Unit-2

Image Enhancement in
Spatial Domain
 Image Enhancement in
Spatial Domain
Point – Log transformation, Power law transformation,
Piecewise linear transformation, Image histogram,
histogram equalization,
Mask processing of images filtering operations- Image
smoothing, image sharpening
Background
Filter term in “Digital image processing”
is referred to the subimage
There are others term to call subimage
such as mask, kernel, template, or
window, operator, filter
The value in a filter subimage are
referred as coefficients, rather than
pixels.
Basics of Spatial Filtering
The concept of filtering has its roots in
the use of the Fourier transform for
signal processing in the so-called
frequency domain.
Spatial filtering term is the filtering
operations that are performed directly
on the pixels of an image
Spatial filters
Low pass filters
Low frequency details correspond to slowly varying
component of an image ,LPF allows only slowly varying
image details & attenuate heavily the details corresponding
to edges & sharp transitions & results in a Blurred image
High-pass filters
Edges & sharp details are highlighted,& attenuates
low frequency components
Mechanics of spatial filtering
The process consists simply of moving the
filter mask from point to point in an image.
At each point (x,y) the response of the filter
at that point is calculated using a predefined
relationship
 Linear spatial filtering
Pixels of image The result is the sum of
products of the mask
coefficients with the
f(x-1,y-1) f(x-1,y) f(x-1,y+1)
corresponding pixels
directly under the mask
f(x,y-1) f(x,y) f(x,y+1) Mask coefficients
w(-1,-1) w(-1,0) w(-1,1)

f(x+1,y-1) f(x+1,y) f(x+1,y+1)

w(0,-1) w(0,0) w(0,1)

w(1,-1) w(1,0) w(1,1)

x, y)  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)  w(1,0) f ( x  1, y )  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1) 

w(0,1) f ( x, y  1)  w(0,0) f ( x, y )  w(0,1) f ( x, y  1) 
w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)  w(1,0) f ( x  1, y )  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)
 Linear spatial filtering
Pixels of image The result is the sum of
products of the mask
coefficients with the
w(-1,-1) w(-1,0) w(-1,1) corresponding pixels
f(x-1,y-1) f(x-1,y) f(x-1,y+1)
directly under the mask
w(0,-1) w(0,0) w(0,1) Mask coefficients
f(x,y-1) f(x,y) f(x,y+1)
w(-1,-1) w(-1,0) w(-1,1)
w(1,-1) w(1,0) w(1,1)
f(x+1,y-1) f(x+1,y)f(x+1,y+1)
w(0,-1) w(0,0) w(0,1)

w(1,-1) w(1,0) w(1,1)

f ( x, y)  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)  w(1,0) f ( x  1, y )  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1) 

w(0,1) f ( x, y  1)  w(0,0) f ( x, y )  w(0,1) f ( x, y  1) 
w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)  w(1,0) f ( x  1, y )  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)
Note: Linear filtering
The coefficient w(0,0) coincides with image value
f(x,y), indicating that the mask is centered at (x,y)
when the computation of sum of products takes
place.
For a mask of size mxn, we assume that m=2a+1
and n=2b+1, where a and b are nonnegative
integer. Then m and n are odd.
Linear filtering
In general, linear filtering of an image f of
size MxN with a filter mask of size mxn is
given by the expression:
a b
g ( x, y )    w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s   at   b
 Discussion
The process of linear filtering similar to
a frequency domain concept called
“convolution”
Simplify expression w1 w2 w3
mn
w4 w5 w6
R  w1 z1  w2 z 2  ...  wmn z mn   wi zi
i 1
w7 w8 w9
9
R  w1 z1  w2 z 2  ...  w9 z9  w zi 1
i i

Where the w’s are mask coefficients, the z’s are the value of
the image gray levels corresponding to those coefficients
 Nonlinear spatial filtering
Nonlinear spatial filters also operate on
neighborhoods, and the mechanics of
sliding a mask past an image are the
same as was just outlined.
The filtering operation is based
conditionally on the values of the pixels
in the neighborhood under
consideration
 Smoothing Spatial Filters
Smoothing filters are used for blurring
and for noise reduction.
– Blurring is used in preprocessing steps,
such as removal of small details from an
image prior to object extraction, and
bridging of small gaps in lines or curves
– Noise reduction can be accomplished by
blurring
Type of smoothing filtering

There are 2 way of smoothing spatial

filters
Smoothing Linear Filters
Order-Statistics Filters/Nonlinear Filter
 Smoothing Linear Filters

Linear spatial filter is simply the

average of the pixels contained in the
neighborhood of the filter mask.
Sometimes called “averaging filters”.
The idea is replacing the value of every
pixel in an image by the average of the
gray levels in the neighborhood defined
by the filter mask.
 Two 3x3 Smoothing Linear Filters

1 1 1 1 2 1
1 1
 1 1 1  2 4 2
9 16
1 1 1 1 2 1

Standard average Weighted average

5x5 Smoothing Linear Filters

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1
1
 1 1 1 1 1
?
25
1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1
 Smoothing Linear Filters

The general implementation for filtering

an MxN image with a weighted
averaging filter of size mxn is given by
the expression

a b

  w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
g ( x, y )  s   at   b
a b

  w(s, t )
s   at   b
Result of Smoothing Linear Filters
Original Image

[3x3] [5x5] [7x7]

 Spatial Low Pass filter

Noisy image
Average filter 3x3Mask

Average filter 5x5Mask

 Order-Statistics Filters

Order-statistics filters are nonlinear spatial

filters whose response is based on ordering
(ranking) the pixels contained in the image
area encompassed by the filter, and then
replacing the value of the center pixel with
the value determined by the ranking result.
Best-known “median filter”
 Process of Median filter

Corp region of
neighborhood
10 15 20
Sort the values of
20 100 20 the pixel in our
region
20 20 25
In the MxN mask
the median is MxN
10, 15, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 25, 100 div 2 +1

5th
Median Smoothing
Median is one value in an ordered set:
n 1
n odd
2
 n n 1
average ,  n even
2 2 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7  median = 4
2 3 4 5 6 7  median = 4.5
 Order-Statistics Filters
Based on ordering (ranking) pixels
encompassed by the filter then replacing the
center pixel with the ranking result
Median filter
Provide excellent noise reduction with less blurring
Median value half of the values less than or
equal to median and half are greater than or
equal to median
Sort pixels in the neighborhood
Determine the median
Assign median to the corresponding pixel
 Median Filtering

In signal processing, it is often desirable to be

able to perform some kind of noise reduction on an
image or signal. The median filter is a nonlinear
digital filtering technique, often used to remove
noise. Median filtering is very widely used in
digital image processing because it preserves
edges while removing noise.
Learning Objectives
After interacting with this Learning Object, the
learner will be able to:
• Explain the reduction of noise using a
median filter
 Definitions of the components/Keywords:

1 • The median filter is a sliding-window spatial filter.

• It replaces the value of the center pixel with the median of the
intensity values in the neighborhood of that pixel.
2
• Median filtering is a nonlinear operation often used in image
processing to reduce "salt and pepper" noise. A median filter is more
effective than convolution when the goal is to simultaneously reduce
noise and preserve edges.
3
• Median filters are particularly effective in the presence of impulse
noise, also called ‘salt – and – pepper’ noise because of its
appearance as white and black dots superimposed on an image.
4 • For every pixel, a 3x3 neighborhood with the pixel as center is
considered. In median filtering, the value of the pixel is replaced by
the median of the pixel values in the 3x3 neighborhood.

5
 Master Layout
1 Original Image Image with ‘Salt & pepper’
noise Image after filtering

5
Salt and pepper Noise
Salt (255) Pepper(0)

Noisy Image
(salt & Pepper
Noise)
 Step 1: Noise density 0.01
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)

• The first fig. should appear and then • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with
when the slider points at 0.01, the noise density 0.01
second fig. should be shown
• The resulting image after median filtering is
• The text in DT should appear in parallel done
to the figures
5
 Step 2: Noise density 0.02
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.02
the slider points at 0.02, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 3: Noise density 0.05
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.05
the slider points at 0.05, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 4: Noise density 0.07
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.07
the slider points at 0.07, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 5: Noise density 0.09
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.09
the slider points at 0.09, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 6: Noise density 0.1
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.1
the slider points at 0.1, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 7: Noise density 0.15
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.15
the slider points at 0.15, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 8: Noise density 0.2
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.2
the slider points at 0.2, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 9: Noise density 0.22
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.22
the slider points at 0.22, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 10: Noise density 0.3
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.3
the slider points at 0.3, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 11: Noise density 0.4
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.4
the slider points at 0.4, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 12: Noise density 0.5
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.5
the slider points at 0.5, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 13: Noise density 0.6
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.6
the slider points at 0.6, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
 Step 14: Noise density 0.7
1

3
4 Instruction for the animator Text to be displayed in the working area (DT)
• The first fig. should appear and then when • The image with ‘salt & pepper’ noise with noise density 0.7
the slider points at 0.7, the second fig.
should be shown • The resulting image after median filtering is done

• The text in DT should appear in parallel to

the figures

5
1 Questionnaire

1.What is the value of the yellow box after median

2 filtering?

Answers: a) 7 b) 1 c) 3 d) 9

4
5
 Median Filter
1 2 2 3 5 7 1 2 2 3 5 7 1 2 2 3 5 7

6 7 8 0 6 5 6 7 8 0 6 5 6 7 8 0 6 5

3 0 7 8 255 3 3 0 7 8 255 3 3 0 7 8 255 3

4 5 255 23 56 0 4 5 255 23 56 0 4 5 255 23 56 0

27 3 7 8 2 1 27 3 7 8 2 1 27 3 7 8 2 1

1 2 2 3 5 7 1 2 2 3 5 7 1 2 2 3 5 7
6 7 8 0 6 5 6 7 8 0 6 5 6 7 8 0 6 5
3 0 7 8 255 3 3 0 7 8 255 3 3 0 7 8 255 3
4 5 255 23 56 0 4 5 255 23 56 0 4 5 255 23 56 0
27 3 7 8 2 1 27 3 7 8 2 1 27 3 7 8 2 1

1 2 2 3 5 7 1 2 2 3 5 7 Output Image
6 7 8 0 6 5 1 2 2 3 5 7
6 7 8 0 6 5
6
3 0 7 8 255 3 3 0 7 8 255 3 3 3 6 5 5
4 5 255 23 56 0 4 5 255 23 56 0 3 6 8 3
8 6
27 3 7 8 2 1 4 0
27 3 7 8 2 1 7 7 8 8
27 3 7 8 2 1
 Median / Max / Min Filters
1 2 2 3 5 7
Max Filter
1 2 2 3 5 7
6 7 8 0 6 5
6 8 8 25 25 5
3 0 7 8 25 3
3 25 27 56 56 3
4 5 25 27 56 0
4 27 27 58 56 0
27 3 7 8 2 1
27 3 7 8 2 1

Min Filter
Median filter 1 2 2 3 5 7

1 2 2 3 5 7 6 0 0 0 0 5
3
6 3 3 6 5 5 0 0 0 0 3

4
3 6 8 8 6 3 0 0 2 0 0

4 27 3 7 8 2 1
7 7 8 8 0

27 3 7 8 2 1
 Questionnaire
1

3
What are the values of yellow boxes after median filtering is done?

a)
4
5
 Questionnaire
1 2. 2. b)

3 c) d)

4
5
Links for further reading
Reference websites:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_filter
http://medim.sth.kth.se/6l2872/F/F7-1.pdf

Books:
Digital Image Processing – Rafael C. Gonzalez,
Richard E. Woods, Third edition, Prentice Hall
 Median Filter

Median Filter
Median Filter
 Spatial filtering for image sharpening
Background: to highlight fine detail in an image or to
enhance blurred detail
Applications: electronic printing, medical imaging,
industrial inspection, autonomous target
detection (smart weapons)......
Foundation:
• Blurring/smoothing is performed by spatial
averaging (equivalent to integration)
• Sharpening is performed by noting only the gray
level changes in the image that is the differentiation

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 53

 Spatial filtering for image sharpening
Operation of Image Differentiation
• Enhance edges and discontinuities
(magnitude of output gray level >>0)
• De-emphasize areas with slowly varying gray-
level values (output gray level: 0)
Mathematical Basis of Filtering for Image
Sharpening
• First-order and second-order derivatives
• Approximation in discrete-space domain
• Implementation by mask filtering

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 54

 First and second order derivatives

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 55

 Example for discrete derivatives

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 56

 Various situations encountered for derivatives

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 57

 Various situations encountered for derivatives

Ramps or steps in the 1D profile normally

characterize the edges in an image
f ″ is nonzero at the onset and end of the
ramp:
produce thin (double) edges
f ′ is nonzero along the entire ramp produce
thick edges
12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 58
 Various situations encountered for derivatives

Thin lines

Isolated point

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 59

 Comparison between f" and f´

f´ generally produce thicker edges in an image

f" have a stronger response to file detail
f´ generally have a stronger response to a gray-level
step
f" produces a double response at step changes in
gray level
f" responses given similar changes in gray-level
values line > point > step
For image enhancement, f" is generally better suited
than f´
Major application of f´ is for edge extraction;
f´ used together with f" results in impressive
enhancement effect
12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 60
 Laplacian for image enhancement

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 61

 Laplacian for image enhancement

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 62

 Laplacian for image enhancement

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 63

 Laplacian for image enhancement
(example)

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 64

 Laplacian for image enhancement
(example)

12/7/2021 Digital Image Processing 65

Sharpening Spatial Filters
The principal objective of sharpening is
to highlight fine detail in an image or to
enhance detail that has been blurred,
either in error or as an natural effect of
a particular method of image
acquisition.
 Introduction

The image blurring is accomplished in

the spatial domain by pixel averaging in
a neighborhood.
Since averaging is analogous to
integration.
Sharpening could be accomplished by
spatial differentiation.
 Foundation

We are interested in the behavior of

these derivatives in areas of constant
gray level(flat segments), at the onset
and end of discontinuities(step and ramp
discontinuities), and along gray-level
ramps.
These types of discontinuities can be
noise points, lines, and edges.
Definition for a first derivative
Must be zero in flat segments
Must be nonzero at the onset of a gray-
level step or ramp; and
Must be nonzero along ramps.
Definition for a second derivative
Must be zero in flat areas;
Must be nonzero at the onset and end
of a gray-level step or ramp;
Must be zero along ramps of constant
slope
Definition of the 1st-order derivative
A basic definition of the first-order derivative
of a one-dimensional function f(x) is

f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x)
x
Definition of the 2nd-order derivative

We define a second-order derivative as the

difference

2 f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x  1)  2 f ( x).
x 2
 Gray-level profile

0 0 0 1 2 3 2 0 0 2 2 6 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 6 5 5 3
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
 Derivative of image profile
0 0 0 1 2 3 2 0 0 2 2 6 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 6 5 5 3

first 0 0 1 1 1-1-2 0 2 0 4-3 0-1 0 1 0-3 0 0 0 0 0 -7 0-1-1 0-2

second
0-1 0 0-2-1 2 2-2 4-7 3-1 1 1-1-3 3 0 0 0 0-7 7-1 0 1-2

f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x)
x

2 f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x  1)  2 f ( x).
x 2
Analyze
The 1st-order derivative is nonzero
along the entire ramp, while the 2nd-
order derivative is nonzero only at the
onset and end of the ramp.
1st make thick edge and 2nd make thin edge
The response at and around the point is
much stronger for the 2nd- than for the
1st-order derivative
The Laplacian (2nd order derivative)
Shown by Rosenfeld and Kak[1982] that the
simplest isotropic derivative operator is the
Laplacian is defined as

 2
f  2
f
 f  2  2
2

x y
Discrete form of derivative

f(x-1,y) f(x,y) f(x+1,y) 2 f

 f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  2 f ( x, y )
x 2

f(x,y-1)

f(x,y) 2 f
 f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)  2 f ( x, y )
y 2

f(x,y+1)
2-Dimentional Laplacian
The digital implementation of the 2-Dimensional
Laplacian is obtained by summing 2 components
 2
f  2
f
2 f  2  2
x x
2 f  f ( x  1, y)  f ( x 1, y)  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y 1)  4 f ( x, y)

1
1 -4 1
1
Laplacian

0 1 0 1 1 1
1 -4 1 1 -8 1
0 1 0 1 1 1

1 0 1
0 -4 0
1 0 1
Laplacian

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
-1 4 -1 -1 8 -1
0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

-1 0 -1
0 4 0
-1 0 -1
Implementation
 f ( x, y )   2 f ( x, y ) If the center coefficient is negative
g ( x, y )  
 f ( x , y )   2
f ( x, y ) If the center coefficient is positive

Where f(x,y) is the original image

2 f ( x, y) is Laplacian filtered image
g(x,y) is the sharpen image
Implementation
Implementation
Filtered = Conv(image,mask)
Implementation
filtered = filtered - Min(filtered)
filtered = filtered * (255.0/Max(filtered))
 Implementation
sharpened = image + filtered
sharpened = sharpened - Min(sharpened )
sharpened = sharpened * (255.0/Max(sharpened ))
Algorithm
Using Laplacian filter to original image

And then add the image result from

step 1 and the original image
 Simplification

We will apply two step to be one mask

g ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  f ( x  1, y)  f ( x 1, y)  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y 1)  4 f ( x, y)

g ( x, y)  5 f ( x, y)  f ( x  1, y)  f ( x 1, y)  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y 1)

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
-1 5 -1 -1 9 -1
0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
 Unsharp masking
A process to sharpen images consists of
subtracting a blurred version of an image from
the image itself. This process, called unsharp
masking, is expressed as

f s ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )

Where f s ( x, y) denotes the sharpened image obtained by

unsharp masking, and f ( x, y ) is a blurred version of f ( x, y)
High-boost filtering(HBF)
 High-boost filtering(HBF)
HPF in general results in a background which is darker
than the original image .To overcome this difficulty HBF
restores the original background details & at the same
time enhances the sharpness of the image
A high-boost filtered image, fhb is defined at any point
(x,y) as
f hb ( x, y )  Af ( x, y )  f ( x, y ) where A  1
f hb ( x, y )  Af ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y ) where A  1
f hb ( x, y )  ( A  1) f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )
f hb ( x, y)  ( A 1) f ( x, y)  f s ( x, y)
This equation is applicable general and does not state
explicity how the sharp image is obtained
 High-boost filtering and Laplacian

If we choose to use the Laplacian, then we

know fs(x,y)

 Af ( x, y )   2 f ( x, y ) If the center coefficient is negative

f hb  
 Af ( x , y )   2
f ( x, y ) If the center coefficient is positive

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
-1 A+4 -1 -1 A+8 -1
0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
Directional Smoothing
Conservative smoothing
Image Quality Metrics
Image Quality Metrics
Example
Thank You
The Gradient (1st order derivative)
First Derivatives in image processing are
implemented using the magnitude of the
gradient.
The gradient of function f(x,y) is
 f 
Gx   x 
f      f 
G y   
 y 
Gradient
The magnitude of this vector is given by

mag (f )  Gx2  G y2  Gx  G y

Gx -1 1 This mask is simple, and no isotropic.

Its result only horizontal and vertical.

Gy 1
-1
Robert’s Method
The simplest approximations to a first-order
derivative that satisfy the conditions stated in
that section are

z1 z2 z3 Gx = (z9-z5) and Gy = (z8-z6)

z4 z5 z6  f  ( z 9  z 5 ) 2  ( z8  z 6 ) 2

z7 z8 z9  f  z 9  z 5  z8  z 6
Robert’s Method
These mask are referred to as the
Roberts cross-gradient operators.

-1 0 0 -1

0 1 1 0
Sobel’s Method
Mask of even size are awkward to apply.
The smallest filter mask should be 3x3.
The difference between the third and
first rows of the 3x3 mage region
approximate derivative in x-direction,
and the difference between the third and
first column approximate derivative in y-
direction.
Sobel’s Method
Using this equation
f  ( z7  2 z8  z9 )  ( z1  2 z 2  z3 )  ( z3  2 z6  z9 )  ( z1  2 z 4  z7 )

-1 -2 -1 -1 0 1

0 0 0 -2 0 2

1 2 1 -1 0 1