significance or those used for

religious purposes, but not all religious art is Islamic art.

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•Syrian wood inlay cabinets and tables may be used to hold alcohol, but
their geometric patterns portray some of the loftiest realities of Islamic
metaphysics and cosmology.

•Posters of Mecca and Medina or mass-produced prayer carpets

emblazoned with the Kaaba are religious art but not Islamic art, despite
the sacred architecture of the sites they depict.

•The recitation of the Qur’an in traditional maqāms and even the singing
of inspired poetry in these modes and rhythms are both Islamic and
religious art.

•"Islamic" parodies of Justin Bieber songs and popular auto-tuned,

acapella qaśīdahs in four-part harmony may be religious, but they are not
Islamic or sacred.
•Islamic art is recognized by its projection of unity (tawĥīd) through
symmetry, harmony, and rhythm.

•The Islamic arts do not mimic or imitate the outward forms of things but
present their inner, archetypal realities, emphasizing number (geometry)
and letters (calligraphy) as the basic building blocks of space/time and
language.

•Traditional calligraphy is governed by geometric ratios, giving the

lettering art remarkable harmony.

•The Islamic arts bear the imprint of the Qur’an in terms of its meanings
(ma¢ānī) and structures (mabānī).

•Quranic verses have a chiastic, or ring, structure, which is reflected in

the geometric patterns of illumination and tessellations that adorn Islamic
art.

•Islamic art is founded on interconnected sacred sciences of mathematics,

geometry, music, and cosmology, linking the multiplicity of creation to the
unity of the Creator.

•The sciences of the intermediate realm allow Islamic arts to serve as a

ladder from the terrestrial to the celestial, from the sensory to the
spiritual.

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•Artists have direct access to spiritual realities and truths in their art due
to its foundation in Islamic metaphysics and spirituality.

• Plato describes beauty as the splendor of the truth, and discerning

between beauty and ugliness corresponds to discerning between true and
false.

•True beauty is harmonious, timeless, reflects the beauty of the unseen,

and leads to tranquility and the remembrance of God. False beauty is
fleeting, discordant, and reflects the chaos of the lower world and the
human psyche.

•Islamic arts are categorized into two domains: adab and ambience.

•Adab includes arts of language such as poetry, quotes, poetry and

geometry, and the arts of ambience create the environment where people
live.

•Architecture is considered to be able to support and nourish the soul,

kindle the intellect, and nurture all the other Islamic sciences.

•The arts of adab and ambience determine the structure and form of
cities and homes in which Muslims lived, as well as the utensils, tools,
clothes, melodies, poetry, and idioms.

•The word "Adab" is difficult to translate into English and means “custom,
culture, etiquette, morals, courtesy, decorum, and civilized comportment,
as well as literature."

The Importance of Adab in Islamic Literature

•Islamic literature is designed to cultivate adab in its readers, shaping and
refining one's soul, intelligence, behavior, and speech.

•The Prophet's wife ¢Ā’ishah referred to the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬as "the Qur'an
walking on earth," illustrating the character cultivated by studying Islamic
literature.

•Virtually all works of Islamic literature are commentaries on the Qur'an,

even those that seem profane on the surface.

•Sophisticated literature like philosophical allegories and belles-lettres not

only sharpen linguistic faculties but also intellectual and moral faculties.

•Sacred works of adab, such as poetry and philosophical works, bring

readers closer to the Qur'an and train them to read and interpret verses
with multiple levels of meaning.

•Throughout Islamic history, most Muslims learned metaphysics,

cosmology, and ethics through poems and works of literature.

•Traditional Islamic learning takes place in a beautiful ambience, whether

in an ornate madrasa or under the shade of a tree, recognizing the impact
of surroundings on thoughts and learning.

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•Islam's most important and ubiquitous art is the recitation of the Qur'an

•Tajwīd and maqāms show the beauty and geometry of Qur'anic

revelation

•Participation in the divine act of Quranic revelation and the prophetic act
of reception is transformative

•The sound of Qur'anic recitation is a significant part of the soundscape of

any Islamic city or town

•Truth in traditional Islamic civilization is always accompanied by beauty

•Beauty is a criterion of the authentically Islamic

•Islamic art includes ambience, calligraphy, architecture and geometric

design, music, dress, food, and perfume

•Music in traditional Islam is different from contemporary Western culture

•There is no consensus about the status of music in Islamic law

•It is important to distinguish the English term music from the Arabic
mūsīqā

•Instrumental and vocal music that accompanies Sufi ceremonies is called

samā¢ or dhikr rather than music or mūsīqā

•The power of music to elevate or debase the soul is the reason for the
controversy surrounding instrumental music in Islam

•Compare the behavior of audience at a heavy metal concert with that at

a concert of Andalusian music

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•Islamic philosophers developed elaborate musical theories based on
Pythagorean harmony

•Court musicians produced a refined art that served as the acoustic

equivalent of adab

•Sufi orders developed powerful traditions of spiritual music

•Islamic music differs widely from culture to culture but has common
features related to Islamic cosmology and emphasis on tawĥīd

•Typically has a regular rhythm and often includes śalawāt or Qur’anic

recitation

•Characterized by a unity of melodic voices

•For the skilled musician in an Islamic tradition, playing music is like

praying with one’s instrument

•Music and other traditional Islamic arts are contemporary living traditions
that continually change and adapt

•Fundamental principles make these art forms Islamic and can be applied
to new art forms like web and graphic design, photography, and
cinematography

•The relatively non-mythological character of the Islamic tradition

precluded dramatic tension within the divine or between human heroes
and the divine
•Persian Shi¢ism developed the drama of ta¢ziyeh depicting the events of
the battle of Karbala, an important Islamic religious art form

The Importance and Role of Islamic Arts

•The cinematography of Majid Majidi's films is considered to come close to
being a truly Islamic cinematic art.

•Islamic cinema involves the philosophy and techniques of the art must
be rooted in the Islamic perspective.

•The Islamic arts exist to support the purification of the soul, the
cultivation of character, and the remembrance of God.

•There is no concept of "art for art’s sake" in Islamic arts, and they serve
practical, psychological, and spiritual functions.

•Islamic arts are essential supports for the realization of the full potential
of the human state and the cosmos, through the remembrance of God.

•Neglect of the Islamic arts has crippled the ummah's ability to pursue the
highest art individually and collectively.

•The neglect of the Islamic arts affects aesthetics, ethical, intellectual,

and spiritual lives.

•The loss of the Islamic arts is linked to the rise of extreme sectarianism
and the difficulty perceiving unity in diversity.

•The Islamic arts are crucial for accessing the deepest truths of the
cosmos, the revelation, and ourselves, and greatly influence our souls.

The Silent Theology of Islamic Art

•God is one, so as one approaches the divine presence, things become
more unified

•Without access to this unity, people are unable to perceive and

participate in the harmony that links the world of appearances to that of
realities

•Imagination and the arts are bridges that unite these two worlds

•Appreciation of Islamic arts can identify profound realities represented in

the architecture of certain dynasties, irrespective of their official legal
school or theology

•Islamic art synthesizes and confirms the traditions of sacred arts that
came before it, integrating the arts and sciences of other civilizations

•The decline of synthetic and creative intellectual and artistic processes

has been accompanied by increasing tensions between different Muslim
groups and minority communities of other faiths

•The Qur’an describes the diversity of humanity as providential and

divinely willed for us to know one another and ourselves

•Muslims who practice a craft, such as the Islamic arts of calligraphy,

poetry, or Qur’anic recitation, find their craft provides them with a model
for Islamic spirituality

•If the attempt to follow in the Prophet’s footsteps and the quest to know
God are viewed as a craft or an art form instead of as an identity, different
approaches can lead to the same or similar goal

The Role of Islamic Art in Spiritual Revival

•The recent epidemic of takfīr may be improved through understanding
Islam as an art form

•Difficulties in regaining discernment, intellectual or aesthetic, once lost

•Thriving Islamic spirituality often leads to thriving artistic traditions

•The revival of the arts should be a priority for Muslims

•The Islamic arts serve as a powerful reminder of the deeper realities of

tradition, of iĥsān

•Iĥsān means beauty, excellence, and perfection

•Roles of Islamic philosophy, theology, and law are implicit in the sacred
text

•Khayāl encompasses everything that is not the Absolute Reality, joins

sensory forms to pure ideas, and involves a specific level of reality
experienced in veridical dreams and visions

•ʿAql is a polyvalent term with different meanings in different contexts

Islamic Art and Spirituality

•The hadiths state that "the first thing that God created was the intellect"
and "the first thing that God created was the spirit"

•The concept of ʿaql al-juz’ī, or partial intellect, is our ordinary, limited

rational faculty

•The intellectual culture of European colonial powers has atrophied

imagination and hypertrophied limited reason, especially among Muslims
in elite, educated classes
•Motion due to a rational argument may be the result of one's love for the
Truth

•al-Ghazālī suggests that the love of God is the ultimate goal and highest
stage

•According to a famous divine statement (hadith qudsī), God declares love

for those who love for God's sake

•Distinguishing between Islamic sacred art and traditional Islamic art

•Rumi’s Mathnawī has a chiastic structure with shifting voices and

pronouns

•The Silent Theology of Islamic Art - Article by Renovatio

•Nasr's beliefs about Islamic sacred art and traditional Islamic art

Islamic Worldviews and Art in the Modern World

•The need for a TV series or movie to embody Islamic worldviews similar
to the way Avatar: The Last Airbender embodied East Asian/Buddhist
cosmologies.

•The influence of the Qur'an and Islamic spirituality on Northern Indian

classical (Hindustani) music, which is as Hindu as it is Islamic.

•The importance of recognizing and cooperating across different traditions

and spirituality for a more unified world.

•Quranic verses promoting diversity and the understanding of different

peoples and tribes.

•The homogenous and homogenizing forces of modern Western

civilization imposing a single hegemonic regime across the world, causing
the disappearance of different ways of life and languages.

•The response of Muslim societies to Western civilization, either by trying

to assimilate or retreating into religious and/or ethnic nationalisms.

•The significance of the revival of traditional Islamic art from a religious

point of view and its connection to the heart of the Islamic message, as
described by S.H. Nasr in "Islamic Art and Spirituality."
Short summary

The Silent Expressions: Unveiling the Essence of Islamic Art

Islamic art often speaks more profoundly and clearly than written word,
suggesting that Muslims should show, not tell. Masterpieces of Islamic
civilization, like architecture, calligraphy, and music, communicate the
beauty and truth of Islam with profound directness. The Qur'an was
revealed as a recitation of unmatched linguistic beauty, inspiring early
conversions. Tangible and outward manifestations of the Islamic tradition
represent its subtle, inward, and essential realities.

The Role of Art in Cultivating Beauty in Islamic Tradition

The Islamic tradition values beauty, encapsulated by the term "ihsan",
and the arts play a crucial role in cultivating this sense. The aesthetic,
ethical, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of beauty are expressed in
Islamic art forms such as calligraphy, architecture, and prayer carpets,
helping believers to "see" God through these displays of beauty.
Imagination, a creative and perceptual faculty, plays a pivotal role in
making the invisible world visible and interpreting spiritual realities.

"The Role of Islamic Arts in Revealing the Mysteries of Divine

Unity"
The Qur'an encourages contemplation of the signs of creation, and Islamic
arts play a significant role in making these signs visible. Imagination, as a
synthetic and multivalent intermediary reality, enables us to perceive the
mysteries of divine unity immanent in sensory forms, helping us trace
connections and analogies between seemingly contradictory statements
and phenomena.

Lost in Transcendence: The Decline of Islamic Arts in a World

Divided
The decline in appreciation and production of Islamic arts is linked to the
rise of extreme sectarianism and mutual misunderstanding in the Muslim
world. This is due to a lack of familiarity with the inner dimensions of the
Islamic tradition, as reason and imagination must work together to
understand and interpret God's signs. The Islamic arts make divine truth
and the truths of its revelation present and tangible, while also imbuing
tangible surroundings with divine beauty.

The Interconnectedness of Beauty and Love in Islamic Art and

Theology
Islamic art and theology connect beauty with love, as seen in the Qur'an
and hadith. Beauty and love are essential for cultivating iĥsān and ikhlāś,
and the beauty of Islamic art attracts both human and divine love. Love is
considered the force that moves everything in the cosmos, and it plays a
crucial role in Islamic literary genres and understanding of reality.
The Inspirational Universality of Traditional Islamic Art
Love for beauty inspires Islamic art, which forms a universal approach
across cultural regions. Traditional Islamic art originates from the Qur'an
and combines techniques from various historical influences. Despite being
created by Muslims or in Muslim societies, art is only considered Islamic
when shaped by revelation. Distinctively Islamic art differs from religious
art that holds religious significance or serves specific purposes.

Aesthetic Expressions of Unity and Harmony: The Essence of

Islamic Art
Islamic art encompasses a range of visual and sonoral forms that reflect
unity, symmetry, and harmony, often incorporating mathematical,
geometric, and musical elements. It can include calligraphy, carpets, and
traditional recitation of the Quran, but not all religious art is considered
Islamic art. Islamic art is rooted in the sacred sciences, connecting
creation to the Creator and engaging both qualitative and quantitative
dimensions.

The Interconnected Arts of Islamic Culture

Islamic art encompasses two domains: adab (the arts of language) and
ambience (the arts creating the environment in which people live)a. Both
were nearly ubiquitous in precolonial times and part of the education for
all Muslims. The arts nourished the soul, kindled the intellect, and
nurtured other Islamic sciences. The artist was not a special kind of
person, but every person a special kind of artist.

The Transformative Power of Islamic Literature: Cultivating Adab

and Connecting with the Qur'an
Studying Islamic literature cultivates adab and refines one's soul,
intelligence, behavior, and speech. The influence of the Qur'an is evident
in various works of adab, which bring the reader closer to the Qur'an and
its multiple levels of meaning. These works have been crucial in teaching
Muslims how to connect with and live the Qur'an and Sunnah throughout
Islamic history.

"Exploring the Intersection of Divine Essence, Recitation, and

Music in Islamic Art and Culture"
The author describes the relationship between the divine essence and
names as understood through the metaphor of a circle and its center, as
observed in Moroccan art. They also discuss the importance of the
recitation of the Qur'an as the highest form of Islamic art, highlighting its
beauty and transformative effect on souls. The text also distinguishes
between the English term "music" and the Arabic term "mūsīqā," and
examines the role of music in Islamic culture and its potential impact on
the human soul.

"The Harmonious Journey: Exploring the Depths of Islamic Music"

Islamic music encompasses various emotions and is influenced by the
Islamic cosmology and emphasis on tawĥīd. It has common features such
as regular rhythm, śalawāt or Qur’anic recitation, and a unity of melodic
voices. Playing music is considered as praying with an instrument, and
listening to it is likened to hearing the wordless praise of angels and the
cosmos. Music and other traditional Islamic arts remain contemporary
living traditions that continually adapt and create new possibilities while
staying true to their fundamental principles.

"The Multifaceted Role of Islamic Arts: Cultivating Character,

Purifying the Soul, and Remembering God"
The text discusses the importance of Islamic arts in supporting the
supreme art of purifying the soul, cultivating character, and remembering
God. It emphasizes that the Islamic arts serve practical, psychological,
and spiritual functions, not just art for art's sake. The neglect of these arts
has negatively impacted the ummah's ability to pursue the highest art,
affecting their aesthetics, ethical, intellectual, and spiritual lives. The loss
of Islamic arts is also linked to the rise of extreme sectarianism and
difficulty perceiving unity in diversity.

"The Role of Islamic Art in Unity and Spirituality"

Islamic art reflects the unity of God and serves as bridges between the
world of appearances and realities. It synthesizes and confirms the sacred
arts of previous revealed religions. Muslims have historically integrated
arts and sciences from other civilizations, but recent decline has led to
loss of this synthesis and increased tensions between diverse groups. A
craft can provide Muslims with a model for Islamic spirituality, helping
them understand the unity of humanity and truth.

"Exploring Islam: Understanding It as an Art Form to Mitigate the

Epidemic of Takfir"
The recent epidemic of takfir could be mitigated by understanding Islam
as an art form, rather than focusing on a binary Muslim identity. The
Qur'an instructs to ask the people of dhikr if one does not know. Islamic
societies with strong artistic traditions tend to have thriving spirituality.
The arts are vital for rejuvenating the Muslim mind and soul, and serve as
a powerful reminder of the profound realities of the Islamic tradition.

"The Intersection of Spirituality, Imagination, and Art in Islamic

Culture"
The text discusses the intellectual and spiritual aspects of Islamic culture,
highlighting the importance of imagination and love for God. It contrasts
Islamic sacred art, which directly relates to religious practices and
spirituality, with traditional Islamic art, which reflects principles and norms
through various forms. The text also touches upon the influence of
European hyper-rationalism on Muslims and the works of Rumi and al-
Ghazālī.

Embracing Islamic Traditions: Reviving Art for Authenticity

A TV series or movie embodying Islamic worldviews is expected soon,
following Avatar: The Last Airbender's portrayal of East Asian/Buddhist
cosmologies. Northern Indian classical music exemplifies a mutual
understanding between Hindu and Islamic spirituality. However, modern
Western civilization's homogenization poses a challenge to diverse ways
of life. The revival of traditional Islamic art may prove more effective than
political or social movements in achieving authentically Islamic goals, as it
emanates from the heart and mind of the Muslim believer.
Adab: The Islamic Literary Tradition
Reading 1
Short summary
The Rich Tradition of Adab: Exploring the Intersection of
Knowledge, Language, and Culture
Adab, an Islamic literary tradition, encompasses classical
knowledge, Arabic literary arts, Islamic religious sciences, and
foreign sciences. It includes various aspects of language such as
grammar, lexicography, poetry, prose, and history. The primary
function of Adab is the refinement of speech through eloquence,
purity of language, and beauty of expression. It also plays a role in
the refinement of the person, encompassing mannerisms, ancient
traditions, and prophetic traditions.

The Significance of Adab in Islamic Scholarship

Adab is a set of guidelines for guarding against errors in speech and
writing, as well as for religious sciences in Islam. It includes
disciplines such as grammar and syntax, which are essential for
understanding Hadith and Fiqh. Adab is considered a gift to Islam,
and its importance is emphasized by the fact that many scholars
wrote in both hadith and grammar, as well as poetry. It shares
common goals with the science of hadith, such as memorization,
travel, and collection, but they diverge due to differing intellectual
outlooks.

The Divine Duel: Adab and Hadith

Adab and Hadith were two fields of study in Islamic history, with
mutual contempt and rivalry between Hadith scholars and Adibs.
Adab held higher prestige due to its religious nature, while law had a
higher responsibility. Some scholars combined both fields, and adab
was essential for religious sciences. Adab and law were highly
esteemed, with adibs holding positions in government and
commerce.
Adab in Islamic Literary Tradition
•Adab is a classical division of knowledge encompassing areas such as
Arabic literary arts, Islamic religious sciences, and foreign sciences, as
discussed in al-Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim and Al-Khwarizmi's classifications.

•Adab represents the literary arts and all things related to them,
signifying the central position of language, including instruction in literary
arts known as Ta'dib, which are often prerequisites for other sciences and
include areas such as grammar, lexicography, poetry, prose, biographies,
and history.

•Grammar is the basis of all literary arts and includes areas such as
syntax and morphology, is considered necessary and important in the
medieval classical period, and is associated with the intellectual class.

•Functions of Adab include refinement and elegance, which involve the

refinement of the person and speech and encompasses eloquence,
acquired through learning, and the knowledge of ancient and prophetic
traditions.

•Al-Tauhidi's quote Taqwim al-Kalam symbolizes the relevance of

eloquent speech in adorning human intellect.

Functions and Criteria of Adab in Religious Sciences

•Al-Zamakhshari (d. 1144) defines adab as those disciplines guarding
against errors in the speech and writing of ancient Arabians.

•Principal and subsidiary disciplines of adab are identified.

•Yaqut al-Hamawi (d. 1229) describes adab as necessary for Arabic

religious studies and salvation of the soul, saving from errors in Qur’an
recitation.

•The place and value of humanities are discussed, with an emphasis on

choosing superior sciences at the cost of adab.

•Grammar and syntax are considered pre-requisites for religious sciences,

with grammar being considered key to understanding Hadith and Fiqh.

•An Umayyad caliph urged people to study grammar in the same way
they studied religious principles and legal matters.

•Adibs were sometimes criticized as heretic or for committing blasphemy,

but often tolerated due to their status as poets.
•Al-Suyuti (d. 1505) describes the shared methodology of hadith and adab
and their diverging goals and intellectual outlooks.

The Role and Importance of Adib in Islamic Intellectual History

•Adib against simple Riwaya – example of Mubarrad and the insane, p.
103-4.

•Mutual contempt of Hadith scholars and Adib – rivalry.

•Position of Adab vs. Law

•Ibn Sirin and Ibn abi Ishaq, p. 106. Opinion in law has religious
consequences, in adab it does not necessarily.

•So, higher responsibility for the lawyer and higher prestige.

•Adib jealous of the lawyer.

•But both held highest honour.

•Caliph Harun al-Rahid: al-Kisa’i (grammarian) and al-Shaybani (jurist)

died on the same day: “we have buried law and philology on the same
day.”

•Still a closer relation than with hadith because both were focused on
diraya: understanding. Some jurists were also adibs and adibs also knew
law. E.g. Al- Awza`I, Ibn al-Mubarak, al-Shafi`i. Some studied law later. A
few left law for poetry.

•The best scholars combined both fields of studies.

•Adab and law were most highly esteemed. Jobs and positions in govt and
commerce for adibs.

•Adab and Law (Fiqh) Source: Marshall Hodgson, Venture of Islam I, p. 446

•The Adīb Conclusion of sorts

•An important role and function in the Islamic Intellectual history.

•Adibs were public intellectuals.

•Fields of Adab would be considered Humanities in the modern University.

•Some fields of Adab, such as grammar and lexicology were essential for
religious sciences. Dependence and rivalry between the fields.
•Adab is a quality that permeates all of our learning.
Reading 2
The Humanistic Studies of Islam
•In classical Islam, knowledge was divided into three major sections: the Arabic literary arts,
the Islamic religious sciences, and the 'foreign sciences' such as Greek knowledge.

•According to the Fihrist of Ibn an-Nadim, the ten discourses of his book are divided among
the three broad fields.

•Contrarily, Khawarizmi divides his 'Keys to the Sciences' into two discourses for the Islamic
and literary arts, and the foreign sciences.

•Unlike other divisions, literary arts were considered a separate field of knowledge that
students could pursue on a graduate level and was termed as Adab.

•Various terms like al-adab, al-adabiyyat, anwa al-adab, and ulum al-lisan have been used
over the years for humanistic studies, inviting thoughts of classical, artistic, and philological
Arabic languages of ancient Arabians.

•Avicenna's description of the library of Nuh b. Mansur provides an idea of humanistic

studies, as it contains a separate room for classics and poetry, separate from other fields.

Adab Studies in Arabic Philology and poetry

•Nallino's study finds that writers often disagreed about the number of studies covered by the
term "adab," with this number fluctuating between four and fourteen.

•The term "la' dib" refers to the instruction received in a preliminary period of education
when students learn the literary arts.

•The fields of humanistic studies, encompassing essential fields of humanistic subjects,

include poetry, grammar, lexicography, history, and more, which were essential to studying
adab.

•Not all scholars excelled in the same fields. Some excelled in poetry and history, while
others excelled in grammatical studies and lexicography.

•The various kinds of studia adabiya, or humanistic studies, include artistic prose, poetry,
apophthegms, sermons, speeches, and letters.

•Zamakhshari divides the disciplines of adab into two sets, those that guard against errors in
the speech and writing of the ancient Arabians.

Disciplines of Adab and Studia Adabiya

•Major disciplines of adab include lexicography, morphology, etymology, syntax, the rhetoric
of ma'an, balagha, badi', metrics, and rhyme.

•Subsidiary disciplines of adab are writing or calligraphy, versification, composition, and the
disciplines that sharpen the minds muhadarat, including histories tawarikh.

•Ibn 'Aqil's studia adabiya mention the academic sermon, grammar, 'adab', poetry, and the
epistolary art.
•Abu 1-Barakat al-Anbari lists the fields of adab as grammar, lexicography, morphology,
metrics, rhyme, prosody, Arabian history, and Arabian genealogy.

•Mammati criticized that grammarians focus solely on grammar, without considering the
other fields of adab for which grammar is sought.

•Sakkaki's Miftah al-'ulum lists the studia adabiya he treats as morphology, etymology,
syntax, rhetoric, metrics, and rhyme.

•Yaqut noticed that most intellectuals versed in adab, also wrote poetry and artistic prose, and
wrote a separate work on poets and humanists.

•Yaqut makes an apology for not spending time on religion-related matters stating that he
was lacking the ability and capacity to seek what is preferable.

The Importance of Studia Adabiya and Humanism in Islamic History

•Yaqut emphasizes that studia adabiya are important as they serve as a prelude to the
religious sciences and are essential for the salvation of souls.

•He argues that a good knowledge of syntax helps prevent misreadings of the Koran, which
could lead to unbelief.

•Yaqut expresses his view of humanism, stating that it is the learning of kings, prime
ministers, and people of eminence. He highlights its role in providing entertainment for the
mind and joy for the soul.

•He contrasts humanism with law and the scholastic method, arguing that humanism is the
quintessence of refinement and grandeur.

•Yaqut's work illustrates the record of humanistic activity in Islamic history and clearly
shows his favor towards humanism.

The Study of Adab in Arabic Humanism

•Arabic humanism emphasizes the importance of grammar, syntax, and literature in acquiring
knowledge and understanding.

•Humanists were often self-made individuals and were highly motivated to seek knowledge.

•Arabic humanists diligently searched for, bought, copied, and collected manuscripts and
books in various fields of learning.

•Adab is a field of knowledge that enables mutual understanding through word-signs and
writing, and it is considered the first element of perfection.

The Significance of Adab in Classical Arabic Language and Culture

•The disciplines in classical Arabic were not acquired from all the Arabians without
exception; they were acquired from those whose language was characterized by purity and
eloquence.

•Common tribes were held to a standard of purity and therefore considerations of dialects
varied depending on proximity to foreigners.

•Those of sound intellect and upright minds arranged the material sources of adab until
nothing more could be added.

•The meaning of the term adab is complex, with two basic meanings expressed in an
anecdote of poor table manners.

•The field of humanistic studies is esteemed and includes disciplines requiring evidential
examples.

•The disciplines of adab were perceived as requiring solid foundations in classical Arabic,
emphasizing the pristine purity of its origins.

The Essence of Humanism

•Al-Ahnaf b. Qais (d. 72/691-2) declared, "The most vital part of adab is eloquent speech."

•Ibn al-Muqaffa' (d. 142/759) in al-Adab as-saghir stated that the principal part of humanism
is eloquent discourse and is acquired through learning.

•Khalid b. Safwan attributed a quote to someone who criticized him for exchanging
narratives and reciting poetry. This implies that true humanism involves learning and sharing
knowledge.

•'Umar b. al-Khattab (caliphate: 13-23/634 44) emphasized the importance of learning

classical Arabic, which intensifies manly virtues.

•Asma'i stated that one's humanism elevates them, regardless of their lineage.

•Al-Hasan b. Sahl (d. 236/851) urged his sons to learn to speak eloquently, emphasizing that
it is through speech that man is superior to all other animals.

•Ibn 'Abd Rabbihi (d. 328/940) quoted a statement that suggests an adib-humanist cannot do
without eloquence, purity of language, beauty of expression, knowledge of ancient traditions,
and memorization of Prophetic Traditions.

•Ibn al-'Amid (d. 360/970) did not react to an attack on Jahiz's reputation, stating that there
was nothing more serious than leaving the attacker in ignorance.

•Zubaidi (d. 379/989) described the humanist Mubarrad as possessing attributes such as an
abundance of humanistic studies, memorization, eloquence, purity of language, and
excellence of allusion, portraying a royal quality of social interaction.

Literary Humanism
•The introduction to the biographical dictionary by Zubaidi emphasizes two important points:
that God preferred man over all creation by giving him reason and eloquent speech, and that
He made classical Arabic the sweetest language and the clarity of its desinential inflections
an ornament.

•A sage quoted by Tauhidi lists the sciences as: law, medicine, and adab (which adorn).
•The poet Abu 1-Fath al-Busti is quoted with verses that exhort man to value the intellect
over the body.

•The Spaniard Ibn al-Hudhail al-Andalusi lists three benefits of humanism in his work: it
preserves its possessor from the shame of ignorance, tames the temper and softens the
disposition, and helps to acquire manly virtues.

•Adab studies were based on authority, as were other religious sciences, especially hadith. A
list of four personages is cited as God's gifts to Islam, with each having made significant
contributions.

The Link Between Philologists and Religious Scholars

•A philologist has an important place in a list that indicates the link between philology and
the religious sciences.

•The same epithets are mentioned for both scholars of religious sciences and philologists,
such as "trustworthy," "reliable," and "truthful."

•The terms "räwi" and "rawiya" are not only applied to scholars in the field of hadith, but also
to humanists in the various fields of humanism.

•The chain of transmitters, isnad, is used by adab to establish the authority for narratives in
humanistic fields.

•Adab studies began to resemble the field of hadith, but later developed centrifugal forces
outwardly in the direction of the philosophical sciences.

•The emphasis shifted from the principle of authoritative transmission to understanding and
comprehension, known as diraya.

•Some scholars began to prioritize content and its understanding over form and oral
transmission even before a prominent eleventh-century scholar.

Relation of Adab to Authority, Hadith and Law

•Bushti justifies using material from other authors, claiming that his transmission on their
authority, which is a transmission on the authority of their writings, should not be criticized
by anyone who can distinguish between what is sound and what is weak.

•Hadith-scholars relied on oral transmission for authenticity, while adab studies often
involved self-teaching and was not always based on personal transmission. This led to a
relaxation of rules with respect to oral transmission, with many scholars focusing on the
subject matter itself over the method of transmission.

•The methodologies of adab and hadith have similarities, as both focus on gathering all
possible reports and materials related to their respective subjects. As-Suyuti refers to the
science of hadith and that of philology as twin rivers flowing from the same river bed, with
the methodologies eventually diverging.

Education in the Arabian Peninsula

•Pre-Islamic poetry and the Arabic-speaking tribes of the Arabians were sources for the
language.

•Ta' addub involved training in the disciplines of adab and grammar.

•Rihla was a traveling period that became a regular institution in Islam and was a key part of
adab studies.

•Learning grammar was a crucial part of studying hadith.

•Adab and hadith students traveled to meet great masters and gathered material from many
different cities and chance encounters.

•Students carried their tools, made copies of authoritative works, and sought authorization to
transmit them.

•An example of the process of transmitting works involved a meeting between Qadi Abu '1-
Faraj al-Basri and the grammarian Abu Ghalib al-Wasiti in Wasit.

Methods of Authoritative Transmission

•The Hamasa was chosen as the book to be recited because it was the smallest of three books.

•The narrator began reciting the Hamasa under the direction of a teacher on a specific date in
the year 460 [A.D. 21 March 1068].

•The narrator requested the chain of authorities for the book and received information about
the people from whom the book was transmitted.

•He also requested his teacher's authoritative transmission of the works of adab, and was
given a large number of these.

•Some masters allowed students to study for long periods, as exemplified by Asma i who
studied with Sufyan ath-Thauri for a significant amount of time.

•Hadiths and adab materials were recorded in notebooks for memorization.

•Al-Kindi al-Barqi is noted for his extensive writing in both the fields of hadith and grammar.

•In the early Islamic period, the recording of hadith was seen as reprehensible but became
permitted once apprehension regarding these texts being mistaken for verses of the Koran
was dispelled.

•Scholars continued to depend on memorization rather than on written texts because

memorized texts are less susceptible to errors.

•The humanistic field shared the same method of authoritative transmission as the science of
hadith, an example being the recitation of a book copied by Yaqut al-Mausili al-Katib from a
copy made by In al-Khashshab.

Authoritative Transmission of Texts

•Magistrate Abu Said as-Sirafi transmitted the texts to the writer based on the authority of
Musabbih b. al-Husain, who read it under the direction of Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari, and also
under the direction of Abu 'Abd Allah al-Husain b. Harun, with the same authoritative
transmission.

•Kitab al-Anwä' was read by many individuals under the direction of various authoritative
figures, including Abu 'Abd Allah al-Husain b. Harun and Abu Ahmad Abd as-Salam b. al-
Husain al-Basri.

•Ahmad b. Ahmad signed a copied manuscript of the texts in the year 521.66.

•Another sama', also in the handwriting of Ibn al-Khashshab, was found in the same
manuscript, and Yaqut copied it.

•A bound volume of seventeen fascicles was read under the direction of Professor Yahya b.
al-Husain b. Ahmad b. al-Banna', starting from the beginning up to the text facing the
statement of al-Khali', through his transmission on the authority of Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari.

•The rest of the book was read without authoritative transmission because it was not collated
with ad-Dabbi's text by authoritative transmission.

•Yaqut al-Mausili signed his copy of the text and dated it the 7th of Rajab of the year 606
[H.] in Mosul.

•Some adab works were not always transmitted authoritatively through the agency of sama,
as Muhammad b. Ahmad an-Nisaburi called al-Adib transmitted adab works through sama,
implying that other adab adepts did not do so.

•Ma'arri mentioned that he would give understanding, or diraya, rather than authorities on the
books he wished to study under his direction.

•According to Mubarrad, no one studied the grammar Book of Sibawaih under the author's
direction, but it has served as 'The Book' of Arabic grammar over the centuries. However,
Sirafi's commentary on this work was transmitted on its author's authority.

Shu'ba b. al-Hajjaj al-Azdi and the Relation of Adab to Authority, Hadith, and Law
•Shu'ba b. al-Hajjaj al-Azdi (d. 160/776) was a leading scholar in philology and poetry,
arranging the hadiths systematically and also transmitting poetry. He is considered vital to the
knowledge of hadith and religious sciences in Iraq.

•The increasing trend toward self-teaching and the priority to understanding (diraya),
essential for skill in the manipulation of themes and ideas, caused the paths of hadith and
adab to eventually diverge.

•The concept of authoritative transmission (riwaya) became unpopular with the scholars of
adab, showing signs of neglect contrasted with the scholars of hadith, who found it essential
to hadith criticism.
•Hadith could tolerate solecisms in its search for accuracy in transmission, while humanism,
in its pursuit of classical purity, held them in abhorrence. This led to defections from the field
of hadith to that of philology.

•Some scholars, such as Sibawaih and Abu 'Ubaid, began working in other fields like
grammar and serving as magistrates, neglecting hadith. Mileage from authoritative
transmission was nevertheless still valid.

Adab Studies
•In adab studies, there is an anecdotal example where the person seeking the certificate of
audition had a better knowledge of the book than the one with the authority to teach it.

•Riyashi studied Sibawaih's grammar under Mazini, in order to obtain the certificate of
audition. Mazini frankly admitted that Riyashi knew the book better.

•An anecdote illustrates the attitude of the scholar-humanist towards the hadith scholars,
highlighting the interaction with an inmate in an insane asylum.

•The inmate acknowledged Mubarrad's amiability and eloquence and left him with friendly
advice to keep away from such places.

•This anecdote reflects the contempt of Mubarrad for simple riwaya and the methodology of
adab's balance between riwaya and diraya.

•Adab's method, like that of the science of hadith, is tahdith. It involves the transmission of
the Sunna of the Prophet in the vehicle known as hadith.

Khabar and Adab Humanism

•Khabar, or akhbar in the plural, is a term used in the fields of hadith, law, and adab
humanism. It is defined as 'that which admits of truth or falsehood' and denotes a proposition,
statement, or affirmation.

•In the field of hadith, a khabar contains information from the Messenger of God, or the
Prophet. In law, it refers to a hadith that provides information resulting in a rule of law, and
in adab, it offers evidential examples for adab humanists.

•Anecdotes illustrate mutual antagonism between the scholars of humanism and those of
hadith, who once shared the 'same river bed'. Due to a difference in intellectual outlook and
orientation, the scholars began to diverge, resulting in mutual contempt.

•A statement from 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan and 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz urges scholars to
study grammar in the same way they study religious principles and laws of inheritance.

•Caliph 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz speaks highly of 'Ubaid Allah Ibn 'Utba al-Hudhali, one of
'The Famous Seven Jurisconsults of Medina', for his intelligence and adab humanism.

Distinction Between Adab and Law

•The primary difference between adab and law is their place in religion and the organization
of learning.
•Jurisdictional authority in religious matters belonged to law, which was developed by Shafii
into a juridical theology.

•The only authorized 'teacher' in the education system was the lawyer-jurisconsult, as there
was no doctorate in any other field of knowledge.

•In adab-studies, it was advised not to rush into masterful leadership in the field, with
"lasaddara" being the verb used when someone 'set himself up' to teach.

•The difference between a legal opinion and an adab 'opinion' was made clear in a discussion
between a lawyer and oneirocritic of Basra, Ibn Sirin, and the Basrian Koranic scholar and
grammarian, Ibn Abi Ishaq.

•Opinions in the realm of religious law were serious because they involved man's salvation,
while those outside that realm were harmless.

Relationship between Adab and Law

•The scholars of religious studies, including law, garnered a certain amount of jealousy from
the scholars of studia adabiya, but both fields were held in high honor

•The loss in 189 (A.D. 804) of philologist Kisa'i and jurisconsult Shaibani was lamented due
to their expertise in law and philology

•Adab studies justified their service to religion and Shaibani emphasized that fathoming one
science makes fathoming another science easier

•Shaibani marvelled at his cousin's knowledge of law through an impressive response to a

question

•Philologist Ibn Faris urged jurisconsults to learn lexicography and shamed them into doing
so by asking them embarrassing legal questions

•The relationship between adab and law was and remained close due to their common
primary orientation towards diraya

•Lawyers are known to have been humanists and excelled in law, including early luminaries
in law, such as al-Auza'i (d. 157/774) and 'Abd Allahb. al-Mubarak (d. 181/797)

The Relationship Between Legal Studies and Adab in Medieval Scholarship

•Scholars in the eleventh century sought to achieve competence in the law

•Some scholars, such as Sulaim ar-Razi and Ibn Abi's-Saqr, initially specialized in adab
studies before turning to law

•Many scholars began in one field and switched their predominant interest to the other
throughout the medieval period

•The fields of adab and legal studies were the main fields of interest for the majority of
scholars
•The basis of humanistic fields had to be learned first before graduate studies in one field or
the other

•The combination of adab and legal studies provided the widest possible opportunities of
employment

•The affinities between legal studies and adabiya are evident in the type of work called ta'higa
and in the works dealing with disputed questions

•Scholars from both fields developed a literature of disputed questions (masa'il khilaftya)

•Ta'liga works originated professionally in the field of law and were adopted in the field of
grammar

•The comments of scholars, such as Ibn Barhan and Muwaffaq ad-Din Ibn Ya'ish, reflect the
diverse opinions within the fields of adab and legal studies

Early Islamic Intellectual Movements and Scholastic Organizations

•'Abd ar-Rahman b. Hurmuz identified the disputed questions about the Medinians and the
creation of opposing schools of thought. He is recognized as a Koranic scholar, and
Successor to the Companions of the Prophet.

•Abu '1-Aswad ad-Du'ali instructed 'Abd ar-Rahman b. Hurmuz in grammar, leading to the
development of the science of grammar in Medina. This resulted in three groups of
grammarians: Medinians, Basrians, Kufians.

•Divergent opinions on law and philology in early Islamic history led to disputed questions
and resulted in two intellectual movements: humanist movement in philology, and the
scholastic movement in law, each with its own field of study.

•Disputed questions and works recording dissenting opinions ('khilaf-works') were present in
the fields of law and grammar, less frequently in grammar.

•Humanism's initial field of study was philology, which included grammar and lexicography.
Other humanistic studies developed from the preoccupations of grammarians and
lexicographers.

•'Abd Allah b. al'Abbas stated that knowledge of religious law and adab humanism was
enough to afford citation of divine commands and prohibitions in religious law.

Scholarly Mentality in Early Islamic Traditions

•Early Muslim scholar acknowledges evidential example and model for imitation

•Leaves distinction between the two closely related fields open

•Another statement from Ibn Qutaiba separates the specialist from the generalist

•Single field of knowledge recommended for religious scholars, multiple fields for humanists
•Mez interprets to imply journalists speaking diversely, encouraging specialization

•Ibn Qutaiba's statement suggests humanists' supremacy over religious scholars

•Potential date of statement aligns with early career under Rationalist influence

•Doubtful claims that religious science is subordinate to literary arts

•Later Qutaiba expected religious scholars to have grasp of many subjects

•Many-sidedness was an ideal for all learned men, including Qutaiba

•Aim was to combine religious sciences with adab studies, particularly philology

Intersection of religion and humanism in early Islamic scholarship

•Early Islamic grammarian Du'ali emphasizes the importance of a close relationship between
religion and humanism, advocating for the combination of religious knowledge and
humanistic studies.

•Abu Musa al-Hauwari is credited as the first to have combined religious law and 'Arabian
Learning' in Muslim Spain during his scholarly journey to the East, where he met leaders in
both religious sciences and adab humanism.

•Jurisconsult al-Qasim b. Man was knowledgeable in both religious sciences and humanistic
studies, particularly excelling in fields of hadith, poetry, classical Arabic, and law.

•The link between adab and the religious sciences was reaffirmed by the necessity of a
thorough knowledge of classical Arabic, the language of the divine revelation, and Tha'lab
was said to have had a dream in which the Prophet sanctioned grammar as necessary for the
religious sciences.

•Scholar Ibn Kunasa emphasizes the importance of a scholar delving into both religious
sciences and humanistic studies, warning against the lack of religious piety in the pursuit of
knowledge and adab studies.

•Ibn Abd Rabbihi devotes one of the twenty-five jewels in his 'Al-'Iqd al-Farid' to the
treatment of knowledge and adab combined, highlighting the intersection of knowledge,
specifically religious knowledge, and adab.

The Ideal of Education in Islamic Learning

•The ideal of education was to master both worlds of learning, to be a scholar and a humanist,
to combine the critical scholarship of the 'alim and the urbane elegance and refinement.

•Intellectuals were designated as "The People Who Concern Themselves With Scholarship
and Humanism", or Ahl al-'ilm wa 'l-adab.

•The fields of humanistic studies or adab were available to non-Muslims, being considered
neutral as far as religion was concerned.

•The neutrality of the studia adabiya facilitated the presence of Christians, Jews, and Sabians
in the studia adabiya and the "foreign sciences."

•By the sixth/twelfth century, Islamic learning included the "foreign sciences."

•Many leading Muslim scholars were knowledgeable in philosophy and related philosophical
fields.

The Intersection of Adab, Koranic Studies, and Secularism in Islamic Scholarship

•Nasir was a leading scholar of hadith and also an adab-humanist who had studied under
Tibrizi, the professor of humanistic studies at the Nizamiya.

•Al-Khatib al-Iskafi was considered one of the "Scholars of the Koran and of adab" and
belonged to a category of scholars.

•In dictation, Sam'ani advised the dictator to avoid boring students by following up dictation
of hadith with stories, anecdotes, and recitation of poetry.

•Sam'ani quoted Ibn 'Abbas in favor of seeking explanations in pre-Islamic poetry when
something in the reading was not understood.

•All essential adab fields are related to religion, with even letters beginning with "Praise be to
God".

•The function of grammar was seen as preserving the purity of the language of divine
revelation.

•Poetry served as the lexicon of evidential examples for rare words in the Koran and hadith,
and the Prophet was quoted advising studying the Koran with its inflections and seeking to
understand its rare words.

•The Koran and the literary arts were studied in the same place and at the same time from
childhood up to the age of around fifteen, when graduate work in adab began.

•The Koran was the foundation of adab disciplines and served as a model of elegance in style
and eloquence in language.

•The ties between adab studies and religious studies in Islam made it almost a contradiction
to speak of secularist humanism, as there was never a break between humanism and religion.

•Exposure to the writings of ancient cultures like Greece, India, and Persia influenced adab
and tended to encourage a skeptical attitude, sometimes even bordering on heresy.

•Some leading scholar-humanists incurred disfavor due to the kind of life they led, especially
concerning religious morality. Abu 'Amr ash-Shaibani is an example.

Inquisition and Islamic Scholars

•Ahmad b. Hanbal was a scholar of hadith, lexicography, and poetry who fell out of favor due
to his habit of drinking.

•Poet al-A'kauwak was killed for addressing hyperbolic verses to al-Ma'mun, ascribing to
him attributes meant for God alone.

•The poet Mutanabbi fared better when he ascribed to al-Awariji attributes even more
blasphemous than al-A'kauwak, and made God guilty of the sin of associationism.

•The famous al-Azhari, student of Ibn Duraid, is reported to have visited the latter to find him
inebriated, and never returned.

•It is reported that the usually sharp-tongued poet Ibn al-Habbariya wrote two verses in
reference to drinking, suggesting he repented with the help of insolvency.

•Abu Tahir al-Isbahani and grammarians were rarely known for religious piety.

•Abu 'I-'Ala' al-Ma'arri was considered a heretic, but Ibn 'Aqil admired and cited some of his
poetry.

Short summary

The Expansion of Humanistic Studies in Classical Islam

In classical Islam, knowledge was divided into three major categories:
Arabic literary arts, Islamic religious sciences, and foreign sciences,
particularly Greek studies. The literary arts constituted a separate field
called adab, a field of humanistic studies. The scope of humanistic studies
expanded over time and encompassed various terms in Arabic, such as al-
adab, al-adabryat, anwa al-adab, and others.

Adab Humanism: Preserving the Integrity of Arabian Discourse

Adab humanism, a field of knowledge, includes various humanistic studies
such as grammar, poetry, lexicography, and biography. It was considered
an independent field by Avicenna and was studied by various scholars like
al-Mufaddal ad-Dabbi, Jumahi, and Jahiz. The disciplines of adab aimed to
guard against errors in ancient Arabian discourse, both in speech and
writing.

The Intersection of Grammar and Eloquence in Adab

Studia adabiya includes disciplines such as lexicography, morphology,
etymology, syntax, rhetoric, and history. Some scholars, like Ibn
Mammati, argue that grammarians focus too much on grammar and
neglect other aspects of adab, such as eloquence and poetics. In his
works, Yaqut discusses various humanists involved in adab, including
grammarians, lexicographers, and poets.

The Significance of Humanism as a Foundation for Superior

Sciences
Yaqut emphasizes the importance of studia adabiya, or humanism, as a
propaedeutic to religious sciences. He argues that it serves as an essential
foundation for the superior sciences such as law, theology, and medicine\.
Humanism is the learning of kings and prime ministers, providing
intellectual stimulation and enjoyment. Despite seeming to place religious
studies above adab, Yaqut actually believes that legal studies of the
madrasa schoolmen are lacking in eloquence and sophistication. His true
preference lies with humanism.

The Role of Adab: Communication and Understanding in the

Humanist Tradition
The text discusses the importance of adab studies in the humanist
tradition, distinguishing it from the dialectic and disputation of the
schoolmen. It highlights the role of grammar as a tool and starting point,
and notes that humanists were often self-made men who sought
knowledge through books. The text provides a comprehensive list of
adab's fields and emphasizes its role as a means of communication and
understanding between individuals.

"The Significance of Classical Arabic and the Evolution of Adab in

Humanistic Studies"
The text discusses the importance of classical Arabic in various disciplines
and how it was acquired from certain Arabian tribes known for their
language purity and eloquence. It highlights the establishment of adab, a
field of humanistic studies, and how it evolved over time. The text also
emphasizes the significance of humanism in society and how the
humanists formed a distinct class, often referred to as "The Humanists" or
"The Members of Humanism."

The Importance of Eloquence in Humanism

Eloquent speech is considered the essence of humanism, with quotes
from various scholars emphasizing its importance in enhancing human
qualities. Eloquence, purity of language, and beauty of expression are
crucial aspects of humanism, along with knowledge of ancient traditions
and memorization of Prophetic Traditions. Prime Minister Al-Hasan b. Sahl
highlights the superiority of human speech over other animals, making
eloquence an essential part of being human.

The Significance of Adab: Preserving Knowledge, Cultivating

Virtue
This text discusses the importance of adab, a form of literary humanism,
in Islamic culture. It highlights the benefits of adab, such as preserving its
possessor from ignorance, taming the temper, and helping to acquire
manly virtues. It also emphasizes the link between adab and authority,
particularly with regard to hadith and the Islamic law. Key figures in the
development of adab, such as Shaffi and Ibn Hanbal, are mentioned for
their contributions to the religion.

"The Role of Philology and Oral Transmission in Establishing

Authority in Religious and Humanistic Studies"
This text discusses the importance of philology and the criteria used for
authenticity and authoritative-ness in religious and humanistic studies. It
highlights the similarities between adab studies and the field of hadith,
and the shift from the principle of authoritative transmission (riwaya) to
understanding (diraya). The text also mentions the role of oral
transmission in establishing authority in various fields, including
lexicography.

"Transmission of Knowledge in Adab and Hadith Studies:

Unraveling the Role of Textual Scholarship and Personal
Transmission"
In this text, Bushti discusses the transmission of knowledge in adab and
hadith studies, noting the importance of textual scholarship and the role
of personal transmission. He defends his method of attributing content to
scholars based on their writings rather than personal knowledge, as well
as the common methodology shared by adab and hadith studies. The text
highlights how personal relationship and oral transmission were not
always possible or desired in adab studies, leading to self-teaching and
the relaxation of rules with respect to authenticity.

"The Role of Travel and Chance Encounters in Islamic Education"

In Islamic education, students learned adab (humanism) and hadith by
traveling to meet masters in various cities, carrying tools and copies of
authoritative works. Grammar was crucial for understanding hadith, which
led to comprehension of law (figh). Students learned from chance
encounters during travel, and sought authorization to transmit
authoritative works from masters.

The Power of Authoritative Transmission

A student studied hadiths and adab texts under multiple masters, such as
Sufyan ath-Thauri and Abu'I-Husain 'Ali b. Muhammad b. 'Abd ar-Rahim b.
Dinar. The student learned to memorize and record hadiths, despite early
apprehensions about written records. In the humanistic field, the same
method of authoritative transmission was used, such as in the book of
poet al-Khali', which was transcribed by Yaqut al-Mausili al-Katib.

The Importance of Understanding in the Transmission of Books

The text discusses the transmission of a book through a method called
"sama" and how it was used to study adab and hadith. It mentions notable
figures who used the method, such as Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari and
Professor Yahya b. al-Husain b. Ahmad b. al-Banna', and how the method
was not always used to transmit certain books, like the Book of Sibawaih.
The text highlights the importance of understanding in the study of books,
rather than just relying on authoritative transmission.

The Divergence of Adab and Hadith

Scholars of adab and hadith in early Islamic society, such as Shu'ba and
Nasa'i, were highly respected in both fields. However, differences in goals
and methods caused the two disciplines to diverge over time. Adab placed
a higher priority on understanding, while hadith emphasized accurate
transmission. Some scholars, like Sibawaih, even switched fields due to
differences in values. Despite authoritative transmission remaining
important to hadith, its decline in the field of adab led to a divergence
between the two.
Authority and Knowledge: A Balancing Act in Adab Studies
The text discusses the importance of knowledge and authority in adab
(humanistic) studies, as exemplified by Riyashi's study under Mazini,
despite having a better understanding of the subject. The anecdote of
Mubarrad's encounter with an inmate at an insane asylum highlights the
tension between adab and simple riwaya (authority), as well as the
struggle to balance riwaya and diraya (reason and understanding) in the
field.

"The Influence of Khabar: An Exploration of Narratives and

Contempt in Early Islam"
Khabar is a term in hadith, law, and adab humanism, referring to a
statement containing information from the Prophet. In hadith, it gives
information resulting in a rule of law, and in adab, it provides evidential
examples. Khabar is an anecdote, news, narrative, or tale, anticipating the
Italian Renaissance novella. There was antagonism between hadith and
adab fields in early Islam, with anecdotes reflecting mutual contempt
between scholars of humanism and hadith.

The Distinction Between Adab and Law: Roles in Religion and

Learning
The difference between adab and law lies in their roles in religion and the
organization of learning. Adab studies, such as poetry, do not involve
matters of religious law and carry less responsibility than legal opinions.
Grammarians can teach without a formal doctorate, but the text suggests
caution in claiming mastery in a field. An example of this distinction is a
conversation between a lawyer and a grammarian discussing the
importance of understanding the poet's intention in poetry analysis.

"The Symbiotic Relationship: Adab and Law in Pursuit of

Knowledge"
The relationship between adab and law was close due to their common
orientation towards diraya. Adab scholars often challenged law scholars
and helped them improve their knowledge. Both fields were held in high
regard, and early luminaries in law, such as al-Auza'i and 'Abd Allahb. al-
Mubarak, excelled in both adab and legal studies.

Religious Studies and Adab: Exploring the Intersection of

Education and Employment
During the medieval period, scholars often combined religious studies
with adab, focusing on grammar, poetry, and oratory. Many started in one
field and later switched to the other, providing a wide range of
opportunities for employment. Both legal studies and adab developed a
literature of disputed questions, with some works also adopted from the
field of law. Combining both fields offered the best scholars broader
opportunities and diverse knowledge.
The Development of Divergent Opinions: Law, Philology, and the
Movement of Humanism
In early Islamic intellectual history, divergent opinions led to disputed
questions and opposing schools of thought in law and philology. The fields
of law and grammar developed their own intellectual movements, with
grammarians contributing to the humanist movement in philology and
jurisconsults contributing to the scholastic movement in law. Disputed
questions developed in both fields almost simultaneously, resulting in
Khilaf works that recorded dissenting opinions. In contrast, there were
hardly any taliga works in kalam-theology due to its exclusion from the
college curriculum. The movement of humanism began with the study of
philology, with grammarians and lexicographers driving the development
of other humanistic studies that later comprised adab.

The Evolving Views of Ibn Qutaiba: Exploring the Distinction

Between Religious Scholars and Humanists
The text discusses the views of Ibn Qutaiba, an early Islamic scholar, on
the distinction between religious scholars and humanists. It suggests that
Ibn Qutaiba's statement on the matter was influenced by Rationalist ideas
during his early career, but his views likely evolved as he became a more
mature scholar. The text emphasizes the importance of many-sidedness in
both religious and humanist scholarship, as well as the significance of
adab studies in understanding religious fields.

The Intersection of Religion and Humanism in Early Islamic

Scholarship
The text discusses the relationship between religion and humanism in
early Islamic scholarship, emphasizing the importance of religious
knowledge and the Arabic language. It highlights the works of scholars
such as Du'ali, Abu Musa al-Hauwari, al-Qasim b. Man, and Tha'lab, who
sought to combine religious law, humanism, and the study of classical
Arabic. The text concludes that the humanities serve a crucial role in
supporting religious sciences and fostering a deeper understanding of
religious knowledge.

"The Integration of Religious and Secular Knowledge in Islamic

Education"
The ideal of education in Islamic tradition involved mastering both
religious and secular knowledge, with intellectuals belonging to the
category of "The People Who Concern Themselves With Scholarship and
Humanism." Adab studies, considered 'neutral', were open to non-Muslims
and allowed Christians, Jews, and Sabians to engage in fields like
medicine, astronomy, and the interpretation of the Prophetic Traditions,
although the full extent of this many-sidedness depended on place, time,
and the scholars present.

"Investigating the Relationship Between Adab, Religion, and

Skepticism: Insights from Prominent Scholars"
Nasir, a prominent hadith scholar, studied under Tibrizi, a humanistic
studies professor. Al-Khatib al-Iskafi was considered a scholar of the Quran
and adab. Sam'ani suggested using stories, poetry, and anecdotes to
avoid boredom during dictation sessions. Adab fields were related to
religion, and the Quran was the foundation of adab disciplines. The close
ties between adab and religious studies made secularist humanism
contradictory, but some scholars developed skeptical attitudes due to
exposure to ancient cultures.

Revealing the Vices of Renowned Scholars

Famous scholar Ahmad b. Hanbal was known for his habit of drinking,
which resulted in his colleagues' disapproval. Another scholar, al-
Akauwak, faced severe consequences for his critical views on religion, as
his tongue was pulled out for ascribing human attributes to God. Ibn
Duraid, a student of al-Azhari, was often found inebriated, and his lack of
religious piety was also noted among other scholars.

Questioning Belief: Perspectives on Religion and Humanism by

Ma'arri, Abu Rashad al-Akhsikathi, and Ibn al-Khashshab
The text discusses the views of Ma'arri, a famous poet, and humanists Abu
Rashad al-Akhsikathi and Ibn al-Khashshab. Ma'arri's verses express
irreverence towards religion, while al-Akhsikathi and Ibn al-Khashshab
question its importance and the role of intellect in belief. In a dream, Ibn
al-Khashshab is told that God forgives humanists despite their flaws and
allows them to enter paradise.

Contemporary Issues in Muslim Societies

Article 1
Short summary
The Contradictions of Pakistan's Blasphemy Law
The untold story of Pakistan's blasphemy law explores the contradictions
in reactions to Muslim and non-Muslim blasphemers. The Hanafi school of
thought, prevalent in Pakistan, has historically taken a stricter stance on
Muslim blasphemers, with non-Muslims receiving less severe
punishments. Despite popular belief, the Hanafi tradition does not support
severe consequences for non-Muslims who insult the Prophet.

Unveiling the Historical Inaccuracies: Unraveling the Origins of

Pakistan's Blasphemy Law
The text discusses the historical inaccuracies and misattributions in the
development of Pakistan's blasphemy law, tracing its origins to a
misreading of a Hanafi jurist's position by a 14th-century scholar. The text
highlights that the law's basis for imposing the death penalty on non-
Muslim blasphemers is flawed and doesn't reflect the original position of
the Hanafi tradition. This has led to various groups being subjected to the
same treatment under the blasphemy law.

The Distorted Understanding of Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

The text discusses how the law on blasphemy in Pakistan, passed in 1987,
inaccurately establishes a consensus on blasphemy being a capital
offense for both Muslims and non-Muslims. The text cites examples of how
this misinterpretation has been perpetuated by similar instances of using
erroneous and fabricated sources. One example is a fatwa from Jamia
Uloom e Islamia that omits a key aspect of the ruling, which states that a
non-Muslim will not be killed for blasphemy. This misinterpretation has led
to a distorted understanding of the issue.

The Influence of Internal Biases on Fatwa Formulation in the

Hanafi School
In formulating a fatwa, a Hanafi jurist should refer to the ruling of his own
school. However, the position of their school provides a more lenient
narrative towards non-Muslims, which may be influenced by internal
biases and 'otherising' perspectives. Scholars in the Hanafi tradition have
admitted that it feels like a matter of honor to prescribe strict
punishments for blasphemy, but have cautioned against giving in to such
biases.

The Hanafi School of Thought: Non-Muslims and Blasphemy

Contrary to popular belief, the Hanafi school of thought in Sunni Islamic
Jurisprudence holds that non-Muslims who commit blasphemy should not
be killed. This stance is supported by historical texts and the opinions of
Hanafi jurists, such as Abu Hanifa and Ahmad al-Quduri. The killing of non-
Muslims for blasphemy is generally considered an extension of their
disbelief, and a verbal warning is seen as an appropriate punishment. The
tradition of not killing non-Muslims for blasphemy has been consistent
throughout Hanafi jurisprudence.
The Flawed Foundation: The Errors Behind Pakistan's Blasphemy
Law
Pakistan's blasphemy law was framed, two errors by Advocate Ismaeel
Qureshi led to its flawed foundation. He misattributed a fixed death
penalty for Muslim blasphemers to Imam Abu Hanifa and then incorrectly
applied it to non-Muslim blasphemers. This has resulted in various groups
being subjected to the same strict punishment under the law.

Religious Texts and South Asian Laws: The Distorted Influence on

Blasphemy
The text discusses how certain South Asian laws have been influenced by
a distorted understanding of religious texts, particularly regarding
blasphemy. It highlights instances in which citations from Fatawa-e-
Alamgiriyah and Sharh Mukhtasar al Tahawi have been misused to justify
the death penalty for blasphemers, both Muslim and non-Muslim. The
author argues that these instances reveal a deliberate or incidental
oversight in the interpretation of these texts and suggests that such
distortions continue to persist in religious discourse.

Challenging Blasphemy Laws: Examining Hanafi Traditions and

Historical Biases
The author argues that the killing of non-Muslims for blasphemy is not
supported by the founder of the Hanafi tradition, Imam Abu Hanifa, and
criticizes the Ulema's internal biases and 'otherising' perspectives for
interfering with their intellectual integrity. The author suggests that it is
time to reexamine our own biases in the application of a death penalty
and learn from history to set the record straight.

The Need for Change: Separating Religion and State in Pakistan

A well-received article calls for separating religion and state in Pakistan,
questioning the use of 7th century rules in the 21st century. It emphasizes
the need for debate and action on critical issues, rather than spending
time on religious debates. The article discusses the concept of blasphemy
and the importance of improving Pakistan's welfare system.

Inclusive Education: A Call for Societal Transformation

The text discusses the dangers of certain laws and the need for change in
society, emphasizing the importance of human life and the need for
education and understanding across different civilizations. It emphasizes
the need for translation in various languages to reach a wider audience
and highlights the importance of addressing these issues in public forums.
It also highlights personal experiences and challenges faced by individuals
due to intolerance and extremism.

Blasphemy Laws and the Role of Radical Mullahs in Pakistan: A

Call for Education and Reform
The text discusses the issue of blasphemy laws in Pakistan, criticizing
their misuse and the role of radical mullahs in inciting uneducated mobs
to commit lynching. It suggests that educating people and providing
alternative punishments for false accusers could help address the
problem. The author also emphasizes the importance of sharing the article
to raise awareness and encourages translation to local languages.

In the Pursuit of Common Sense: Unveiling Religion's Ignorance

and Advocating for Tolerance
The text discusses the importance of using common sense and being good
and tolerant in all religions. It highlights the dangers of ignorance,
especially when associated with religion, and applauds the efforts and
courage of the writer for providing a well-researched analysis on a
sensitive topic. It also suggests translating the article into Urdu for
broader dissemination.

Hidden Truth: Exposing the Role of Ulemas, Political Dynasties,

and Complicity in Genocide
The article highlights that revered ulemas have hidden the truth, leading
to harm in society. It emphasizes the importance of challenging political
dynasties that exclude other aspirants and discusses actors' potential
complicity in genocide.

Global Transitions and Challenges: Public Health Shortages,

Terrorism Concerns, and Changing Dynamics
Over 100 countries agree to transition, public health facilities face
shortages, locals involved in terrorism, and Israel's support changing;
Pakistan's hockey downfall.

Pakistan's Blasphemy Law

•Nav items: nav sandwich, desktop nav search

•The article is part 4 of a series on Pakistan's blasphemy law

•It is recommended to read the previous parts to understand the context

of this article

•At the beginning of the year, Junaid Jamshed was charged with
blasphemy

•Online reactions were forgiving because Jamshed was a Muslim and had
apologized

•The reaction to non-Muslims accused of blasphemy is often negative and

violent

•Hanafi jurists have commented on the issue for the past 1200 years

•The Hanafi school of thought represents the predominant theological

orientation in Pakistan

•The position on Muslim blasphemers is stricter and more severe than on

non-Muslims

•Throughout the Hanafi tradition, blasphemy by non-Muslims is

recognized merely as an extension of their disbelief

•Hanafi scholars and sources suggest that non-Muslims are not killed for
their disbelief or blasphemy

•Verbal warning and punishment are prescribed for offending non-Muslims

Misinterpretation of Hanafi Jurisprudence on Non-Muslim

Blasphemy
•A timeline of significant Hanafi jurisprudence texts on non-Muslim
blasphemy has been compiled, demonstrating a unanimous prohibition on
killing non-Muslims for blasphemy.

•Exceptions to this prohibition are noted in the case of habitual offense

committed as treason, at the discretion of the ruler, which may result in
punishment up to and including the death penalty.

•Despite this, there is a prevalent belief that not killing a non-Muslim

blasphemer is itself blasphemy, contradicting the established Hanafi
position.

•The current stance on non-Muslim blasphemy differs significantly from

the position established by revered figures in the Hanafi tradition, leading
to uncertainty in its foundations.

•A 14th-century scholar, al-Bazzazi, misread Imam Abu Hanifa's position

on blasphemy, which was later used by Ismaeel Qureshi to frame
Pakistan's blasphemy law.
•Ismaeel Qureshi made grave errors in quoting and misattributing this
misreading, extending a false position to non-Muslim offenders and
resulting in their erroneous treatment under the blasphemy law.

Distorted Interpretations of Blasphemy Laws in South Asia

•In 1987, the law regarding blasphemy as a capital offense for Muslims
and non-Muslims was passed, referring to Fatawa-e-Alamigiriyah.

•The Fatawa-e-Alamgiriyyah explicitly states a guarantee of the protection

of the life and property of non-Muslim offenders by the state.

•Further in 1991, the Federal Shariat Court cited Abu Bakr al-Jassas al-
Razi’s position of a death penalty for blasphemers, while ignoring the
same author’s prohibition on killing non-Muslim blasphemers.

•A distorted understanding of the issue regarding blasphemy laws is

perpetuated by various instances of erroneous and fabricated sources.

•For instance, a fatwa published by Jamia Uloom e Islamia, Binori Town,

omitted a reference that prohibits the killing of a non-Muslim blasphemer.

•The omitted source from Abu Hanifa states that a non-Muslim will not be
killed for blasphemy.

•The use of ellipses in the fatwa from Binori Town was used to exclude
significant information regarding the killing of non-Muslim blasphemers.

•The distorted interpretations of blasphemy laws in South Asia raise

concerns about the accurate application of these laws.

Challenges with Internal Biases in Responding to Issues of

Blasphemy
•Hanafi jurists are bound to refer to the rulings of their own school in
formulating a fatwa, but in certain cases, the opposite occurs, reflecting
leniency towards non-Muslims.

•Internal biases and ‘otherising’ perspectives of the Ulema are interfering

with intellectual integrity in responding to issues of blasphemy.

•The use of ellipses appears to be an attempt to manufacture consensus

on the issue and suppress opposing viewpoints, even from within the
Hanafi tradition.

•Scholars within the Hanafi tradition have admitted to a natural bias to

prescribe the strictest punishment for blasphemy, but have cautioned
against giving in to such biases.

•Supreme Court judgment suggests that institutions are realizing the

need to reexamine biases in the heavy-handed application of the death
penalty in cases of blasphemy.

•It is time to learn from history and set the record straight in light of
available research and resources to address the indiscriminate application
of the death penalty in blasphemy cases.

Islamic Views on Blasphemy

•The Hanafi school of thought in Sunni Islamic Jurisprudence has
established the acceptability in Islam for the pardon of actual Muslim
blasphemers.

•However, the reaction to the same charge when leveled at a non-Muslim

is extremely negative and often violent, contradicting the Hanafi jurists'
stance over the past 1200 years.

•The Hanafi school of thought is one of the four schools of thought in

Sunni Islamic Jurisprudence and has the largest following in the world,
with an overwhelming majority of Pakistani Sunnis subscribing to it.

•Contrary to popular belief, the position on Muslim blasphemers is stricter

and more severe than on non-Muslims, as blasphemy by non-Muslims is
recognized merely as an extension of their disbelief within the Hanafi
tradition.

•Several Hanafi jurisprudence texts, including Al Saif al Maslool, Al-Tajrid,

and Al Hidaya, state that non-Muslims are not killed for their disbelief or
blasphemy, with the prescribed punishment being a verbal warning and, if
the offense is repeated, a punishment but not death.

•An annotated timeline of every Hanafi jurisprudence text of significance

shows a unanimous prohibition on killing non-Muslims for blasphemy,
except in cases of habitual offense committed as treason, which may be
punishable by death at the discretion of the ruler.

Misinterpretation of Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Today's Hanafis differ from the position established by revered figures of
their tradition due to a misreading of Imam Abu Hanifa's position on
blasphemy by a 14th century scholar, al-Bazzazi.

•The narrative surrounding blasphemy law in Pakistan wrongly claims

there was a consensus of scholars that blasphemy carries a divine
punishment of death with no possibility of pardon.

•The misattribution by al-Bazzazi was used by Ismaeel Qureshi to frame

Pakistan's blasphemy law, leading to an erroneous extension of a false
prescription for Muslims to non-Muslim offenders as well.

•Ismaeel Qureshi not only picked an established erroneous stance but

also misattributed it to a renowned scholar (Ibn Abidin) and extended this
false position to non-Muslim offenders, resulting in various groups being
subjected to the same treatment under the blasphemy law.

Distorted Interpretations of Blasphemy in South Asia

•References were made in the parliament to Fatawa-e-Alamigiriyah to
establish blasphemy as a capital offense for both Muslims and non-
Muslims.

•The text of Fatawa-e-Alamgiriyyah explicitly states a guarantee of

protection for the life and property of non-Muslim offenders by the state.

•The Federal Shariat Court judgment applied Abu Bakr al-Jassas al-Razi's
position of a death penalty for blasphemers to both Muslims and non-
Muslims, ignoring the same author's prohibition on killing non-Muslim
blasphemers.

•There are indications of a distorted understanding of the blasphemy

issue, with erroneous and fabricated sources perpetuating the narrative.

•A fatwa from Jamia Uloom e Islamia, Binori Town cites Al Sarim al

Maslool, claiming a general consensus amongst scholars for the death
penalty for blasphemers, but omits significant information.

•The original text from which the fatwa is citing reveals that Abu Hanifa
differs and states that a non-Muslim will not be killed for blasphemy, as
shirk is a greater sin.

The Need to Reexamine Biases in the Application of Blasphemy

Laws
•The Binori Town scholars omitted a reference that prohibits the killing of
a non-Muslim blasphemer, which is surprising considering it was from
Imam Abu Hanifa, the founder of their own madhab.

•Hanafi jurists are expected to refer to the rulings of their own school
when formulating a fatwa, but the scholars in question have done the
opposite, demonstrating a lenient narrative towards non-Muslims.

•Internal biases and 'otherising' perspectives of the Ulema are interfering

in their integrity in responding to issues of blasphemy.

•The use of ellipses in their text seems to be an attempt to suppress

opposing viewpoints, even those from within their own tradition.

•Scholars in the Hanafi tradition have acknowledged a natural bias to

prescribe the strictest punishment for blasphemy, but have cautioned
against giving in to such biases.

•Ashraf Ali Thanawi remarks that Abu Hanifa has more honor than them
for prohibiting the death penalty for non-Muslim offenders.
•Jurists have been warned against letting emotions dictate the law, even
though their hearts may lean towards a strict punishment.

•The latest Supreme Court judgement indicates a realization of the need

to reexamine biases in the indiscriminate and heavy-handed application of
the death penalty to a population it was not meant for.

•It is time to learn from history and set the record straight.

Reaction to Article on Separation of State and Religion in

Pakistan
•The article seems to be well-researched and has garnered attention from
many readers.

•There are concerns about the current state of affairs in Pakistan,

particularly with regard to research and correction of mistakes.

•The article advocates for separating state and religion in Pakistan to

prevent applying outdated rules in the modern era.

•It suggests that parts of the article should be considered by lawyers,

judges, and even the Supreme Court.

•There is agreement with the importance of the article and a call to action
for legislators to address the issues it raises.

•The possibility of debate around religious issues is raised, with the

suggestion to prioritize societal improvement.

•In moving to the 21st century, the need for more tolerance, moderation
of rules, and addressing blasphemy concerns is emphasized.

•The perspective is offered that blasphemy is a human concept and not a

concern for God.

•Lastly, there is an expressed desire to access the texts referred to in the

article to better understand the issue.

Perspectives on Pakistan's Blasphemy Law

•Concerns expressed by QADRI sab and Tahir A about the impact of the
law on individuals and communities, with specific example of QADRI's
nephew being wounded

•Call for expert translations of all articles in the series to minimize

misinterpretation in various languages

•Acorn Guts responds in support of repealing the 2nd amendment,

emphasizes need for tolerance, and shares personal connection and
empathy for others affected by extremism

•Rani Sharma and others express the need for the series to be published
in Urdu and mainstream dailies to educate and change mindsets

•Denouncement of extremism and violence in the name of religion,

highlighting the value of human life over any difference in beliefs

•Support, appreciation, and recognition for the insightful and educational

nature of the series, calling for translation and wider dissemination of the
content

Consequences of Radical Behavior and Religious Misinterpretation

in Pakistan
•Many mullahs in Pakistan are hiding the truth from the masses, leading
to harmful radical behavior.

•Uneducated and unruly mobs, influenced by local mullahs, are

responsible for most lynching incidents.

•The issue of educating these individuals is connected to the distribution

of power, particularly within the law.

•One suggestion for combating wrongful accusations is to give the same

punishment to all accusers if proven wrong.

•The article series serves as an eye-opener and a step toward returning to

the fundamental teachings of Islam.

•Efforts should be made to translate and share the article across various
platforms and languages to spread the message.

•Arafat Mazhar's initiative to address these issues is recognized and

appreciated, as it promotes goodwill and blessings.

•Blasphemy laws in Pakistan have led to the victimization of a significant

portion of society and brought a negative reputation to the country.

•The need for accountability is emphasized, as well as a return to the

original vision of a secular state outlined by Jinnah.

•The misuse of laws to settle personal scores highlights the necessity for
reform and a renewed emphasis on love and tolerance.

Religion, Common Sense, and Blasphemy Issues

•The article addresses the question of whether it is necessary to research
and justify the morality of killing someone, arguing that common sense
should dictate our actions.
•The writer criticizes the need for religious leaders to tell us right from
wrong and believes that all religions teach us to be good and tolerant,
emphasizing the need for common sense.

•A reader named Sameer disagrees and argues that the article proves the
opposite, citing a specific example and praising the writer for extensive
research and a bold stance on the topic.

•Another reader, Jen, criticizes the slow progress in resolving the issue
and calls for immediate action by the Prime Minister, resorting to name-
calling and derogatory language.

•Many readers express appreciation for the writer's research and

advocate for the translation and publication of the article in Urdu media,
recognizing the importance of rational thinking in a society blinded by
ignorance and religious fervor.

•Various readers comment on the need to translate the article into Urdu,
express surprise and shock at the content, and highlight the importance of
the article in informing and educating readers about contentious global
matters.

•The comments also express gratitude to the writer and praise their
courage for writing a well-researched article on a sensitive topic, and
readers express hope for the article to be widely disseminated and
published to educate the general public.

Exposing the Ulemas and Political Dynasties

•Revered and respected ulemas have hidden the truth from us for so long.

•They are the main culprits and have the blood of so many innocent
victims on their hands.

•Hiding the truth and promoting falsehood will not bring any good to
society.

•Change, at its core, is about challenging political dynasties that exclude

other aspirants.

•Actors may be complicit even when their purpose might not be to

commit genocide.

Global Change and Political Shifts

•Over 100 countries have agreed to transition...

•Change is about challenging political dynasties that exclude other

aspirants.

•Public health facilities, especially in Sindh’s remote districts, are facing

acute shortages.

•Many involved in acts of terrorism are locals.

•Bodies continue to pile up in Gaza, causing Israel’s most steadfast

supporter to change its tone.

•Pakistan’s downfall in hockey led to few participants in the Junior World

Cup.

Article 2
\The Untold Story of Pakistan's Blasphemy Law
•This is the third article in a five-part series on the untold story of
Pakistan’s blasphemy law.

•The story focuses on a group of religious and religio-political actors who

changed their position on the blasphemy law after Punjab Governor
Salmaan Taseer’s assassination.

•The narrative surrounding the blasphemy law serves as a tool for the
persecution of minorities, particularly the Ahmadis.

•Religio-political actors attach their narrative to the law for political

mileage, as demonstrated by the public sentiment following Taseer's
assassination.

•The shift in religious authority's position on blasphemy demonstrates the

influence of politics on 'apolitical' religious scholarship.

Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Jamia Binoria in Karachi is a major madrassah and its head, Mufti Naeem,
defended the law and criticized Salman Taseer for requesting presidential
pardon for Asia Bibi, despite the madrassah itself adopting a more lenient
stance before the "event".

•Mufti Muneeb ur Rehman has been a vocal supporter of the blasphemy

law, categorizing blasphemy as an unpardonable offense and instrumental
in Javed Ahmad Ghamidi's exile from the country after their debate on
blasphemy went public.

•A conversation found in the official transcript of a Council of Islamic

Ideology (CII) meeting in 2003-2004 suggests that Mufti Muneeb, while
acknowledging the existence of pardon in Hanafi jurisprudence, was
personally reluctant to make the knowledge public for its 'potential harm'.
•Grand Mufti Rafi Usmani, an authoritative faqih in Pakistan, provided a
step-by-step procedure for obtaining pardon for blasphemy as early as
2003 in response to a query by the state. This acknowledges the provision
of pardon as the Hanafi position for both Muslims and non-Muslims.

Shariat Court Judgment 1991

•Ismaeel Qureshi petitioned the Federal Shariat Court to declare
blasphemy a hudd offense without provision for pardon.

•The court consulted a bench of seven ulema, 4 of whom stated that

blasphemy was pardonable, but the court ignored this majority vote and
made it a hudd offense.

•Mohammed Sharif, father of Nawaz Sharif, intervened in a petition

challenging the judgment by instructing his son, the Prime Minister, to get
it withdrawn, leading to a clear violation of the separation of institutions.

•The original Hanafi position on the penalty for blasphemy is not a hudd
offense, and there is provision for pardon in all cases. Religious forces
deny or hide this due to the argument of maslihat (public good) to prevent
the mission of the 'secular agenda' in the country.

•After presenting evidence of factual inaccuracies to Fareed Paracha of

Jamaat-i-Islami, as well as the president of Tanzeem-i-Islami, Hafiz Akif
Saeed, they also upheld that it is a matter of maslihat to not openly
disseminate this information.

The Untold Story of Pakistan's Blasphemy Law

•Primary and secondary research shows that the instrument of maslihat is
consistently utilized to misrepresent the classical Hanafi Jurists' position
on the matter of blasphemy.

•The narrative being promoted suggests that Islam is under attack, both
externally from the West and internally through growing secular voices,
making it essential to claim and retain ownership of religio-political power.

•A group of religious and religio-political actors changed their position on

the blasphemy law, particularly after Punjab Governor Salmaan Taseer's
assassination, which served as a catalyst for a rapid shift in their stance.

•It is evident through an infographic that the passing of the blasphemy

law (295-C) has resulted in an exponential increase in blasphemy cases
and extra-judicial killings related to blasphemy over the past two decades,
particularly targeting minorities, such as the Ahmadis.

•The law has become a tool for persecution and a method of

institutionalized persecution against minorities, making it important for
religio-political actors to attach their narrative to the law.
Religious Scholar Hypocrisy
•Members of the public hailed the killer of a blasphemy accused as a hero

•People who formerly acknowledged the option of pardon for blasphemy

quickly changed their position after recognizing public sentiment

•Demonstration of how politics works in 'apolitical' religious scholarship

•Example: Jamia Binoria had a lenient stance before the event, but its
head, Mufti Naeem, criticized Salman Taseer for requesting presidential
pardon for Asia Bibi

•Mufti Muneeb ur Rehman was a vocal supporter of the death penalty for
blasphemy, even though he had acknowledged the existence of pardon in
Hanafi jurisprudence

•Grand Mufti of Pakistan, Mufti Rafi Usmani, gave a procedure for

obtaining pardon for blasphemy in 2003

The Controversy Surrounding Blasphemy Laws and Pardons in

Pakistan
•The Hanafi position in the case of pardon for those charged under 295-C
applies to both Muslims and non-Muslims.

•Politicized religious forces condoned and celebrated the assassination of

Taseer for requesting pardon for Asia Bibi, while buried in the CII annual
reports, the Grand Mufti provided procedural recommendations for pardon
years ago.

•An architect of the law, Ismaeel Qureshi, filed a petition in the Federal
Shariat Court to declare blasphemy a hudd offense without provision for
pardon, but the court ignored the majority vote of a bench of seven ulema
on the question of pardon and formulated a legal interpretation making it
a hudd offense.

•After a dubious judgment by the FSC in 1991, a petition challenging the

decision was withdrawn due to political interference by Muhammad Sharif
and his son, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.

•There is a discrepancy in the truth about the Hanafi position on the

penalty for blasphemy, as religious forces deny or hide the provision of
pardon in all cases.

Misrepresentation of Religious Laws**

•Hafiz Akif Saeed (son of Dr Israr Ahmed) is the president of Tanzeem-i-
Islami.

•The current narrative is based on factual inaccuracies and maslihat

(public good).
•According to some, it is not in the public's best interest to openly
disseminate certain information.

•The concept of maslihat is consistently used to misrepresent the classical

Hanafi Jurists on certain matters.

•Reverting to the authentic Hanafi position is seen as collusion with

secular forces.

•The mission is to claim and retain ownership of religio-political power,

even at the expense of integrity and human lives.

•The next article in the series will document relatively apolitical groups of
the ulema dispelling myths surrounding the blasphemy narrative.

•Arafat Mazhar is the founder of Engage, an institution for research and

reform of religious laws in Pakistan.

Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Saudi Arabia is the epitome of civilized society and the symbol of
humanity

•The belief in complete freedom of religion or gender equality is

undermined in Pakistan

•People need to stand up to this injustice caused by the blasphemy law

•The government should provide a platform for consensus among

religious leaders to make changes to or repeal the law

•Blasphemy should be pardonable, and Islam is a truth that should be

spread

•Arafat Mazhar's research on the blasphemy law in Pakistan is brave and

illuminating

•Political Islam aims to solidify a drastic, indeed barbaric interpretation of

the blasphemy law

•The future of Pakistan is at risk due to self-serving politics

•Insecurity and low self-esteem have led Pakistan to enact ridiculous

blasphemy laws

•Blasphemy cases should be handled by military courts

•Mullahs are the biggest culprits due to their lack of knowledge,

ignorance, and cruelty
•Reasons for the problem include the majority illiterate population, the
free hand of mullahs, and the disregard for laws and directives

•Jinnah's vision for Pakistan has been ignored

Analysis of Islamic Law and Society

•Islam is proven to be a religion of peace and common sense through
research findings with facts and figures.

•Mullahs with power or guns at their disposal have the potential to

dominate or oppress any society.

•While Islam does not forbid thinking and questioning, some religious
leaders like Mullahs may hinder individual expression of differing opinions
and interpretations.

•The role of Sharia law in modern societies, particularly in Pakistan, is in

need of fundamental questioning.

•Arafat Mazhar has analysed the logic around Sharia law and blasphemy
but has overlooked the larger issue of Sharia law's role in modern
societies.

•The writer's call to repeal Zia-era dictatorship laws and promote

pluralistic tolerance in Pakistan.

•The oppressive nature of the mullahs and the need to shift towards a
more civilized society that reflects Islamic values.

•Comparative references to Martin Niemöller's popular statement and a

commentator's mention of Islam's civilized nature and the importance of
loving and defending the Prophet.

The Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The sign of belief is to follow the teachings and practice of the Prophet,
not through violence

•A lesson from the Prophet's forgiveness and his return to Mecca

victorious

•The climate of fear and tolerance perpetuated by a certain section of

society

•The civil society needs to work with state institutions for reformation

•Issues with the law being manipulated and used for personal scores

•The contention that leniency in the law will be exploited by anti-Islamists

•The need for clearer and more detailed definitions of blasphemy

•The current law is a legacy of Zia-Ul-Haq, and the army tacitly supports it

•The need for Pakistan to think ahead and advance

•Questioning the need for blasphemy as an offense and its slippery slope

•The potential problems with promoting a secular agenda

•The ongoing debate on the Blasphemy Law is perpetuating intolerance

and harming Pakistan's image

Blasphemy and Radicalism in Pakistan

•The presence of radicalism has taken over everyday life in Pakistan, with
alarming signs such as guns and bomb disposal entering schools instead
of books, as well as a belief that terrorism will persist for generations to
come.

•This hopeless and defeatist attitude is tied to the unwanted radicalization

sown by dictator Zia, and the need to eliminate it from modern
progressive state.

•Efforts to blame minorities and those with progressive ideas for the
country's problems perpetuate the loss of identity and progress, with
detractors feeling beaten down and relying on blaming others and
lynchings to help restore God's kingdom and their own rewarding.

•Pakistan is showcasing medieval history in the 21st century, with a lack

of hope for change due to lack of support in the army and political parties
to repeal or dilute inhuman laws, including blasphemy laws.

•Accusations of blasphemy on non-Muslims are often driven by the land

mafia, and the lack of consequences for false accusations demonstrates
significant flaws in the law's functionality.

•Additionally, there is a fundamental problem with expecting non-Muslims

to respect Muslim objects of reverence, akin to how Muslims are not
expected to respect other religions' objects of reverence.

•It's questioned whether there is any support or change forthcoming for

the analyzed issues.

Reflections on the Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The initial passage expresses frustration with the way religious scholars
uphold the blasphemy law in Pakistan, calling into question their
professional and personal integrity.
•A historical perspective is given, noting the lack of historical records of
death punishment for blasphemy in undivided India until 1857, indicating
a more liberal approach from Muslim rulers at that time.

•The role of the Council of Islamic Ideology (CII) is critiqued, as it is

expected to uphold Islam but is accused of being power-hungry and using
religion to further specific political agendas.

•The importance of educating the nation and opening eyes to the

situation is emphasized, with a call to get rid of the wrong interpretation
of Islamic law.

•The author thanks the writer for proving their point that the blasphemy
law is a man-made law, not a divine revelation, while also expressing
frustration with previous comments being moderated out.

Blasphemy Laws and Religious Extremism in Pakistan

•Blasphemy is a religious issue, let god deal with it.

•Religion is hijacked by extremists and fanatics and everyone is afraid to

stand up to them including the government.

•In the meantime innocent lives are being lost, reflecting how inhumane
and intolerant society has become.

•Mob mentality has taken over, and sensible, knowledgeable, and learned
people have no place in Pakistan.

•The thinking behind the blasphemy law is deeply ingrained in the nation,
making progression difficult.

•The alleged liberal and educated Pakistanis engage in double-speak

when confronted with the issue, unable to condemn murders without
justification.

•The thought police censor valid discussions, while reform should occur
from within rather than outside imposition.

•Blasphemy laws are used for political and personal reasons rather than
the will of god, contributing to societal intolerance and conflict.

Consequences of Draconian Laws and Dogmatic Beliefs

•The interjection of political figures and radical groups in the rule of law is
contributing to destructive political machinations and a degradation of
reputable institutions, undermining the entire integrity of the systems.

•The disregard for evidence and factual inaccuracies demonstrates a lack

of transparency and authenticity, manipulated to serve various agendas
and vilify particular groups.
•The implementation of blasphemy laws as an irreversible process,
sanctioned by Islamic legitimacy, has entrenched a Middle Age trap,
obstructing progress and the freedom of expression.

•Fear of loss of identity and having one's beliefs stifled by dogmatic

traditions can outweigh the suffering under restrictive religious
circumstances. The concept of truth includes multiple aspects and is not
confined to singular interpretations.

Religion and Society in Pakistan

•Every religion believes in the creator of the universe

•Illiterate and sick persons spread fear, aiming to gain power

•Rethink Pakistan as a nation thriving because of human creativity and

intelligence

•Religion helps people live simple, humble lives

•Aftab Iqbal states Zia ul Haq's era was the most enlightened for Pakistan

•There are different views within Pakistan's population

•Blame individual weaknesses, not outsiders, for problems

•Muftis often give misguided judgments, which lead to hatred and

violence

•The Mufti of Palestine admired Hitler, doing a disservice to the

Palestinian cause

•Questioning religious leaders is often discouraged

•Reducing outer economic life and increasing inner economic life as a

nation matures

•Science deals with objective aspects, while religion deals with subjective
aspects of human life

The Need for Evolving Religions and Theocratic Research

•Both subjective and objective aspects of human life are essential and
important

•Religions need to evolve towards more personalization and less

socialization

•The 21st century world needs more religious humans and less labeled
religious individuals (e.g. Islamic, Hindu, Christian)
•A truly religious individual is introspective and not political-minded

•The author offers hope for a pardon to victims of blasphemy laws,

declaring blasphemy as pardonable

•Religious scholars acknowledge this but are hesitant to modify laws due
to public interest

•Intolerance in Pakistani society fuels extremism and injustice

•Draconian laws only fuel the need for secularism to end sectarian and
religious hatred

•Shedding light on the plight of Ahmadis facing institutionalized

persecution in Pakistan

•Ahmadis preach peace and tolerance worldwide

•The need for Pakistan to become a secular country and leave religion to
the mosques

•Intolerant people pointing intolerance towards others

•Unjust persecution of Ahmadis

•The popularity of the article's content.

Change and Accountability in Political and Global Context

•Change, at its core, is about challenging political dynasties that exclude
other aspirants.

•Actors may be complicit even when their purpose might not be to

commit genocide.

•Over 100 countries have agreed to transition in a significant global

development.

•Public health facilities, particularly in Sindh’s remote districts, are facing

acute shortages.

•It should not be forgotten that many involved in acts of terrorism are
locals.

•Israel’s most steadfast supporter is beginning to change its tone amidst

the conflict in Gaza.

•Pakistan’s downfall in hockey is evident as few representatives

participated in the Junior World Cup.
Article 3 \
The Evolution of Pakistan's Blasphemy Law
•Pakistan's blasphemy law remains popular and has led to death being
considered the only appropriate retribution, especially for non-Muslims
charged with blasphemy.

•The predominant public narrative in Pakistan supports the death penalty

for non-Muslim offenders, making it difficult for those who push for
clemency to be heard.
•In the late 19th century, South Asian ulema, primarily from the Hanafi
school of thought, defended the position that non-Muslims should not be
awarded the death penalty for blaspheming.

•The Hanafi ulema responded passionately to criticisms from the Ahl-e-

Hadith, deconstructing several Ahadith to demonstrate that the legal
doctrines of the Hanafi school were based in traditions of the Prophet.

•Fath Al Mubeen Tanbeeh Al Wahabin, a significant work in terms of

blasphemy, was aimed at rebutting criticisms from the Ahl-i-Hadith and
defending the legal doctrines of the Hanafi school.

Fatwa on Non-Muslim Blasphemy

•A fatwa states that a non-Muslim blasphemer cannot be killed unless
they are habitual in the offense.

•The Ahl-e-Hadith challenged the Hanafi position on blasphemy, claiming

that blasphemous offenders, including non-Muslims, were killed. However,
the fatwa pointed out that all the cases presented in the challenge were of
repeat or habitual offenders.

•According to Imam Abu Hanifa, the death penalty is awarded in cases

categorized as siyasa (political) punishment, not sharia (divine)
punishment, against elements openly rebelling against the Islamic state
using habitual blasphemy as a tool.

•The legal position of the fatwa was approved and signed by 450
prestigious figures in the Hanafi ulema, stating that non-Muslims cannot
be killed for a single offense of blasphemy and that their pardon is
acceptable unless it becomes a habitual and high-frequency offense.

•Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, a revered figure and founder of the Barelvi
school of thought, endorsed the pardon for non-Muslim blasphemers and
the view that they cannot be killed for a single offense of blasphemy.

•Salman Taseer, a Punjab governor, was assassinated for pleading for

pardon for Asia Bibi, with the assassin being surprised to learn that the
founder of his sect had endorsed pardon for non-Muslim blasphemers.

•The co-founder of the Deoband, Mahmood Hassan Deobandi, also known

as the Sheikh al Hind, is a signatory to the position that a non-Muslim
cannot be killed for a single offense of blasphemy and therefore must be
pardoned.

The Nuanced Handling of the Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Important religious figures in Pakistan have stated that an act of
blasphemy does not leave non-Muslims liable to capital punishment by the
state.
•The law in Pakistan prescribes a hudd punishment for a single offense of
blasphemy, not distinguishing between Muslims and non-Muslims, repeat
vs single offenses, siyasa vs sharia punishment.

•Many top South Asian ulema, including the founders of the predominant
religio-political groups in Pakistan, believe that non-Muslims charged
under the blasphemy law should be given a pardon, not punished with
death.

•Referencing the scholars and founders of various schools of thought

ensures that no grave injustice occurs in the fair name of the Prophet, and
opens space for conversation and debate around the blasphemy law.

•Pakistan's blasphemy law continues to sustain popularity and credence,

with death widely considered the most appropriate retribution for
offenders, especially for non-Muslims charged with blasphemy.

Historical Context of Blasphemy and Religious Scholars in South

Asia
•The predominant public narrative on blasphemy in South Asia does not
support pardon or waiving the death penalty, particularly for non-Muslims,
which is largely influenced by the perception of borrowed Western
ideologies or weak faith.

•In the late 19th century, the most revered ulema of South Asia,
predominantly belonging to the Hanafi school of thought, defended the
position that non-Muslims could not be awarded the death penalty for
blaspheming.

•The Ahl-i-Hadith, influenced by the Wahabis of the Arabian Peninsula,

challenged the established Hanafi rulings on blasphemy, criticizing Hanafi
lenience towards non-Muslims blasphemers.

•The Hanafi ulema responded to the criticisms by deconstructing several

Ahadith that formed the basis of these challenges, including through the
monumental 21-volume commentary, the I'la al-Sunan.

•The most profound and relevant rebuttal in terms of blasphemy was Fath
Al Mubeen Tanbeeh Al Wahabin, which contains a fatwa that states a non-
Muslim blasphemer cannot be killed unless habitual in the offense.

•The fatwa endorsed by 450 scholars shows that killing is not permissible
unless habituality and high frequency of offenses are established,
differentiating single acts of blasphemy from multiple and deliberate
attempts.

Hanafi Ruling on Blasphemy and Non-Muslim Offenders

•Compilation of Ahadith suggest that blasphemous offenders, including
non-Muslims, were killed, contradicting Hanafi ruling.
•The fatwa rebuttal points out that the Ahadith only pertain to repeat or
habitual offenders, with no cases of a non-Muslim being killed for a single
offense of blasphemy.

•According to Imam Abu Hanifa, the death penalty is awarded in cases

where it categorised as siyasa (political) punishment against elements
openly rebelling against the Islamic state, not as sharia (divine)
punishment.

•The legal position was approved by 450 prestigious names in the Hanafi
ulema, stating that non-Muslims cannot be killed for a single offense of
blasphemy and can be pardoned unless it becomes habitual.

•Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, the founder of the Barelvi school of thought
and a revered figure, endorsed the pardon of non-Muslim blasphemers.

•Salman Taseer, a governor in Pakistan, was assassinated for pleading for

pardon for Asia Bibi, a case that conflicted with the Barelvi's stance on
non-Muslim blasphemers being pardoned.

•Mahmood Hassan Deobandi, the co-founder of the Deobandi group, also

endorsed the position that a non-Muslim cannot be killed for a single
offense of blasphemy and must be pardoned.

•According to Hanafi thought, first time offenders will only be warned and
may not be subjected to jail time.

•This fatwa presents a significant opposing view to the Hanafi position,

supported by a consensus of influential scholars.

The Misinterpretation of the Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Maulana Maududi, founder of Jamaat-e-Islami, stated that non-Muslims
should not be liable to capital punishment for acts of blasphemy.

•The current application of the blasphemy law does not align with the
perspectives of many scholars and religious figures in Pakistan.

•Asia Bibi, a woman held in jail, has begged for pardon multiple times and
should be granted it according to the rulings of prominent religious
figures.

•The voices of scholars and religious figures are vital for changing the
narrative around the blasphemy law and fostering conversation and
tolerance.

•Arafat Mazhar is the founder of Engage, an institution dedicated to

researching and reforming religious laws in Pakistan.
Reflection on Islamic Religion and Law
•The author supports the view that Islam is a great religion and should not
be disparaged due to criticism from non-believers.

•Criticizes the practice of cruel punishment based on hearsay and

suggests that such actions should be discouraged.

•Highlights that Islamic law requires four witnesses to prove rape, leading
to fatal consequences if the accusation is made without credible evidence.

•Emphasizes that Islam promotes love and peace and expresses pride in
being a Muslim.

•Criticizes unjust punishments that are driven by personal vendettas and

not aligned with Islamic principles.

•Commends a well-researched and well-referenced article while

acknowledging the sensitive nature of the topic.

•Advocates for mandatory reading of the article in schools, madressahs,

and for politicians, while urging the Pakistani government to address
legislative flaws.

•Raises a question about the validity of forensic evidence as opposed to

relying solely on eyewitness testimony in rape cases.

•Suggests creating a film akin to PK to spark public discussion on

blasphemy laws.

•Encourages treating all faiths equitably and criticizing the lack of

rationality in the treatment of non-believers.

•Acknowledges the evolution of the stance on blasphemy laws within

Islamic organizations.

Challenging Pakistan's Blasphemy Law

•The article documents the difference between correct interpretation and
actual implementation of the law

•Real issue is why such a law exists

•The motive behind the article may be sectarianism

•Religious scholars must come to a consensus as per teachings of Islam

•The blasphemy law is hateful, vengeful, medieval, and barbaric

•Pakistan has shown itself to be among the most barbaric and backward
of countries
•Passion for religion without knowledge is a problem

•The law makers should be brought to books

•A religion prescribing death for blasphemy is not of God

•Religion can be a tool of control, demonstrated in Zia's era

•Repealing blasphemy law may not ensure people will not be killed

•The author provides a brilliant analysis and historical legal evidence

•The blasphemy law leads to injustice and persecutes minorities

•The law itself is ill-thought-out and must be abolished

•Pakistan's parliamentary time has been wasted on the law

•Religious groups are obsessed with the law

•Pakistan should focus on improving education, exploration of natural

resources, and increasing the tax to GDP ratio

Discussion on Blasphemy Laws in Pakistan

•The article discusses the condemnation of the application of death
penalty for blasphemy in Pakistan

•Commends the author, Arafat Mazhar, for his research and efforts to
present irrefutable evidence

•Requests a translation of the article to reach a wider audience

•Criticizes the practice of blasphemy laws and emphasizes the need for
amendments

•Suggests taking the battle against blasphemy laws to a strategic level

•Argues that blasphemy laws were established for political reasons rather
than to protect religion

•Advocates for a changed direction in society's approach to blasphemy

laws and minorities

•Encourages reading and interpreting religious texts without blindly

following traditions

•States that beliefs are personal choices and should not be condemned or
punished
•Asserts that God does not need protection, but rather we need His
blessings and protection

•Refers to the need for evidence and references in discussions related to

religious figures

•Comments on the ability to call out those who misrepresent religious

concepts

•Asserts the need to play strategically to achieve amendments or mercy

appeals regarding blasphemy laws

Issues with Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Blasphemy Law has been the subject of much debate; some feel it
violates human rights

•Some believe that blasphemy laws should be amended

•The misuse of the blasphemy law is a concern for many

•Mullahs have been criticized for exploiting the blasphemy law

•The argument was made against the death penalty for blasphemy in
Islam

•Certain individuals are proposing to file a petition in the Supreme Court

to amend the Blasphemy Law

•The law was intended to protect the Muslim minority but is now being
exploited

•The need for self-reflection and the use of common sense over blindly
following religious leaders was emphasized

•The issue of blasphemy law misuse inciting terrorism was addressed and
criticism was drawn from religious leaders and political figures

•Challenges that arise from uneducated and bigoted opinions were

highlighted

Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Need for education and awareness regarding the true meaning and
nature of Islam

•Shame in having to justify common sense and human empathy when

discussing Islam

•Questions the need for Islam to be protected in a country where 98% of

the population is Muslim

•Junaid Jamshed's blasphemous outburst served as a catalyst for writing

these historic facts as examples

•Carries implications for the protection of Islam in Pakistan

•Discussion of the implementation of military courts and the limitations to

the Rule of Law

•Desires the curtailment of the authorities of certain militant groups

•Desires the abolishment of the blasphemy law and pardon for Aasia Bibi

•Suggestion of exploring research references to provide more details and

evidence

•A call to protect and uphold freedom of expression across all religions, as

expressed by a non-Muslim teenager.

Discussion on Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The complexity of studying Islam to devise laws is questioned, with the
suggestion that laws could be proposed by a teenager based on common
sense and rational thought.

•Recognition of the need for more people to address the topic of terrorism
and Islam.

•The struggles of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in promoting education for

Muslims, contrasting with the discussions on blasphemy law.

•Suggestion to engage in meaningful and level-headed discussions on the

topic and to overcome the confusion and conflicts within the nation.

•Critique of the widespread misuse of blasphemy law and the need for
proper interpretation of the law to save lives.

•The endorsement needed from religious authorities and seminaries for

progress in addressing blasphemy law.

•Consideration of Fiqh Jaffaria's perspective on the issue.

•Emphasis on educating the uneducated groups and individuals as the

real issue.

•Doubt regarding the origin of the blasphemy law, with the suggestion
that laws are created based on consensus among various oppressors.

•Shaming reference to the Gujrat incident and its implications for Indian
politics.

•Proposal for the translation and spread of the articles on blasphemy law.

Shariah Court and Islamic Ideological Council

•In Pakistan, sacred stone AdHawk 295C is a symbol of power and can
only be kissed and left by leaders.

•No one can challenge the blasphemy law, even when condemning Zia-ul-
Haq for making changes to the constitution.

•The role of middlemen in religion causes maximum harm to religion and

its followers.

•Dr. Johnathan AC Brown’s level-headed writing on Islamic issues is

appreciated by the commenter.

•Responses to the commenter show a desire to look into Islamic principles

and a need for reason in Islamic writings.

•Charging non-Muslims under blasphemy laws is criticized due to their

lack of knowledge of Islamic tradition and scripture.

•The commenter responds to an assertion about the killing of a religious

group with a call for peace throughout the Islamic world.

•The authority of the commenters to speak about Islamic matters is

questioned, while support for the newspaper Dawn's coverage is given.

•The commenter brings up cases of non-Muslims being killed in the name

of religion and questions the assertion that Islam is purely about love and
peace.

•There is skepticism about religious clerics deciding the country’s laws

and running against the real spirit of the religion.

•The need for financial compensation for victims and the importance of
allowing debate about religious practices and religions is emphasized.

Discussion on Faith and Blasphemy Laws in Pakistan

•Post on faith and debate

•Request for a copy of an article to be delivered to Salman Tasir's killer

•Inability to deliver the article because of not being in Pakistan

•Call for the article to be translated and published in Urdu newspapers

•Puzzlement at the reasoning behind blasphemy laws

•Islam is said to mean peace and calls for pardon

•Examples from the life of the Holy Prophet to support the idea of pardon
over retribution

•Criticism of the ulema for not promoting pardoning and defaming Islam
around the globe

Political Change and Global Conflicts

•Change, at its core, is about challenging political dynasties that exclude
other aspirants.

•Actors may be complicit even when their purpose might not be to

commit genocide.

•Over 100 countries have agreed to transition, symbolically significant.

•Public health facilities, especially in remote districts, are experiencing

acute shortages.

•Local involvement in acts of terrorism should not be overlooked.

•Israel's staunchest supporter is beginning to change its stance as

casualties mount in Gaza.

•Pakistan's decline in hockey highlighted during Junior World Cup

participation.

•Source: Compunode.com Pvt. Ltd. (www.compunode.com). Designed for

Dawn. Copyright © 2023, Dawn Scribe.

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formatting and design tools, and distribution channels.

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each offering different features and reaching different audiences.

•Publishing platforms can be used for a variety of purposes, including

blogging, news publishing, and content marketing.

•Many modern publishing platforms also offer analytics and audience

engagement tools to help creators understand and connect with their
readers.
Article 4
The Blasphemy Law in Pakistan
•Video of Junaid Jamshed perceived as blasphemy against Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH) and his wife, Ayesha (RA)

•Charged under the Blasphemy Law (clause 295-C of the Pakistan Penal
Code)

•Law prescribes a fixed death penalty for blasphemy

•Option of life imprisonment was made defunct after a 1991 Federal

Shariat Court judgement

•Dominant religious narrative in the country holds that blasphemy is an

unpardonable offence

•Collective imagination of mainstream Pakistan reflects that blasphemy is

not a pardonable offense

•Junaid Jamshed’s plea for mercy raises questions about whether a

repentant blasphemer may be pardoned

•Hanafi Jurists and eminent scholars have asked whether blasphemy is a

pardonable offense

•The stance that ‘blasphemers who ask for a pardon would be spared the
death penalty’ has been established by the founder of

The Hanafi School of Thought and Blasphemy Law

•The Hanafi school of thought is of foremost significance in religio-legal
debates in the Supreme Court, the Federal Sharia Court, and the Council
of Islamic Ideology.

•Centuries of Hanafi scholarship maintain that blasphemy is a pardonable

offense according to the principles of Hanafi jurisprudence.

•The law 295-C does not mention the permissibility of pardoning a

blasphemer, but the Federal Sharia Court interpretation rules out pardon,
which contradicts the Hanafi position.

•Hanafi scholar Al-Bazzazzi misquoted the Hanafi position on pardon in

the 15th century, leading to a misinterpretation that has persisted.

•Imam Ibn e Abidin critiqued Bazzazzi's error and dismissed the idea that
blasphemy is unpardonable as "ridiculous", counseling scholars to be
meticulous in their research of primary resources.

•Advocate Ismaeel Qureshi built his case for an irrevocable death penalty
for blasphemy based on the works of leading Hanafi authorities, including
Imam Ibn Abidin, despite being warned against creating confusion and
chaos.

Misinterpretation of Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•Advocate Ismaeel Qureshi erroneously subverted the position of Imam
Ibn Abidin in Fatawa e Shami, despite Ibn Abidin's criticism of the claim
that blasphemy should be punished with death.

•Qureshi acknowledged research mistakes that led to the current

interpretation of Pakistan's blasphemy law.

•The history and process of producing the law is a series of unfortunate

errors, with deadly repercussions for those affected.

•Lack of credible sources from mainstream religious leadership to correct

the record suggests a reluctance to engage in open dialogue and possibly
collude with the secular position.

•Amidst chaos and misinformation, hope exists for individuals like Asia
Bibi and Junaid Jamshed without changing the letter of the law, but by
revisiting the judicial interpretation and rectifying erroneous conclusions
based on dubious research.

•Blasphemy law, according to the Hanafi position, allows for pardon, as

Imam Ibn Abidin pointed out.

•A video of Junaid Jamshed has led to blasphemy charges under clause

295-C of the Pakistan Penal Code, which prescribes a fixed death penalty
for those found guilty, with the option of life imprisonment made defunct
after a 1991 Federal Shariat Court judgement.

Blasphemy and Pardon in Islamic Law

•Jamshed has already responded with a public repentance, re-affirmation
of his faith, and a plea for pardon.

•Dominant religious narrative in the country holds that blasphemy is an

unpardonable offense, leading to a death penalty.

•The religious leadership disallows any concept of an alternative position

by maintaining a front of scholarly consensus.
•Junaid Jamshed’s plea for mercy raises the question of whether a
repentant blasphemer may be pardoned.

•Centuries ago, Hanafi Jurists such as Abu Hanifa and his students
established that blasphemy is indeed a pardonable offense.

•The Hanafi school of thought, led by Abu Hanifa, carries significant

weight in religio-legal debates.

•According to Hanafi jurisprudence principles, a consensus of Abu Hanifa

and his students cannot be challenged.

•The letter of the law 295-C regarding blasphemy makes no mention of

the permissibility of pardoning a blasphemer.

•It is the Federal Sharia Court interpretation of the law that serves as the
operational blueprint for the application of the law.

Misinterpretation of Hanafi Position on Blasphemy

•Hanafi scholars maintain that blasphemy is an offense that cannot be
pardoned

•In the 15th century, Hanafi scholar Al-Bazzazzi misquoted the Hanafi
position on pardon, leading to a misrepresentation

•Imam Ibn e Abidin critiqued Bazzazzi’s error and dismissed the idea that
blasphemy is unpardonable as “ridiculous”

•Imam Ibn Abidin warned that conflicting narratives would create

confusion and chaos

•Advocate Ismaeel Qureshi, the architect of the blasphemy law in

Pakistan, erroneously subverted the position of Imam Ibn Abidin in
building his case for an irrevocable death penalty

•Qureshi acknowledged research errors upon which the judicial

interpretation of Pakistan's blasphemy law rests

•The history and process of how the events transpired to produce the law
read like a series of unfortunate errors, with deadly repercussions for
those caught in the crossfire

The Importance of Research in Addressing Religious Issues

•The importance of credible sources from mainstream religious leadership
setting the record straight is questioned

•Open dialogue is also perceived as potentially colluding with secular

position
•Still hope for individuals affected by religious laws, such as Asia Bibi and
Junaid Jamshed

•No need to change the letter of the blasphemy law for affected
individuals to receive a pardon

•Revisit judicial interpretation of the law and rectify erroneous conclusions

•According to Hanafi position, the blasphemy law allows for pardon

•Arafat Mazhar is the founder of Engage, an institution for research and

reform of religious laws in Pakistan

•Encouragement to approach religious issues with research and open

mind

•Emphasis on questioning information received from religious figures

Blasphemy Laws in Pakistan

•The Prophet (PBUH) forgave all who caused him harm, sending a
message that forgiveness trumps vengeance.

•Junaid Jamshed faces death penalty under blasphemy laws; should he be

pardoned?

•Parliaments need to do its job regarding blasphemy laws in Pakistan.

•Questions arise over the basis of Sharia law and pardon clauses in other
Islamic countries' blasphemy laws.

•Meaning of blasphemy law in Pakistan and debate over its removal.

•Supreme court should take notice of blasphemy laws in Pakistan.

•Seeking repentance versus religious extremism in the name of God.

•Mainstream religious leadership's role in setting the record straight.

•Criticism of religious extremism and its impact on Islam's teachings.

•Critique of lack of action and vision in mainstream religious leadership.

•Need for a better understanding of Islam and clarification on religious

teachings.

•Matters of faith and religious laws debated and questioned.

Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•There is another version of Islam being practiced in Pakistan leading to
another sect, Mullah Islam, and eventually another religion, 'Mullahism'.

•The Blasphemy Law exists not to protect Islam or Muslims, but for
Mullahs to increase their hold on the gullible public.

•The law is used to settle scores between various groups, but Sharia is
against such barbarity.

•People expect mercy from Allah, yet show none to each other.

•The law is baseless and should be abolished.

•Qureshi and others like him have done much disservice to the country.

•The progressive section of society should speak up and save Asia Bibi.

•Dawn is commended for publishing this perspective.

•There is a disparity in response and outrage in cases of blasphemy,

reflecting inequalities in the country.

•It is heartening that people in Pakistan critically examine the Blasphemy

Law and have the courage to speak against it.

Pakistan's Blasphemy Law Controversy and Legal Accountability

•The article reflects on religious and moral implications in cases of
blasphemy accusation, specifically pointing out the case of Junaid
Jamshed.

•The concept of forgiveness and authenticity in dealing with blasphemy

cases is in question, leading the writer to suggest the current laws in
Pakistan require revision.

•The discussion shifts towards the discrimination and flaws in the legal
system, highlighting the need for a more humane and fair approach.

•The writer commends a brave young man and states the need to
approach the issue based on its flawed logic and the laws'
misinterpretation of Islam.

Urgent Need to Amend Blasphemy Law

•The current blasphemy law language in the constitution is being held
responsible for creating bloodshed.

•A thoughtless decision had caused immense harm and bloodshed,

highlighting the need for change.

•Urgent calls for the current leadership and highest judiciary to show
courage and amend the blasphemy law.

•Comparison drawn to the forgiveness of Allah and Prophet Mohammad to

advocate for a peaceful, tolerant Islam.

•Criticism of fast readers and discussion of a recent article, switching

focus to respect for Junaid Jamshead and his role model status.

•Critiques and discussions regarding Junaid Jamshead's stance on secular

laws and his current situation in the UK.

•Criticism of Junaid Jamshead's speaking, with a focus on other innocent

people who have been affected because of the blasphemy law.

•Shame placed on Pakistan society and leaders for failing to repeal the
law and support of young Bilawal Bhotto who criticized extremism.

•Calls for the repeal of the law and forgiveness for all implicated,
including non-Muslims.

•A specific call for Advocate Ismaeel Qureshi to publicly ask for

forgiveness.

Issues Surrounding Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The law should be modified or eradicated to minimize the pain
experienced by the families affected by it

•The author argues that non-Muslims do not have the same opportunity to
repent and survive as Muslims under the law, highlighting the case of
Aasia Bibi

•Questions arise regarding the uneven enforcement of the 'Blasphemy

Law' and an increase in blasphemy cases in recent years

•The law seems to be a tool used to oppress minorities and those who
question Islamization, furthering the grip of mullahs on society

•Critics express fear of speaking out against extremists, hindering

genuine scholarly discussions

•Comparisons are made to the social progress of other Asian countries

and the need for discussions on multiple factors affecting countries'
development

•The emotional baggage related to the discussion of religion and

geopolitics overshadows other factors contributing to a country's well-
being

•Calls for pardoning those affected by the law are made, highlighting the
case of Jamshed Junaid

•The need for more well-researched articles on the topic is expressed,

appreciating the author's efforts

Long-term Goals for Addressing Blasphemy Laws in Pakistan

•Clarify the difference in punishment for non-Muslim blasphemers and
address this issue by multiple authors in multiple languages

•Add a point to the penal code regarding punishment for those who lynch
blasphemers

•Educate local prayer leaders about the issue of blasphemy and its
implications in mass protest cases

•Suspend any penalty for blasphemy cases unless witnesses' integrity is

certified

•Share the piece widely and send it to lawmakers and Ulema in Pakistan
to request their position on the issue

•Address the issue of right-wing parties refusing to change the blasphemy

law in parliament

•Emphasize the importance of setting the record straight and correcting

misinterpretation of the law

•Appreciate the writer for the in-depth research, insight, and analysis on
the issue of blasphemy in Pakistan

The Debate on Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The debate surrounding the blasphemy law in Pakistan is important and
the author is considered to be on the right track in addressing this
controversial issue.

•Blasphemy law is a volatile subject but if religious and legal traditions

consider blasphemy pardonable and the current legal application is a
matter of misinterpretation, it must be highlighted in the media and
pursued in court.

•Repeated references are made to ismaeel qureshi's book, particularly

regarding potential misinterpretation and page numbers.

•It is suggested that the current understanding of Islamic laws and

blasphemy laws in Pakistan need to be revisited urgently to remove the
fear of death and to change old laws to satisfy contemporary needs.

•There is a need to enact new laws that separate religion from state laws
should be considered to create harmony and equality among citizens.
•The article should be presented in the court of law to assist people
victimized by the blasphemy law and the argument is made that the laws
in the Quran suggest the importance of forgiveness, asking for
forgiveness, and Allah's ability to forgive.

•Finally, fellow community members are urged to not be rigid and to

consider the message of forgiveness present in the life of the Prophet
(PBUH).

Blasphemy Law Discussion

•The importance of following the sunnah and avoiding judgment as a
Muslim

•Call for revision of the blasphemy law and forgiveness of all persecuted
minorities

•Seeking a collection of Fiqhi works translated into Urdu from classical

Arabic literature

•Belief that actions must be judged by intentions, and conspiracy theories

regarding the context

•Discussion on the pardonability of sins and acceptable repentance for

Muslims

•Emphasis on thorough research and understanding of the subject before

deciding on life-threatening actions

•The belief that only God has the right to judge and take a life

Interpretive Nature of Islam

•The basis of Sharia is Fiqh.

•Islam is an interpretive religion and meant for all times.

•The rules derived from Sunnah are not sacred and are changeable.

•The commonly held view outside Pakistan is that the Koran can be
interpreted as one sees fit.

•Islamic scholars are repeatedly taking the stance for forgiveness and
abuse, as well as condemning hideous crimes.

•The responsibility for solving issues in Pakistan should be diverted

toward the authorities.

•There needs to be a consensus to develop a positive posture of Islam and

repeal blasphemy laws.
•The fatwa for apostates allowed pardon if they seek forgiveness and
return to Islam.

Blasphemy Laws in Pakistan

•The punishment for blasphemy was discussed in the context of apostasy
of those Muslims who left Islam.

•Strong arguments for the need to evaluate and possibly amend these
laws to address problems

•Suggests that the current position on blasphemy laws seems more in line
with teachings of compassion and forgiveness

•The traditional "tarkay lagana" in Pakistani journalism has encouraged

negative consequences

•The need to eliminate the blasphemy laws, contrasting with Christian

teachings of forgiveness

•The importance of maintaining a separation between religion and

country

•Questioning why blasphemy laws are necessary at all, expressing that

Muslims today may have weakened their faith

•The importance of respectful discourse about religion and the need for
knowledge and research to combat intolerance

•Suggesting that only those with authority on Islamic teaching and law
should make judgments on such issues, opposing judgments made by
masses.

Religious Misinterpretation and Legal Implications

•Author suggests that Islamic laws towards punishment and forgiveness
are misinterpreted and manipulated.

•Rector of the National School of Public Policy is criticized for focusing on

proving others as bad Muslims rather than improving society.

•The criticism of different laws for different people is likened to apartheid

in South Africa.

•The use of Hadith and Sunnah in interpreting religious law is questioned.

•The few devout religious leaders are criticized for interpreting religion in
an obscurantist way, which has hurt Islam's reputation.

•Criticism of laws deviating from the principle of forgiveness in Islam.

•The influence of Wahabi and Deobandi religious thought in Pakistan
despite the majority being Hanafi.

•Hope that the situation will lead to more tolerance and careful speech in
society.

•Video of Junaid Jamsheed making derogatory comments discussed, along

with a call for the article to be an opener for discussion.

Pakistan's Blasphemy Law and the Hanafi Law of Jurisprudence

•The law stipulates a fixed death penalty for those found guilty of defiling
the sacred name of the Holy Prophet Muhammad.

•However, the option of life imprisonment was removed after a 1991

Federal Shariat Court judgment.

•There is no clear commandment in the Quran and Sunnah to support

such a severe punishment, leading to concerns about the law's legitimacy.

•Respect for religion is emphasized, with the hope for more understanding
and modification of the law.

•The sensitivity of the issue leads to reticence from authorities on Islamic

jurisprudence.

•Advocate Ismaeel Qureshi is urged to spearhead an appropriate

amendment to the Blasphemy Law in light of the indicated omission.

•The importance of educating the common Pakistani is emphasized.

Call for Responsible Conduct on TV Show

•Non-scholars should not speak as scholars, or conduct shows as if they
were scholars.

•Current show conductors should refuse such offers unless they have the
appropriate knowledge.

•Junaid and Amir are backing out as scholars to avoid responsibility for
their roles.

•It is favorable to read an article on the same topic.

•Junaid Jamsheed is not charged; an FIR has been registered against him.

•Concern for personal safety of Junaid Jamshed, due to possibility of

assassination under claims to reserve a place in heaven.

•Law is perceived as not bad, but a matter of faith principles tied to

peace.

•Explanation sought for reinforced understanding of blasphemy.

•Arguments against members of the clergy will lead to a loss of following.

•The Wahabi/Salafi/Takfiri mindset manipulates the Hanafi school of

thought.

•Appreciation for the in-depth research on the concept and true

interpretation of the blasphemy law.

•Laws will not likely change since open thought might derogate the faith.

Religious Identity and Beliefs

•People must only have one view of religion, never doubt it, never
question it. That is the only way. (h3)

•Aisha believes that this law should not be removed, but it should be
followed along with other laws.

•Arafat has a brave stance on speaking up for the truth and offering
contributions as a preacher.

•There is hope for Junaid Jamshed and Asia bibi if the judicial
interpretation is reviewed, setting a precedent for avoiding madness and
gloom.

•It is important to acknowledge that certain laws are outdated and should
be unmade by people who have the courage to do what is right.

•@riz believes that questioning and reasoning are what differentiate

humans from apes, and without these, there is no evolution.

•There is an argument for the debate around what constitutes blasphemy

and criticisms of JJ's defense being hypocritical.

•Following the apology, consideration for pardoning JJ and letting all

condeming parties cease their actions.

Revising Blasphemy Laws and Pardon for Offenses

•It is suggested that people should research and rehearse their work
before presenting religious matters to the public

•Carelessness in addressing religious matters should be avoided in the

future

•The blasphemy law needs to be revised and rectified

•Apology is necessary for lives lost due to a "misinterpretation"

•Suggested that JJ should be pardoned considering his contributions to

society

•A comparison is made to the Prophet Muhammad's forgiveness of the

people of Taif and Mecca

•Arafat raised a voice of reason and provided a well-researched article

•The original comments or additions made by JJ may not have been

blasphemous in spirit

Critique on Blasphemy Law and Misinterpretation

•The author implies that the main reason for writing this piece is to
elaborate on what many consider a controversial and frequently
misunderstood law in Pakistan.

•It is suggested that individuals should refrain from commenting on the

blasphemy law without proper knowledge, and the article is commended
as a step in the right direction for raising awareness on the subject.

•The author expresses skepticism about societal tolerance on the issue

and doubts the feasibility of reforming or changing this law due to its
restrictive nature.

•An example from the actions of Prophet Mohammad is highlighted to

demonstrate a compassionate approach towards those who insult or
mistreat religious figures.

•A commenter reflects on the language and context in which religious

laws and texts were originally written, suggesting that societal
progression is aligned with the Almighty's will and the evolution of
humanity.

•A specific case of blasphemous language is discussed, with

considerations given to the intentions and level of knowledge of the
offender, and suggestions for forgiveness and advice instead of
condemnation.

•A question is raised about the validity of debating the merits of a law

without considering the tangible outcomes it produces.

Reactions to Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•A concern is raised over the misuse and damage caused by the
blasphemy law in Pakistan, leading to shame for the country and religion.

•The lack of use of such a law in other Muslim countries is highlighted as

an issue to consider.
•The call for more writers to address the sensitive topic is made, with
support for re-examining original sources and opening the debate.

•The argument to abolish the blasphemy law is presented as it is seen as

a source of politics and a hindrance to societal progress.

•Specific cases of blasphemy accusations and the need for repentance or

pardon are discussed, highlighting issues of fairness and equality in the
judicial process.

•Doubt is expressed regarding the sincerity behind a public apology and

the motivations driving certain behaviors.

•A plea to respect all religions and promote interfaith respect and

teachings among children is also made.

Blasphemy Laws and Religious Tolerance in Pakistan

•It is important to respect Islam and advocate for the pardoning of Aasia
Bibi

•Members of Pakistan parliament should read comments from the

democrats and act quickly

•Blasphemy is not punishable unless it is described in the Quran, freedom

of religion and speech are important

•Ulmas in parliament and heading seminaries should express their stance

•Blasphemy laws in Pakistan must be appropriately amended by the

National Assembly

•There is no offence that is not pardonable, as seen at the time of the

prophet Muhammad

•Anyone accused of blasphemy should not be subjected to punishment

without fair trial and evidence

•Banning a book or speech can increase its notoriety

•It's important to be respectful of all religions in Pakistan and be tolerant

•People should not be allowed to take the law into their own hands, as
evidenced in the Junaid Jamshed case

Governance and Religion in Pakistan

•The entire education and governance system, including the Judiciary and
Parliament, is being questioned, as people continue to suffer from the
laws that have been passed.
•The author calls for scholars and religious leaders, including 'ulema,' to
raise their voices against injustice and fatal error in the system.

•He argues that narrow-minded religious leaders must be challenged for

'hijacking' the faith, and the harmful impact of these actions needs to be
addressed.

•Lack of forgiveness in society is highlighted as a significant issue, and

the misrepresentation of Islam is attributed to the behavior of uneducated
'mullahs.'

•Contributing comments emphasize the need for enforcing the law,

exploring how these individuals can be dealt with in a legal manner.

•The potential of Pakistan to be a progressive nation and combine both

traditional religious thinking and contemporary scientific advancements is
recognized, with emphasis on the need for a merging of these two
ideologies.

•The impact of media in contributing to current events is recognized,

especially in contrast to the corruption within the political and religious
systems.

Asia Bibi and the Blasphemy Law in Pakistan

•The form of newspapers like the Dawn feature thoughtful and relevant
articles that attempt to maintain civilized existence.

•A complete lack of interest in sensational writing and a dedication to

compiling researched materials is evident.

•There is still hope for Asia Bibi, and the nation should be led by a spirit of
mercy. Pakistan should be ready to lose something for everyone to win.

•Mistakes happen and need to be corrected, but the architect of the

infamous law acknowledging his mistake and rectifying it is essential.

•Many in Pakistan do not fit the stereotypes often associated with the
nation and defy common misperceptions.

•The action of pardoning for blasphemy is a divisive issue among

scholars, raising the question of who should be allowed to judge
blasphemy cases.

•Peace is possible if Muslims adopt a more introspective attitude and

accept truths revealed from introspection.

•The history of Islam demonstrates Prophet Muhammad's forgiveness

towards those who previously opposed him.
•It's important to attain an honest self-assessment.

Thoughts on the Importance of Studying and Researching Islamic

Laws
•Article acknowledges the importance of aligning thoughts and giving
them direction through thorough research and study

•Questions the evidence and debate around blasphemy as an offense in

Islam and the permissible instances for the death penalty

•Encourages proper acknowledgment of Islamic laws and suggests

charging those who misuse religion for personal gain with high treason

•Emphasizes the importance of following Prophet Muhammad's peaceful

path and behavior as a guide for Muslims

•Acknowledges and appreciates Arafat Mazhar's timely contribution and

the insightful comments following his work

•Questions the lack of research on issues of life and death from Islamic
universities in Pakistan

•Expresses surprise and disapproval over the violence and intolerance

associated with blasphemy laws

•Commends the call for tolerance for all religions as a means to achieving
peace

•Reflects on the untold story that people do not need a book to make
judgment calls

•Expresses concerns over the safety and well-being of the educated

contributor and encourages Pakistani citizens to protect such individuals

Article from Twitter Comments

•The present laws are compared to the Dark Ages and are considered to
stifle criticism instead of promoting scholarly debate.

•There is praise for an author's efforts to rectify historical mistakes and

criticizes the allocation of uneducated individuals to government
positions.

•Science education is advocated for anyone holding public office.

•The inclusion of religious keywords is believed to be a means to forgive

human faults and weaknesses.

•Challenging political dynasties is presented as a key to affecting change.

•The potential complicity of actors in genocide is suggested as well.

International Agreements and Political Change

•Over 100 countries have agreed to transition.

•Change challenges political dynasties that exclude other aspirants.

•Public health facilities in Sindh's remote districts face shortages.

•Many involved in terrorism are locals.

•Israel's most steadfast supporter is beginning to change its tone.

•Pakistan's downfall in hockey has led to few participants in the Junior

World Cup.