Stat 344

Life Contingencies I

Chapter 2: Survival models

The future lifetime random variable — Notation
We are interested in analyzing and describing the future
lifetime of an individual.

We use (x) to denote a life age x for x ≥ 0.

Then the random variable describing the future lifetime, or

time until death, for (x) is denoted by Tx for Tx ≥ 0.

We also have notation for the density, distribution and

survival functions of Tx :

d
Density: fx (t) = dt Fx (t)

Distribution: Fx (t) = Pr [Tx ≤ t]

Survival: Sx (t) = Pr [Tx > t] = 1 − Fx (t)

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The future lifetime random variable — Relationships

We now consider the set of random variables {Tx }x≥0 and the
relationships between them:
Important Assumption
Pr [Tx ≤ t] = Pr [T0 ≤ x + t|T0 > x]

Important Consequence
S0 (x + t) = S0 (x) · Sx (t)

This idea can be generalized:

Important General Relationship
Sx (t + u) = Sx (t) · Sx+t (u)

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Survival function conditions and assumptions
We will require any survival function corresponding to a future
lifetime random variable to satisfy the following conditions:
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
1 Sx (0) = 1
2 lim Sx (t) = 0
t→∞
3 Sx (t) must be a non-increasing function of t

In addition, we will make the following assumptions for the survival

functions used in this course:
Assumptions
1 Sx (t) is differentiable for all t > 0.
2 lim t · Sx (t) = 0
t→∞
3 lim t 2 · Sx (t) = 0
t→∞

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Future lifetime random variable example

Assume that the survival function for a newborn is given by

S0 (t) = 8(t + 2)−3

1 Verify that this is a valid survival function.

2 Find the density function associated with the future lifetime

random variable T0 , that is, find f0 (t). [24(t + 2)−4 ]

3 Find the probability that a newborn dies between the ages of

1 and 2. [0.171296]

4 Find the survival function corresponding to the random

variable T10 . [(1 + t/12)−3 ]

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Force of Mortality
We will define the force of mortality as
Pr [T0 ≤ x + dx|T0 > x]
µx = lim +
dx→0 dx

Then for small values of dx, we can use the approximation

µx dx ≈ Pr [T0 ≤ x + dx|T0 > x]

We can relate the force of mortality to the survival function:

d  Z t
− dx

S0 (x)
µx = and Sx (t) = exp − µx+s ds
S0 (x) 0

An alternative relationship that’s sometimes more convenient:

d
µx = − ln S0 (x)
dx

6
Some commonly used forms for the force of mortality

It is sometimes convenient to describe the future lifetime random

variable by explicitly modeling the force of mortality. A couple of
the parametric forms that have been used are:

Gompertz: µx = Bc x , 0 < B < 1, c > 0

Makeham: µx = A + Bc x , 0 < B < 1, c > 0

If there is a limiting age, it is typically denoted by ω.

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Force of mortality example

Again, assume that the survival function for a newborn is given by

S0 (x) = 8(x + 2)−3

1 Find the force of mortality, µx . [3/(t + 2)]

2 Consider the shape of µx as a function of x.

Does it seem to be a realistic survival model for describing
human lifetimes?
What would you expect the force of mortality corresponding to
humans to look like?

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Actuarial Notation
Thus far we have described the properties of the future lifetime
random variable using statistical notation. Actuaries have also
developed their own (different) notation to describe many of the
same concepts:

t px = Pr [Tx > t] = Sx (t)

t qx = Pr [Tx ≤ t] = Fx (t)

u |t qx = Pr [u < Tx ≤ u + t] = Fx (u + t) − Fx (u)

In any of the above expressions, the subscript t may be omitted

when its value is 1.

The density of the random variable Tx can be written as

fX (t) = t px µx+t .

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Some Basic Relationships

We can express some relationships in this actuarial notation:

t px = 1 − t qx

u |t qx = u px − u+t px

t+u px = t px u px+t

u |t qx = u px t qx+u
 Z t 
p
t x = exp − µ x+s ds
0
Z t
t qx = s px µx+s ds
0

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Examples

1
5 p30 = 0.9, 5 p35 = 0.8. Find 10 p30 . [0.72]

2
3 p80 = 0.6, 2 p81 = 0.7. Find p80 . [0.857]

3
2 |q60 = 0.216, 2 p61 = 0.56, p62 = 0.7. Find q60 . [0.1]

d
4 Show that dt t px = −t px µx+t .

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Mean of the Future Lifetime Random Variable
We can consider various properties of the future lifetime RV:

One quantity that is often of interest is the mean of the future

lifetime random variable, E [Tx ].
◦
The actuarial symbol for this mean is e x :
Z ∞
◦
ex = t fx (t) dt
0
Z ∞
= t t px µx+t dt
Z0 ∞
= t px dt
0
Z n
◦
A related quantity is e x:n = t px dt
0

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Variance of the Future Lifetime Random Variable
In order to calculate the variance of Tx , we need its second
moment:
Z ∞
 2
E Tx = t 2 fx (t) dt
0
Z ∞
= t 2 t px µx+t dt
0
Z ∞
=2 t t px dt
0

Then we can calculate the variance in the usual way:

V [Tx ] = E Tx2 − (E [Tx ])2

 

 2   ◦ 2
= E Tx − e x

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Example

You are given the following survival function for a newborn:

1√
S0 (t) = 100 − t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 100
10

◦
1 Find e 19 . [54]

2 Calculate Var (T19 ). [583.2]

3 Find the mode of T19 . [81]

4 Verify that S0 (t) is a valid survival function.

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Summary of notation for the future lifetime RV
We can summarize the statistical and actuarial notation for the
properties of Tx covered thus far:

Concept Statistical Notation Actuarial Notation

◦
Expected Value E [Tx ] ex
Distribution Function Fx (t) t qx

Survival Function Sx (t) t px

Force of Mortality λ(x) or λx µx

Density fx (t) t px µx+t
Deferred Mortality Prob. Pr [u < Tx ≤ u + t] u |t qx

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Curtate Future Lifetime Random Variable

We are often interested in the integral number of years lived in the

future by an individual. This discrete random variable is called the
curtate future lifetime and is denoted by Kx .

We can consider the pmf (probability mass function) of Kx :

Pr [Kx = k] = Pr [k ≤ Tx < k + 1]
= k |qx
= k px qx+k

We also have the relation Kx = ⌊Tx ⌋.

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Moments of the Curtate Future Lifetime Random Variable
We can find the mean (denoted by ex ) and variance of Kx :
∞
X
E [Kx ] = ex = k px
k=1
∞
X
Kx2
 
E =2 k k px − ex
k=1

V [Kx ] = E Kx2 − (ex )2

 

n
X
There’s a term version of this as well: ex:n = k px
k=1

Using the trapezoidal rule, we can also find an approximate

relation between the means of Tx and Kx :
◦ 1
e x ≈ ex +
2
Example
You are given the following mortality information:

q90 = 0.1, q91 = 0.2, q92 = 0.3, q93 = 1

1 Calculate Pr (K90 = 1). [0.18]

2 Calculate e90 . [2.124]

3 Calculate Var (K90 ). [1.069]

4 Calculate e90:2 . [1.62]

5 Write the pmf of K90 .

6 Repeat 1 – 5, using the same mortality information, but

substituting 91 for 90. [0.24; 1.36; 0.6304; 1.36]

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mth ly future lifetime random variable
(m)
We define the discrete random variable Kx to be the future
lifetime, rounded down to the lower 1/m of a year. Some examples:

(2) (4) (12)

Tx Kx Kx Kx Kx

25.7 25 25 12 25 42 8
25 12

1
25.1 25 25 25 25 12

Note: In this definition, m must be an integer greater than 1.

(m)
The pmf of Kx is similar to that of Kx :
 
h
(m)
i 1 1 2
Pr Kx = k = Pr k ≤ Tx < k + = k | 1 qx k = 0, , ,...
m m m m

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Exercise 2.2

18000 − 110x − x 2
S0 (x) =
18000

1 What is the implied limiting age? [90]

2 Show that it is a valid survival function.
3 Calculate 20 p0 . [0.8556]
h i
15400−150t−t 2
4 Derive S20 (t). 15400
5 Calculate 10|10 q20 . [0.1169]
6 Calculate µ50 . [0.021]

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Examples 2.1, 2.2, and 2.6

(
t 1/6
1 − (1 − 120 ) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 120
F0 (t) =
1 for t ≥ 120

1 Calculate the probability that a newborn survives to age 30.

2 Calculate the probability that (30) dies before age 50.
3 Calculate the probability that (40) survives to age 65.
4 Derive µx .
◦
5 Calculate e x and V (Tx ) for (30) and (80). [77.143, 34.286,
21.3962 , 9.5092 ]

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Exercise 2.5

F0 (t) = 1 − e −λt λ>0

1 Derive Sx (t). [e −λt ]

2 Derive µx . [λ]
h i
3 Derive ex . e λ1−1
4 Is this acceptable for human mortality? Why or why not?

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Exercise 2.6

px = 0.99
px+1 = 0.985
3 px+1 = 0.95
qx+3 = 0.02

Calculate
1 px+3 [0.98]
2
2 px [0.97515]
3
2 px+1 [0.96939]
4
3 px [0.95969]
5
1|2 qx [0.03031]

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