

ELEMENTS

OF

 DESIGN
MACHINE
 MKS
[IN  SI
 AND UNITS]
 
By the same authors:

ELEMENTS OF 'HEAT ENGINES

♦
LOGARITHMS, STEAM AND OTHER TABLES
•
THEORY OF MACHINES VOL.. I
♦
REFRIGERANTS :
PROPERTIES, TABLES AND CHARTS
 ELEMENTS
OF
MACHINE DESIGN
by
N. C. PANDYA
[Link]., [Link]. (Eng.), Dr. ing. (Germany), F.I.E. (India), V.D.I.
Member, American Society . for Engineering Education
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
AND

C. S. SHAH
[Link]. (Eng.), Dr. Ing. (Germany), F.I.E. (India)
Professor of Mechanical Engineming
Birla Vlshvakarma Mahavidyalaya
(Engineering College)
VALLABH VIDYANAGAR (ANAND)

[WITH NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS, ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES]

SEVENTH REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

CHAROTAR BOOK STALL

TULSI SADAN, STATION ROAD
ANAND 388001 INDIA
 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN
First edition : 1972

Published by R. C. Patel, Charotar Book Stall, Tulsi Sadan,

Station Road, Anand - 388 001 (W. Rly.) India
Printed by S. Abril S. J. at the Anand Press, Gamdi, Anand.
 Dedicated
to
Shankarbhai
 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I PAGES
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR
PROPERTIES
Introduction — General consideration — Structure of
materials — Mechanical properties of materials of con-
struction — Determination of mechanical properties —
Fabrication characteristics and processes of fabrication —
Non-ferrous metals and alloys — Available sizes —
Accuracy — Finishing processes — Non-metallic materials
— Plastics — Examples I . . . 1-62

CHAPTER II
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS
Loads — Stress — Strain — Stress-Strain diagram:
Modulus of Elasticity -- Poisson's ratio — Modulus of
rigidity -- Bulk modulus — Basic requirements of the
machine elements --- Factor of safety: Selection of allow-
able stresses — Procedure for designing a machine
element — Tensile stress — Compressive stress — Shearing
stress—Bearing pressure intensity — Bending — Shear stre-
sses in a beam— Torsion — Eccentric loading — Combined
stresses: Bending combined with direct stress — Offset
connecting links and C shaped frames — Shearing combin-
ed with tensile and compressive stresses — Theories of
elastic failure — Designing for impact loads Stress
concentration — Notch sensitivity -- Effect of repeated
application of load—Fluctuating stress for ductile materials
— Light weight and minimum dimensions — Elastic
matching — Temperature stress — Examples II . . 63-165

CHAPTER I I I
CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES
Introduction — Types of vessels — Design of thin cylin-
ders — Design of thin spherical shell — Cylindrical shell
with hemispherical ends — Design of pipes — Design of
thick cylinders — Design equation for thick cylinder —
Examples III . . . . . 166-195
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV
RIVETED JOINTS
Introduction — Rivets — Rivet heads — Types of riveted
joints — Caulking and fullering — Design of a riveted joint
for boiler work — Efficiency of a riveted joint — Joints for
storage tanks — Lozenge joint — Eccentric loads on riveted
connections — Examples IV . . 196-237

CHAPTER V
BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS

Introduction — Definitions — Forms of screw threads —

Advantages of square threads over V threads — Screw
fastenings — Locking devices for nuts -- Washers -- Eye
bolt — Efficiency of threads — Stresses in screw fasten-
ings — Initial stresses — Stress due to external forces —
Stresses due to combined load — Bolts of uniform
strength — Screwed boiler stays — Bolts subject to
shear — Bolts under eccentric loading — Design of a
nut — Power transmitting capacity of set screws
Examples V . . 238-281

CHAPTER VI
COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS
Introduction --- Design of cottered joints — Gib and cotter
-- Connection of piston rod to crosshead — Cotter founda-
tion bolts—Design of a knuckle joint: Introduction—Joint
of suspension links — Design of a coupler or turnbuckle --
Examples VI . . . . . . . 282-315

CHAPTER VII
SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS
Introduction — Materials and design stresses — Design of
axles — Design of shafts on the basis of strength -- - Design
of shaft on the basis of rigidity — Design of hollow and
square shafts — Forms of keys — Keys — Design of sunk
keys — Effect of keyways in sunk keys — Taper pin —
Feather keys ---- Force and shrink fits — Couplings:
Introduction -- Sleeve coupling or muff coupling
 CONTENTS Xi

Clamp or compression coupling — Flange coupling —

Marine type of flange coupling — Flexible coupling —
Bushed pin type of flexible coupling — Bibby type of
flexible coupling — Leather pad type flexible coupling —
Oldham's coupling — Universal coupling — Safety
coupling — Examples VII . . 316-395
CHAPTER VIII
SPRINGS
Introduction — Close coiled helical spring subjected to
axial loading: circular wire — Helical springs of non-
circular wire — Concentric helical springs — General
considerations in design of compression and tension springs
— Torsion helical springs — Spiral springs — Leaf springs
---- Belleville springs — Energy storage capacity —
Examples VIII . 396-442
CHAPTER IX
BEARINGS
Classification — Bearing area -- Sliding bearings: Solid
journal bearings --- Divided journal bearing: Plummer
block -- Lubrication methods -- Oil Grooving — Heating
of bearings --- Design procedure for journal bearings —
Bearing materials — Design of bearing caps and bolts --
Foot step or pivot bearings --- Collar bearings — Anti-
friction bearings - - Radial ball bearings --- Roller bear-
ings -- Selection of ball and roller bearings -- Bearing
load ---- Equivalent bearing load — Carrying capacity and
life — Relationship between load and life -- Requisite
bearing life for different types of machines -- Life of
Timken Bearings — Influence of high temperature on
load carrying capacity — Friction in rolling bearings --
Comparison of sleeve and rolling bearings —
Examples IX . . 443-502
CHAPTER X
STRUTS AND COLUMNS
Introduction — ruler's formula — End fixity coefficients
- - Radius of gyration and plane of bending — Rankine's
formula -- -- Tetmajer's formula -- Design of push rods
Eccentrically loaded columns — Examples X . . 503-527
Xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI
POWER SCREWS

Introduction — Form of threads — Force analysis -

Design of a screw — Design of a nut - Compound screw
— Differential screw — Ball screws — Examples XI . 528-567

CHAPTER XII
LEVERS

Introduction — General procedure for design of levers —

Hand lever — Foot lever — Cranked lever — Lever of a
safety valve — Rocker arm for Diesel engines (Straight
arm) — Angular levers — Design of an overhung
crank — Design of a crank pin (overhung crank) — Miscel-
laneous Examples — Examples XII . 568-618

CHAPTER XIII
BRACKETS

Brackets — Hangers -- Wall box — Design considerations

— Examples XIII . 619-633

CHAPTER XIV
BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES

Introduction — Materials for belts — Design of a belt —

Design procedure for flat belts — V belt drive — Design of
V flat drives — Pulleys : Materials and types — Cast
iron pulleys — Design of a cast iron pulley — Steel pulleys
-- Wooden pulleys —Tight and loose pulleys—Speed cone
-- Short centre drive: Gravity idlers — Special tension
adjusting belt drive — Chain Drives : Introduction —
Roller chains — Design of Chain Drives — Examples XIV 634-680

CHAPTER XV
FLYWHEELS

Introduction— Determination of a weight of a flywheel

for given coefficient of fluctuation of speed -- Flywheel for
punches and shear -- Engine flywheels -- Flywheel for
Electric generators --- Stresses in a rim of a flywheel ---
Design of a hub ---- Arms of a flywheel -- Examples XV . 681-706
 CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER XVI
GEARS
Introduction --- General characteristics — Spur gear
terminology — Gear tooth forms — Accuracy of gears —
Materials -- Allowable stresses — Design considerations
-- Strength of gear teeth: Lewis equation — Dynamic
tooth load — Design for wear -- Gear wheel proportions
— Internal gears -- Racks — Design of helical gears:
Introduction — Proportions for helical gears — Design of
helical gear teeth — Herringbone gears — Rating of
machine cut spur and helical gears—Design of bevel gears:
Introduction — Definitions — Strength of bevel gear
teeth — Constructional details -- Bearing loads — Design
of worm gear: Introduction — Worm gear nomenclature
— Strength of worm gear teeth — Bearing loads on the
shafts — Examples XVI 707-795

CHAPTER XVI I
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Introduction — Welding processes -- Types of welded
joints --- Working stresses in welds — Strength of welds
-- Special cases of fillet welds -- Eccentric load on
welded connections — Design procedure recommended
by American Welding Society -- Fillet welds under
varying loads — Examples XVII . . . 796--821

CHAPTER XVIII
DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS —I
ENGINES AND BOILERS
Design of flat plates—Design of a piston for I.C. 'Engines
— Design of crossheads -- Design of connecting rods --
Design of crankshafts --- Design of a spring-loaded Hartnell
governor — Design of an eccentric — Compensating ring
for a manhole — Design of safety valves for boilers
— Design of a steam stop valve — Design of tangent
cams — Design of a valve gear for I.C. Engines —
Examples XVIII . . . 822-943
XIV CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIX
DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II
BRAKES AND CLUTCHES
Hoisting equipments — Design of hoisting chains and
drums—Design of a hoisting rope—Design of wire ropes—
Stresses in curved beams — Design of a crane hook
- -- Brakes : Introduction --- Types of Brakes --- Design
procedure for block brakes -- Band brakes: Introduc-
tion — Design procedure for band brakes -- Clutches :
Introduction — Design procedure for clutches --
Examples XIX . , 944-1006

CHAPTER XX
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
(S. I. SYSTEM)
Introduction — Units -- Prefixes for Multiples and sub-
multiples of units—Relation between the units of S.I. and
MKS Systems--Illustrative examples—Examples XX 1007-1022

CHAPTER X X I
DESIGN PROJECTS
Introduction - -- Hand operated bench press — Reduction
Gear — Project Exercises 1023-1044

APPENDIX I TO XV
List of Indian Standards : "Testing of Materials" -- Indian
Standard referred in the text—Preferred Numbers (Round-
ed values) — Properties of geometrical sections -- Deflec-
tion ,formulas for machine parts -- Metric threads --
Common sizes of transmission shafts dimensions in mm ---
Imperial or Legal Standard Wire Gauge — Sizes of pulleys
for flat and V belts -- Width of flat cast iron and steel
pulleys — Service factors for belt drive — Load carrying
capacity of V belts ---- Worm data -- Basic thickness of
sheet and diameters of wire in millimetres 1045-1054
 Elements
of
Machine Vesign
CHAPTER

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1-1. Introduction
A machine is a combination of resistant bodies, with successfully con-
strained relative motions, which is used for transforming other forms of
energy into mechanical energy or transmitting and modifying available
energy to do some particular kind of work. The machine is known as a
heat engine when it receives heat energy and transforms it into
mechanical energy. The majority of machines receive mechanical
energy, and modify it so that the energy can be used for doing
some specific task for which it is designed; common examples of
such machines being hoist, lathe, screw jack, etc.
The transmission and modification of energy within the
machine require the inclusion of a number of elements, which are
so designed that they carry with safety the forces to which they
arc subjected; in addition the desired motion is produced so that
the machine can perform its task successfully. The analysis of
forces involved and the design of machine parts, so that they can
perform their duties without failure or undue distortion, lie within
the province of machine design. In study of this subject we
are required to apply constantly our knowledge of mathematics,
classical mechanics, strength of materials, mechanics of machines,
metallography and technical drawing.

1-2. General considerations:

One of the first point to be decided when designing a certain
machine part is the material of which the part is to be made. The
choice of the material is governed by the following considerations:
(i) Suitability of the material of the component for work-
ing conditions during service
(ii) Amenability of the material to the fabrication processes
required in making the component
(iii) Cost of the material in relation to selling price of the
component.
2 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

The quantity required, delivery date, material availability

and scrap utilisation are the other factors which determine the
choice of the material.
Materials of construction are classified as metallic or non-
metallic. Non-metallic materials include ceramics, glass,
rubber, plastics, etc.
The metals in general use may be classified under two main
headings: (a) ferrous metals (b) non-ferrous metals. Within
these two main sections, there are several sub-divisions, which
depend primarily upon the base metal and the alloying elements.
A grouping under the various sub-divisions may be arranged in
the order as given below:

Ferrous Metals:
Ferrous metals may be classified as follows:
Cast irons comprising grey cast iron, malleable cast iron,
alloy cast iron, and chilled iron.
Wrought Iron & Steel comprising of wrought iron, carbon
steel, alloy steel ibr engineering construction, high alloy steel
and tool steel.

Non-ferrous Metals:
Non-ferrous group may be divided into three main
sections:
Light metal group comprising aluminium and aluminium
alloys, and manganese and magnesium alloys.
Copper-based alloys comprising copper, copper-zinc alloys
or brasses and gilding metals, copper-zinc-nickel alloys or nickel-
silvers, bronzes, copper-aluminium group or aluminium bronzes,
copper-lead-tin group giving leaded bronzes, copper-zinc or
copper-silver-zinc group giving hard solders.
White-metal group comprising nickel silver, white bearing
metals, nickel alloys, tin, white metal solders (soft solders), lead,
type metal, zinc.

1-3. Structure of Materials:

To study the various properties of materials it is necessary
to understand the basic structures of them.
Art. 1-3 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 3

Structure of Metallic Materials:

The atoms of metals when they are brought together tend to
arrange themselves in infinitesimal cubes, prisms and other
symmetrical shapes. These geometrical units join to each other
like perfectly fitted blocks and are embryos of the larger structure
known as crystals. Crystals start forming when molten metal
begins to solidify. As cooling continues, each tiny crystal grows
by adding to itself other crystals in a pine-tree or dendritic fashion
until each group of crystals touches every other group and the
metal becomes solid. These groups of crystals are called grains.
After abrasive polishing and etching the metal with an acid, these
grains can be examined with a high powered microscope and they
will appear as shown in fig. 1-1, when viewed through it.

Grains Minute
indiuidual
Grain crystals
boundaries

FIG. 1-1

Each grain consists of millions of tiny unit cells made up

of atoms arranged in a definite geometric pattern. Each unit cell
may take the form of an imaginary cube, with an atom in each
corner and one in the centre. This is called a body-centred cubic
space lattice [fig. 1-2(a)] and is the structure of iron at normal
temperature.
If, however, the centre of the cube is vacant, and a single
atom is contained in the centre of each face, [fig. 1-2(b)], it is
called a face-centred cubic structure. This is the structure of
copper, aluminium and nickel. It is also the structure of iron
at elevated temperatures.
When the unit cell takes the form of an imaginary hexagonal
prism, having an atom in each corner, another at each of the top
and bottom hexagons, and three atoms equally spaced in the centre
of the prism [fig. 1-2(c)] it is known as a close-packed hexagonal
structure. This is the structure of magnesium, zinc and titanium.
4 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

The distance between the atoms is extremely small. These

closely spaced atoms have a tremendous attraction for each other.
This attraction constitutes the force that resists any attempt to
tear the metal apart.
The metals used in practice are subjected to heavy stresses
and strains. When the metal is deformed or cut certain rows of
crystals slip or flow in fixed direction and in one or more parallel
planes. Slippage occurs in those planes that have the greatest
number of atoms. The ability of the slipping crystal to hold
together makes the metal ductile.

Atoms of iron at Atoms of Aluminium, Atomsof Magnesium.

normal temperature Copper or Nickel Zinc or Titanium

(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 1-2

Body centred crystals have no planes of dense atomic concen-

tration and so pure iron which has a body centered cubic structure
is somewhat less ductile then pure aluminium, copper or nickel,
which have face centred cubic structure. In pure metals the
force that must be exerted to cause slippage is much less than the
force that holds the crystals together and this is the reason for
providing ductility to the material. The crystal structure of metals
could be deformed by only a fraction of the stress needed to
overcome the binding force between atoms in a crystal lattice. As
such the crystal structures could be very strong under perfect
condition but tiny imperfections would cause some mis-alignment
of the atoms called dislocations which tend to weaken the crystaline
structure which results into deformation of metals. There are
two main types of dislocations — edge and screw. The edge
dislocation occurs at the end of an extra half plane of atoms, while
the screw dislocation corresponds to a partial tearing of the crystal
planes. Most dislocations are combination of both types.
Art. 1-4 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 5

The effect of alloying in metals and heat treatment of

metals can be more thoroughly understood if the crystaline structure
of the metal is understood in detail. The addition of alloying
element in the parent metal changes the properties by forming new
phases and by heat treating the alloy the dispersion of the phases
or new phases formed at the boundaries of crystals or at the grains
will give further changes in properties of the alloy.
Non-metallic materials are usually characterized by ionic,
covalent and intermediate bonding. They may exist as crystals,
glasses or gels (a colloidal suspension) e.g. silica may be found in
either of these three forms. Non-metallic materials are mostly
brittle. The effects of impurity, locking of dislocations and the
limited number of independent slip systems cause the randomly
oriented polycrystalline forms of these materials to be brittle.
They may be formed from the melt or they may be fabricated by
sintering or by cementing powder particles. Although non-metallic
materials are generally weak in tension, their strength in com-
pression is often appreciable.
The mechanical behaviour of polymers (plastics) is markedly
influenced by their molecular structure. The degree of polymeriza-
tion, branching and cross linking affect their strength. The
strength and density of polymers can be increased by increasing
their crystallinity. As polymers are heated they pass through five
general states i.e. glassy, leathery, rubbery, viscous-rubbery and
liquid. Polymeric materials are sometimes classified as thermo-
plastic or thermosetting, depending on their behaviour at elevated
temperatures.

1-4. Mechanical properties of materials of construction:

The proper and efficient use of materials of construction
requires considerable knowledge of their mechanical properties.
The mechanical properties of materials .are those properties which
describe the behaviour of the material under mechanical usage.
The most important mechanical properties are strength, elasticity,
stiffness, ductility, hardness, malleability, resilience, toughness,
creep and machinability.
Strength is the ability of the material to resist stress without
failure. Several materials such as structural steel, copper, alumi-
nium, etc. have equal strength in tension or compression, but
6 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

their strength in shear is about two-thirds of the strength in

tension, while in grey cast iron the strength in tension and shear
is a fraction of the strength in compression. The measure of the
strength is the ultimate stress. Ultimate strength refers to the
force needed to fracture the material.
When materials are subjected to a pulling force they stretch
as the stress increases, Fig. 1-3 shows the stress-strain relation-
ship when test specimen is subjected to tensile load. With the
help of this diagram different-strengths of material can be defined.
ot.
5000 '41
%4.
6 .
Yield strength
10.2% offset
.off )1;
4000 • °\)
E
3000

t7, 2000

1000

01 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Percentage elongation
FIG. 1 -3
When material is subjected to a pulling force the point where
the stretch suddenly increases is known as the yield strength. In
many design problems when the yield strength of materials is
passed it is considered unsafe for further service. When mild
steel is subjected to a pulling force it indicates a distinct point
where the stretch suddenly increases. This is known as yield
point. Some materials like high nickel alloys, monel metal and
other similar non-ferrous materials do not show a definite break in
the stress strain curve. In this case it is difficult to assign yield
point for them. For such materials yield strength of material
is defined at the point where 0.5% elongation takes place.
Proportional limit is the maximum stress under which a
material will maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress.
However, it is difficult to measure the exact proportional limit.
Art. 1-4] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 7

The maximum stress from which a material can recover is

called the elastic limit. It is difficult to specify the elastic limit
and so the idea of proof stress has been developed.
Proof stress is the maximum stress a material can withstand
without taking more than small amount of set. The amount is
usually specified as the smallest that can be measured by an
extensometer.
The above can be summarized in brief and can be verified
with fig. 1-3 that the proportional limit is yield strength at 0.00%
offset. Proof stress is yield strength at 0-01% offset and yield
strength is yield strength at 0-2°/0 offset on stress elongation curve
under tensile load.
Elasticity is the property of regaining original shape after
deformation. All materials of construction are elastic but the
degree of elasticity varies with different materials. This property
is exceedingly important in precision tools and machines. Steel
is highly elastic material.
Plasticity is the property that enables the formation of perma-
nent deformation in a material. Stiffness is the property by
virtue of which a material can resist deformation. Measure of
stiffness is the modulus of elasticity. This property is desirable in
materials used in machines, columns, beams and machine tools.
Ductility is the property of material that enables it to be drawn
out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs.
The percentage elongation and the percentage of reduction of area
before rupture of a test specimen are measures of ductility of the
material.
Percentage elongation depends on gauge length and so gauge
length is required to be stated when percentage elongation is given.
Indian Standard Institution recommends gauge length of 5.65 VA
where A is the cross sectional area of the test specimen.
Brittleness is opposite to ductility. It shows lack of ductility.
Brittle materials show little deformatiqn before rupturing.
Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually con-
sidered ductile. Those with less than 5% elongation are considered
brittle. Those between 5 and 15% elongation are of intermediate
ductility. Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are
ductile materials. Cast iron is a brittle material. Property
of ductility is desirable in machine parts which may be subjected to
sudden and severe loads.
8 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

For a variety of engineering uses a material requires good

combination of strength and ductility. Usually if two materials
having the same strength and hardness the one that has the higher
ductility is more desirable in engineering practice.
Malleability is the property of a material that enables it to
undergo great change in shape under compressive stress without
[Link] materials may be hammered or rolled into any
desired shape without rupture. Soft steel, wrought iron, copper
and aluminium are malleable metals .
Hardness is that property of a material that enables it to resist
penetration, indentation, abrasion or plastic deformation. In
selecting a metal to withstand wear or erosion, mainly three proper-
ties are considered: ductility, toughness and hardness. However,
the most important from wear resistance point is hardness
Wear may be either due to friction or erosion by steam, oil, and
water and it is resisted by materials having higher hardness. This
property is decreased by heating.
Several methods have been developed for hardness testing.
Those most often used are Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, and Sclero-
scope. The first three are based on indentation tests and the fourth
on the rebound height of a diamond-tipped metallic hammer.
In order to relate one method of testing hardness with another,
hardness conversion charts are available. However, these charts
are only approximation, because most hardness testing is based on
indentation on a localised area.
Tensile strengths are often listed on hardness conversion charts.
Although relationships exist between hardness, and tensile strength
and yield strength, but there are chances for error. Therefore,
use of tensile testing machine is preferred to determine strength.
Resilience is that property of a material which enables it
to store energy and resist shock and impact. The measure of
resilience is the amount of energy that can be stored per unit
volume after being stressed to elastic limit. This property is
desirable in materials for springs.
Toughness is the property which enables a material to be
twisted, bent or stretched under a sudden impact or under a high
stress before rupture. It is measured by the lzod test or Charpey
test. The measure of toughness is the amount of energy that a
unit volume of material has absorbed after being stressed upto
the point of fracture. This property is decreased by heating.
A7s. 1-5 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 9

Shear strength is the force per unit area produced to fracture

a specimen when it is impressed along the cross section of material.
The material may be subjected to single shear or double shear.
The shear strength of steels compared to their ultimate tensile
strength ranges from about 50 to 80 per cent, the lower values
for the harder materials.
Creep is expressed as the plastic behaviour of the metals or
plastics under constant load and at constant temperature. Under
the above condition the material deforms slowly but progressively
over a period of time. There are three stages of creep. In the
first stage the material elongates rapidly but at a decreasing
rate. In the second stage which is ordinarily of long duration
the rate of elongation is constant. In the third stage the rate
of elongation increases rapidly until the material fails.
Design engineer is most concerned with second stage of
creep, where elongation takes place at a constant specific rate.
The percentage of elongation and time required are decided by
the requirements of the particular application, viz, 0.1 per cent
elongation in 10,000 hours. In rapidly rotating structural members
such as rotors and blading of steam and gas turbines, the clearances
are extremely small and critical. The designer will be satisfied
with nothing short of experimentally determined stress of 1 creep
rate unit (CRU) or 1 per cent in 100,000 hours.

1-5. Determination of mechanical properties:

In order to determine the mechanical properties of the

material, certain tests are carried out in mechanical testing labora-
tories. These tests are carried out according to various standard
procedures laid down for the purpose. The simplest test that
can be made on most materials is the static tensile test. The
procedure to carry out this test is suggested by Indian Standards
Institution. The following informations are obtained from this test:

(i) Ultimate tensile strength

(ii) Proportional limit
(iii) Elastic limit or Proof Stress
(iv) Yield point or Yield strength
(v) Percentage elongation
(vi) Percentage reduction in area.
10 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I
Some details of this test are given in Art. 2-4. IS 1608-1960
is to be adhered to while carrying out the static tensile test.
Other tests commonly employed are compression, torsion,
flexure, cold bending, hardness, impact and fatigue. Data of
these various tests are usually shown graphically by the stress
strain diagrams. Indian Standards, relating to these tests are
listed in Appendix I.

1-6. Fabrication Characteristics and Processes of Fabrica-

tion:
The fabrication characteristics of metals are discussed from
the stand point of formability, castability machinability and
weldability.

(a) Formability:
The ability of a metal to be formed is based on ductility
of the metal, which is based on its crystal structures. The metal
that has the face centred cubic crystal structure is most ductile
because the crystal has the greatest opportunity for slip in four
distinct nonparallel planes and three directions of slip in each
A)

plane.
The other factors which control ductility of the material are grain size,
hot and cold working, alloying elements and softening heat treatments such as
annealing and normalizing. The small grain sizes are recommended for shallow
drawing of copper and relatively large grains for heavy drawing on the thicker
gauges.
The high pressure applied in hot drawing distorts the grains which determine
the ductility; cold working also results in distortion of crystals. Generally, cold
worked crystals are more distorted and are usually less ductile than the hot
worked crystals.
Alloying elements in a pure metal normally reduce its ductility, because if
they replace the atoms of pure metal it reduces the number of slip planes as it
occurs in steel, which is an alloy of carbon and iron and so steel is less ductile than
iron. If the alloy finds its room in the spaces between the atoms of pure metal it
offers increased resistance to slip, which happens in steel when iron carbide
precipitates in slip planes when steel solidifies. By softening heat treatment such
as annealing which consists of heating the metal to the re-crystallisation tempera-
ture at which at first the grains may be very small but they grow in size as long as
the metal is exposed to the high temperature, when the desired size is obtained
the metal is allowed to cool. During recrystallization ductility of metal is
restored because distorted crystals are reformed in re-crystallisation.
The processes using the property of formability of metal may
be divided into two types: (1) Hot working and (ii) Cold working.
Art. 1-6] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 1 1

Hot working processes:

By hot working is meant processes such as rolling, forging,
extrusion and hot pressing. In this working the metal is heated
sufficiently to make it plastic and easily worked. The temperature
of the heated metal or alloy should be above the re-crystallisation
temperature. This temperature is different for different metals.
Hot rolling is used to create a bar of material of particular shape and dimen-
sions. The principal rolled steel sections are plates, angles, tees, channels arid
joists; round, hexagonal and square bars for forging and machining operations;
sheets, rails, etc. All of them are available in many different sizes and in different
materials. The materials most available in the hot rolled bar sizes are steel,
aluminium and copper alloys. Tubes may be manufactured by hot rolling
of strips or plates; the product may be butt welded or lap welded.
Forging is the hot working of metals by hammers, presses or forging machines.
For small work forging is carried out with hand hammers but for large work
hammers and forging machines are used. Forging alters the internal structure
of metals which results in increased strength and ductility. Compared with
castings, forgings have greater strength for the same weight. Forging should be
carried out within proper temperature range. If the temperature is too high
the metal will be weak and brittle. If the temperature is too low, there will be
internal stresses which may lead to distortion or cracking.
Many small parts are drop forged. In drop forging, solid lump with little
or no previous treatment by hand is squeezed between dies to the shape required
with one or more blows from a drop hammer. The component can be made
to dimensions and with a good surface so that machining may be unnecessary.
The limitations of this process are that the number of parts should be great and
complicated shapes cannot be produced as they can not be removed from dies.
Extrusion is a process where a heated blank is caused to flow through a
restricted orifice under great pressure. Very complicated shapes may be pro-
duced by the extrusion process. The process is restricted to materials of low
melting points such as brass, aluminium and certain alloys of tin, lead and other
soft metals.
Hot pressing consists of forming metal to shape in a very rigid type of power
press. A hot piece of metal is pressed and extruded in suitable dies into a smoothly
finished piece to accurate dimensions. Automobile valves are formed by this
process.

Cold working processes:

By cold working is meant the forming of a metal usually
at room temperature. Though this temperature is higher some-
times but always lower than re-crystallisation temperature. Cold
working may vary from a simple bend to great deformation
produced by deep pressing and tube drawing. The result of
12 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1
cold work is to increase hardness and tensile strength but to
decrease ductility and shock resistance. Cold worked parts
have a bright new finish, are more accurate and require less
machining. Where cold work is considerable, the part may
be annealed at some intermediate stage or stages of work. In
cold working the surface of a material is very important as
scale may be worked into the finished article with serious results.
Some of cold working processes are drawing, heading, spinning,
stamping, etc.
Drawing is a process by which the cross section of a metal is diminished by
pulling it through an accurately formed hole in a drawing die. The operation
is performed cold and only simpler forms can be produced without excessive resist-
ance and tearing.
Heading is a cold working process in which the metal is gathered or upset.
The operation is commonly used to make screw and rivet heads. The blank is
usually a piece of wire of suitable length and cross section; one end is cold forged
in dies to form the desired shape of the head. Annealing may be required after
cold heading.
Spinning is the operation of working sheet material around a rotating form
into a cii cular shape. Pressure is applied to the sheet by means of a blunt nosed
tool which presses it against the former. This is an economical method of forming
parts if the quantities are small.
Stamping is the term used to desciibe punch press operations such as blank-
ing, coining, forming and shallow drawing.

Powder metallurgy:
It is the art of making small components by heat treatment
of compressed metallic powders, sometimes with inclusion of non-
metallic material.
The powdered metals in desired proportions are compressed
in moulds under a very high pressure varying from 700 to 14,000
kg/sq cm depending on the metal. The compacted part is heated
at a temperature which is less than melting point of the major
ingradient. The disadvantages of this method are (i) low strength
of the component (ii) higher cost of material and (iii) the limited
range of materials which can be used.
Filaments of refractory metals such as tungsten, self lubri-
cating bearings, tungsten carbide tips for cutting tools and iron
alloys for permanent magnets are examples of articles made from
powdered metal. By this process small components can be made
Art. 1-6 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 13

out of some metals whose melting point is too high to allow use
of die casting.

(b) Castability:
Castability of a metal is judged to a large extent on the
following factors: solidification rate, shrinkage, segregation, gas
porosity, and hot strength.
Solidification Rate•:
The ease at which a metal will continue to flow after it has been poured in
the mold depends on its analysis and pouring temperature. Some metals such
as grey iron are very fluid and can be poured into thin sections of complex castings.

Shrinkage:
Shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume of a metal when it goes from a
molten to a solid state. For steel, the amount of contraction amounts to about
6.9 to 7.4"/„ by volume, or 2 cm per metre; grey iron contracts half as much. This
shrinkage factor has to be taken into account by the pattern maker and designer,
not only to allow for the proper finished size, but also to see that undue strains
will not be encountered during shrinkage due to the mould design. Various
elements can be added to the alloy to control fluidity and shrinkage as discussed
later in this chapter.

Segregation:
As the metal starts to solidify tiny crystal structures resembling pine trees and
referred to as dendrites start to form at the mold edges. As they form, they tend
to exclude alloying elements. Subsequent crystals that form are progressively
richer in alloy content as the metal solidifies. Thus the surface of the casting is
not of the same quality as that in the centre. This is overcome in part at least
by subsequent heat treatment, or very slow cooling.

Gas Porosity:
Some metals in the molten state have a high affinity for oxygen and nitrogen.
These gases become trapped as the metal solidifies creating voids or pinholes.

Hot Strength:
Metals arc very low in strength right after solidification. This is especially
irue of the non-ferrous metals. Precautions must be• taken at the time of casting to
avoid stress concentration that causes flaws and hot tears to develop as the metal
solidifies.

Casting is the oldest form of metal shaping and is still the

basic engineering process since most metals are melted and cast
from ores. Castings are made of iron, steel, various brasses and
bronzes, aluminium and its alloys and the various white metal
alloys.
14 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1

Patterns may be made of wood or metal and with its help the
sand mould is formed in which molten metal is poured. The
mould is dried before the metal is poured. Metal in cooling solidi-
fies to the form outlined in the mould.
In die casting process the mould is usually made of steel and
molten metal is poured or forced under pressure into the mould.
This method is used for mass production only.
Non-ferrous alloys arc sometimes cast centrifugally. Molten
metal is poured into a rapidly rotating cylindrical mould and is
held against the mould by centrifugal force so that core is not
required. On cooling the casting is complete. Such castings
are generally denser and more homogeneous than ordinary sand
castings. This process is limited to simple shapes and to fairly
large quantities.
The following precautions should be observed in design of
castings:
(i) All sections should be designed as far as possible with a uniform
thickness.
(ii) All walls should be sufficiently thick to allow the molten metal to flow
freely into all corners.
(iii) Adjoining sections should be designed with generous fillets or radii.
(iv) Parts should be designed so that patterns may be drawn readily from
the moulds.
(v) A complicated part should be designed in two or more castings.
These castings are assembled by fasteners.
(vi) Where the section uniformity is not possible, light sections should
be blended into heavy sections.
Thickness of casting determined by calculations is often too
small to permit production of good castings. The following arc
the minimum values of the thicknesses for various castings:

Minimum thickness
Material in mm

Grey cast iron 6

Malleable cast iron 6
Steel casting 6
Brass 3
Bronze 3
Aluminium 3
Art. 1-6] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 15

(c) Machinability:
Machinability is the ease with which metal can be removed
in operations such as turning, drilling, reaming, etc. Ease of
metal removal requires that the forces acting against the cutting
tools should be relatively low and the chips will be broken up, a
good finish should result and the tools should last a reasonable
period of time before it has to be replaced or resharpened. Machi-
nability is also expressed as a rnachinability rating for each
material. [This rating is given for most ferrous metals using steels
13S25 in the cold drawn conditions as the basis of 100% machin-
ability. This value involves turning at a cutting speed of 54.9
surface metre per minute for feeds upto 0.1778 mm per revolution
and depths cut upto 6.35 mm using appropriate cutting fluid with
high speed steel T70W18C1r4V1 tools. Machinability of other
metals will be judged with respect to this basis.] This property
plays a predominant role in deciding the selection of material
when components manufactured from it are to be machined on
automatic machine for mass production.
By adding alloying materials like sulphur and lead in steel
its machinability can be increased, however, with some reduction
in tensile strength.

(d) Weldability:
It may be said that all metals are weldable by one process or
another. However, the real criterion in deciding on the weldability
of a metal is weld quality and the ease with which it can be
obtained.
In deciding on weldability of a metal, the characteristics
commonly considered are the heating and cooling effects on the
metal, oxidation, and gas vaporization and solubility.
Heat and Cooling:
The effect of heat in determining the weldability of a material is related to
the change in microstructure that results. For example, steels are sometimes
considered weldable or not weldable on the basis of the hardness of the weld.
The deposited weld metal may pick up carbon or other alloys and impurities from
the parent metal that make it hard and brittle so that cracks result upon cooling.
The opposite effect may also be considered. A metal may have a certain
hardness temper that will be changed by the heat of the weld. Although both
of these conditions can be corrected by added precautions and heat treatment,
they add to the cost and hinder the simplicity of the weld.
4,6 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1

Hot shortness, a characteristic which is indicated by lack of strength at high

temperature, may result in weld failures during cooling of certain metals.
/

Oxidation:
Oxidation of the base metal, particularly at elevated temperatures, is an
important factor in rating weldability of a metal. Metals that oxidize rapidly,
such as aluminium, interfere with the welding process. The oxide has a higher
melting point than the base metal, thus preventing the metal from flowing. It
also may become entrapped in the weld metal. resulting in porosity, reduced
strength. and brittleney,

Gas:
Large volumes of troublesome gases may be formed in the welding of some
metals. These gases may become trapped in,the weld because certain elements
vaporize at temperatures below those needed for welding. Not only will this
cause porosity, but some of the beneficial effects of these elements are lost.

1-7. Ferrous metals Cast iron, Wrought iron and Steel:

All ferrous metals are made by refining pig iron and adding
to it other elements to produce a desired combination of mechanical
properties. It is used in practice as casting or as wrought form.
Ferrous castings are cast iron castings and steel castings.

(A) Cast iron:

Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and is hard
and brittle. Carbon content is always more than 1.7% and
often around 3%. Carbon may be present in two forms: as free
carbon or graphite and as combined carbon or iron carbide (Fe3C).
Cast iron castings are of following types:
Grey iron, malleable iron, spheroidal or nodular graphite
iron, austenitic iron and abrasion resistance casting.

Grey iron castings:

It is a cast iron in which the carbon is mainly in graphite form;
as it is grey in colour, it is called grey cast iron. They arc extensively
used for machine parts because they are inexpensive, can be
given almost any desired form and have high compressive strength.
Graphite is an excellent lubricant, and grey cast iron is easily
machined as the tool is lubricated and chips break off readily.
The freedom with which articles slide over a smooth surface of
cast iron is largely due to graphite in the surface. However,
brittleness and lack of ductility and shock resistance prohibit their
Art., 1.7 ) MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 17

use in parts subject to high tensile stress or suddenly applied

loads. Its use above a temperature of 300°C is avoided.
Silicon is used as a softener in cast iron. Increasing the
silicon content of cast iron increases the free carbon and decreases
the combined carbon. Manganese tends to harden cast iron as it
promotes combined carbon. In a foundry balance has to be struck
between silicon and manganese contents so as to obtain a machine-
able but strong casting.
The speed of cooling has a considerable influence on the final
hardness of cast iron. Castings of light sections cool more rapidly
than heavy castings thus results in formation of more combined
carbon and less free carbon with a consequent increase in hardness.
For these reasons for light castings more silicon is required to
encourage formation of graphite.
The grey iron castings used for general engineering purposes
are designated by letters FG followed by ultimate tensile strength
in kg/sq mm viz. FG20, FG35.
The grey iron castings where chemical composition is more
important are indicated as FG35Sil5 where the important element
Si is also added in designation.
The details of grey cast iron are given in IS: 210-1965. In
this properties of standardised designated castings, according to IS,
FG15, FG20, FG25, FG30, FG35 and FG40 are given. The
properties given are minimum ultimate tensile strength and results
of transverse test such as breaking load, rupture stress and deflection,
for the above grey cast iron. The hardness value as Brinell
hardness number are also given for them.
Ferrous Castings in which carbon is in form of iron carbide
are referred to as white cast iron because they have a whitish
appearance. Iron carbide is a hard, brittle substance and its
presence increases hardness of cast iron. White cast iron is almost
unmachinable and is used somewhat in' parts which require
abrasion resistance.
Malleable Cast iron:
Malleable cast iron is white cast iron which is rendered
malleable by proper annealing. Malleable iron is an inexpensive
material, tougher than grey cast iron and more resistant to bending
and twisting.
18 MACHINE DEVON [Ch. I

Malleable Cast iron is classified as black heart, pearlitic and

white heart and they are designated as follows:
(a) Black heart BM35, BM32, and BM30
(b) pearlitic PM70, PM65, PM55, PM50 and PM45
(c) White heart WM42 and WM35
The number after letters indicates ultimate tensile strength in
kg/sq mm.
Malleable cast iron is useful for many purposes such as gear
housing, brake pedals, plough, tractor and various automobile
parts.
Method of designating some important ferrous castings are
given below:
Spheroidal or nodular graphite iron :
This cast iron has a graphite in form of spheres or nodules.
This type of cast iron possesses high tensile strength and has good
elongation. They are designated by letter SG and a percentage
elongation is also specified alongwith. Spheroidal graphite irons
available and designated are SG80/2, SG70/2, Sb60/2, SG50/7,
SG42/12 and SG38/17. The first number indicates the tensile
strength in kg/sq mm and the number after the oblique is percentage
elongation.
Austenitic flake graphite iron castings :
It is designated by the letters AFG followed by the important
elements of components in the casting, viz. AFGNil6Cu7Cr2.
Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron castings:
It is designated as ASGNi20Cr2. The important elements Ni
and Cr arc included in designation in percentages.
Abrasion resistance iron castings :
They are designated as ABR33Ni4Cr2, where 33 indicates
the minimum tensile strength in kg/sq mm and Ni and Cr, which are
important elements, have their amounts indicated in percentages.
Steel castings:
Five types of' steel castings arc designated.
(i) Unalloyed steel castings are designated by letters CS
followed by minimum tensile strength in kg/sq mm.
Art. 1-71 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 19

Such standardised castings are CS41, CS47, CS55,

CS71, CS85, CS105 and CS125.
(ii) Unalloyed special steel castings (high magnetic perme-
ability) are designated by letters CSM, viz CSM35,
CSM41, etc.
(iii) Alloy steel castings al. e. designated by letter CS but
the important alloying contents have their amounts
indicated in percentages after the minimum tensile
strength value, viz CS50Cr I V20.
(iv) Heat resistant steel castings are designated by letters
CSH, viz. CSH130Ni6Cr28.
(v) Corrosion resistance steel castings are designated by
letters CSC, viz CSCl6Cr13.
In order to have hard durable surface, the castings are
chilled. Such castings are produced by burying iron plates in
the mould; as a result, the metal coming in contact with these
plates will be cooled rapidly and will be harder than the rest of
the casting.
(B) Wrought iron:
Wrought iron is a mechanical mixture of pig iron and uni-
formly distributed silicate slag. It possesses the important
propoerties of ductility, malleability and toughness. It is suitable
for machine parts to be shaped by forging. It has also got excellent
welding properties. With the introduction of steel the use of
wrought iron has decreased although it is still used extensively for
chains and crane hooks, for bolts subjected to shock loads, for
pipes, pipe fittings and culvert plates. The ultimate strength is
about three quarters of that of structural steel while the price is
approximately three times that of mild steel. Several processes
are used in the production of wrought iron of which the puddling
process is most commonly used.
(C) Steel: •

It is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content

is less than 1.7%. It is produced by oxidizing the impurities in
molten pig iron and then adding the amount of necessary carbon
which will give required combination of strength, ductility and
hardness. Since carbon is the controlling element, the steel is
known as plain carbon steel.
20 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

The processes commonly used for manufacture of steel are

(i) the open hearth process, (ii) the Bessemer process and (iii) the
electric furnace process. The particular process used depends on
the chemical analysis of pig iron to be refined and upon the desired
quality of the steel to be produced. The finished molten steel is
to be poured into ingots in sizes suitable for use by rolling mills.
Steel and its alloys are one of the widely used material for
engineering construction. The plain carbon and alloy steels
standardised in India have been covered in Indian Standards
IS: 1570-1961 under the following broad headings:
(a) Steels specified by tensile properties but without
detailed chemical composition; and
(b) Steels specified by chemical composition . These have
been further sub-divided into:
1. Carbon steels
2. Carbon and carbon manganese free cutting steels
3. Alloy steels other than stainless and heat resisting
steels
4. High alloy steels: stainless and heat resisting
steels
5. Carbon and alloy tool steels.
IS: 1871-1965 is a commentary on Indian Standard Wrought
steels which are discussed in IS: 1570-1961. According to this
commentary the standard steels given in TS: 1570-1961 are
regrouped as follows:
(a) Steels specified by tensile properties but without detailed
chemical composition
(b) Carbon and low alloy steels with specified chemical
composition and related mechanical properties
(c) , Carbon and carbon-manganese free cutting steels
(d) Hardened and tempered steels
(e) Case hardening steels (flame and induction hardening,
case carburizing, cyaniding, carbonitriding and
nitriding)
(f) Creep resisting steels
Art. 1-7 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 21

(g) High alloy steels—stainless and heat resisting steels

including valve steels
(h) Carbon and alloy tool steels
In India many collaborations with different firms in different
countries of the world are made and as the standards adopted in
these countries are different, it is difficult to get equivalent
steels in Indian Standards. To help in searching the proper equi-
valent steels, IS: 1870-1965, which gives comparison of Indian
and Overseas standards for wrought steels for general engineering
purposes, is published. It gives comparison of wrought steels
available according to British stanadrds BS, American Standards
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), AISI (American Iron
and Steel Institute), ASM (American Society of Metals) and
ASTM (American Society of Testing Materials), German Standards
DIN, Japanese Standards JIS, Russian Standards GOST and
Indian Standards and their important properties.
It contains 17 tables and in these tables (excluding table
1 and 2) steels are arranged in ascending order of maximum
carbon content thereby bringing together, as far as possible,
similar composition.
Index to IS : 1870-1965 is also published by ISI and it helps by
providing the ready reference to each of standard steel compared
in IS: 1870-1965. In this index 8 country wise sections are provided,
according to the standards of countries compared in IS 1870-1965. In
each section specification number, designation and reference number
as in IS : 1870-1965 are provided, thereby a ready reference in IS :
1870-1965 can be easily obtained and details of the specifications of
steels in other countries can be obtained. When standards number
with designation for the steel of any country is specified, then the
material designated in any of the other seven countries mentioned
above can be obtained by noting the reference number given in
the index and referring it in IS: 1870-1965.
. The Indian Standards Institution has adopted a standard IS: 1762-1961
for uniform system of designation of steels. According to it a steel may be
designated by a group of symbols, indicating the important characteristics such
as tensile strength, carbon content, alloy content, sulphur and phosphorus
limits, weldabikty, surface finish, surface condition, steel quality and treatment.
The following prefixes may precede the designation of steel to avoid confusion
with designation of other materials:
22 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 1

S for wrought steel

CS for cast steel
If the steel is to be designated on the basis of its tensile strength without
detailed chemical composition, the symbol 'St' is to be followed by the value of
minimum ultimate tensile strength in kg/mm2. `St 50' designates steel whose
minimum ultimate tensile strength is 50 kg/mm2. For plain carbon steels, the
letter C is followed by the average carbon content- in hundredths of a percent.
Plain carbon steel containing carbon from 0.10 to 0.18% will be designated by
`C 14'. For alloy steels the carbon content in hundredths of a percent shall be
used without the prefix 'C'. For carbon and alloy tool steels the letter 'T' is to
be followed by the average carbon content in hundredths of a percent. The
alloy index shall consist of chemical symbols of the significant elements arranged
in descending order of percentage contents. The nominal or average percentage
of each alloying elements shall be indicated by an index number following its
chemical symbol.
A nickel chromium molybdenum alloy steel with grain size controlled and
case carburised with composition
Carbon 0.12 to 0.18
Silicon 0.10 to 0.35
Manganese 0.6 to 1.00
Nickel 1.00 to 1.50
Chromium 0.75 to 1.25
Molybdenum 0.08 to 0.15
is designated as 15Ni 13Cr1 Mol2Gc.
Here the first numbers indicate the average carbon content in hundredths
of a percent. The rest of the numbers indicate the average percentage of the
alloying elements designated by its chemical symbols which precedes the numbers.
The underlined number is number after the decimal points. Last letter 'G'
indicates steel quality while 'c' indicates treatment given to the steel. In this
manner the chemical composition of any alloy can be given.
Guaranteed weldability of steel shall be indicated by letters
W for fusion weldable,
WP for pressure weldable,
WP for weldable by resistance welding, and
WS for weldable by spot weldirg.
Weldable steel is designated as St 55W, St 60 WP, etc.
Surface conditions for sheets are designated by letter F; however, this is
applicable to sheets only. For black sheets the varieties are F, F2, F3, and F4
with different surface finishes. F5 is suitable for deep drawing, F6 for extra
deep drawing, and F7 for cold finish sheets.
Surface conditions are designated by letter J.
Art. 1-7 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 23

The following surface finishes are designated:

Designation Surface condition
.1 1 Bright drawn or bright rolled
J 2 Precision ground skinned
J 3 Pickled or descaled
.." 4 Shot blasted or sand blasted
J 5 Deseamed or scarfed
J 6 Reeled
Steel quality designated are as under:
A Non ageing quality
E Stabilized against stress corrosion
L Control cooled to ensure freedom from flaws
D Fully killed (deoxidised)
D2 Semi killed
I? Rimming quality
G Grain size controlled
H Hardenability controlled
1 Inclusion controlled
Al Structural quality guaranteed
Treatment designated are as follows:
a Annealed or softened
c Case carburized
d Hard drawn, cold reduced
It Hot rolled
n Normalised
o Spherodised
P Patented
q Hardened and tempered
s Stress relieved
i Tempered.

Steels specified by tensile properties:

The following steels specified by tensile properties are
standardised:
St 30, St 32, St 34, St 37, St 39, St 42, St 44, St 47,
St 50, St 52, St 55, St 58, St 63, St 66, St 78, St 88.
Schedule I of IS: 1570-1961 specifies the ultimate tensile
strength and corresponding minimum percentage elongation for
round and flat test pieces for the above steels.
St 30 to St 50 are general structural steels and are available
in the form of bar sections, tubes, plates and strips. St 55 to St 66
are medium tensile structural steels, while St 78 and St 88 are high
tensile steels.
24 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 1

Typical uses of structural steels are given in table 1-7-1.

Table 1-7.1
Typical uses of steels specified by tensile properties
but without detailed chemical composition
. ____ ___. --
Steel Designation ___ Typical Uses
St 30 Structural steel sheets for plain drawn parts, tubes for oil well casing,
steam, water and air passages, cycle, motorcycle and automobile tubes,
rivet bars and wire
St 32 i Steels for locomotive carriage and car structures, screw stock
St 34 1
St 37 Structural steel for chemical pressure vessels
St 39 Structural steel for ships, chemical vessels, au receivers and fasteners
St 42 Structural steel for bridges and building construction, railway rolling
stock, screw spikes, and oil well casing
St 44 Structural steel for railway rolling stock, pressure vessels, fasteners,
and valve fittings for compressed gas cylinders
St 47 Structural steel for railway rolling stock, pressure parts of marine and
land boilers, and rivets for air receivers
St 50 Structural steel for mines, forgings for marine engines, and machine
parts.
St 52 Steel for railway wheels, disc wheel centres for railway and electric
tramway cars, and seamless t u 14's .
St 55 High tensile steel for locomotive, carriage wagon and tramway axles,
bolts, and seamless and welded t ubzs.
St 58 High tensile steel for bridges and :,eneral construction, and bars and
wire for concrete reinforcement.
St 63 High tensile steel for tramway axles and seamless tubes.
St 66 High tensile steel for locomotive, carriage and wagon wheels and tyres,
St 78 and machine parts for heavy loading.
St 88

Carbon steels with specified chemical composition:

The standard carbon steels specified in schedule II of IS:
1570-1961 and manufactured in practice are as follows:
C04, C05, 007, C10, C14, C15, Cl5Mn75, C20, C25,
C25Mn75, C30, C35,C35Mn75, C40, 045, 650, C50Mn 1, C55, C55Mn75, 060,
065, C7V, C75, 080, 085, C98 and C113.
Steels having upto 0.7 percent carbon are generally employed
in hot worked or normalised condition and so the tensile properties
and the percentage elongation for this steel is specified under
above conditions.
Cold drawn bars of CIO, C15 Mn75, C20, C30, C40, C50 and
C55Mn75 are standardised and their minimum ultimate tensile
Art. 1-7 1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 25

strength in kg/sq mm and percentage elongation for different sizes

are specified in schedule II of IS: 1570-1961.

Mechanical properties giving minimum values of ultimate

tensile strength, yield strength in kg/sq mm with corresponding
percentage elongation and minimum Izod impact value for bar
and forgings in hardened and tempered conditions are specified
in table V of schedule II for the following carbon steels:
C30, C35Mn75, C40, C45, C50, and C55Mn75

The above values of mechanical properties for the core and

for the case hardened steels 010 and C14 are specified for the
refined and quenched conditions in the table VI of the schedule.

Tensile strength and elongation properties of mild steel sheets

and strips of 007, 010, C15, 020 in cold rolled and annealed
conditions arc given in table VII of the schedule, while the tensile
properties in cold rolled condition for C15 in quarter hard, half
hard and full hard conditions are specified in the table VIII of the
schedule. When maximum ductility for very severe drawing
and pressing operation is required, steels 004, CO5 and C07 are
used. For less cold working, steels C10, 015 and 020 are used.

Minimum ultimate tensile strength and minimum yield

stress for tubes in cold drawn annealed conditions and in cold
drawn and tempered conditions and made of the following carbon
steels are given in table IX of the schedule:
014, 015, C15Mn75, 020, 025, C25Mn75, C35, C35Mn75,
045 and C50

Hot finished tubes depending on the size requirements are

also further modified in dimensions by cold drawing or rolling.
These tubes provide smaller diameters and thinner wall thicknesses
and possess better surface and dimensional accuracy. Their
properties are specified in table X of the schedule.

Small flat section springs are made of steel strips of C50,

C50Mn75, C60, C65, 070, C80, C85, C98 and 0113. The flat
sections are available in annealed or drawn conditions for the
purpose.
26 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I
Table 1-7.2 gives typical uses of carbon steels.
Table 1-7.2
Typical uses of carbon steels of specified chemical composition
Steel
Designation Typical Uses
C04 Dead soft steel generally used in electrical industry.
005, C07 They are used as sheet, strip, rod and wire specially where
and C10 excellent surface finish or good drawing qualities are required,
such as automobile body and fender stock, hoods, lamps, oil
pans, and a multiple of deep drawn and formed products.
They are also used for cold heading wire and rivets and low
carbon wire products.
CIO and Used for making camshafts, cams, light duty gears, worms,
C14 gudgeon pins, selector forks, spindles, pawls, ratchets, chain
wheels and tappets.
C15 Used for lightly stressed parts.
C15Mn75, 020, General purpose steels for low stressed components.
C25 andC25Mn75
C30 Used for making cold formed parts, such as shift and brake
levers. After suitable case hardening or hardening and
tempering, this steel is used for making parts, such as socket,
tie rod, adjustable control lever cable, shaft fork and rear hub,
2-wheeler and 3-wheeler lambretta parts such as sprocket,
lever, hubs, forks, cams, and bushes. Tubes for aircraft, auto-
mobile and bicycle are made of this steel.
035 Used for low stressed parts, automobile tubes and fasteners.
C35Mn75 Used for making low stressed parts in machine structures,
cycle and motorcycle tubes, and fasteners.
040 Used for crankshafts, shafts, spindles, automobile axle beams,
push rods, connecting rods, studs, bolts, lightly stressed gears.
C45 Used for spindles of machine tools, bigger gears, bolts and shafts.
C50 Used for making keys, shafts, cylinders, machine components
requiring moderate wear resistance. In surface hardened
condition it is also suitable for large-pitch worms and gears.
C50Mn1 Used for bolts, gear shafts, rocking levers and cylinder liners
and as rail steel.
055 and Used for making gears, cylinders, cams, keys, crank shafts,
C55Mn75 sprockets and machine parts requiring moderate wear resistance
for which toughness is not of primary importance.
060 Used for making spindles for machine tools, hardened screws
and nuts, couplings, crank shafts, axles and pinions.
C65 Used for making locomotive carriage and wagon tyres. Typical
uses of this steel in the spring industry include engine valve
springs, small washers and thin stamped parts.
C70 Used for making buffer springs, shock absorbers, springs for
seat cushions for road vehicles. It is also used for making rail
tyres, unhardened gears and worms.
Art. 1-7 J MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 27

Steel Typical Uses

Designation
C75 Used for making light flat springs formed from annealed
stock. When properly heat treated it is used for making plough
shears, rake teeth scrappers and cultivators' shovels.
C80 and Used for making flat and coil springs for automobiles and
C85 railway vehicles. After suitable heat treatment these steels are also
used for making scraper blades, discs and spring tooth harrows.
C98 and In oil hardened and tempered condition used for coil or
C113 spiral springs.

Carbon and carbon manganese free cutting steels:

The standardised free cutting carbon and carbon manganese
steels as per schedule III are as follows:
10S11, 14Mn1S14, 25Mn1S14, 40S18, 13S25, 40Mn2S12.
All the above steels are available in hot rolled or normalised
condition and cold drawn form.
Machinability ratings for the above steels in the cold drawn
condition are as under:
Steel BHN Average machinability rating
10511 121 80
14Mn1S14 137 90
25Mn1S14 143 80
40S18 197 70
13S25 137 100
40Mn2S12 212 70

These steels are used where high machinability is desirable in

parts which are to be machined on automatic machines. The
properties of these steels are given in schedule III of IS: 1570-1961
and in sectional list it is given separately as IS:4431-1967.
Following properties for the different shapes for free cutting
steels are given in various tables of schedule HI of IS :1570-1961.
(i) The ultimate tensile strength and corresponding mini-
mum elongation in percent for hot rolled or normalised
bars and billets are given in table XVII and for cold
drawn bars in table XVIII.
(ii) Table XIX gives ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
elongation and Izod impact values for 40S18, and 40Mn2
S12 for free cutting hardened and tempered bars and
forgings in hardened and tempered conditions.
28 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

Addition of lead, usually upto 0.3 per cent, improves machin-

ability of steels which are not included in schedule III of IS: 1570-
1961.
Cold drawing of low carbon steel improves its surface finish
on machining; however, the addition of sulphur enhances its
machinability considerably afid makes the steel free cutting.
Addition of sulphur decrease the cold forming properties, and
weldability and reduces forging characteristics. This steel is used
where easy machining is primary requirement and its properties
are similar to carbon and steels with similar carbon and man-
ganese content.
Steels 10S11, 14Mn1S14 and 13S25 may be case hardened
and steels 40S18, and 40MnIS12 can be hardened and tempered.
Steel 25Mn1S14 is commonly used in the bright condition.
Steels 10S11, 14Mn1S14, 13S25 and 25Mn1S14 are used
where combination of good machinability and uniform response
to heat treatment is needed. The low carbon variety 10S11 is
used for small parts which arc to be cyanided or carbonitrided.
Steels 14Mn1S14 and 13S25 carry more manganese, permitting
oil quenching during case hardening treatment. High carbon
steel 25Mn1S14 provides more core hardness when this is needed.
It is used for the production of small parts by rapid machining,
such as nuts.
Steels 40S18 and 40Mn2S12 have characteristics comparable
to carbon steels of the same carbon level and are preferred where
large amount of machining is necessary, or where operations offer
tooling problems. They may be obtained as hot rolled, normalized
or cold drawn. These steels may be hardened and tempered
to increase strength and are usually suitable for oil quenching.
The high manganese variety steel 40Mn2S12 offers greater
hardenability.
Table 1-7.3 on page 29 gives typical uses of carbon and
carbon manganese free cutting steels.

Low alloy Steels:

The properties of these alloy steels such as chemical composi-
tion and mechanical properties are given in schedule IV of IS:
1570-1961.
Art. 1-7 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 29

Table 1-7.3
Typical use of carbon and carbon-manganese free cutting steels
Steel Typical Uses
Designation
-------
10S11 Used for small parts to be cyanided or carbonitrided.
14Mn 1 S14 Used for parts where good machinability and finish arc impor-
tant, and where disadvantages of the higher sulphur required
to give full free cutting properties make the use of the more
rapid machining steel 13S25 undesirable.
25Mn1S14 Bolts, studs and other heat-treated parts of small section.
Suitable in either cold drawn, normalized or heat treated
condition for moderately stressed parts requiring more strength
than that of mild steel.
40S18 Heat treated bolts, engine shafts, connecting rods,
13S25 Used for lightly stressed components not subjected to shock
(nuts, studs, etc.) and suitable for production on automatic
lathes. It should be used when east of machining is the
deciding factor. It is not intended for use where the hardened
case is subjected to severe impact in service.
40Mn2S12 Heat treated axles, shafts, small crankshafts and other vehicle
parts. It is not recommended for forgings in which transverse
properties arc important.

According to IS: 1570-1961, 48 different low alloy steels are

standardized and are designated as under:
37Si2Mn90 15Cr65 150-90Mo55 16Ni1Cr80
55Si2Mn90 17Mn1Cr95 40CrIMo60 13Ni3Cr80
11Mn2 20MnCrl 10Cr2Mol 15Ni4Crl
20Mn2 55Cr70 I 511r3Mo55 35Ni1Cr60
27Mn2 40Cr1 25Cr3Mo55 30Ni4Cr1
37Mn2 50Cr1 10Cr5Mo55 15NiCrlMol2
47Mn2 105Cr! 2OCr5Mo55 15Ni2Cr1Mo15
35Mn2Mo28 105Cr1Mn60 35Cr1Mo65V25 40NiCrIMo15
35Mn2Mo45 50Cr1V23 40Cr3MolV20 40Ni2CrIMO28
10Mo55 21CrIMo28 40Cr2A11MO18 31Ni3Cr65MO55
20Mo55 40Cr1Mo28 40Ni3 . 40Ni3Cr65Mo§-5
33Mo55 07Cr90Mo55 16Ni80Cr60 16NiCt/Mo20

Schedule IV of IS: 1570-1961 gives properties for different

types of low alloy steels in tabular form. The chemical composi-
tion of above standardized low alloy steels are given in table
XXI of the schedule. The list of tables giving the important
mechanical properties of some of the above alloy steels given in
the schedule are as follows:
30 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

(i) Table XXII specifies the values of ultimate tensile

strength, minimum yield stress and minimum percentage
elongation for plates, sections, bars, billets and forgings
in the hot rolled or normalised condition when made
of the following low alloy steels:
11Mn2, 20Mn2, 27Mn2.
(ii) Table XXIII specifies ultimate tensile strength and
percentage elongation for limiting 'ruling sections for
cold drawn 1.5% manganese steel bars made of 20Mn2.
(iii) Table XXIV specifies the tensile strength, yield strength,
0.2% proof stress, percentage elongation, Izod impact
value and BHN for different limiting ruling section
for bars and forgirgs in the hardened and the tempered
conditions mostly for oil hardening of the following
materials:
20Mn2, 27Mn2, 37Mn2, 35Mn2Mo28, 35Mn2Mo45,
40Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 15CrMo55 and 25Cr3Mo55,
40Cr3Mo1V20, 40Cr2A11Mo18, 40Ni3, 35Ni1 Cr60,
30Ni4Crl, 40NiCr1Mo15, 40Ni2CrlMo28, 31NiCr-
65Mo55, 40Ni3Cr65Mo55.
(iv) Table XXV specifies mechanical properties for wear
resistance steels 55Cr70 in the hardened and tempered
conditions. The properties specified are, for different
limiting ruling sections, the ultimate tensile strength,
percentage elongation, Izod impact value and BHN.
(v) Table XXVI specifies mechanical properties of ultimate
tensile strength, percentage elongation and minimum
Izod impact value for the following case hardening
steels in the refined and quenched condition:
11 Mn2, 15Cr65, 16Ni80Cr60, 17Mn1Cr95, 16Niler80,
13NiCr80, 201VInCrl, - -15NiCrlMo12, 15Ni2Cr1Mo15,
15Ni4Crl, 16NiCr2Mo20.
(vi) Table XXVII specifies ultimate tensile strength limits
for steel sheet and strips made of 20Mn2, 47Mn2 and
21Crl Mo28. It is provided for soft, hot rolled or
normalised or normalised and tempered conditions
and also for hardened and tempered or cold rolled and
tempered conditions. The properties specified are
ultimate tensile strength, 0.1% proof stress and BHN.
Art, 1-7] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 31

(vii) Table XXVIII specifies the ultimate tensile strength,

yield stress or 0.2% proof stress and percentage elonga-
tion for different heat treated conditions for the follow-
ing low alloy steels:
20Mn2, 27Mn2, 40Crl and 50Cr1 21CrlMo28,
40Cr 1 Mo28, 30Ni4Cr 1 , 31Ni3Cr65Mo55.
(viii) 'Fable XXIX specifies ultimate tensile strength, yield
stress and percentage elongation for plates, sections and
bars in normalised or annealed conditions made of
following creep resisting steels:
10Mo55, 20Mo55, 15Cr90 Mo55, 10Cr5Mo55.
(ix) Table XXX specifies ultimate tensile strength, yield
stress, percentage elongation, minimum Izod impact
value for steel bars and forgings in the normalised or
normalised and tempered conditions for the following
creep resisting steels:
10Mo55, 20Mo55, 15Cr90Mo55, 10Cr2Mo1, 15Cr3-
Mo55, 35Cr1 Mo65V25.
(x) Table XXXI specifies ultimate tensile strength, yield
stress, percentage elongation, Izod impact value for
corresponding limiting ruling sections, for steel bars
and forgings in the hardened and tempered conditions
and made of the following creep resisting steels:
33Mo55, 40Cr1Mo60, 20Cr5Mo55,
(xi) Table XXX1I specifies ultimate tensile strength, yield
stress and percentage elongation for tubes made of
following creep resisting steels:
10Mo55, 20Mo55, 07Cr90Mo55, 15Cr90Mo55,
10Cr2Mo1, 15Cr3Mo55, 10Cr5Mo55.
(xii) Table XXXIII specifies limiting ruling sections (in mm)
of hardened and tempered steels lying in the range of
tensile strength 60 to 135 kg/sq mm.
'Fable 1-7.4 gives typical uses of low alloy steels.
Some of the low alloy steels and few carbon steels show useful
properties like hardening, case hardening and creep' resistance
after suitable treatment.
32 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1

Table 1-7.4
Typical uses of low alloy steels
(other than stainless and heat resisting steels)

Steel
Typical Uses
Designation

37Si2Mn90 Water-hardening spring steel for road and railway vehicles

55Si2Mn90 Oil-hardening spring steel for road and railway vehicles
11Mn2 Notch ductile steel for general purposes. Also used in making
filler rods, colliery cage suspension gear tube, mine car draw
gear, couplings and rope sockets.
2OMn2 and Used for welded structures, crankshafts, steering levers,
27Mn2 shifting spindles,
37Mn2 Used for making axles, shafts, crankshafts, connecting rods
47Mn2 Used for tram rails
35Mn2Mo28
and Used for components such as crankshafts, bolts, wheel studs
35Mn2Mo45 axles shafts, levers and connecting rods
10Mo55 and Used for making steam piping, boiler tubing, pipe fittings and
20Mo55 plates for use in steam service
33Mo55 Used for bolting material and miscellaneous fittings for steam
service
15Cr65 Used for roller bearings, measuring instruments, and piston pins
I 7Mn 1 Cr95 Used for small gear wheels and shafts, cardan joints and
steering regulators
20MnCr1 Used for medium size gear wheels and shafts of vehicles
55Cr70 Used for making rollers, shaft•, mandrels, cylinder liners,
axles, gears, etc
40Cr I Used for making gears, connecting rods, stub axles, steering
arms, wear-resistant plates for earth moving and concrete
handling equipment
50Cr 1 Spring steel
105Cr1 and Roller bearing steels
105Cr 1 Mn60
50Cr 1 V23 Used for making laminated, coil and volute springs. (This
steel is not susceptible to decarburization as silico-manganese
steels are.)
21CrlMo28 Used for making axles, shafts, steering arms and other meditun
stressed components
40Cr 1 Mo28 Used for making axle shafts, crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, high tensile bolts and studs, propeller shaft joint
07Cr90Mo55 Used for boiler and superheater tubes, plates for pressure
vessels and welding electrodes.
15Cr90Mo55 Used for boiler and superheater tubes, plates, pipe fittings,
forgings and bolting material for petroleum and chemical
industries
40Cr 1 Mo60 Bolting material for steam service
Art. 1.7] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 33

Steel
Designation Typical uses

10Cr2Mol Used for tubes, pipe fittings and forgings for high temperature
service
15Cr3Mo55 and Used for crank-shafts, cylinder liners for aero and automobile
25Cr3Mo55 engines, gears, and machine parts requiring high surface
hardness, and wear resistance
10Cr5Mo55 Steel for tubes, pipe fittings and plates for use in chemical and
petroleum industries
20Cr5Mo55 Bolting material for use in chemical and petroleum industries.
35Cr1Mo6 W25 Steel for high temperature bolts and nuts
40Cr3Mo I V20 Used for components requiring high tensile properties and in
the nitrided condition for components subjected to heavy
stress and severe wear
40Cr2A1 1 Mo 18 Used for components requiring the maximum surface hardness
of a nitrided case combined with a fairly high core strength
40Ni3 Used for parts requiring excessively high toughness, for
components working at low temperatures in refrigerators,
compressors, locomotives and aircrafts and for heavy forgings,
and severely stressed screws, bolts and nuts
16Ni80Cr60 and Used in the automobile industry for lightly loaded gear box
16NiThr80 and transmission components; and in the aircraft industry
for cams
13N13Cr80 Used for heavy duty gears for aircraft, heavy vehicles and
automobile transmission components
15Ni4Cr1 Used for heavy duty components including aero engines, gears
and supercharger gears and worms
35Ni1Cr60 Used for aircrafts and heavy vehicles engine components
30Ni4Cri Used for highly stressed gears and for components where
minimum distortion in heat treatment is essential
15NiCrl Mo12 Used for heavy duty gears, and automobile transmission
and components
15Ni2CrIMo15
40NiCr1Mo15 Used for general machine parts, such as bolts, nuts, gears,
axles, connecting rods, shafts, etc.
40Ni2Cr1Mo28 Used for high strength machine parts, high tensile bolts and
studs, gears, pinions, axle shafts, tappets, crankshafts, connecting
rods
31Ni3Cr65Mo55 Used for making highly stressed .components for all types of
and aircraft power units, air frames and under carriages, and for
40Ni3Cr65Mo55 low temperature service
16NiCr2 Mo20 Used for heavy duty gears and heavy vehicles and automobile
transmission components.
34 MA CHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1

These steels, therefore, are further classified as

(i) Hardened and tempered steels
(ii) Case hardening steels which are subclassified as:
(a) flame and induction hardening steels
(b) case carburizing steels
(c) carbonitriding, cyaniding and nitriding steels
(iii) Creep resisting steels.
Hardened and tempered steels:
Carbon steels (containing carbon from 0.25 to 0.60 percent and
manganese 1.0 percent maximum) are used in the form of general
engineering forgings and drop forgings after simple normalizing
treatment, but superior combinations of tensile strength, yield
strength, ductility and shock resistance properties may be obtained
from these steels after hardening and tempering. Hardening
requires rapid cooling by quenching in a medium, such as oil or
water. Oil hardening being more common because it is less liable
to cause cracking and distortion.
By addition of alloying elements, such as manganese, nickel,
chromium and molybdenum, the minimum rate at which cooling
should be carried out to obtain effective hardening is decreased
depending on the amount of elements or the combination of ele-
ments added. Thus, it becomes possible by the use of alloy steels
to produce effective hardening in sizes larger than those could be
hardened in carbon steels. The standardised carbon and alloy
steels intended for hardening and tempering are given below :
Steels for hardening and tempering
(1) Carbon steels: C30, C35Mn75, C40, C45, C50, C55Mn75
(ii) Carbon and carbon-manganese free cutting steels: 40518, 40Mn2S12.
(iii) Low Alloy steels
20Mn2 35Mn2Mo45 40Ni2CrIMo28 40Cr3MolV20
27Mn2 40Cr1Mo28 31Ni3Cr65Mo55 40Cr2A11Mo18
37Mn2 40Ni3 30Ni4Cr1 55Cr70
40Cr1 35Ni1Cr60 15Cr3Mo55 105Cr l
35Mn2Mo28 40NiCrlMo15 25Cr3Mo55 105Cr1Mo60
The tensile strength of these steels ranges from 60 kg/sq mm,
to 150 kg/sq mm in ruling sections upto 150 mm. The yield
strength for the different ruling sections for these steels are given
in corresponding schedules of IS: 1570-1961.
Art. 1-7 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 35

The main criterion for the selection of hardened and tempered

steel is the ruling section and the mechanical properties of heat
treated parts but the present day trend is also to select steels
on the basis of hardenability. According to the degree of harde-
nability, hardened and tempered steels are divided into four groups:
(a) Poor hardenability steels which include carbon steels
(b) Medium hardenability steels which include low alloy
steels
(c) Increased hardenability steels which include some
complexly alloyed steels
(d) High hardenability steels which include high alloy steels
containing three or more alloying elements.
The hardenability is decided for the steel by the hardening
obtained on the cylindrical specimen of the corresponding steel of
maximum specified diameter after quenching it in water. The
maximum specified diameter for the above cases are (a) 15 mm,
(b) 35 mm, (c) 75 mm and (d) 100 mm.
Case Hardening Steels:
It is classified as
(i) Flame and induction hardening steels,
(ii) Case carburizing steels,
(iii) Carbonitriding, cyaniding and nitriding steels.
The case hardening provides the surface called case, substantia-
lly harder than the interior called core. This is achieved either
by altering the structure at the surface by local hardening with
flame or induction hardening or by altering both composition
or structure at the surface by case carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding
or carbonitriding. These types of case hardened steels are
used fn number of engineering applications where the surface is
heavily stressed compared to interior which is stressed to a much
smaller extent.
In IS: 1570-1961 only case carburizing steels are classified as
case hardening steels. The steels which can be hardened by other
processes mentioned as above arc also grouped in this class in
practice.
Flame hardening and induction hardening:
In flame hardening, case depth upto 6 mm is quite common.
It is not possible to obtain case depth smaller than 1 mm with
36 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I
flame hardening, on account of the limitations in flame temperature
and thermal conductivity of steel. Case depth as low as 0.1 mm
may be achieved by induction hardening and there is no limit for
the maximum case depth that can be obtained with it. For all
practical purposes flame hardening and induction hardening
processes may be considered identical except for the mode of heat-
ing and minimum obtainable 'depth of case.
Flame hardening is widely used where:
(a) large work piece is to be case hardened,
(b) small area of work piece is to be case hardened, and
(c) higher dimensional accuracy is required.
Surface hardness of above 59 C Rockwell hardness is desirable
for wear resistance for which carbon content about 0.4% is
normally employed.
In induction hardening the heat is developed at the steel
surface by electrical induction by the field of an alternating
current. The heat produced depends upon the induced current
and the electrical resistivity of the material, while the depth of
heat penetration depends on the frequency power density and the
time.
Steels listed under hardened and tempered steels in table are
usually used for flame hardening and induction hardening.
Case carburizing:
It consists of introducing carbon at the surface of steel to
form high carbon layer and subsequently hardening to obtain a
hard case and tough core. Case carburized steel should not have
carbon content more than 0.22% to obtain an adequate core
toughness in finished component.
Case carburizing steels are used when high toughness, fatigue
strength and resistance to wear are required than those obtained in
steels hardened by flame or induction hardening.
Steels which can be case carburized are as under:
Case Carburizing Steels
(i) Carbon steels: CIO, C14
(ii) Free cutting steels: 10S11, 14Mn1S14
(iii) Alloy steels:
11Mn2 16Ni8OCr60 15NiCrlMo12
15Cr65 16Nii-Cra 15Ni2Cr1 MO75
17MniCr95 13Ni3Crikl 16NiCr2Moiri
20IvInCr 1 — 15Ni4Cr1
Art. 1-7 1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 37

Case carburizing is recommended for case depth upto 2 mm.

The tensile strengths expected in the core of case carburized
components are given in tables VI and XXVI of IS: 1570-1961 for
carbon steel and low alloy steel respectively.
a
Nitriding :
It is the process by which nitrogen is introduced in the surface
of the steel. It is classified as:
(i) carbonitriding,
(ii) cyaniding, and
(iii) nitriding.
Carbonitriding :
In this process carbon and nitrogen are simultaneously intro-
duced in the surface of the steel by heating it between 650°C to
950°C in an atmosphere obtained by the addition of anhydrous
ammonia to carburizing gases and finally quenching it in a
suitable medium.
Nitrogen gets concentrated near the surface and is backed up
by a carburized case. If enough nitrogen is present a very hard
surface is obtained even without quenching. The surface hardness
obtained by this method is higher than that obtained in carburizing
process.
Medium carbon steels are carbonitrided with case depth
upto 0.6 mm for applications which do not involve heavy shock
loads. Case depth upto 0.25 mm is usually used for light they.

Cyaniding :
It is carried out in a molten salt bath containing upto 50%
cyanide. The treatment is carried out at a temperature range of
650°C to 950°C. This process is similar to carbonitriding except
the medium used, which is liquid. For practical purposes results
obtained by cyaniding and carbonitriding may be considered
identical.
Nitriding:
It is carried out by exposing the component to the action
of nascent nitrogen in either a gaseous medium of dry ammonia or
liquid medium of a mixture of cyanide and cyanates in the
temperature range of 490°C to 590°C. It is not necessary to use
38 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I

quenching at the end. The nitrided case obtained consists of

two zones:
(i) A white brittle zone next to the surface, consisting
entirely of nitrides which is very hard and brittle
(ii) A tougher diffused zone below the white zone.
The white zone is usually restricted below 0.01 mm and is
removed later by lapping to avoid flake failure. The hardness
developed depends upon the amount of stable nitride forming
elements like aluminium, chromium, vanadium and tungsten
and the nitriding cycle. The hardness ranging between 900 to
1,100 Vickers Hardness can be obtained. The distortion due to
nitriding is low and, therefore, the components can be finished to
final dimenion before this treatment. The treatment in gaseous
medium will give less distortion.
Nitriding steels are:
15 Cr3Mo55, 25Cr3Mo55, 40Cr3MolV20, 40Cr2Al1Mo18.
The nitrided steels produce high surface hardness, low distor-
tion, resistance to softening upto 500°C, anti-weld properties,
improved fatigue properties and superior corrosion resistance.
However, it cannot be produced to have case depth more than
0.5 mm and it cannot take highly concentrated loads.
Creep resisting steels:
Steel behaves plastically at the stress level below its elastic
limit when continuously subjected to temperatures above 300°C.
The selection of steel for parts operating above 300°C should be
made on the basis of creep. The creep resisting steels of low alloy
content are specified as under:
Creep resisting steels
10M055 07Cr90Mo55 10Cr2Mo1 10Cr5Mo55
20Mo55 15Cr90Mo55 15Cr3Mo55 20Cr5Mo55
33Mo55 40Cri Mo60
- 25Cr3Mo55 35Cr 1 Mo65V25
- -
Addition of molybdenum to steel considerably improves
the creep resistance and therefore, molybdenum is added more
than 0.5% alone or with other elements in creep resisting steels.
Chromium about 1 to 1.25% is used with 0.5% molybdenum with
differing carbon contents in creep resisting steels. Steel with
0.12% carbon is used for pipes and tubes, with higher carbon
Art. 1-7 1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 39

for forgings and 0.4% carbon for high temperature when heat
treated. Steels with chromium contents of 3% and 6% with
0.5% molybdenum are used for many parts of petroleum and
chemical plants. Addition of 0.2% vanadium into later steels
increases the endurance limit.

High alloy steels—stainless and heat resisting steels:

Alloy steels containing more than 12% chromium are stainless

and heat resisting steels. Corrosion and heat resisting properties
of these steels are improved by addition of nickel and molybdenum.
As the alloy content in these steels is more so it is known as high
alloy steel. These steels are classified, according to the chemical
composition and heat treatment, as follows:
(a) Chromium steels containing 12 to 14 percent chromium,
magnetic, hardenable by heat treatment and possessing
martenistic structure
(b) Chromium steels containing more than 16 percent
chromium, magnetic, non-hardenable and possessing
ferritic structure and
(c) Chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-molybdenum
steels, non-magnetic and possessing austenitic structure.
Chromium steels containing 12 to 14 percent chromium are
07Cr13, 15Cr13, 22Cr13, 30Cr13 and 22Crl3S28.
These steels contain very low carbon to maximum. about
0.35%. They may be hardened and the hardness depends on the
carbon content. These steels find many useful general applications
where mild corrosion resistant is required.
Chromium content to 16 percent with low carbon content
provides better corrosion resistance and a standard steel 07Cr17
is available. However, these steels have little capacity for hard-
ening by heat treatment but in softened condition it possesses
good ductility and is mainly used as sheet or strip for cold forming
and pressing operations for purposes requiring moderate corrosion
resistance. It develops brittleness after electric arc or gas welding.
It possesses good machinability.
The standard steel 20Cr18Ni2 is more resistant to corrosive
action than steel with 12 to 14 percent chromium. It possesses
40 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I

good resistant to electrolytic corrosion when in contact with non-

ferrous metals and graphite packings.

Austenitic stainless steels:

These steels have high content of chromium and nickel. They
possess very good properties of resistance to corrosion and scaling
and also good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures.
Standard austenitic stainless steels are as under:
Austenitic stainless steels
04Cr19.ii9 07Cr 19Ni9Ti35 05Crl8Nil1Mo3
07Cr 19Ni9 07Cr 19Ni9Nb70 05Cr18Ni11Mo3Ti20
04Cr 19Ni9Ti20 07Cr19Ni9Mo2 10Cr25Ni18
04Cr 19Ni9Nb40 07Crl9Ni9Mo2Ti28 10Cr25Ni18Ti40
10Cr25Ni18Nb80
These steels cannot be hardened by quenching; actually they
get softened by rapid cooling from about 1,000°C. These steels
possess high ductility in softened condition and can be used for
production of pressing. When maximum ductility is required for
deep drawing or for cold spinning low carbon is desired. It is also
required when maximum corrosion resistance after welding is
required because these steels though readily weldable but are
suceptible to corrosive attack in an area adjacent to weld. This
effect may be removed by heating to about 1,100°C and cooling
rapidly.
High tensile strength is obtained in these steels after cold
drawing when high carbon percentage exists in these steels. Wire
with tensile strength upto 200 kg/sq mm can be obtained by cold
drawing and they can be used for manufacturing small springs.
There are many variations in chemical composition of these
steels but the general purpose stainless steel known as 18/8 steel
contains about 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It provides
excellent resistance to attack by many chemicals. These steels
also possess good resistance to oxidation upto about 800°C tempera-
ture and also have good creep resistance at this temperature. If
superior strength and scaling resistance for higher temperature
upto 1,150°C are required, steels containing 25% chromium and-
18% nickel are often used.
The mechanical properties of high alloy steels for different
shapes and different treatment conditions are given in tables of
schedule V of IS: 1570-1961.
Art. ./-1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 41

Table XXXV gives ultimate tensile strength, yield stress,

0.2% proof stress, percentage elongation, Izod impact value, BHN
for different ruling sections for bars and forgings in the hardened
and tempered conditions made of the following steels:
07Cr13, 15Cr13, 22Cr13, 30Cr13, 22Cr13S28 and 20Crl8Ni2
Table XXXVI gives ultimate tensile strength and percentage
elongation for sheet and strip in the softened condition and made
of following steels:
07Cr13, 15Cr13, 22Cr13, 30Cr13 and 20Cr18Ni2
Table XXXVII gives ultimatt, tensile strength, 0.2% proof stress
and percentage elongation for strip and sheet in the hardened and
the tempered conditions for the steels mentioned in table XXXVI.
Table XXXVIII gives ultimate tensile strength, yield stress
and percentage elongation for tubes made of 15Cr13 in annealed
and also in hardened and tempered conditions.
Table XXXIX gives ultimate tensile strength for wires in soft-
ened and also in cold drawn conditions and made of following steels :
07Cr13, 15Cr13, 22Cr13, 30Cr13, 20Cr18Ni2.
Table XL gives the ultimate tensile strength for the wires in
hardened and tempered conditions and made of steels given in
table XXXIX.
Table XLI gives ultimate tensile strength, yield stress, 0.2%
proof stress, percentage elongation and Izod impact value for
plates, sections, bars, billets and forgings in the softened conditions
for the austenitic stainless steels made of I,
04Cr19Ni9, 07Cr19Ni9, 040-19Ni9Ti20, 04Cr19Ni9Nb40,
07Cr 1 9Ni9Mo2, 07Cr 1 9Ni9Mo2Ti28, 05Cr 1 8Ni 1 1 Mo3,
05Cr18Nil1Mo3Ti20 10Cr25Ni18Ti40, 10Cr25Ni 1 8Nb80
Table XLII gives for the above mentioned steels the same
properties for bars in cold drawn conditions with different ruling
diameters.
Table XLIII gives ultimate tensile strength, yield stress, 0.2%
proof stress, and percentage elongation for sheet and strip steels
made of all the materials given in table XLI and also for these two
steels 07Cr19Ni9Ti35 and 07Cr19Ni9Nb70.
Table XLIV gives ultimate tensile strength for tubes in softened
condition, cold drawn or cold drawn and tempered conditions for
the steels given in table XLIII.
42 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I

Table XLV gives ultimate tensile strength limit for the wire
steels for hard drawn conditions and of different sizes maximum
upto 10 mm size for the steels same as given in table XLIII.
Table XLVI gives the hardness in BHN and Izod impact value
for valve steels made of 40Cr9Si4 and 80Cr20Si2Ni1 both in
hardened and tempered conditions and 40CrNi14W3Si2 in softened
condition.
Typical uses of high alloy steel are given in table 1-7.5.

Table 1-7.5
Typical uses of high alloy steels

Steel Typical uses

Designation
07Cr13 Used for structural parts, armatures, etc.
15Cr13 Used for turbine blades, plastic moulds, glass moulds, and
surgical instruments
22Cr13 Used for machine parts and springs
30Cr13 Used for structural parts with high strength
22Cr I3S28 Used for bolts, nuts and screws, carburator parts, instrument
parts
07Cr17 Used for decorative trim, annealing boxes for brass, oil-burner
rings, nitric acid storage tanks and tank cars, nitrogen fixation
equipment
20Cr18Ni2 Used for aircraft fittings, wind shield wiper arms, bolting
materials, paper machinery
04Crl9Ni9 Used for chemical handling equipment, recording wire, textile
dyeing equipment, soda-fountain equipment, coffee urns, etc.
07Cr 19N19 Used for radar and micro-wave antennae, auto antennae,
automotive wheel covers, refrigerator trays, railway passenger
car bodies, ice-making equipment, tubular furniture, screen
door and storm window frames, electric switch parts
04Crl9Ni91'i20 Used for aircraft engine exhaust manifolds, boiler shells,
and expansion joints, high temperature chemical handling equip-
04Cr19Ni9Nb40 ment
07Cr19Ni9Ti35 Used for food processing equipment and welded structures
and
07Cr 19Ni9Ti70
07Cr19Ni9ma Used for acid resistant parts and equipment for chemical
and industries
07Cr19Ni9Mo2Ti28
05Crl8Ni1 1Mo3 Used for high temperature chemical handling equipment
and for rayon, rubber and marine industries, photographic deve-
05CrI8Nil I Mo3Ti20 loping equipment, pulp handling equipment, coke plant
equipment, food processing:equipment, edible oil-storage tanks
Art. 1-7] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR. PROPERTIES 43

Steel Typical uses

Designation

10Cr25Ni18, Used for hydrogenation tubes and equipment, heat exchangers,

10Cr25Ni18Ti40 retorts, furnace bolts, annealing boxes and tubes, gas turbine
and and air-craft engine exhaust systems, furnace conveyor belts
10Cr25Ni18Nb80
45Cr9Si4 Used for heat resisting exhaust valves in automobile engines
80Cr20Si2Ni1 Used for highly stressed exhaust valves in high speed petrol
and heavy oil engines
40CrNi14W3Si2 Used for inlet and exhaust valves of aero-engines

Carbon and alloy tool steels:

To produce carbon and alloy steels of very high grade they are
made in the electric furnace in controlled conditions and with
great care. By tool steels it is understood to refer to very high
grade steels as produced above and this is included in schedule VI
of IS: 1570-1961. The steel used in many ordinary tools such
as hammers, screw drivers, spanners, files, axes, etc. which are
subjected to less severe conditions of service and should be of low
cost are made from good quality open hearth steels. They are
included in the above schedule as well as in the appropriate
schedules as general engineering steels.
The selection of the steels is made on the basis of the charac-
teristics of steel required for the given duty. The major factors in
the choice of the tool steels are the temperature at which the tool
operates, its size and shape and the type of operation tuch as
cutting, shearing, forming, etc. Tool steels are classified as under:
Cutting tools used for drills, lathe, broaches, etc.
requiring high hardness and high wear resistance
Shearing tools used for blanking and •trimming dies and
shears, requiring high wear resistance and toughness
Forming tools used in die casting flies, forging and cold
heading dies requiring high toughness with high strength
Battering tools used for chisels and shock resisting tools
requiring high toughness
Extrusion dies requiring toughness and resistance to
softening
Drawing as used in wire drawing dies possessing wear
resistance
44 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I

(vii) Rolling used in roughing and finishing rolls possessing

wear resistance
To help in selection of tool steels they are grouped as:
(a) Cold work water hardening steels
(b) Cold work oil/air hardening steels
(c) Hot work steels
(d) High speed steels
(e) Low carbon mould steels.
Cold work steels are used where the operating temperature
is below 200°C. Above this temperature hot work steels and high
speed steels arc used. Water hardening steels are used when
tool shapes are simple.
Cold work water hardening steels :
This group includes carbon tool steels, improved carbon steels
with 0.25% vanadium and chromium and tungsten steels. Cold
work water hardening steels are as under:
Cold work water hardening steels
T140W4Cr50 T118 T103V23 T80V23
T133 T105Crl T90 T70 —
T133Cr45 T118Cr45 T90V23 T55Si2Mn90
T 105W2Cr60V25 T103 T80 , T55Si2Mn90Mo33

Carbon tool steels : They have poor hardenability and have to be

water quenched to get the desired properties. To improve tough-
ness of carbon steels as small amount upto 0.25% of vanadium is
added. These steels have shallow hardened depth but slightly
better hardness than that of carbon steels with corresponding
percentage of carbon.
Addition of chromium upto 1.5% and tungsten upto 4% in
steel increases wear resistance and decreases toughness of carbon
tool steels. This tool steel is used in wear resistance tools.
Silico-manganese steels are used where shock resistance at low
cost is required.
Cold work oil/air, hardening steels:
In these steels alloy addition is mainly for increasing harden-
ability. Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, nickel,
manganese and silicon increase the hardenability and wear resis-
Art. 1-71 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 45

tance at the same carbon level. Silicon and nickel also increase
toughness. Some combinations of alloying elements chromium,
chromium-manganese, manganese-tungsten-chromium impart non-
deforming characteristics on heat treatment and so these steels are
called non-shrinking steels.
These cold work oil/air hardening steels are as under:
Cold work oiliair hardening steels
T215Cr12 T85 T55 'f45Cr1Si95
T160Cr12 T75 T55Ni2Cr65Mo30 T40W2Cr1V18
T110W2Crl T65 T55Si2 Mn90 T4ONi2Cr1Mo28
T105W2Cr60V25 T60 T55Si2Mn9oMo33 T4ONi3Cr65M4355
T105Cr1 Mil-60 — T6ONil T50W2Cr1V18 T4ONi3
T105Crl T55Cr70 T50Crl V23 T31Ni3Cr65Mo55
T90Mn2W50Cr45 T55Cr,OV15 T50 — T3ONi4Cr i

Hot work steels :

Hot work steels are used where operating temperature is above
200°C. It is used in all such applications except cutting tools.
For cutting tools for temperature above 200°C high speed steels
are used. Hot work steels should possess the desired combination
of hardness, toughness and wear resistance at the operating tem-
perature. For toughness the carbon content of the steels should
be around 0.35%. These steels should be capable of resisting of
heat cracking when suddenly heated and cooled. Tungsten,
molybdenum and chromium increase red hardness.
Hot work steels are as under:
Hot work steels
T33W9Cr3V38, T35Cr5MoV1, T35Cr5Mo1V30, T35Cr5MoW1V30

High speed steels :

They are used for cutting operations aboye 200°C temperature.
The minimum carbon content is 0.5% because these steels have to
possess good hardness and wear resistance. For this purpose the
percentages of alloying elements are higher than those for hot work
steels. Tungsten, chromium and molybdenum are used to provide
red hardness and hardenability. Cobalt increases red hardness
but reduces toughness. Vanadium imparts wear resistance. On
account of recent uses of carbide tips and cermets in cutting tools,
the development of high speed steels is towards improving wear
46 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. 1

resistance by replacing cobalt steel by high vanadium-steels. The

different combination of toughness, wear resistance and red
hardness can be obtained within limit by varying the heat treatment.
Standardised high speed steels are as under:
High speed steels
175W18ColOCr4V2Mo75 T83MoW6Cr4V2
T75W18Co6Cr4V1Mo75 T70W14Cr4V75
T123W14Co5Cr4 T55W14Cr3V46
T70W18Cr4V1

Low carbon mould steels :

These steels are used in case carburized condition for plastic
moulds. They possess high toughness and good machinability.
The important property required from them is the case harden-
ability. Low carbon mould steels available for plastic moulds
are listed below:
Low carbon mould steels
T10 T16Ni80Cr60
T15Cr65 T15NiEr1M—o12
TlOCifilo75V23 T16NiCr2Mo20

The typical applications of tool steels are given in table 1-7.6.

Table 1-7.6
Typical applications of tool steels

Steel
Typical uses
Designation
T140W4Cr50 Finishing tools with light feeds, marking tools
T133
T118 Engraving tools, files, razors, shaping tools, wood working
T103 tools, drills, heading tools, punches, chisels, shear blades,
T90. Vice jaws, press tools, swages, etc.
T80
T70
T215Cr12 High quality press tools, drawing and cutting dies, shear blades,
T160Cr12 thread rollers, cold rolls
T110W2Cr1 Engraving tools, press tools, gauges, taps, dies, drills, hard
T105W2Cr60V25 reamers, milling cutters, broaches, cold punches, knives
T90Mn2W50Ci-45
T105CrlMn60 Cold forming rolls, lathe centres, knurling tools, press tools
T105Crl —
Art. 1.81 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 47

Steel Typical uses

Designation
T85 Die blocks, variety of hand tools, agricultural tools
T80Mn65
T75 --
T70Mn65
T65 -
T60
T55
T50
T55Cr70 Chisels, shear blades,- scarfing tools, trimming dies, heavy
T55Ci0-V15 duty punches, pneumatic chisels
T55Si21VIn96
T55Si2Mn0Mo33
T50W2Cr1V18
T50Cr1V23
T45CrlSi95
T40W2CrT.V18
T6ONil -
T55Ni2Cr65Mo30
T4ONi2Cr
T4ONi3Cr65Mo55
T4ONi3
T31Ni3Cr65Mo55 _
T3ONi4Cr 1
T33W9Cr3V38 Dies for extrusion, stamping dies, casting dies for light alloys,
T35Cr5MoVi- forging dies
T35Cr5Mo1V30
T35Cr5MoW1V30
T75W18ColOCr4V2Mo75 Drills, reamers, broaches, form cutters, milling cutters,
T75W18Co6Cr4V1Mo75 deep hole drills, slitting saws, and other high speed
T123W14Co6CrV4 and heavy cut tools
T70W18Cr4V1
T83MoW6Cr4V2
T70W14Cr4V75
T55W14Cr3V45
TIO Used after case hardening for moulds for plastic materials
T15Cr65
T10Cr5Mo75V23
T16Ni8OCr6 --
T15Nidr1M-o12
T16NiCr2Mo2o

1-8. Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys:

Important non-ferrous metals and alloys which are discussed
here are as follows:
48 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

(i) Aluminium and its alloys, their castings and wrought

form
(ii) Copper and copper zinc alloys called brasses
(iii) Anti-friction bearing alloys made of tin with different
alloying elements.

(A) Aluminium and aluminium alloys:

IS: 617-1959 gives specifications and the designation of alumi-
nium and aluminium alloy ingots and castings for general engineering
purposes. They are all designated by first letter as A followed by
numbers from 0 to 24 depending on the variety for ingots while the
castings of them are designated in the same way with a last letter
like M, P, W and WP depending on the method of casting and
treatments. In the above specifications the ultimate tensile
strength in kg/sq mm for sand cast and chilled cast aluminium and
its alloys are given for each variety.
Aluminium ingots of 99% pure aluminium used for re-melting
purpose are designated as A-0 while aluminium alloy ingots are
designated as A-1. Aluminium alloy castings are designated as
A-1-M, A-2-M, A-8-WP, etc. Aluminium alloy castings are
normally designated by letter M dt the end. If the aluminium
alloy casting materials are precipitation treated, they are designated
by letter P instead of M. If they are solution treated letter W is
used at the end and if they are fully heat treated letter WP is
used at the end.
A-1-M is the aluminium alloy casting material mainly used for
gravity die casting and it has ultimate tensile strength of 12.6
kg/sq mm when sand cast and 15.7 kg/sq mm when chilled cast.
Aluminium alloy casting material mainly used for pressure die
casting is designated as A-2-M. The aluminium alloy casting
used for sand casting, gravity and special die casting and of
increasing strength are designated as A-4-M, A-5-M, A-6-M, A-8-M.
A-22-W is a gravity die cast aluminium alloy which gives 25.2
kg/sq mm as chilled cast with 8% elongation, while A-24 is used
for pressure die cast and gives 18 kg/sq mm with 1.5% elongation.
In IS:617-1959, characteristics and uses of the aluminium
and aluminium alloys ingots and castings are given in the appendix.
With the help of these characteristics the suitability of the particular
Art. 1-81 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 49

grade of aluminium casting can be determined for required

properties and uses.

Wrought aluminium:
Wrought aluminium and its alloys, their designation,
their characteristics and their typical uses are given in IS :736-1965.
Aluminium in wrought form is designated by I and there are
three grades A, B and C. While aluminium alloys for normal duty are
indicated by letter N with number 2 to 8 and for medium strength
by letter H followed by numbers 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20 and 30.
The outstanding characteristics of aluminium and its alloys
are their high strength-weight ratio, their resistance to corrosion
and their high electrical and thermal conductivity.
Pure aluminium is extremely light, ductile and highly
resistant to corrosion. When used with other metals such as
copper, magnesium and silicon, alloys of aluminium compare
favourably in strength and hardness with alloy steels.
Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium containing small percen-
tages of copper, magnesium and manganese. It has a high
tensile strength and is extensively used for structural forms for air
planes and other machines where weight is a deciding factor.
Some typical uses and the characteristics for the different
grades of wrought aluminium, and aluminium alloys are given in
table 1-8.1.
Wrought aluminium and wrought aluminium-alloys art avail-
able in sheets, plates, extrusions, tubes, wires, rolled rods and
forgings, when shapes are not mentioned in the table.

Table 1-8.1
Uses and characteristics of different grades
of wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys

Designation Characteristics Typical uses

IB High purity aluminium, it is more Corrosion-resistant cladding on

resistant to corrosion than other stronger alloys, impact extruded
grades. containers, food and chemical
plant, compressor accessories, elec-
trical conductors and reflectors
50 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 1

Designation Characteristics Typical uses

IC Commercially pure aluminium, Panelling and mounting, lightly

very ductile in annealed or stressed and decorative assemblies,
extruded condition, shows ex- especially in architecture and
cellent resistance to corrosion and
transport, hollow-ware, equipment
good conductivity for its density.
for chemical, food and brewing
industries, packaging
N3 Stronger and harder than IC Building sheets, vehicle panelling
but has good workability, welda- and sheet metal work, packaging,
bility and corrosion resistance. hollow-ware, tanks
N4 Alloy in which magnesium is Panelling and structures exposed
the main, or the only addition. to marine atmospheres, pressings,
They all have high resistance to certain aircraft parts
corrosive attack, especially in
marine atmospheres
H30 A medium strength alloy with For structural applications of all
good mechanical properties, kinds, such as road and rail tran-
corrosion resistance and weld- sport vehicles, bridges, cranes, roof
ability trusses, rivets
N5 They are available in all the They are used for ship building,
.N6 above forms except plate forms. deep pressing and rivets. N6 is
Their strength increases with used for other applications de-
the magnesium content. They manding moderately high strength
all have high resistance to cor- with good corrosion
rosive attack in marine atmo-
N7 spheres. They are stronger than Used as roof suppoers in mines
N4. N7 is available in extrusion and such other applications
form. requiring high strength with large
plastic deformation and good
corrosion resistance.
H9 It is available in sheet extrusion, It is highly corrosion resistant so
tube and forgings. H9 is suitable used for architectural members
for intricate extruded section. such as window frames, etc. where
H19 is similar to 119 but stronger surface finish is important and
and slightly less ductile, while strength required is not high.
1119 H2O is of medium strength and General structural and archi-
have very good forming charac- tectural application where both
teristics. surface finish and strength are
important.
It has good corrosion resistance
H2O
and used for structural engineering,
body work and pressings.
H11 Good machining alloy, may be Aircraft components and repeata-
extruded in complex section don machine parts
Art. 1.8 } MATERIALS OP CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 51

Designation Characteristics Typical uses

H14 It is a stronger alloy than H11. Aircraft components, stressed to a

It ages naturally at room tem- higher value and components
perature after solution treatment requiring high strength
and is fairly ductile.
H15 It combines high strength with Aircraft and general engineering
fair ductility. %Wad' corrosion components requiring high strength
resistance sheet comprises H15
core with coating of high purity
aluminium.
N21 It is available in sheet, wire and Architectural applications of in-
rolled rod form. In sheet form door type for decoration; used
this alloy anodizes to a pleasing as welding wire
grey finish. It blends itself well
to welding, brazing and soldering.

(B) Copper and copper-zinc alloys:

Designations of copper and its alloys are specified in IS :2378-
1974. Copper is designated by letters Cu followed by group of
symbols indicating important characteristics. The internationally
accepted symbols for pure copper are as follow:
Cathode copper CuCATH
Electrolytic tough pitch copper CuETP
Fine refined high conductivity copper CuFRHC
Phosphorised high residual phosphorous non arsenical grade
CuDPH. at
Copper-alloys are designated by symbol of copper followed by
next most significant element after which other significant elements
shall be stated in the order of decreasing percentage or when equal
in alphabetical order, viz. CuZn30, CuSnPb4Zn3. Amount of
copper is given by the remainder.
Distinct methods of castings are specified by symbols placed
before the designation. Absence of symbols indicates that material
is in wrought form. Surface finish are designated by letters at
the end of designation, viz. GCuSn7Zn5Pb2 H.
The designations for copper alloys are not yet completely
accepted by Indian industries and IS standard also gives the
available alloys as alloy 1, alloy 2, etc. as manufactured by the
industry. However, this is a temporary phase. „
52 _ MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 1

Copper-Zinc alloys : Brasses

The alloys of copper and zinc are known as brasses. These
alloys are highly resistant to corrosion, machine easily and make
good bearing materials. The properties of a brass vary With its
zinc percentage. Zinc percentage varies from 5 to 45. By
increasing the percentage of zinc the ductility of the alloy
increases but after 37%, there is a fall in ductility. When the
zinc percentage is less than 20%, the alloy is known as red brass,
which, is used for plumbing of pipe and connections, rivets, hard
ware, etc. When the percentage of zinc lies between 28 and 35,
the alloy is known as cartridge brass which is the most ductile of
all the brasses. It is used for stamping and deep drawing, cartridge
shells, wires, tubes, etc. The composition of Admiralty brass is
70% copper, 29% zinc and 1% tin. This alloy is highly corrosion
resistant and is used for steam condenser tubes. A brass of greater
tensile strength and less ductility is known as muntz metal and
contains 40 to 45% zinc. It is suitable for hot working by rolling,
stamping or extruding; it is used for certain marine fittings and
for pump parts. It can be machined readily.
The machining properties of the brass can be improved by
including small amounts of lead. The tensile strength is almost
unchanged, but the shock resistance is lowered. For automatic
screw-machine work, leaded brass bars are used to produce lightly
loaded components.
Various other metals are added to improve the particular
properties such as tensile strength, hardness, shock resistance,
corrosion resistance, etc. Manganese and iron are added to 60/40
brass to increase the tensile strength' and resistance to salt
corrosion. The resulting alloy, known as manganese bronze,
can be rolled, drawn and cast. It is used for under water shafts
and heavy duty bearings and gears.
Tobin bronze (brass) is extensively used for shafts on small
boats and for feed pump shafts.
The most well-known zinc base alloy, containing 4% alu-
minium and 2.5% copper, is used for die castings.
Bronze: It is an alloy of copper with tin. The use of tin
in bronze results in a much harder and stronger alloy than brass.
Bronze is formed by casting whereas brass is formed by work-
Art. 14 ] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 53

ing. The tin content of simple bronzes oxidizes quickly, when

the metal is hot, resulting in brittleness. Various deoxidisers are
used, the most common being zinc or phosphorous.
Gun metal: It contains zinc as a deoxidiser. The usual pro-
portion is 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc. As it is highly
resistant to corrosion, it is used for small valves and fittings for
water and general services. Owing to the high price of tin,
gun metals of poorer casting qualities are available.
Phosphor bronze : When phosphorous is used as a deoxidiser,
we get a phosphor bronze, an alloy of improved hardness and
resilience. Phosphor bronzes with 5 to 10% tin and not more
than 0.5% phosphorous are suitable for rods for machining and
valve castings. When tin percentage ranges from 10 to 12%
and phosphorous is upto 1%, we get an alloy suitable for gear
wheels and heavily loaded bearings. These bearing metals are
very rigid and have no plasticity. Plastic bronze is a bearing
metal which will work under less rigid conditions than forging.
A typical composition is copper 65-70%, lead 30-25% and tin
5%. Small quantities of nickel are added to ensure even spreading
of lead globules. Copper tin alloy containing 75 to 80% tin is
known as bell metal and is used for making bells and gongs.
Monel metal: It consists of 68% nickel, 28% copper and
balance small amounts of carbon, silicon, iron, cobalt and manga-
nese. The metal has a remarkable resistance to corrosion in
addition to capacity to retain tensile strength at elevated tempera-
tures. A number of highly corrosive acids and alkaline sub-
stances have little or no effect on monel metals. This is used
for making valves, pump rods and fittings for use with high pressure
steam and chemical plants. Nickel-copper alloy of the name
constantan has high electrical resistance and low temperature
coefficient. Nichrome or chromel has a high reistance and is
used for heath-11g coils for furnaces.
Table 1-8.2 gives the composition and uses of various kinds
of non-ferrous alloys:
(C) Antifriction bearing alloys :
They are psed as linings in journal bearings. The main
component of these alloys is tin and are designated with letters Sn
followed by the average percentage of it. If no number is being
54 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I
given after Sn, then the balance of the alloy gives the minimum
amount of tin. The alloying elements are followed by the letter
and percentage in the order of importance. The following grades
of antifriction bearing alloys are designated in IS:25-1966:
90, 84, 75, 69, 60, 20, 10, 6, 5, 1.

Table 1.8.2

Kind of alloy Composition of

alloy Uses

Standard brass 70% copper; 30% zinc Rolling into sheets or drawing
Cu Zn 30 into tubes for locomotives,
cartridge, pump liners
Admiralty brass 70% copper; 29% zinc; Steam condenser tubes
CuZn29Snl 1% tin
Muntz metal 60% copper; 40% zinc Suitable for hot working by
Cu Zn 40 rolling, stamping or extruding
Ordinary bronze 95% copper; 5% tin Worms, gears, pump bodies,
CuSn5 bushes
Phosphor bronze 90% copper; 9.7% tin; Bearings, worm wheels, rods,
Cu Sn 97P3 0.3% phosphorus sheets
Manganese bronze 60% copper; 35% zinc; Under water shafts and fittings
CuZn35Mn5 5% manganese
Delta metal 55% copper; 41% zinc; Parts of marine engine, screw
CuZn41FePb2 2% lead; 2% iron propellers, ordnance, chemical,
hydraulic, mining plants,
sanitary fittings
Gun metal 90% copper; 10% tin Small valves, fittings for water
Cu Sn 10 services
Engineer's bronze 88% copper; 10% tin; Engine parts, steam fittings,
CuSn1OZn2 2% zinc hydraulic machineries
Cupro nickel 75% copper; 25% nickel Coinage, casing of rifle bullets,
CuNi25 condenser tubes
Monel metal 67% nickel; 28% copper Valve parts for superheated
CuNi67 and the rest iron, man- steam, turbine blades, pumps
ganese and carbon and condenser tubes, in the-
mical industries for vats and
coils exposed to corrosive in-
fluences, dyeing plants, arti-
ficial silk processes
Constantan 50% copper; 50% nickel Standard resistance; thermo
CuNi50 couple junction metal
Manganin 84% copper; 12% man-
CuMn12Ni4 ganese; 4% nickel
Silveriod Decorative work in connection
CuNi45 55% copper; 45% nickel with shop fronts, hotel entran-
ces, etc.
German Silver 50% copper; 20% nickel Ornamental work of motor
CuNi20Zn30 30% zinc cars, shop and house fittings
Art. 1-9] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 55

Typical uses of antifriction bearing are given in table 1-8.3.

Table 1-8.3
Typical use of antifriction bearing alloys
L
Grade Alloy Typical Uses
901. SnSb7Cu3 For lining of petrol and diesel engine bearings, cross-
84f SnSbl0Cu5 heads in steam engines and other bearings used at high
speeds (As the tin content drops in these alloys, their
resistance to shock and heavy load increases.)
75 Sn75Sbl1Pb Mostly used for repair jobs in mills and marine installa-
tions. (Because of its long plastic range, it can be
spread in as a wipe joint.)
69 Sn69Zn30 For under water applications as a bearing alloy and
gland packings.
60 Sn60Sb11Pb For lining of bearings required for medium speeds, such
as centrifugal pumps, circular saws, convertors, dynamos
and electrical motors
201 Sn20Sbl5Pb For low speed bearings, such as pulp crushers, concrete
I 0 f SnlOSbl4Pb mixers and rope conveyors
6 Sn6Sbl5Pb Heavy duty bearings, rolling mill bearings in sugar,
rubber, paper, steel industries, etc., bearings for diesel
engines, cross-heads in steam engines, turbines, etc.
5 Sn5Sbl5Pb For mill shaftings, railway carriage and wagon bearings
I SnlSbl5Pb Used as a thin line overlay on steel strips where white
metal lining material is 0.076 mm thick

Grade indicates the minimum amount of tin (Sn) in the alloy. Pb

indicates that the remainder is Pb.

1-9. Available sizes:

In industries one encounters the terms, foil, sheet, strip and
plate with the generally accepted meanings as follows:
Foil is sheet metal of varying widths having thickness not
exceeding 1.6 mm.
Strip is a metal rolled in any thickness between 1.6 mm and
10 mm and its widths vary from 100 mm to 1,550 mm. It is desig-
nated with letters ISST followed by the dimensions in mm in order
of length, width and thickness. Sheet 'is a term used for metals
having thickness lying between 0.4 mm to 4 mm and having a
width varying from 1,800 mm to 4,000 mm. It is designated by
letter ISSH followed by the dimensions in mm in order of length,
width and thickness.
Plates denote all widths of metals where the minimum
thickness exceeds 5 mm and maximum upto 63 mm and all widths
56 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. I

of metal and length varying from 2,200 mm to 13,500 mm. It is

designated by letters ISPL followed by dimension in mm in order
of length, width and thickness.
The manufacturing problems bring to the fore the need to have
limiting dimensions on the width, thickness and length of strip and
sheet metal. IS:1138-1958 gives sizes of metal strips, sheets, flats,
plates, and bars round and square. Here the nominal sizes are
given as well as the tolerances in the sizes kept in their manu-
facture are also specified.
IS:1731-1961 gives dimensions for steel flats, and their
tolerances for structural and general engineering purposes while
IS: 1732-1961 gives dimensions for round and square steel bars for
structural and general engineering purposes.
Dimensions for steel plates, sheets and strips for structural and
general engineering purposes are given in IS:1730-1961. The
following IS specifications also give the sizes of different structural
sections made of steels for general purposes of engineering:
IS :808-1957 Specification for rolled steel beams, channels
and angle sections
IS:1173-1957 Specification for rolled steel beams, channels
and angle sections and for bars
IS:1250-1958 Specification for rolled steel beams, channels
and angle sections, and bulb angles
IS:1863-1963 Dimensions for rolled steel bulb plates.
All these structural steel sections are given combined in ISI
standard handbook for structural engineers.
IS :6911-1972 gives dimensions of stainless steel plates,
sheets and strips
IS:1079-1973 gives dimensions of hot rolled, carbon steel
sheets and strip
IS:6527-1972 gives dimensions of stainless steel wire rods
IS :6528-1972 gives dimensions of stainless steel wire
IS :6529-1972 gives dimensions of stainless blooms, billets
and slabs for forgings.
IS :6603-1973 gives dimensions of stainless steel bars and
fiats
IS:6911-1972 gives dimensions of stainless steel plates,
sheets and strips.
Art. 141 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 57

All sizes standardised and given in IS standards are not

manufactured by industries. They manufacture only those sizes
which are in large and continuous demands. So design engineers
should refer to manufacturers' catalogues for the available sizes.

1-10. Accuracy:
When two parts have to fit together, one within the other.
a definite difference in size is usually necessary depending' upon
the nature of the fit required. This difference in dimensions be-
tween two parts is called the allowance. As it is difficult to manu-
facture any part true to size, certain maximum permissible
deviation from the given dimension is allowed. This variation
which covers imperfection of workmanship is termed tolerance.
This variation of dimension depends upon the kind of component.
Tolerances and allowances have been standardised in each country
by Standards Association. In our country, the' recommended
values for tolerances and allowances are given in specification IS:
919-1959.
If close tolerances are necessary for interchangeability of
parts, jigs and fixtures may be carefully prepared so that hole
locations and other dimensions may be duplicated on any number
of parts. Jigs guide the tool as well as hold the work while
fixtures only hold the work and simplify and regulate the set up.
Except for drilling machines, all machine tools of cutting type
give about the same degree of accuracy under ordinary conditions.

1-11. Finishing processes:

In many processes such as die casting, rolling, extruding, etc.
accuracy and smoothness may be obtained so that components
manufactured by these methods require no further finishing opera-
tions in order to use the component. However, castings, forgings
and welded parts do not have the accuracy of dimensions or nece-
ssary smoothness. Therefore such parts may be subjected to
further finishing operations. Finishing operations are necessary
from many considerations such as lightness, attractive appearance,
etc.
Finishing may be accomplished by abrasives or by cutting
tools, the former are finding more extended use. The finishing
processes comprise turning, milling, shaping, ihtting, planing,
58 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. I

drilling, reaming, boring, broaching grinding, honing and lapping.

Manytimes hand scraping is used to finish the product.

1-12. Non-metallic materials:

The commonly adopted non-metallic materials are leather,
rubber, asbestos and plastics.
Leather is used for belt drives and as a packing or as washers.
It is very flexible and will stand considerable wear under suitable
conditions. The modulus of elasticity varies according to load.
Rubber is used as a packing, as a drive element and as an
electric insulator. It has a high bulk modulus and must have lateral
freedom if used as a packing ring.
Asbestos is used for lagging round steam pipes and steam
boilers.
1-13. Plastics:
These materials have come into extensive use now-a-days.
The name plastic materials has been derived from the state of
plasticity existing at a certain stage in their manufacture. This
makes it possible to give plastic products any desired shape.
They are classified into two main categories: Thermoplastics,
which soften under the application of heat and can be repeatedly
moulded. Thermosetting plastics which, under pressure and heat
are cured and polymerised so that the plastic assumes a different
chemical combination, becomes hard and will not deform when
again subjected to heat.
The basic compounds in both categories are available mainly
in powder, tablet, liquid and sheet forms, and are converted into
the finished product by moulding, die casting under pressure and
conventional casting, by pneumatic vacuum moulding, by machin-
ing and by extrusion using screw presses. With thermosetting
plastics the finished shape is usually obtained from powder by
compression moulding in a die under heat and pressure. Thermo-
plastic compounds may be formed by extrusion, compression or
injection moulding. Sheets of thermoplastic materials may be
re-shaped by heating. With some shapes additional machining
operations, cutting, drilling, etc. are necessary.
Plastics are produced on a synthetic or less frequently on a
natural resin base. Apart from resins most plastics contain
what is known as a filler, to provide particular properties such as
colour, strength and impact and wear resistance. Fillers include
Art. 1-13 1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 59

paper, fabric, chipped-wood, moulding compound, graphite, wood

veneer, textile, glass fibers, asbestos and more recently molyb-
denum disulphide, which provides excellent lubricating and wear
properties — particularly when introduced into nylon.
The good features of plastic materials are
(i) Low cost
(ii) Light weight
(iii) Good resistance to shock and vibration
(iv) Self lubrication, which means low friction and high
wear resistance
(v) Heat and electric insulating properties
(vi) Resistance to corrosion, and
(vii) Ease of fabrication.
The unfavourable features of plastics are
(i) Low strength
(ii) High thermal expansion
(iii) Low heat resistance
(iv) High creep and deformation under load, and
(v) Embrittlement at low temperatures.
Table 1-13.1 gives the list of some of the plastics most com-
monly used in Mechanical Engineering:
TABLE 1-13.1
Name of plastic Uses
Textolite (Laminated fabric) Gear wheels, machine tool slide ways,
pulleys, and bearing liners ..
Wood laminate Shells of large sized bearings, pulleys
and gears and as a substitute for non-
ferrous metals
Compressed-wood plastic Bearing material, and substitute for
non-ferrous metals and for 'making
pipes, hand rails, etc.
Fibreglass Hulls of small ships, boats and yachts,
and automobile bodies
Fluorinated plastics (Ethylene Lining of friction surfaces, packings,
polymers) electric and radio parts, pipes and pipe
valves
Polyamide resins (Capron and High speed gears, compressor discs
nylon) and blades, and parts with high impact
strength and abrasion resistance
Faolite Pipes to convey chemically aggressive
fluids
Polythylene Pipes
60 MACHINE DESIGN ' [ Ch. I

EXAMPLES I
,
1. What are the important considerations that govern the choice of a
material?
2. Classify the materials of construction.
3. Define the meaning of the term base metal as applied to engineering
materials.
4. What is meant by the term "mechanical properties of material"?
5. Define in general the properties of strength and elasticity.
6. What is meant by ductility, malleability and plasticity?
7. Explain the term resilience.
8. What is meant by toughness and how is it measured?
9. Why is brittleness an undesirable property, especially for materials to
be used as machine parts?
10. Explain the terms creep and machinability.
11. What useful information is obtained from a static tensile test?
12. Name hot working process.
13. What are the advantages of forged components?
14. What are the advantages of using extruded parts?
15. Name two articles which are shaped by cold working.
16. Explain the terms: drawing, heading, spinning and stamping.
17. Enumerate the precautions to be taken while designing castings.
18. Define powder metallurgy. Outline the general process used.
19. Discuss the advantages and the limitations of powder metallurgy.
20. Name several examples of parts that can be made of powdered metals,
21. Name finishing processes.
22. Define tolerance and allowance.
23. What characteristics of metal are required to be considered in deciding
its weldability?
24. How does the carbon content affect cast iron, wrought iron and steel
with reference to hardness and toughness?
25. What advantages has cast iron as construction material?
26. For what particular parts is malleable iron used?
27., What advantages malleable iron has over white or grey cast iron?
28. What advantages are there in using alloy cast iron?
29. Name the processes by which steel is commonly produced.
30. Classify carbon steels.
31. Explain the difference between carbon steel and alloy steel.
32. How are alloying elements effective in changing the properties of steel?
33. What alloy steel is suitable for springs?
34. For what types of service are brasses and bronzes used?
35. What are the constituents and physical properties of monel metal?
Ex. 1] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 61

36. What is the advantage of aluminium bronze over tin bronze?

37. Why is duralumin said to be a successful steel substitute?
38. Name the important non-metallic materials of construction.
39. How is grey cast iron designated in Indian Standards?
40. Select a grey iron casting which can withstand ultimate tensile strength
of 32 kgfsq mm.
41. A gear housing requires a malleable casting which should withstand an
ultimate tensile strength of 50 kg/sq mm. Find a suitable material and designate
it as per Indian Standards.
42. A steelis to be selected for railway wheels such that it should have at
least an ultimate tensile strength of 50 kg/sq mm. Explain the method of selecting
such steels with the help of Indian Standards for wrought steels. Designate
the steel selected.
43. A free cutting steel having a machinability rating above 70% and capable
of being hardened is required. Designate the steel and give its ultimate tensile
strength and hod impact value with the help of Indian standards for wrought
steel.
44. An alloy steel is required for roller bearing. Find out the suitable
steel and designate it and also give its mechanical properties and method of heat
treatment with the help of Indian Standards.
45. For a highly stressed part of an aircraft power unit a suitable alloy steel
is to be selected. Explain the method of choosing the material and designate it
as per /S/ and state its mechanical properties as available from the standards.
46. A case carburized steel is required for a gear having a tough core with a
case depth of 1 mm. Select the steel which can give a minimum hardness of
60C Rockwell and can have a core of as high toughness as possible. Designate
the steel available and state its mechanical properties.
47. For a petroleum plant a steel tube of creep resistance is 4equired.
Select the standard material available as per ISI and state its properties. Also
write its designation. What composition you will prefer for higher endurance
limit?
48. An Indian firm has a collaboration with an American firm which has
specified a steel in their design as AISI 304. Select the equivalent steel available
according to Indian standards with the help of IS: 1870-1965 and the Index to IS:
1870-1965. Designate it as per ISI and give its mechanical properties with the
•
help of IS: 1570-1961.
49. Give the Indian standards equivalent for the following wrought steels:
(a) ASTM A41-30 (e) EN8 }
(British)
(b) SAE 1050 (f) EN24
(c) SAE 6130 (American) (g) VCN45 (DIN-Germany)
(d) AISI 321 (h) MCr6 (Gost-Russian)
(j) SKH9 (JIS-Japanese)
50. Designate an aluminium alloy casting suitable for die casting and
having an ultimate tensile strength of at least 16 kgisq mm.
62 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. I
51. (a) What are the chief physical characteristics of materials that are
important in deciding on their choice as material for manufacture
of different types of machine elements?
(b) Discuss in detail the material used and the special property which
makes it most suitable for use in manufacturing the following:
(i) Cylinder block of an aero engine
(ii) Boiler shell
(iii) Pipes
(iv) Pulleys
(v) Gears
(vi) Rim of locomotive wheels
(vii) Pump bodies
(viii) Worm wheels.
52. Select suitable materials for the manufacture of the following:
(i) Drop hammer dies
(ii) Metal cutting saws
(iii) Die castings
(iv) Electrical switch boxes
(v) Condenser tubes
(vi) I.C. engine pistons
(vii) Bearings
(viii) Heating coils for furnaces.
Clearly give reasons for your choice of the material, give the composition
and the properties of the same.
CHAPTER

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS

moolhaie%00%•0\01.104.01%00%,"•••••

2-1. Loads:
The object of the machine is to transmit motion through its
various links to some particular part, where useful work is to be
done. In carrying out their functions various parts of the machine
are subjected to forces, whose thorough analysis is essential in
order to design these parts. These forces may be classified as
follows:
(a) Useful forces due to energy to be transmitted by the
part
(b) Dead weight forces due to weights of individual parts
in a machine
(c) Frictional forces
(d) Inertia forces' due to changes in velocity
(e) Forces due to changes of temperature.
•
In addition, other forces may exist due to poor workmanship,
due to non-homogenity of material and due to reduction of area
caused by deterioration of the material.
Another way of classifying the loads is as follows : «►
(a) Static load which does not change in magnitude, direc-
tion and point of application
(b) Live load which varies in magnitude and/or direction.
Live loads are of two kinds : first, those which are of the same kind
but change in magnitude, as does the varying weight of traffic
passing over a bridge; in second kind of live loads the magnitude
changes from a maximum of one kind to a maximum of the oppo-
site kind, as is the case with the piston-rod of a double acting engine.
Here the stress set up is said to change sign.
(c) Shock loads are applied with velocity; they are also
known as impact loads. Examples of impact loads are blows
of hammer, rough road reactions to the wheels and axles of motor
cars, etc.
64 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

For the same magnitude of load a machine part must be

made progressively heavier in design as the load varies in type from
a static load to a shock load.
2-2. Stress:
When any body is subjected to an external force, set up
within the body are resisting forces called stresses, which resist
the change of form of the body and are measured in terms of force
exerted per unit area. In engineering practice, the force is generally
given in kg and the resisting area in sq cm and so the stress is
often abbreviated to kg/sq cm.
In practice the word stress is used for two purposes; to
indicate force per unit area generally referred to as unit stress
and to indicate total internal force within a member generally
called total stress. The unit stress is given by the equation

j - Zi. where
f = unit stress
PF = total force either parallel or perpendicular to area PA.
Two kinds of basic stresses exist in a machine part: (a) normal
stresses, which always act normal to the stressed surface under
consideration and (b) shearing stresses, which are parallel to the
stressed surface.
Other stresses are either similar to the basic stresses or are
combination of these stresses. For example, the stresses in the
frame of a punching machine are normal stresses as well as the
combination of normal and shear stresses across 'certain sections.

2-3. Strain:
A strain is deformation. All material bodies which are subject-
ed to external forces are necessarily deformed. For example, a long
rod subjected to an axial tensile load would be elongated, while a
column supporting an axial compressive load would be shortened.
The total deformation produced in a member is designated by
Greek letter 8. If the length of the member be 1, the deformation
per unit length is given by
total deformation 8
Unit strain = E =
original length = T
The unit strain has got no mathematical unit.
Art. 2-4) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 65

2-4. Stress-Strain Diagram Modulus of Elasticity:

When a stress is applied to a body, a corresponding strain is
produced. On removal of the stress, the strain will disappear
provided the unit stress developed by the applied force has not
exceeded- a certain limit called the elastic limit. If the stress has
exceeded the elastic limit, after the removal of the applied force,
the body will retain a permanent deformation. An elastic limit is
the maximum unit stress which can be imposed on a body without
causing the permanent strain. Within the elastic limit, the strain
produced is directly proportional to the stress applied. This law
was first demonstrated by Robert Hooke, the English scientist in 1678.
Table 2-4.1 gives the elastic limit for certain metallic materials
of construction:
Table 2-4.1
Elastic Limit

Material Tension Compression Shear

kg/sq cm kg/sq cm kg/sq cm
Mild steel 2,450 2,450 1,470
Wrought iron 2,100 2,100 1,260
Malleable cast iron 2,100 2,100 1,400
Cast iron 420 1,750 420
Nickel steel 3,500 3,500 2,660
Aluminium alloy 2,240 2,240 1,470
Copper (hard drawn) 2,800 2,800 1,610
Brass 70/30 1,750 1,750 1,050
Bronze 1,750 1,750 1,041)

The Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity, which is usually

denoted by the letter E, is the ratio of the unit stress to the
corresponding unit strain, provided the unit stress does not exceed
the elastic limit. The modulus of elasticity is constant within
elastic limit and is a measure of body's stiffness or rigidity. It
may be defined crudely as the stress which would double the
length of a piece of the material if elastic extension could go on
to such an extent. The modulus of elasticity is practically the same
for all steels. This means that some steels have a much higher
elastic limits than others but all the steels stretch the same amount
for the same stress providing the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Table 2-4.2 lists the modulii of elasticity under tension and
compression for some of the metallic materials of construction.
66 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. II
Table 2-4.2
Modulus of Elasticity

E, modulus of elasticity
Material kgisq cm

Aluminium 700,000
Brass 980,000
Bronze 840,000
Cast iron 1 ,050,000
Copper 1,050,000
Mild steel 2,100,000
Wrought iron 1,750,000

When any member of a machine is subjected to a unit stress

in excess of its elastic limit, the member is unsafe. As the stress is
increased, the deformation increases rapidly. Finally the stage
will be reached when the member will rupture. The maximum
unit stress, that a material can bear before rupture, is known as
ultimate strength of the material which is two to four times its
elastic limit. •
The relation between the stress and strain is shown graphically
by a curve known as stress-strain diagram for a material. Fig. 2.1
shows such a diagram for St 50 bar in tension. Tensile tests
under static loading are most commonly used as they are
simplest to carry out and at the same time permit a fair prediction
of the behaviour of a material under other types of loading.
Tensile tests are carried out in tepsile testing machines designed
to apply truly axial loads. The test specimens are of uniform cross
section and whenever possible they confirm to the sizes and
shapes suggested by Indian Standards Institution. The strain is
determined over a measured length of the specimen called the
gauge length which is taken some distance from the end fixings.
During the test the relation between the force stretching the
specimen and the elongation of the specimen is recorded auto-
matically on a diagram.
The following are some of the recommendations of IS: 1608-1960 for the test
piece of steel products other than sheets, strips, wires and tubes:
) The cross section of the test piece may be circular, square, rectangular
or in special cases of other forms. For test pieces of rectangular
section the ratio of 4:1 for sides should not be exceeded.
Art. 2-4] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 67

(ii) There should be a transition curve between the gripped heads and
parallel length. The gripped heads may be of any shape to suit the
holdirs of the testing machine. Sections, bars, etc. may be tested
without being machined.
(iii) As a rule the diameter of machined cylindrical test pieces should not
be less than 4 nun.
(iv) As a rule only proportional test pieces complying with the requirement
lo = gauge length = 5.65 Voriginal cross section of the gauge length
should be used for the tensile test.
(v) The parallel length shall be between to — and to + 2d and it
2
shall always be used for arbitration purpose.
(vi) If prismatic test pieces with rectangular cross sections are to be cut
from a parcel of rolled sections, a uniform parallel length shall be
adopted which may be obtained from the formula to + 2d where to
and d refer to the test piece with the largest cross section.
If the yield stress is to be determined the rate of increase of
stress on the test piece is not more than 1 kg/sq mm per second
from a stress of 5 kg/sq mm until the yield point is reached.

0A-Hooke's law Necking

Uniform local .1
extension extension i
Structural steel

Cast iron

Aluminium

Strain Unit strain '4,

Stress-strain diagram for Comparison of

a medium steel bar Stress-strain diagrams
FIG. 2-1 Fia. 2-2
Let us study the stress-strain diagram of fig. 2-1 very carefully.
As can be seen at the beginning strains grow directly as stresses
in the portion OA upto certain stress called the proportional limit.
Consequently Hooke's law holds upto the proportional limit.
With a further increase in load the diagram becomes curved.
Proportional limit is the stress at which the curve just begins
to deviite from a straight line i.e., deviate from direct proportio-
nality between stress and strain.
However if stresses do not exceed a certain magnitude, the
gastie limit, the material retains its elastic properties, i.e., after
68 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

unloading the Specimen recovers its original form and dimensions.

Elastic limit is the stress at which the material just begins to retain
a permanent set. The difference between the proportional limit
and the elastic limit is not great and in practice no distinction is
usually made between the two.
If the load is increased still further, the moment is reached
such as a point B when deformations in fact begin to grow without
the load being increased. The stress at which deformations grow
with no increase in load is called the yield point. Having elongated to
a certain extent under a constant value of the force, the material
regains its ability to resist extension, i.e., it hardens and beyond
the point C, the diagram rises though far more gradually than
before. At the point F the stress reaches its maximum value which
is called the ultimate strength. The ultimate strength is the maxi-
mum stress that can be developed in the material.
Upon reaching the magnitude of the ultimate strength a sharp
local reduction of area, so called necking occurs. As the test pro-
gresses the cross sectional area of the specimen at the neck reduces
rapidly. The rupture of the specimen takes place at the narrow-
est section of the neck. The stress at the time of final fracture
is called the breaking strength.
Elastic range of the diagram is the portion of the diagram in
which the material reacts elastically. The portion of the diagram
upto the elastic limit is the elastic range. The remainder of the
diagram is the plastic range.
In addition to the mechanical characteristics of the material,
the percentage elongation at rupture and the percentage reduction in
area of cross section at rupture, which are the important properties,
can be obtained.

'Percentage elongation = 11 — ° x 100

41
where /0 = original specimen length between gauge points
11 = specimen length after rupture between gauge
points.
A1
..-.-.. A° —Ai x 100
Percentage reduction in area _
Ao
where Ao = the orginal cross sectional area
Al = area of the neck after rupture.
Art. 2-4) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 69

Percentage reduction in area characterises ductile properties

more exactly than the percentage elongation.
The total elongation of the tensile test specimen upto the point of fracture is
made up of (1) uniform extension and (ii) large local extension.
The uniform extension is proportional to the gauge length while the large
local extension is due to waisting. Prof. Unwin suggested the following formula
for total extension:
x=bx1+ CVA
where x = total extension
b= constant
I = gauge length
C = another constant
A= cross sectional area
By means of an extensive experiments Barba proved that geometrically
similar test specimens of the same material deform similarly if they are so propor-
tioned that = constant.
A
As a rule only proportional test pieces complying with the requirement
/ ----= 5.65 VA should be used.
The characteristic shapes of the tensile test diagram for
structural steel, cast iron and aluminium are shown in fig. 2-2.
In stretching specimens of brittle materials a number of peculiarities
can be observed. The tensile test diagram of cast iron is typical
of all brittle materials. It is seen from the diagram that the
deviation from Hooke's law begins very early, and fracture occurs
suddenly with very small deformations and without necking.
Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually
considered ductile. Those with less than 5% elongation are
considered brittle. Those between 5 and 15% are of intermediate
ductility.
The yield point in shear can be assumed to be about 0.6 the yield
point in tension for ductile materials.
For ductile materials resistance to sliding is smaller than their
resistance to separation and the failure takes place by yielding.
Many ductile materials have the same yield point value in com-
pression as for tension. For brittle materials, resistance to sepera-
tion is smaller than their resistance to yielding. Failure takes
place by fracture. Most brittle materials have a considerably
higher value for the ultimate strength in compression than for
tension.
70 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
Example:
1. In a tensile test on a specimen of St 47 2 cm in diameter and
gauge length 10 cm, the following readings were recorded:
Load
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
kg
Extension
0.757 1.51 2.26 3.01 3.80 4.67 5.31
X 10-8 cm
Deduce the value of roung's modulus.
When the specimen was afterwards tested to destruction, the maximum
load recorded was 14,990 kg, the diameter of the neck was 1.16 cm and
the length between the gauge marks was 13.6 cm. Calculate the ultimate
tensile strength, percentage reduction in area and the percentage elongation.
stress load length. length load
E= = X x
strain area extension area extension
length
= - x slope of the load extension graph.
area
Average slope of the load extension graph — 3500
5.31
x 103
10 3500
E= x ---- x 103 = 2.1 x 102 kg/sq cm.
5.31
7x 22
ultimate maximum load
Ultimate strength = .
original cross sectional area
14990
= ------ = 4,780 kg/sq cm.
=
X 22
4
increase in gauge length
Percentage elongation =
original gauge length
x 100
— 13.6— 10 X 100 = 36%.
10
Percentage reduction in area
reduction in cross sectional area
original cross sectional area
1.- [22 — 1 .1621
4
= x 100 = 66.3%.
7C
4 X 22
Art. 2-5] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 71

Exercises:
1. Describe briefly and sketch on the same axes of load and extension
the type of curve you would expect to obtain from tensile tests to destruction
on specimens of the same size of (a) mild steel (b) steel containing 1% of
carbon (c) aluminium.
Write down with reference to curve (a) how you would evaluate the
stress at the yield point and (b) the ultimate strength marking the
corresponding load points on the curve.
2. Define (a) proportional limit, (b) elastic limit, (c) yield point,
(d) ultimate strength and (e) breaking strength.
3. Define (a) gauge length, (b) percentage elongation and (c) per-
centage reduction in area.
4. Explain the following terms :
(a) Elastic range
(b) Plastic range
(c) Permanent set.
5. A tensile specimen of non ferrous alloys of 2 sq cm cross
sectional area length 8 cm gave the following results:

Load 1,000 2,000 3,000 1,000 5,000 6,00017,000 8,000 9,300

kg

Extension 3.15 6.30 9.46 12.6215.78 18.95 22.03 26.00 Fracture

x 10-3 cm is

At fracture the length between the gauge points was 8.88 cm. Draw
a graph of these results and determine the modulus of elasticity for the
material and the percentage elongation.
Ans. 1.23 x 10° kg/sq cm; 11%.

2-5. Poisson's ratio:

It is found by experiments that a longitudinal strain is accom-
panied by a transverse strain. Both these strains are opposite in
nature. The ratio of the transverse unit strain to . the longitudinal
unit strain is constant for a particular material. This ratio is
called Poisson's ratio. Table 2-5.1 gives the average values of this
ratio for some materials:
72 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. II

Table 2.5.1
Poisson's Ratio
- --- ------ -
Material Poisson's ratio

Cast iron 0.270

Mild steel 0.303
Hard steel 0.295
Wrought iron 0.278
Brass 0.350
Copper 0.340

2-6. Modulus of rigidity:

The modulus of elasticity in shear or torsion, which is denoted
by the letter G, is the ratio of the unit shear stress to the unit
shear strain. It is also known as the modulus of rigidity. The
modulus of rigidity can be obtained by plotting a torque—twist
diagram with the help of usual—torsion test. The modulus of
rigidity, G, can also be obtained from Young's modulus, E, and
Poisson's ratio since E and G are related by the equation
G= where v. is Poisson's ratio.
2 (1 + [...)
If E and G are known the above relation can be used to
determine the value of the Poisson's ratio by the relation
E
ii, = .-6 1.-
2-7. Bulk modulus:
A material under the action of equal compressive stresses p
in three mutually perpendicular directions is subjected to a
hydrostatic pressure p. The term hydrostatic is used because the
material is subjected to the same stresses as would occur if it were
immersed in a fluid at a considerable depth. Because of this
pressure, the body of volume v will be reduced in volume by the
8v
amount say 8v, then the ratio — is called the volume strain. The
v
ratio of the hydrostatic pressure to the volumetric strain is called
the bulk modulus of the material and is denoted by K. Then
K=P (i)
v
Art. 2-8) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 73

The relation between the modulus of elasticity E, and bulk

modulus K, is given by the equation

= - —E— - -
3 [1 — 21).]
where 1.), = Poisson's ratio.
We should expect the volume of a material to diminish under a
hydrostatic pressure. In general, if K is always positive, we must
have
1 — 21.t, > 0
or 11 < i (iii)
Thus the Poisson's ratio for metals in elastic strain is always less
than i. For plastic strains of a metallic material there is a negli-
gible change in volume, and Poisson's ratio is approximately I.

2-8. Basic requirements of the machine elements:

The following are the basic requirements of the elements of
any machines:
(i) Strength
(ii) Stiffness
(iii) Wear resistance
(iv) Light weight and minimum dimensions
(v) Employment of easily available materials
(vi) FIrocessability
(vii) Safety
(viii) Life and reliability
(ix) Compliance with IS.
From the above requirements we shall consider in this text
book mainly the fundamental requirements which determine the
efficiency of the machine elements viz. strength, stiffness and wear
reistance.
Strength: The machine element must not collapse or be
permanently deformed by the forces applied within a specified
service life. Breaking and deterioration of the working surfaces
of the machine element is unallowable.
Stiffness: Elastic deformation of the machine element under
the effect of the applied forces should not exceed certain pre-set
values.
74 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

Wear resistance: Within the specified service life, the wear

of machine element should not impair its mating with other
elements, nor should it result in undue reduction of strength.
As the strength and stiffness are the main criteria in deter-
mining the serviceability of the part, they should be calculated
first at the designing stage. The wear resistance of the machine
elements can be increased by increasing the strength and hard-
ness of the working surfaces (e.g. by case hardening or nitriding)
or by increasing the contact surface. Wear of friction parts can be
reduced by normal lubrication. The service life of the whole
machine or an individual part of it differs for machines of dif-`
ferent application.
The machine element should be sufficiently strong, stiff and
wear resistant while having the minimum possible dimensions and
weight. These requirements can be achieved by:
(i) Employing light weight rolled sections
(ii) Resorting to up-to-date methods of surface hardening
(iii) Using high-strength grades of cast iron and light alloys
(iv) Introduction of non-metallic materials to replace ferrous
and non-ferrous metals
(v) Improving the design of machine elements.
2-9. Factor of safety: Selection of allowable stresses:
The necessary and sufficient strength of a machine element is
ensured by imparting to it dimensions and shape which exclude
breakage and permanent deformations. In order to utilise comple-
tely the mechanical properties of a material and to reduce the
weight of the parts and the machine as a whole, the highest stresses
obtained when proportioning machine parts by formulas of strength of
material should not exceed the allowable values but should approach them
closely.
critical stress
Allowable stress — (i)
factor of safety
The critical stress induced by static loading of ductile material is
expressed by the yield point or the yield strength; in case of brittle materials
the critical stress is expressed by ultimate strength; under variable load
the critical stress is denoted by the endurance limit.
The appropriate value of the factor of safety for any design
depends upon a number of considerations, some of which are as
follows:
Art. 2-91 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 75

(i) Degree of economy desired

(ii) Selected values of strength characteristics (yield point,
ultimate strength or endurance limit)
(iii) Load conditions such as static, varying or shock loads
(iv) Degree of accuracy of force analysis of members
(v) Permanency of design and vital importance of the
machine part
(vi) Despendability of the material
(vii) Accessibility of parts for inspection and maintenance
(viii) Difficulty in preventing deterioration of the material
(ix) Degree of safety to human life and property
(x) Possible imperfections of workmanship.
Factors of safety used in practice vary from industry to industry
and from product to product. Where danger to human life is
present, the designer has no choice except to follow the exact design
procedures outlined in a code which has been adopted by the
engineering societies or institutions, trade associations or govern-
ment. These codes may not actually mention the term factor
of safety but may specify an allowable stress or design stress. The
published literature related to successful designs in all fields of
engineering may contain the numerical values of factor of safety.
Most smaller companies and departments of large companies, who
have accumulated large amount of information about design details,
have set up standard books which list the allowable stresses.
As a guide for selection of factors of safety, Joseph P. Vidosic has giyen the
following numerical values based upon the yield strength and endurance limit
of the material:
Let the factor of safety be denoted by N.
(i) N = 1.25 to 1.5 for exceptionally reliable materials used under contro-
llable conditions and subjected to loads and stresses that can be deter-
mined with certainty. This factor is used where low weight is impor-
tant consideration.
(ii) N = 1.5 to 2 for well known materials under reasonably constant
environmental conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can be
determined readily.
(iii) N . 2 to 2.5 for average materials operated in ordinary environments
and subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined.
(iv) N = 2.5 to 3 for less tried or for brittle materials under average condi-
tions for environment, load and stress.
(v) N .; 3 to 4 for untried materials used under average conditions of
environment, load and stress and with better known materials that are
to be used in uncertain environments or subjected to uncertain stresses.
76 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. 11
The factor of safety for brittle materials under static loading is to be twice
that selected for ductile materials under the same conditions.
While designing machine parts for impact forces, the impact factor should
be applied to the numerical values of the safety factor.
Where higher factors might appear desirable, a more thorough analysis of the
problem should be undertaken before deciding upon their use.
As it is made clear in the above sections there is a wide margin
of individual choice in the selection of safety factors. On the
other hand there is a vast accumulation of experience from which
guidance can be taken. It is this that has led to the development
in general engineering of certain minimum recommended safety
factors for particular type of situations. A further effect has been
the development of compulsory minimum factors for certain
applications where failure might endanger life as, for example, in
pressure vessels, hoisting tackle and in air craft structures; these
must be checked in use by official overloading tests, which must
be performed without causing failure before normal use can be
allowed.
For normal purposes the safety factor is divided into four
parts. They are as follows:
(a) Mechanical property characteristics of the individual
materials. This means primarily the ratio of the elastic
limit to the relevant breaking strength; but may also
involve such factors as creep strength.
(b) The nature of the working load conditions : whether
they are static, uniformly variable or fluctuating.
(c) The mode of load application: whether gradual, quick
or by impact.
(d) Unpredictable variables such as accidental over load,
misuse or variation in quality of materials.
In table 2-9.1 is given a list of typical safety factor allowances
for typical applications and in table 2-9.2 safety factor allowances
for materials and conditions are listed.
The total safety factor is obtained by multiplying together
the factors under (a), (b), (c) and (d). Factor (a) can usually be
obtained from nominal properties of the material. Factor (b) is
normally taken as 1, for static loads, 2 for loads varying from zero
to a maximum in one direction and 3 for loads which alternate
between a maximum in one direction and an equal maximum in
Art. 2-10 j DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 77

the reverse direction (e.g. tension and compression). Factor (c) is

1 for slow applications of loads, 2 for rapid application and 3 for
impact. Factor (d) is evolved by guessing at the most likely degree
of misuse and by allowing for material variation according to the
mode of manufacture of the material, which includes considering
both the expected uniformity of material structure (e.g. the cast
structure of a metal as compared with the wrought structure) and
the amount of process control and inspection which can be afforded
without raising material costs to an unacceptable figure.
Table 2-9.1
Safety factors for various types of service
Factors
Class of service
(a) (6) (c) 1 (d) 1 Total factor
Pressure vessels 2 1 1 2.25-3 I 4.5-6
Mill shafting 2 i 3 2 2 24
Lathe spindles 2 2 I 2 1.5 12
Steel work for small components 2 1 2 1.5 6
Shafts carrying flywheel or armature 1.5-2 I 3 1 1.5 6.75-9
Cast iron wheel rims 2 1 1 10 20
Steel wheel rims 2 1 1 4 8
Piston and connecting rods foi
single acting applications 1.5-2 I 2 2 1.5 i 9-12
Piston and connecting rods for
double acting applications 1.5-2 I 3 2 1.5 13.8-18
1
Table 2-9.2 fk
Safety factor allowances for some typical materials
Minimum values of factors (a) and (d)
Metals and conditions of metals
(a) (d)

Cast metals 2 2
Wrought metals (rolled or forged
steel) '1 1.5
Hot extruded non-ferrous metals 2 2
Light alloy steels 1.5 1.5
Higher-alloy steels and quench
hardened steels lightly tempered 1.5 2

2-10. Procedure for designing a machine element:

The following procedure will be adopted for designing a
machine element:
78 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
,
(i) The design diagram is drawn in which the shape of the
element and the nature of its mating with other elements is
presented in simplified form. The forces applied to this element
are assumed to be either concentrated or disributed according
to a fundamental law.
(ii) The forces acting upon the element during machine
operation are determined and the machine element is recognised
i.e. it is to be designed as a link, beam, shaft or column.
(iii) Suitable material is selected for the component and
either factor of safety or allowable stresses are determined.
(iv) By using the relevant formulas of strength of materials,
the dimensions of the machine element are determined considering
the strength, stiffness and wear resistance.
(v) Lastly the drawing of the component is prepared showing
its dimensions, manufacturing accuracy, surface finish and other
data pertinent to its manufacture.
For many machine elements there are standard sizes as shafts,
bolts, keys, I beams, which means that such sizes are more readily
available in the market and are also cheaper. The designer
always uses standard items and standard proportions unless he
feels strongly that some custom design is desired. We shall give
informations on standard sizes as we proceed.
Sometimes the designer sets the preliminary optional dimen-
sions and shape of the part on the basis of its purpose, nature of
fastening with other parts and a general lay out of the unit. Under
such circumstances check calculation of the element is performed
to determine the actual stresses and safety factors for the given
design diagram and the forces.
For static loads the actual stresses are compared with the
allowable stress while for variable stresses the actual safety factor
is determined and compared with that required.
2-11. Tensile stress:
Fig. 2-3 shows an eye bar which is subjected to a pair of axial
forces P. The tendency of the load is to elongate or stretch the
eye bar. In such a case the eye bar is said to be in tension and the
load is said to be the tensile load. This load produces axial
tensile stresses internally in a member on a plane lying perpen-
Art. 2-11) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 79

dicular to its axis. If a section is cut out of the bar, the internal
tensile streses are disclosed, and being tensile stresses, they are of
course, pulling on each of the remaining ends of the bar as well
as on the section removed. The stressed area considered is a
plane surface lying normal to the direction of stress. In general
it is the cross-sectional area of the member and it is mostly
assumed that the stress is uniformly distributed over that area.

Tensile stress
FIG. 2-3

Let P = external force (tensile)

A = cross sectional area of the member
I = length of the member
E = modulus of elasticity
ft = unit tensile stress
3 = total elongation.

ft = -A
at

PI
and 8= AE (ii)

By means of formula (ii) the total elongation can be calculated

which is a desirable thing to do for very long tensile members
as elongation of members is limited in many machine parts. By
means of formula (1) the cross-sectional dimensiOns of the member
can be obtained for a given load when permissible tensile stress
is known.
Examples:
1. The side links of a compressed air riveter have to sustain a load
of 8,200 kg each. Assuming that the width of the cross section is to be
three times the thickness and that the maximum allowable stress is not to
exceed 700 kg/sq cm, determine the dimensions for the link.
80 . — MACHINE DEMON [ Ch. II

Each side link of a compressed air riveter is subjected to a

load of 8,200 kg and is of rectangular section. As the permissible
tensile stress intensity is 700 kg/sq cm, the minimum cross-sectional
8200
area required will be — -- 11.70 sq cm.
700
If t be the thickness of the link, its width will be 3t. The
area of the link will be 30..
.. 3t2 ---,- 11.7
11.7
or t = 1/- = 1.98 cm; we adopt t = 2 cm.
3
t.t.) ,---- 2 x 3 = 6 cm.
Note: It should be noted that the theoretical result should be changed to
a number that is slightly larger than the theoretical; thus the actual answer is
more practicable value that will suit the scale of a designer. The designer
must have knowledge of sizes which are available in the market. The designer
should refer various Indian Standards for preferred sizes as recommended by
Indian Standards Institution. Refer IS : 1076-1957.
Preferred numbers are specially selected values recommended for use in all
branches of the national economy. They specify the proportions of items and
structures, power, load carrying capacity, speed and all other parameters used in
production and expressed numerically. An international standard for preferred
numbers has been recently approved. Appendix II gives the values of preferred
numbers.
Preferred numbers are conventionally rounded off values derived from
geometric series including integral powers of 10, and having as common ratios the
following factors VIO-, VIA V 10, Vro and 8V-10.
These ratio are approximately equal to 1.58, 1.26, 1.12, 1.06 and 1.03 respec-
tively. Expressed differently, this means that successive terms in the respective
series increase by approximately 58 per cent, 26 per cent, 12 per cent, 6 per cent
and 3 per cent. It may be noted that any series can be extended indefinitely
upwards or downwards by multiplying or dividing repeatedly by 10.
•The series of preferred numbers is designated as R5, RIO, R20, R40 and R80
respectively, where `1?' stands for RENARD, Officer in the Engineer corps,
France who first used preferred numbers and the number indicates the particular
root of 10 on which the series is based.
The above series are called basic series.
Derived series are obtained by taking every second, third, fourth or pth term
of a basic series. These are designated by the symbol of the corresponding basic
series followed by the solidus division sign and numbers 2,3,4 or p. If the series
k limited, the symbol should include an indication of the limiting terms to be
considered; if it is not limited mention should be made of at least one of the terms.
Art. 2-11 1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 81

(i) Series R5/2 (1, 1000000) means derived series comprising

every second term of R5 series and limited by terms 1 and 1000000
and including both these terms.
(ii) Series R10/3 ( 80 ) means derived series comprising every
third term of R10 series, unlimited in both directions and including
the term 80.
(iii) Series R 20/4 (112 ) means derived series comprising every
fourth term of R20 series and limited at the lower end by the term
112 inclusive.
(iv) Series R40/5 ( 7 5) means derived series comprising every fifth
term of R40 series and limited at the upper end by the term 75 inclusive.
Let us consider some illustrations of the use of preferred numbers.
(a) The German Standard DIN 2760 has adopted for the nominal capacities
the following values expressed as litres:
*
4 6.3 10 16 25
40 63 100 125 160 200 250 315
400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150
4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500 16000 20000 25000
(b) A British firm manufacturing hydraulic equipment has standardised
cylinder diameter in the R40 series in order to enable a limited range of grinding,
honing and gauging equipment to be stocked, to facilitate raw material supply
and to enable many internal components, pistons, seals, etc. to be standardised.
(c) The I.E.C. publication 59 gives for standard currents the following
ratings in amperes:
1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.15 4 5 6.3 8
10 12.5 16 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 80
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800
1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000 6300 8000
2. Fig. 2-4 shows a coil chain of a crane t4 Tonne
which is required to carry a maximum load of 4
tonnes. Determine the diameter d of the link stock
if the permissible tensile stress in the link material
is not to exceed 650 kg/sq cm.
Maximum tensile load on the chain
. 4 x 1000 ,--- 4,000 kg.
Minimum cross-sectional area of the link
stock required = 4000
650
--= 6.16 sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the link stock, then 14 Tonne
FIG. 2-4
, 2 X 7 d2 = 6.16
4
or 11646.X 4
d . - 1.98 cm; we adopt 2 cm.
r 2n
82 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

3. A steel rope of cross sectional area 100 sq mm is made up of strands

1 mm in diameter having an allowable tensile stress of 1,680 kg/sq cm and
an ultimate tensile strength of 13,000 kg. The rope is used with a factor
of safety of 8. If 10 strands are broken along a pitch of the lay of the
strands, is the rope fit for further use ?
As 10 strands are broken, the effective area of the rope is
reduced. Reduction in area of the rope = 10 x 7i-. x P = 7.85
sq mm. Hence area of the rope = 100 — 7.85 = 92.15 sq mm.
00
Allowable load on the rope = 130 = 1,625 kg.
8
Actual stress in the rope = 1625 = 1,765 kg/sq cm. o
0.9215
As the induced stress exceeds the allowable stress of 1,680 kg/sq
cm, the rope is unfit for further use.
Exercises :
1. The connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine is subjected
to a maximum live load of 6,500 kg. Determine the diameter of the rod
at the thinnest part if the permissible tensile stress is limited to 325 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 5.5 cm.
2. A belt is required to transmit 25 h. p. from a pulley running at a
mean belt speed of 20 metre /sec. The angle of contact between the belt
and the pulley is 160°, and the coefficient of friction is 0.25. The safe
working stress for the belt is 30 kg/sq cm and the thickness of the belt is 6
mm. Determine the width of the belt required. Ans. 12 cm.
3. A boiler of 4,500 kg weight is sus-
pended from the hook of a crane by means of a
coil chain as shown in fig. 2-5. Determine the
diameter of the link stock of the chain if the
permissible stress in the chain material is limited
to 650 kg/sq cm. Ans. 2.5 cm.
4. The branch of the steel rope of a differen-
tial pulley block (chain tackle) carries a load of 1
tonne with a 400% factor of safety. Determine
the diameter of the chain links, the ultimate strength
of the chain steel being 80 kg/sq mm.
Ans. 6 mm. Fio. 2-5
Art. 2421 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 83

5. A hoisting machine is equipped with two cages and a balancing

cable. The length of the cable from the point of its attachment to the
cage to the loop in the dip hole is, 400 metre, the cross sectional area of the
cable is 8 sq cm and the weight of the loaded cage is 6,000 kg. If the
factor of safety desired is 12, is the cross sectional area sufficient if the ulti-
mate strength of the cable is 130 kg/sq mm and the density of the steel is
7-8 gm/cu cm? Ans. Yes.
6. A tie bar has to carry a load of 12 tonnes. What must be the
width of the bar 13 mm thick, if there is a rivet hole 22 mm diameter on its
centre line? Working stress for the tie bar is 0.75 tonne/sq cm.
Ans. 15 cm.
7. A hydraulic press exerts a total push of 350 tonne. This load
is carried by two turned steel rods, supporting the upper head of the press.
Calculate the diameter, and find the extension in each rod in a length of
250 cm. Safe stress 850 kg/sq cm; E = 2.1 x .106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 17 cm; 0.099 cm.
8. The maximum tension in the lower link of a Porter governor
is 40 kg. If the link is of circular cross section, suggest the suitable size
of the link if the permissible stress in the link is 300 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 0.5 cm.
9. Explain what do we understand by "Preferred numbers" and
state its importance in production. What do we understand by "Basic
series of preferred numbers" and "Derived series of preferred numbers"?
10. Give lifting capacity of cranes according to R 10 series for
capacities from 1 to 100 tonnes.
Ans. 1, 1.25, 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3.15, 4, 5, 6.3, 8
10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80
100.
2-12. Compressive stress:
.
When a pair of axial forces push on a member and shorten it,
the forces are called compressive forces and they produce axial
compressive stress and the body is said to be in compression.
Such a condition is shown in fig. 2-6 where a short post is supporting
at its top an axial load P which is counteracted by the reacting
force P at its base. When a section is cut out of this short post,
the internal compressive stresses are disclosed as shown in fig. 2-6.
The compressive stresses push on the section removed as well
84 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
as on the two remaining ends of the post. The stressed area is a'
plane surface normal to the axis of the member and it is assumed
that the stress is uniformly distributed over the cross sectional
area of the member.

01:1
4**
Lt+44.

P
Compressive stress
no. 2-6

Let P = the external force (compressive)

A = cross sectional area of the member
/ = length of the member
E = modulus of elasticity
fc unit compressive stress
8 ,--- total shortening of the member.

fc A
PI
and 8 == -
AE
Both the above formulas apply only when the length of the
member is short. If the length of the member is more than twenty times
the least radius of gyration of its normal cross section it should be treated
as a column and the stresses should be determined by one of the column
folnulas, and not by short compression member formula.
Art. 2-131 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 85

Example:
1. Calculate the diameter of the wrought iron rod which is to be
under a compressive load of 35,000 kg in order that the allowable unit
stress may not exceed one-fourth of the elastic limit which is 2,100 kg/sq cm.

Permissible stress = 2 10 0 = 525 kg/sq cm.

4
External 'compressive load = 35,000 kg.
35000
Minimum cross sectional area of the rod = - 52-5—
— 66.7 sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the rod, then -,--
7 d2 = 66.7

or d =
y66.7 x4
— 9.2 cm; we adopt 9.5 cm.

Exercises: •

1. The piston rod of a steam engine is 5 cm in diameter and 60 cm

long. The diameter of the piston is 40 cm and the maximum steam
pressure is 9 kg/sq cm. Determine the shortening and extension of the
piston rod if the modulus of elasticity is 2.1 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Ans. 0.165 mm.
2. The rod of the safety valve has a diameter of 20 mm and is
subject to a pressure of compressed air of 8 atmosphere through a piston
whose diameter is 3 mm. Determine the stress in the material of the rod.
Ans. 17.8 kg/sq cm.
3. A car pusher develops a force of 800 kg. Permissible compressive
stress in the material of the operating bar in the pusher is limited to 30 kg/sq
cm, determine the diameter of the operating bar of the car pusher.
Ans. 60 mm.
2-13. Shearing stress:
.
Two forces, which are equal in magnitude and pull opposite
each other along parallel lines of action will cause relative sliding
Or slipping of adjacent portions of the body in parallel lines. This
condition is called shear, the illustration of which is shown in
fig. 2-7. Fig. 2-7(a) shows the rivet in single shear, while in
fig. 2-7(b) the rivet to the left has failed in double shear. Rivets,
cotter and knuckle pin are examples of bodies under a shearing
stress. This type of stress differs from tensile and compressive
86 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

stress in that the stressed plane (the shear plane) lies parallel
with the directior of the stress rather than perpendicular to it,
as in the cases of tensile and compressive stresses.
In the case of bolts, rivets and beams forces producing shear
stresses generally act transversely to the longitudinal axis of the
member. The stressed area is lying parallel to the direction of
stress. The relation existing between the external force and the
area A resisting shear is given by the equation
fs= — (i)
A

/11RA 4111\
ar Arm
rteaw w Ag

AI\ 4111k

caw
NM/ T A gril

(a) (b)
Single shear Double shear
Shear failure of rivets
FIG. 2-7

In fig. 2-7(a), the rivet is in single shear. If d be the diameter

of the rivet, the area that resists the shear of the rivet is d2
.

• • fs =
• 1.3 - (ii)
d2
74. d 2

When the rivet is in double shear as in fig. 2-7(b), the area

that resists the shear of the rivet is 2 x ▪ d2.

fs = = 0.65
2 x d2
Art. 2-131 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 87

When even number of shearing areas are provided, there is

no eccentricity of the load. The applied forces are collinear;
this is the ideal situation.
When metal plates are to be cut to specified size and *hape or
the holes are to be punched or drilled, the tools used to perform
the operations must overcome the ultimate shearing resistance of
the material to be cut. For fig. 2-8, the area to be sheared is
ndt. If Us be the ultimate shear strength of the material, the
maximum shear resistance to the tool will be TatUs.
p

Ultimate shearing strength

FIG. 2-8
Examples:
I. What must be the diameter of the rivet in fig. 2-7(a) if the value
of the shearing force P is 4,500 kg and the permissible stress is not to
exceed 1,000 kg/sq cm?
The minimum shear area to be provided by the rivet, which is
. be 4500
in single shear, 4.5 sq cm.
will 1000
If d cm be the diameter of the rivet, then d2 = 4.5
4

or d= 1/4.5 x 4 = 2.4 cm.

7C
2. Determine the smallest size of a hole that can be punched in a 15
mm thick mild steel plate, having an ultimate shear strength of 33
kg/sq mm. The allowable crushing stress in the punch is 120 kg/sq mm.
Note: Shear strain is taken advantage of in cutting metals by means of
dies and steel blades. Unlike machines and other engineering structures where
strain must not be allowed to exceed the elastic limit, strain in cutting is carried
to the failure stage of the material along the plane of shear.
88 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

Let d mm be the minimum diameter of the hole that can be

punched in the plate. The crushing resistance of the punch
should be greater than or at the most just equal to the maximum
punching force.
The maximum punching force .7c x d x 15 x 33 kg.

The crushing resistance of the punch = 4 d2 x 120 kg.

TC
- d2 x 120 > nd x 15 x 33.
4
From the above inequality, we get
33
d )0 — mm; we adopt d = 17 mm.
2
Exercises:
1. The cover plate of a punch is subjected to an upward force of
3,800 kg while the hole is being punched. Sliding of the cover plate
relative to the punch frame is prevented by means of two dowel pins made
of steel. Allowing an allowable shear stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm, determine
the diameter for the dowel pin. Ans. 1.6 cm.
2. A 30 cm long lever is fixed to a 40 mm diameter shaft by means
of a taper pin passed through its hub perpendicular to its axis, the mean
diameter of the pin being 4 mm. The pin is in double shear. What load
at the end of the lever will cause the failure of the pin if ultimate shear
strength of the pin be 3,600 kg/sq cm? Ans. 57 kg.
3. A centrifuge has a small bucket which weighs 0.2 kg with contents
and which is suspended on a manganese bronze pin at the end of a horizontal
arm. The pin is 1.8 cm in diameter and is in double shear under the
action of a centrifugal force. If the arm turns at 10,000 r.p.m. and the
centre of gravity of the bucket is 30 cm from the axis of rotation, determine
the shear stress induced in the pin. Ans. 1,320 kg/sq cm.
4. (a) Define the terms 'factor of safety' and 'working stress'.
What are the parameters which influence the value of factor of safety?
(b) It is required to punch three holes of 5 mm diameter simultaneously
in a 6 mm thick mild steel plate. What should be the minimum capacity of
the press?
Ultimate tensile stress for the steel = 36 kg/sq mm.
Ultimate shear stress for the steel = 27 kg/sq mm.
(University of Bombay; 1973)
Art. 2-14 j DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 89

2-14. Bearing pressure intensity:

Compressive stresses exerted on an external surface of a body,
when one object presses against another, is referred to as bearing
pressure intensity or crushing stress. These are surface stresses.
Examples of such stresses are shown in figs. 2-6 and 2-9. In fig. 2-6,
the post bears on a plate. The plate bears on the footing and
the footing bears on the soil. The resulting stresses between post
and plate, between plate and footing and between footing and the
soil are the crushing stresses. The stressed areas are the plane
surfaces normal to the 'direction of the load.

P
(a) (b)
Distribution of bearing pressure for a pin connection .
FIG. 2-9

There is no relative motion between the post and the plate,

between the plate and footing, and between the footing and the
soil when they are pressed. When there is relative motion between
the pressed surfaces, we shall use the term Bearing Pressure Intensity.
Bearing, on a curved surface such as a pin, is shown in fig. 2-9(a),
where the load is applied to the member by pins. The distribu-
tion of pin pressure will not be uniform but will be in accordance
with the shape of the surfaces in contact and deformation charac-
teristics of the two materials as shown in fig. 2-9(b). So we use the
average bearing pressure formula by using the projected area which
is the product of diameter of the pin and the length of pin in contact.
P
p -- -. rd (i)
90 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. 11
where P = load on the pin
1 = length of the pin in contact
d = diameter of the pin
p = average bearing pressure intensity.
The most frequent cause of failure of many machine parts is the wear of the
sliding surfaces when these surfaces have relative motion under load. To ensure
normal service life of the components the bearing pressure intensity should not
exceed the given limit, which depends upon number of factors. Wear resistance
is one of the basic requirement of the elements of any machine.
We quote some examples where bearing pressure intensity is to be considered
while designing the components.
(1) Eccentric sheave and straps (2) Crosshead and guide (3) Brake block
and rotating drum (4) Pin in a knuckle joint (5) Threads in a nut (6) Crank pin
and its bearing (7) Thrust block (8) Clutch lining (9) Fulcrum pin in a lever
(10) Cotter and\ socket. (11) Power screws (12) Guide ways of machine tools, e.g.
planing machine. (13) Journal bearings.

Examples:
1. The crank pin of a high speed stationary engine sustains a maxi-
mum load of 3,500 kg due to steam pressure. Assuming an allowable
bearing pressure of 70 kgIsq cm, determine dimensions for the pin. Assume
that the bearing length of the pin is 1.2 times the diameter of the pin.
70 = 50 sq cm.
Minimum bearing area required = 3500
Let d cm be diameter of the pin, then length of the pin in the
bearing will be 1.2d cm and the projected bearing area will be
d x 1.2d = 1.2d2.
••• 1.2d2 = 50
or d =115° = 6.45 cm.
1.2
We adopt d = 6.5 cm and I = 8.0 cm.
2. Fig. 2-10 shows a 30 mm diameter
round headed bolt passing through a heavy support-
ing steel plate. Under the tensile pull P=9,000
kg, the bolt might fail in three ways: (i) in tension
across 30 mm diameter shank, (ii) in shear on 4'
the cylindrical surface formed if the shank of the P= 9000kg
bolt should pull straight out of its head, and FIG. 2-10
(ill) in crushing on contacting surfaces between the
bolt head and supporting plate. Calculate average tensile, shearing and
bearing stresses resulting from the load P.
Art. 2-14 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 91

Tensile stress = 9000= 1,275 kg/sq cm.

7r
4 x 32
Area that resists shear of the bolt head will be
7r x 1.8 x 3.6 = 20.35 sq cm.
Shear stress — 9000= 442 kg/sq cm.
20.35
7t
Crushing area = — [4.62 — 3.62] = 6.44 sq cm.
4
9000
Crushing stress = — 1,397 kg/sq cm.
6.44
Exercises:
I. Find area of the crosshead shoe for a horizontal engine
cylinder diameter 35 cm, 60 cm stroke and connecting rod 150 cm long, the
supply pressure being 7 kg/sq cm by gauge. Safe bearing pressure on the
guide is limited to 3.5 kg/sq cm. Ans. 410 sq cm.
2. A rim clutch is to consist of four pairs of wood lined jaws engaging
a cast iron rim of 75 cm diameter. 50 h.p. is to be transmitted at a speed
of 180 r.p.m. Assuming allowable bearing pressure to be 2 kg/sq cm
and coefficient of friction 0.2, determine the minimum area of each block
in contact with the rim. Ans. 135 sq cm.
3. Each bearing of an electric motor sustains a load of 400 kg.
1
Assuming — ratio to be 1, determine length of the bearing if permissible
d
bearing pressure intensity is limited to 10 kg/sq cm. Ans. 6.5 cm.
4. A single acting internal combustion engine has a bore of 20 cm
and the maximum explosion pressure of 38 kg/sq cm. Assuming the bearing
length of the gudgeon pin as 0.45 time the bore, determine the diameter of the
gudgeon pin for a permissible bearing pressure intensity of 200 kg/sq cm.
Ans: 6.6 cm.
5. A cone clutch with a cone semi angle of 12 degree is to transmit
15 h.p. at 750 r.p.m. The width of the face is to be i the mean diameter
and normal pressure between the contact faces is limited to 0.7 kg/sq cm.
Determine main dimensions of the clutch. Assume the coefficient of fric-
tion to be 0.2. Ans. Width 3 cm, inside diameter 15 cm.
6. In design of eccentric, the thickness and diameter of the sheave
are calculated from bearing considerations. The net area of the valve face
on which the steam pressure acts may be taken as a rectangle 30 cm by 20 cm;
steam pressure 9 kg/sq cm gauge ; coefficient of friction 0.2; safe bearing pres
sure between sheave and strap 5 kg/sq cm. Determine diameter and thickness
of the sheave if their ratio be 10. Ans. Diameter 50 cm, thickness 5 cm.
92 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. 11

7. A bolt of diameter V' is enlarged near

the head to a diameter D as shown in fig. 2-11.
The head is cylindrical having diameter 1.5D
and thickness 1. If the bolt carries a pull of 35
tonnes, find the dimensions d, D and t. Assume
the following safe stresses for the material:
ft = 10 kg/sq mm, fs . 5 kg/sq mm and
fc . 6 kg/sq mm.
Ans. d = 7 cm; D = 8 cm; t = 2.5 cm.
8. A hoisting machine weighing 50 tonnes
L-61
is mounted on a concrete foundation having a
1
35 Tonne
surface area of 98,000 sq cm. What will be
the maximum weight of the foundation if the
FIG. 2-11 bearing pressure intensity of the soil is limited
to 2 kg/sq cm? Ans. 146 tonnes.
2-15. Bending (Flexure):
Bending produces a simple combination of the normal
tensile and compressive stresses. The assumptions made in the
theory of bending are as follows:
(i) The beam is initially straight and unstressed.
(ii) The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous and
isotropic, i.e. of the same density and elastic properties
throughout.
(iii) The elastic limit is no where exceeded.
(iv) Modulus of elasticity for the material is the same in
tension as well as in compression.
(v) Plane cross-sections remain plane before and after
bending.
(vi) Every cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about
the plane of bending, i.e. about an axis perpendicular
to the neutral axis.
(vii) There is no resultant force perpendicular to any cross-
section.
When a machine part is bent, the outer fibres are under
tension and inner under compression. There is an intermediate
layer where there is no stress. This is known as the neutral surface.
The magnitude of the stress induced in a fibre due to bending
moment is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis. The
bending stress at any distance y from the neutral axis is given by
Art. 2-151 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 93

My
(i)
where f = bending stress
M = bending moment acting on the section
I = second moment of area about the neutral axis.
The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section.
Equation (i) does not apply for stresses above the proportional
limit and for bending stresses developed when the beam is bent
about some axis of cross section other than a principal axis. In
design, M should be the maximum bending moment because
maximum stress will be produced by maximum bending moment.
The maximum value of stresses will occur for the maximum values
of y, which we denote by c for symmetrical beam sections. The
I.
ratio is called the rectangular section modulus of the section
r.
and is denoted by the letter Z and has dimensions of cm3. The
section modulus is equal to its second moment of area divided by
the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fibre. The
design formula is written as
m =f Z (ii)
where M = maximum bending moment acting on the section
f = safe bending stress
Z = rectangular section modulus of the section used.
The values of Z for typical symmetrical sections used in design
of machine elements have been given in Appendix III.
When a bending moment M is applied to a straight bea s-m at
any section, the radius of curvature R of the neutral axis at the
section is given by the equation
E f M (iii)
—y I
where I = second moment of area of the cross-section
f = stress at a distance y from the neutral axis
E = Young's modulus of elasticity.
This equation is very useful in determining the stresses that arise
when a\ hoisting rope passes over a sheave.
From the above theory of bending we come to a conclusion that some shapes
of beam sections will be more efficient than the others and the following statements
regarding the principles of design can be made:
(i) The lower the second moment of area of section, the higher the stress
developed for a given bending moment.
 94 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. il
The deeper a beam is in the plane of bending, the lower stresses are
developed because the second moment of area varies as the cube of the
depth.
(iii) Width does not have as much effect as depth, because the second
moment of area varies only directly with depth.
(iv) The area of the material is more efficiently used as it gets farther
from the neutral axis.
Efficient compromise is reached in an I section bending about its shortest
neutral axis. For most practical purposes the following proportions are adopted:
Width of the flange is eight times the thickness of the flange.
Depth of the section is three times the width of the flange.
Thickness of the flange is twice the thickness of the web.
If the material of the machine part subjected to bending has different resistances
in tension and compression (for instance cast iron) section which is symmetrical
with respect to neutral axis becomes non-economical. In case of symmetrical
sections such as circular, rectangular, square, etc. the maximum stresses on the
extreme fibres are equal. The dimensions of the section will be determined by
- allowable tensile stress which is less than allowable compressive stress. The
stress in the compressed zone will be less than the allowable stress. The material
will not be utilised completely. In unsymmetrical section such as T section, the
neutral axis will be displaced towards the flange. The stresses on the extreme
fibres in the flange are less than those in the web. When bending moment
diagram does not change the sign, it is advisable to place the flanges in the
stretched zone and the web in the compressed zone. In this case it is possible
to choose dimensions of the web and flanges in such a manner that permissible
tensile and compressive stress intensities are reached simultaneously. Thus the
material will be used to the fullest. Unsymmetrical I sections can also be used.
The following four rules will result in the most effective use of steel for bend-
ing loads:
1. Place flange material as far as possible, from the neutral axis. Connect
flanges with web section.
2. Avoid reductions in sectional area below requirements for horizontal stiffness.
3. Connect ends of beams rigidly to supporting members for maximum strength
and stiffness.
4.. Place joints in low stress areas.

2-16. Shear stresses in a beam:

'When a beam is subjected to a transverse load, in addition to
bending stresses, it is also subjected to a transverse shear stress.
The shear stress varies from zero at the outer fibres to a maxi-
mum at th6 neutral surface, while the bending stresses vary from
zero at the neutral surface to the maximum at the outer fibres.
The total vertical shear divided by cross sectional area of
the beam is the average shear at the section but not the maxi-
Mum shear stress, which is 50% more than average stress for
Art. 2-16] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 95

rectangular sections and 33% more than the average stress for
circular sections. For detailed information, one should consult
books on structural mechanics.

Examples:
1. The spindle shown' in the sketch is used to connect, the brake shoe
of an industrial spring set brake to the brake arm. The loads P are each
equal to 500 kg. Assuming an allowable stress of 1,250 kg/sq cm, deter-
mine the diameter of the spindle.
This is an example in which the major part of the spindle is
subjected to pure bending. Shear force and bending moment
diagrams are shown in fig. 2-12.

-25 4

1
Shear force diagram

T
Bending moment diagram

1250kg cm

FIG. 2-12

Maximum bending moment = 500 x 2.5 = 1,250 kg cm.

If d cm be the diameter of the spindle, then

1250 = d8 x 1250
32
or d = V1250 x =
2.2 cm.
V 1250 Tr
96 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

2. A mild steel pump lever rocking shaft is shown in fig. 2-13.

For the loading indicated, suggest the suitable diameter for the centre portion
if the permissible stress is limited to 650 kg/sq cm.

3000 kg 4000 kg
•

250 R 8

FIG. 2-13

To find reactions at A and B, we take moments about supports.

Taking moment about the support A, we get
Rs X 120 = 3000 x 20 + 4000 x 95.
3000 x 20 + 4000 x 95
... Rs = = 3,670 kg.
120
Similarly RA can be obtained by taking moment about
support B.
4000 x 25 + 3000 x 100
RA = = 3,330 kg.
120
B.M. at 3,000 kg load =---- 3330 x 20 = 66,600 kg cm.
B.M. at 4,000 kg load ,-,- 3670 x 25 = 91,750 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then

91750 -- 32n- d3 x 650

Or d = 101750 x 32 — 11.2 cm; we adopt 12 cm.

Y 650 x n
3. It is desired to bend a strip 6 mm thick and 20 mm wide of
spring steel into a loop with ends overlapping and riveted. Find the
minimum radius of the loop if the stresses due to bending are limited to
1,000 kg/sq em. Also determine the bending moment required to bend the
strip. E = 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
The simple theory of elastic bending states that
.
M f E
Art. 2-16] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 97

where M = applied bending moment at a section

1 = second moment of area of cross-section
f = stress at distance y from the neutral axis
E Young's modulus of elasticity
R = radius of curvature of the neutral axis at the section.
The maximum stress will be induced in the outermost fibres.
We have
f
--,-
--- where y will be half the thickness of the strip.
y R E
, y 2.1 x 106 x 0.3
• R = - = 63 cm.
f= -1000-
Maximum bending moment to be applied will be
M=fx zr ,--,- 1000 xi.x2x 0.62
. 120 kg cm.
Exercises :
1. A cast iron pulley transmits 20 h.p. at 120 r.p.m., diameter of
the pulley being 70 cm. The pulley has four arms of elliptical cross-section,
the major axis being twice the minor axis. Determine dimensions of the
elliptical section at the boss if the permissible stress be limited to 100
kg/sq cm. Ans. Major axis 7.5 cm; minor axis 3.8 cm.
2. A 1,200 mm lever of the safety braking mechanism of a winch
takes up a load of 50 kg. The lever must be of a rectangular cross section
with a side ratio of 2 :3. Determine the cross sectional dimension, of the
lever at an allowable stress of 550 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 45 mm; 30 mm.
3. A lifting yoke 40 cm long is used for removing a ball bearing from
a shaft thereby creating a central force of 2,500 kg. Determine the stress
in the material of the yoke and its deflection if the sectional modulus of the
yoke is 32 cm8 and the second moment of area of cross section is 750 cm4.
Modulus of elasticity may be taken as 2.1 x 106 kilsq cm.
Ans. 875 kg/sq cm; 0.025 mm.
4. Determine the depth of a guide bar of an engine, assuming that
the greatest thrust on it occurs at the middle of its span of 90 cm when
the crank is at right angles to the line of its stroke. The ratio of the length
of the connecting rod :o crank is 5. Diameter of the cylinder is 40 cm and
the steam pressure is 6 kgIsq cm. The width of the guide bar is 15 cm. The
Permissible stress intensity is limited to 250 kg/sq cm. Ans. 8 cm.
98 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

5. The roof of a combustion chamber of a locomotive boiler is

strengthened by a number of girder stays 70 cm span, spaced 20 cm apart.
Three bolts 17.5 cm apart attach the plates to each stay. The section of
each stay is rectangular, the thickness being 318 of the depth. Suggest
suitable thickness for the stay if the pressure in the boiler is 12 kg/sq cm.
The permissible stress intensity is 700 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Depth 16 cm; width 6 cm.
6. A steel saw blade 1 mm thick is bent into an arc of a circle of 50
cm radius. Determine the flexural stresses induced and the bending moment
required to bend the blade, which is 15 mm wide. E = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 2,100 kg/sq cm, 5.25 kg cm.
7. In a certain trailer the axle load is 3,000 kg. The wheel track
is 160 cm and the distance between the centres of the springs on which the
chasis is supported is 110 cm. The axle is made of mild steel square
sections with the ends turned to receive bearings. Design the axle ff the
permissible stress in the material is limited to 700 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
2-17. Torsion:
A machine member subjected to the action of two equal and
opposite couples acting in parallel planes is said to be in torsion
and the stresses induced are known as the torsional shear stresses,
which vary in magnitude from zero at the centroidal axis to the
maximum at the outer fibre. The torsional shear stress in a
member of circular cross section is obtained by the equation
_T xy
1; 45 (i)
where fs = shearing stress at 'a distance y from the centroidal axis
T = applied torque
1p = polar second moment of area of the section about the
centroidal axis.
In design, we are concerned with the maximum stress, which
will occur at the outer fibre. The formula (i), for a solid shaft
of diameter d, will be reduced to
16T
(ii)
fs = — ndi
The deformation or angular twist of the shaft is given by the
equation
Att. 2-17 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 99

7
0 = Ti (iii)
Glp
where 0 = angular twist, in a length /, in radians
T = applied torque
G = modulus of rigidity.
The angle of twist in degrees for a circular shaft of diameter
d is given by the equation
584 77
0= -- (iv)
Gd4
The 'formula (ii) is to be used when the member is to be
designed for strength, while formula (iv) is to be used when the
member is to be proportioned for stiffness.
For a square shaft of side a, the equation (ii) will , be
4.8 T
(v)
fs = —1
a3
Note: While designing the shaft transmitting certain horse power at a
given speed, the following equation becomes very useful.
If we consider the horse power, the relation will be as under:
Let T be the torque transmitted by the shaft in kg cm at a speed /V r.p.m.
TT
2rciTo x .lif 2x 72 x IT)1:-) x .Ar
TN
H.P. —
4500 — 4500 = 71620
71620 x H.P._
Torque (kg cm) (vi)
Speed in R.P.M.
Steel in rolled structural shapes or built up sections is very efficient in resisting
torsion. With steel, torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the use of
stiffners. Castings on the other hand are restricted because of difficulties in
coring, need for draft, etc.
The following three basic rules should be observed while designing machinery
members to resist torsional loading:
(i) Use closed sections where possible.
(ii) Use diagonal bracing.
(iii) Make rigid end connections.
The solid or tubular round closed section is best for torsional loading since the
shear stresses are uniform around the circumference of the member. Next to a
tubular section, the best section for resisting torsion is a closed square or rectangular
tubular section.
The poorest sections for torsional loading are open sections, flat plates, angle
sections, channel sections, Z bar sections, T bar sections, I beam sections and
tubular sections which have a longitudinal slit.
 100 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

In case of a solid rectangular shaft having b as the larger size, the maximum
torsional shear stress is given by
T
(vii)
fs = etbd 2
where a is a constant whose value depends upon the ratio of -- . The value of a is
ti
b
given below for various values of the ratio — • The value of a equals
d
1
d
3 -I- 1.8 x
b

b 1 1.00 1.5 ' 2 2.5 3 4 6 8 10 I co

d 1
1
a 1 0.208 0.231 i 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333
I
The maximum shear stress of a rectangular section in torsion lies on the
surface at the middle of the long side. Some what lower maximum shear stress is at
the middle of the short side. The ratio of two maximum shear stresses is given by
Maximum shear stress at the middle of the long side b
(viii)
Maximum shear stress at the middle of the short side d
The shear stress at the corners of a solid rectangular or square section is zero.
Actual tests show that the torsional resistance of an open section made up
of rectangular areas nearly equals the sum of the torsional resistances of all the
individual rectangular areas. For example the torsional resistance of an 1 beam is
approximately equal to the sum of the torsional resistances of the two flanges and a web.
The torsional resistance R of a rectangular section having b as the larger side
and t as the thickness is given by
R = rit bta (ix)
b
where ft depends on the ratio of — .
t
For all practical purposes, the value of 13 may be taken as I.
When the value of torsional resistance of a section is known, the angle of
twist is obtained by the relation
Tx I
0 -- (x)
R )4 G I
Let us consider the following three arrangements of two channel sections as
shown in fig. 2-14.
Case 1:
In this arrangement fig. 2-14(a), two channel sections are separated but
fastened together by end plates. In this arrangement the section has not much
torsional resistance.
Case 2:
When these two channels are securely fastened back to back, there is suitable
torsional resistance. This arrangement is shown in fig. 2-14(6). The torsional
Art. 2-17 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 101

resistance can be obtained as a sum of torsional resistances of three rectangular

areas, Two webs are considered as one solid web and top and bottom flanges
are considered solid.

y2)

r7/
(a) 031
FIG. 2-14
Case 3:
In arrangement shown in fig. 2-14(c), two channels are welded toe to toe to
form a box section, the torsional resistance would be greatly increased. The
torsional resistance of such a section can be obtained from the values given in the
above table.

Examples :
1. A steel shaft transmits 150 horse power at 115 r.p.m. The
maximum twisting moment during each revolution exceeds the mean by 30%.
Suggest the suitable diameter for the solid shaft if the shear stress is not to
exceed 650 kg/sq cm.
71620 x h.p.
Mean torque in kg cm =
r.p.m.
71620 x 150
= 93,500 kg cm.
115
Maximum torque = 1.3 x 93500 = 122,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
nds
122000 f= - x 650
16
-18/ 1 22000 16 1
or d x — = i 0 cm.
650 Tr

2. The cross section of an aluminium alloy lever suitable for general

engineering purposes is a rectangle of depth 5 cm and thickness 2 cm. It is
subjected to a torque of 1,500 kg cm. Determine the maximum value
of the torsional shear stress if the polar modulus for a rectangular section is
62d
Z=
3 + 1.8
102 MACHINE DESIGN 1Ch. II
where b = thicktuos and
d = depth of the section.
2x2x5
Z — 3 + 1.8 x * = 5.37 c1113-
Maximum shear stress will be at the middle of the longer
side and will be equal to
torque .-.... 1500 = 280 kg/sq cm.
fs = modulus of section 5.37
Lower maximum at the middle of the short side
= 280 x *
= 112 kg/sq cm.
Shear stresses at the corners of the section will be zero.
3. Compare the torque carrying capacity of a thin walled circular
tube of mean diameter D and thickness t if
(i) tube is closed
(ii) tube is cut longitudinally.
Also compare the torsional rigidity if the same torque is applied to
both these tubes.
Let fs be the permissible shear stress intensity for the material
of the tube.
Torque T of the hollow tube can be approximately written as
D v
T . = Dffs.-2- -=.• -T D2tfs.
We consider that the cut circular section is equivalent to a
rectangular section having one side 7rD and the other side t.
Torque of a gist tube can be written as
T' = inDt 2 x fs
Thus the ratio of two torques will be
. IC fs
- D2t
T 2 _ ( D\
T' ---- ftcDt 2 x fs — 1 kt ).
Thus torque transmitting capacity of the closed tube is
considerably greater.
The angle of twist of a circular tube is given by
T1 = TI 4 T1
D2 TrD8 Gt
GIP G x 7rDt —, -1-
Art. 2-17] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 103

where T = applied torque

1 =length of the tube
G = modulus of rigidity
Ip = polar second moment of area of the section. For the
same torque applied to the longitudinally cut hollow circular section
TI TI ___ 3T1
0—
GR — G x inDt3 — 77DGt3"
The ratio of the two twists will be
0 4 TI TOGO 4 ( t V
€1; = 703Gt x 3 Tl = a k bj
From the above we see that for the same torque applied to
both these tubes, the ratio of the induced shear stresses has a value
D
of the order of — and the ratio of the angles of rotation has a value
t
of the order (D
— ).
2 The quantity D is considerably greater than t.
t
Consequently a closed section is appreciably stronger and to an even greater
degree more rigid than a similar open section.
Exercises:
1. Calculate the diameter of the solid shaft to transmit 75 h.p. at
180 r.p.m. if the angle of twist on a length of 4 metre is not to exceed 0.4°.
Assume G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm. Ans." 12 cm.
2. The propeller shaft of a car is in the form of a hollow tube, 5 cm
outside diameter and 3 mm thick. Determine the maximum shear stress in
the tube when the shaft transmits 50 h.p. at 2,800 r.p.m.
Ans. 108.2 kg/sq cm.
3. A motor car shaft consists of a steel tube 30 mm internal diameter
and 3 mm thick. The engine develops 12 h.p. at 2,000 r.p.m. What
will be the maximum stress in the tube when the power is transmitted through
a 4:1 gearing? Ans. 340 kg/sq cm.
4. The bar of a boring machine having a diameter of 60 mm is
subjected to a trosion shear stress of 500 kg/sq cm and has an angle of twist
of 0.02 radian. Determine the length of the bar. Ans. 96 cm.
5. Determine the diameter below which the angle of twist of a shaft
and not the maximum stress is the controlling factor in design of a solid
shaft in torsion. The allowable shear stress is 600 kg/sq cm and the
maximum allowable twist is 0.3 degree per metre length. Neglect the
effect of keyway. G = 0.84x 106 kg/sq cm.
104 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

6. If a bore is made in a solid shaft in order to reduce its weight by

50%, what will be the percentage reduction in its torsional strength.'
Ans. 25%.
7. Compare the weight, strength and stiffness of a hollow shaft of
the same external diameter, the inside diameter of the hollow shaft being
half the external diameter. The comparison is to be made with the solid
shaft. Both the shafts have the same material.
8. Two steel shafts A and B are to be
joined together by means of a flanged coupling.
Both shafts are firmly fixed at the ends remote
from the coupling. On assembly it is found
that the holes in the coupling halves have an
angular misalignment of 3° so that it is
1800 kg
necessary to twist the shafts to enable the
coupling to be assembled. If shaft A is 4 cm
diameter by 150 cm long and shaft B 2.5 cm
diameter by 90 cm long, determine the shear
stress present at the surface of each shaft
after assembly has taken place. Assume that
the coupling is rigid.
Ans. Shaft A; 58.6 kg/sq cm;
Shaft B; 61.7 kgIsq cm. FIG. 2-15
9. Pin P carries a load of 1,800 kg and is supported by a bracket
as shown in fig. 2-15. Determine the section KK, assuming only the
bending action of the load. Take an allowable bending stress of 400
kg/sq cm. Also determine the maximum shear stress produced in the cross
ab2 b
section KK, if the polar modulus of section is given by •
3+ 1•8 a
2-18. Eccentric loading:
In structures as there is no relative motion at various joints
it is generally assumed that they are centrally loaded; this may
not be the case for machine parts when friction at the pin
joints is taken into consideration, as the line of action of the force
is tangential to the friction circle. As a result, the link is subjected
to bending in addition to direct stress. Manytimes in design of
machine parts circumstances are such, that it is not practicable
to make the link straight due to interference from the adjoining
Art. 2-18 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 105

links. To avoid such interference an offset connecting link is

provided. In some cases due to defective workmanship, i.e., due
to drilling error, etc., the load axis may not coincide with the
geometrical axis of the member, as a result the member is subjected
to eccentric loading.
Frames of machines, such as a punching machine, portable
hydraulic riveter, clamp, etc. are subjected to eccentric loading.
Now we consider the stress analysis of such members.
When the line of action of load on a short prismatic bar is
parallel to, but does not coincide with, the centroidal axis of the
supporting member as shown in fig. 2-16 (b), the load is referred to
P1

6.

PeCt
P
A MI"b
a
PeCt
I
---.....
b I
a ,
b
PeCc P
(a) 09
PeCc
I (c)
-r--1-1
Eccentric loading
FIG. 2-16

as an eccentric load and distance e is called the eccentricity of the

load. The moment Pe will bend the member about the axis XX,
106 r MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11
thus adding tensile and compressive bending stresses to the already
existing compressive direct stresses.
In order to determine the stresses, two forces Pi and P2 equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied force P
may be introduced along the longitudinal axis without altering
the equilibrium of the body as shown in fig. 2-16(c).
Stress due to load P1 on the cross sections of the bar will be
Pl P
uniform and is equal to --
A- = A as shown in fig. 2-16(a).

The forces P2 and P form a couple of the magnitude Pe which

will induce compressive stress at b and tensile stress at a. The
resulting stresses are obtained by the principle of superposition.
PeCt P
Stress at a = / — A •
(i)
PeCc±'P
Stress at b = —
I A
where 1 is the second moment of area about the neutral axis and
C't and Cc are the distances of the extreme fibres from the neutral
axis on the tension and compression sides respectively. When
the maximum bending stress is less than the direct stress there
will be compressive stresses over the entire cross section. If the
maximum bending stresses are more than the direct compressive
stress, there will be a line of zero stress parallel to the neutral
axis, which divides the cross section into two zones as shown in
fig. 2-16(c). Tensile stresses are on the left of the line of zero
stress and compressive stresses are on the right.
When loading on the member is tensile, the equations of
this section may be used by interchanging the subscripts c and 1.

2-19. Combined stresses: Bending combined with direct

stress:
In many instances we come across members which are
subjected to both direct and bending loads as shown in fig. 2-17.
All the cases of fig. 2-17 are loaded in such a manner that across
any section 1-2 the stresses induced are the sum of direct and
bending stresses. In general, the maximum combined stress will
be the sum of the direct and bending stresses.
Art. 2-191 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 107

Let A be the area of the cross section, fi the stress at side 1

of the section, f2 the stress at the side 2 of the section, C1 distance
of centre of gravity of section from side 1, Ca the distance of centre
of gravity of section from side 2, a the perpendicular distance of
point of application of load P from the neutral axis and I second
moment of area of section 1-2 about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the paper and passing through theAcentre of gravity of
the section.

(a) 0,)
Combined straining action
FIG. 2-17
The expressions for the resultant stresses at the extreme fibres
can be written as under:
P Pa C1 P cos() Px sin0C1
=A I = A + I
fig. 2-17(a) fig. 2-17(b)
P Pa Cis P cos() Px sin0C2
f2 = A + f2 A

PcosO (Pa cos() Px sin()) Ci

fi= A I
fig. 2-17(c)
Pcos0 (Pa cos() Px sin0) C2
= A + I
For symmetrical sections, the maximum stress will be tensile
if the direct stress is tensile and it will be compressive if the direct
stress be compressive.
Since three basic straining actions exist — direct, bending and
torsional in the shaft, four combinations of these are possible
(i) direct and bending, (ii) bending and torsional, (iii) torsional
and direct and (iv) direct, bending and torsional. In this section
we have considered the first, and other cases will be considered at
the appropriate places in the book.
108 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

2-20. Offset connecting links and C shaped frames:

In design of machine parts we come across offset connecting
links as shown in fig. 2-18. For such links, in order to bring
economy of material, the following rule, which can be derived
from first principles, is observed. When the line of action of the
load cuts the section, the width h2 is kept as small as possible and
area of the section is increased by increasing the thickness b2.
When the line of action of the load does not cut the section, as in
C shaped frames of punches, shears, presses and riveters, the
thickness b2 is kept small and area of the section is increased by
increasing the width h2.
By adopting this principle, the material is used to the best
advantage.

Offset connecting link

FIG. 2-18
Examples :
1. The line of pull in a tension test specimen 1 cm in diameter is
parallel to the axis of the specimen but is displaced from it. Determine the
eccentricity of the pull wizen the maximum stress is 20% greater than the
mean stress on a section normal to the axis.
Let P be the load acting on the specimen and A be the area
of cross section. Let e be the eccentricity of the applied pull.
P
Direct stress = -- •
PeCt
Bending stress = ---- with the notations of section 2-18.
P PeCt 120 P
A I — I OW A .
Art. 2-20 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 109

[Link] 1
=1
- C4 --
1 I 1 32 d 1-0
•• A--ct. x 415 0.025 cm.
e 40
d2
2. The crank arm of a steam engine has a rectangular cross section
of 21 cm by 10 cm. In dead centre position of the crank the maximum
compressive force acting is 7,000 kg. The line of action of the force is
parallel to and at a distance of 12 cm from the principal axis of the section.
Determine the maximum tensile stress induced in the crank arm.
The cross-sectional area is 21 x 10 = 210 sq cm.
7000
Direct compressive stress = = 33.3 kg/sq cm.
210
Due to eccentricity of 12 cm, a bending moment of magnitude
7000 x 12 = 84,000 kg cm is acting on the section.
84000
Maximum value of bending stress =
* X 21 x 102
= 240 kg/sq cm.
.• Maximum compressive stress = 240 + 33.3 = 273.3 kg/sq cm.
Maximum tensile stress = 240 — 33.3 = 206.7 kg/sq cm.
3. A mild steel bracket shown in fig. 2-19
is subjected to a pull of 500 kg acting at an vs%
4C
angle of 30° to the vertical. The bracket has a 3 0
0
rectangular section whose thickness is of its 8
depth. Determine the section of the bracket if
the permissible stress in the material is limited to
550 kg/sq cm.
Let d be the depth of the section. 4- 100
Width of the section will be fd. FIG. 2-19
Area of cross section will be . d x jd = jd2 = 0.375d2.
Modulus of section will be
Z = * x Id.d2 = 1 = 0.0625d3.
6
Force of 500 kg can be resolved into two components.
Horizontal component will be
500 sin 30° = 0.5 x 500 = 250 kg.
110 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II
Vertical component will be
500 cos 30° = 0.866 x 500 = 433 kg.
Direct tensile stress due to vertical component will be
433 1150
kgisq cm.
0.375d2 d2
Constant bending moment acting on the section due to vertical
component = 433 x 10 = 4,330 kg cm. Due to this bending
moment, tensile stresses of the same magnitude are induced on the
inner fibres of the bracket, while compressive stresses are induced
on the outer fibres. Maxittium value of tensile stress on inner
fibres will be
4330 69400 kg/
07062573 = d3
sq cm'
Horizontal component of load will give rise to the maximum
bending moment of the magnitude 250 x 20 = 5,000 kg cm
which will induce tensile stresses on the inner fibre and compres-
sive on the outer.
Maximum value of tensile stress on inner fibre will be
5000 80000
0.0625d3 = —cis kg/sq cm.
Maximum tensile stress in innermost fibres
1150 69400 80000 1150 149400 1,
= d2 + d3 -Ii___- d3- = d2 -I_t_- - d3 ...g/sq cm.

Maximum value of the stress is limited to 550 kg/sq cm.

1150 149400
.•. -- + ------ = 550.
d2 ds
The equation for the determination of d will be
d3 — 2.10d — 272 =..- 0 which is a cubic equation of the form
x8 + ax + b = 0 which may be solved by Cardan's solution.
The real root of the equation is given by

fb .1 /b2 as i lia
x=1-1!i +.1/1;1
4- 41113 + 1— 2- y 4 + 01
The value of d will be 6.5 cm.
Thickness will be I x 6.5 = 244 cm; we adopt t = 2.5 cm.
%Art. 2-20 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 111

• 4. A load of 2 tonne acts on the frame shown in fig. 2-20. The

frame is of equal width at all sections namely 150 mm and is. 25 mm
thick. Determi;se the stress at section SS, XX and IT.
Stresses in section SS:
30 262
Area of section = 2.5 x 15 150
X
= 37.5 sq cm.
Modulus of section = * x 2.5 x 152
= 93.7 cm'.
Bending moment = 2 [20 + 7.5] 25 2 Ton
= 55 tonne cm. 150
Direct tensile stress =37.5
2

0.0534 tonne/sq cm. FIG. 2-20

55
Bending stress (maximum) = 0.586 tonne/sq cm.

Tensile stress at inner fibres = 0.586 + 0.0534

= 0.6394 tonne/sq cm.
Compressive stress at outer fibres
= 0.586 — 0.0534 ------: 0.5326 tonne/sq cm.
Stresses in section XX :
The stress distribution in an inclined section XX can be
investigated as follows: Let 0 = 30° be the inclination of this
section to the plane parallel to the direction of the force.
The following stresses will occur in section XX:
(a) Couple 2 x 26.2 = 52.4 tonne cm produces bending
giving a maximum tensile stress at the inner corner and
a maximum compressive stress at the outer corner.
(b) Component of 2 tonnes at right angle to section pro-
duces uniform tensile stress over the section.
(c) Component of 2 tonnes parallel to the section pro-
duces uniform shear stress across section.
As the frame is of equal width and equal thickness at all
sections, area and modulus of section of section XX will be
37.5 sect) = 43.3 sq cm and 93.7 sec20 = 125 ems respectively.
112 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11

52-4
Bending stress = -1-25 = 042 tonne/sq cm, tensile at the inner
corner and compressive at the outer.
Component of 2 tonnes perpendicular to section will be
2 sin 30° = 0.5 x 2 = 1 tonne.
Component of 2 tonnes parallel to section . 2 cos 30°
= 0.866 x 2 = 1.732 tonnes.
Tensile stress (uniform) over section =43.3
— = 0.0231
tonne/sq cm.
1.73 2
Shear stress (uniform) over section =43.3
—-- 0.04
= tonne/sq cm.

Maximum tensile stress at the inner corner will be 042 +

0.0231 = 04431 tonne/sq cm and the maximum compressive
stress at the outer corner will be 042 — 0.0231 = 0.3969 tonne/sq
cm. Since the shear stress acts at right angles to the stresses,
maximum stresses in the section can be found by the formula
Pn = 4 [P + Vii + 412].
In the region of the inner corner, the major principal stress
will be
4 [0.4431 + V044312 + 4 x 0.041 = 0447 tonne/sq cm,
and the maximum shear stress 4 Vp2 + 4q2 = 0.226 tonne/sq cm.
Similarly the major principal stress (compressive) and maxi-
mum shear stress in the region of outer corner will be 0402 and
0.203 tonne/sq cm respectively.
Stresses in section TT:
The stresses in a section through one limb of the frame
parallel to the line of action of the load will be bending stresses
due to bending moment 2 x 15 = 30 tonne cm. The bending
stresses will be tensile at the inner edge and compressive at the
other edge.
Maximum bending stress at outer fibres will be
30
= 0.32 tonne/sq cm.
93.7
Due to transverse shear the maximum shear stress of the
1. 5 x
magnitude 8-775--2 = 0.08 tonne/sq cm will be induced at the
neutral axis while the shear stress at the outer fibres will be zero.
Art. 2-201 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 113

Exercises:
1. It is necessary to bend a certain link of rectangular section as
shown in fig. 2-21 in order to prevent interference with another part of the
machine. The link is to support a tensile load F = 1,800 kg with a
permissible stress of 1,150 kg/sq cm. The inner edge of the mid section is
displaced from the centre line of pins by distance a = 7.5 cm. Neglecting
the effect of curvature, determine the dimensions b and h f h = 3b.
Ans. b= 2.5 cm; h= 7-5 cm.

.FIG. 2-22

2. The symmetrical link shown by dotted lines in fig. 2-22 transmits

a force of 4,000 kg. (a) Determine dimensions t and b1 of the body of
the link, assuming that the permissible tensile stress intensity is 700 kg/sq
cm and that b1 = 2.5t. (b) Due to certain changes made in the design of the
machine it was found necessary to replace the original link by an un-
symmetrical one shown in figure by full lines, having the same thickness as
the original link, determine the depth b of the new link.
Ans. t = 1.6 cm; b1 = 4 cm; b = 15 cm.
3. Determine dimensions of the principal cross section of the cast
iron link shown in fig. 2-23. The maximum tensile load is P = 3,700 kg.
The following stress values should not be exceeded. ft = 210 kg/sq cm;
fc = 840 kg/sq cm: Ans. t = 23 mm.
4. The load P on C clamp shown in fig. 2-24 is 3,750 kg. Assuming
that the clamp is made of cast steel and b = 3h and e = 20 cm and that
there is an allowable stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm, determine the dimensions b
and h. Ans. It = 3.8 cm; b =--- 11.5 cm.
5. The cross section of the frame of a punch press, where the bending
is maximum, is the shape of a T. The top of the T is a rectangle
30 cm x 5 cm and the stem a rectangle 5 cm x 10 cm with 5 cm side
114 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

adjacent to the tap. The distance is 20 cm from the nearest edge of the
T to the punching force. Calculate the stress developed when the punch
is punching 18 mm diameter hole from a brass plate 5 mm thick. The
ultimate shear strength of the brass is 2,100 kglsq cm.
Ans. 555.4 kgisq cm.

Fm. 2-25 Fro. 2-26

6. The punch press shown in fig. 2-25 has a tensile section modulus
at a section XX of 820 cm3, a compressive section modulus of 492 cm3
and an area of 162 sq cm. If this punch is used to punch holes out of
a mild steel plate 3.2 mm thick, suggest the diameter of the largest hole
that should be punched, if the ultimate strength of the plate in shear be
3,360 kesq cm. Assume a design stress qf 420 kgIsq cm for the frame
of the punch. Ans. 17 mm.
7. A cast iron bracket carries a load of 1,000 kg at 45° to its centre
line. The section AB (fig. 2-26) is a hollow square 10 cm outside side
Determine the thickness of the bracket wall if the permissible tensile stress
intensity in cast iron is limited to 125 kg/sq cm. Ans. 13 mm.
8. The spindle of a drilling machine is subjected to a maximum
axial load of 1,000 kg during operation. Determine the diameter of the
solid cast iron column if the tensile stress is limited to 400, kgIsq cm.
The distance between the axis of the spindle and the axis of the column
is 40 cm. (Sardar Patel University, 1971)
9. (a) What are the important considerations that govern the
choice of a material for a machine element?
(b) A machine frame has a rectangular cross section, width being
3 times the depth. A load of 3,000 kg acts at a distance of 20 cm from
the axis of the cross section taken in horizontal plane. Compute the
dimensions of the section if the permissible tensile 'stress for the material of
the frame. is 1,000 kesq cm. (University of Bombay, 1973)
Art. . 2-21 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS n5
2-21. Shearing combined with tensile and compressive
stresses:
Many machine parts such as propeller shafts, C frames, etc.
are acted upon by external forces that produce direct tensile or
compressive stresses in addition to the shear stresses at right angles
to direct stresses. Similarly many machine parts such as crank-
shaft, etc. are subjected to torsion combined with bending or direct
compression. In such cases, the value of the maximum tensile
or compressive or shear stress is obtained by the following formulas:
Maximum tensile stress = 4 [ft + VP + 4f52] (1)
Maximum compressive stress = Hfc + V fc2 ± 4fs2].... (ii)
Maximum shear stress = i Vfi2 + 4f,2 or i i/ v fc2 + 4f$2 .. (iii)
In order to use the above formulas it should be remembered
that values off: or fc and fs should be taken at the same fibre.
Example:
I. A propeller shaft transmits a twisting moment of 900,000 kg cm
and simultaneous bending moment of 300,000 kg cm and an axial thrust
of 12,500 kg. The shaft is' 35 cm external and 15 cm internal diameter.
Determine the maximum value of the compressive and shear stresses.
v [354 — 254
Modulus of section for torsion = — - --- --- =6,230 cma.
16 35
Maximum torsional shear stress = twisting moment
modulus of section
. .._-900000
-- _ — = 144 kg/[Link].
6230
Modulus of section for bending = i X modulus of section
for torsion
= i x 6230 = 3,115 cma.
300000
Maximum bending stress = - E-6- = 96.5 kg/sq cm.
12500
Compression due to thrust = ------ - - --- s= 26.6 kg/sq cm.
7 (352_ 252)
4'
Hence axial compression = 26.6 + 96.5 = 123.1 kg/sq cm.
Maximum principal stress . 4 [123.1 + 1/123.12 + 4 x 1442]
= 218.6 kg/sq cm.
Maximum shear stress . i [V123.12 + 4 x 1442]
= 157 kg/sq cm.
116 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
Exercises:
1. A steel pin is subjected to a shearing force 2,500 kg and the
direct compression of 4,100 kg. Determine the suitable diameter of the
pin if the permissible compressive stress is limited to 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 3.8 cm.
2. At a point in a propeller shaft there are external twisting and
bending moments of 16,000 kg cm and 12,000 kg cm respectively. In
addition the shaft is subjected to an axial thrust of 2,000 kg. If the maximum
permissible stresses are 750 kg/sq cm in compression and 450 kesq' cm
in shear, what must be the minimum diameter at the point considered?
(University of Bombay, 1972)
2-22. Theories of Elastic Failure:
Whenever a machine part is subjected to i a system of com-
bined stresses, e.g. as in crankshafts, propeller shafts, turbine
rotors, etc. it is important to know what caused failure. The
particular action causing failure is known as the criterion of failure.
Two types of service failures are possible: elastic failure or
yielding and fracture. Elastic failure results in excessive deforma-
tion so that the part or machine can no longer perform its parti-
cular function as well as it should. In fracture failure, the com-
ponent usually tears apart into two or more pieces. In this article
we shall consider theories of elastic failure.
Any state of stress can be specified completely by value of
three principal stresses, each of which may be tensile or compressive.
We can express the normal stress, strain, shear stress and strain
energy in terms of these principal stresses. The criterion of failure
can be represented as an equation involving principal stresses together with
certain constants and an experimentally determined stress, usually tensile.
Several theories have been proposed each assuming a dif-
ferent criterion for failure. The standard theories are as follows:
(i) Maximum principal stress (Rankine's theory)
(ii) Maximum shear stress (Guest's theory)
(iii) Maximum strain (St. Venant's theory)
(iv) Maximum total strain energy (Haigh's theory)
(v) Distortion energy (Von Mises and Hencky)
We consider two dimensional or bi-axial stress system.
Let A and f2 be the principal stresses produced by the combined
action of forces and let f be the elastic limit in simple tension.
Art. 2-221 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 117

Maximum principal stress theory:

This theory assumes that failure will occur when the
maximum principal stress fi is equal to the elastic limit in tension.
According to this theory failure will occur when
di .=-"f (i)
This is the theory most commonly assumed for brittle materials.
However when the principal stresses have opposite signs, the results
do not agree with those obtained by experiments.
Maximum shear stress theory:
This theory assumes that elastic failure occurs when the
maximum shear stress for a complex system is equal to the shear
stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
According to this theory failure will occur when
f 1 rf 4..
2 - Ll./ 1 f2)]

or f - (A - f2) (1')
It is usual to apply this theory to ductile materials, good
approximation being obtained between theory and experimental
results. The results are on the safe side, independent of whether
the principal stresses have like or unlike signs.

Maximum strain theory:

This theory assumes that elastic failure is deemed to occur
when the maximum principal strain of the complex system is equal
to the maximum strain at the elastic limit in simple tension.
According to this theory the failure will occur when
1
1.
E- = -E-- [( f1 - Rf2)]
Or f = (fi -µ.f2)
where v. = Poisson's ratio (iii)
Results obtained by this theory are not always valid, and it is not
now in general use.
Maximum total strain energy theory:
This theory assumes that failure occurs when the strain
energy per unit volume for the complex system is equal to the
118 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. II

strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in simple tension.
According to this theory failure will occur when
.P = f12 +.!,2 - 2 Illif2 (iv)
Results obtained by using this theory give good approximation
with experimental results for ductile materials.

Distortion energy theory: (Shear strain energy theory):

The total strain energy is made of two parts:
(i) Energy due to volume expansion or .contraction
(ii) Energy of distortion.
This theory assumes that failure occurs when the strain energy
of distortion per unit volume for the complex system is equal to
the strain energy of distortion at the elastic limit in simple tension.
According to this theory failure will occur when
f 2 == ire 4_ (v)
f22 -1112

This theory gives satisfactory result for ductile materials.

If n be the factor of safety, then
stress at failure f
n= = (yield stress)
working stress working stress
According to various theories of elastic failure, the factors of safety
can be written as under:
Maximum principal stress theory:
n :.---- -f - (vi)
fi
Maximum shear stress theory:
n = —-- f (vii)
fi. —./.2
Maximum principal strain theory:
n = ii- _f
-Pia
Maximum total strain energy theory:
n = --- — - f
V.A.2 + .fs2 — 211..A..fs
Maximum distortion energy theory:
f (x)
n— ..-7.1`12 ± .i22-1 Aft
Art. 2-221 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 119

We shall consider these theories at a later stage in the text when

designing machine elements. At this place we consider a design
of a simple bolt subjected to an axial load accompanied by a shear
load.

Note: Under certain conditions, a material ordinarily said to be ductile

undergoes a fracture or separation failure similar to that of a brittle material. Some
of these conditions are:

(i) Cyclic loading at normal temperatures (fatigue)

(ii) Long time static loading at elevated temperatures (creep)
(iii) Impact loading, especially at low temperatures
(iv) Work hardening by a sufficient amount of yielding
(v) Severe quenching in heat treatment if not followed by tempering.

Example:
I. A bolt is subjected to a direct tensile load of 2,000 kg and a shear
load of 1,500 kg. Suggest the suitable size of the bolt according to various
theories of elastic failure, if the yield stress in simple tension is 3,600 kg/sq
cm. A, factor of safety of 3 should' be used. Take Poisson's ratio as 0.25.
Let d cm be the minimum diameter of the bolt.
2000 2540
Direct tensile stress on the bolt = -- = - --- kg/sq cm.
It d2
d2
4
1500 1910
Direct shear stress on the bolt = ----
7r dz kg/sq cm.«.
- d2
4
Iffi and f2 are the maximum and minimum' principal stresses, then
1 260 5
/1 = --d-i {2540 + V23402 + 4 x 191021 .---- - d- 2 - kg/sq cm.
1 -— - 35
.f2 402 ± 4 x 19102] = —-dkg/sq
= di [2540 — V26 i cm.
3600
As the factor of safety is 3, the working stress is - , 1,200
3
kg/sq cm.

Maximum principal stress theory:

fi 9 1200
2650 -V2650
-- = 1200 or d =-06-0 = 149 cm.
(0
120 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II
Maximm shear stress theory:
f ----
VI -- f2)
2650 (__ 55 \ _ 2705
••. 1200 -=
d2 k d2 — d2

•• • d = 1/2705 — 1.51 cm.

1200
Maximum principal strain theory
f =f1— Rh
650 55 2664
1200 = 2 —- -- — 0.25 (— -) =-
di d2 d2

or d = V2664 — 149 cm.

1200
Maximum total strain energy theory:
t2 __ , ti 2 + f22 _ 21 I . fi f2
1
12002 = [26502 -1- 552 -I- 2 x 0.25 x 2650 x 55]
i
7101500
= d4
d = 17 -7-1-0F560 =
Or 1.49 cm.
1440000
Distortion energy theory :
t2 =___ ti2 +f22 _ ti t2
1 7174000
•. • 12002 = --[ 26502 -I- 552 + 55 x 2650] --=di
di
or d = V7174000
= 1.5 cm.
1440000
This theory suggests that the diameter of the bolt is dictated by
the maximum shear stress theory. Thus we adopt M 18 bolt,
whose stress area is equal to 1.92 sq cm which corresponds to a
core diameter of 1.56 cm.
Exercises :
I. In a gas turbine rotor a radial stress of 300 kg/sq cm tensile
and 500 kg/sq cm tangential stress have been found at a point. What is
the maximum shear stress at this point? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans. 250 -kg/sq cm.
2. A critical section in a shed: is subjected to bending and twisting
simultaneously. The bending moment causes a maximum shear stress of
Art. 2-23] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 121

5.5 kg/sq mm and the twisting moment a shear stress of 3.15 kg/sq mm.
Determine the factors of safety according to the above theories of failure,
if a tensile 'test gives a proportional limit of 28.4 kg/sq mm. Take
Poisson's ratio as 0.28. Ans. 4.08, 3.38, 3.86, 3.78 and 3.65.
3. Mention five theories of elastic failure and determine the ratio of
the safe torques for simple torsion according to these five theories for a given
yield stress and factor of safety. Ans. 1:0.5; 0.77; 0.62; 0.58.
4. A spherical shell 360 cm diameter and 3 mm thick is subjected
to an internal pressure p. Suggest the suitable value of the internal pressure
if the failure of the shell is to be prevented according to the following theories
of elastic failure:
(i) Maximum shear stress
(ii) Total strain energy
(iii) Distortion energy
The elastic limit of the material of the shell in simple tension is
2,400 kg/sq cm and the Poisson's ratio is 0.3.
Assume the factor of safety to be 3. Ans. 2.26 kg/sq cm.
5. The elastic shear strength of a certain steel is 60% of the elastic
tensile strength. The steel is to be used for a solid shaft in which the
applied torque is 12% greater than the applied bending moment. Consider
either the maximum shear stress theory or the maximum principal stress
theory as a possible criterion for design. Which theory would you select?
6. At a critical point on a machine part, the principal stresses are
500 kg/sq cm and 400 kg/sq cm. Find the safe tensile stress in the following:
(i) Ductile material, stresses of same nature, according toi-any three
theories of failure.
(ii) Ductile material, stresses of opposite nature, according to any
two theories of failure that give safe results.
(iii) Brittle material, stresses of opposite nature, according to any
one theory of failure.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
2-23. Designing for impact loads:
Impact loading results not only from actual impact or blow
of a moving body against the machine members, but is any sudden
application of the load. Impact load may occur in any one of the
following methods:
(i) A direct impact, usually by another member or an
external body moving with considerable velocity as in a pile
driver or a punch press.
122 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

(ii) Sudden application of forces, without a blow being

involved:
(a) Sudden creation of a force on a member as during the
power stroke in internal combustion engines
(b) Sudden moving of a force onto a member as when a
heavily loaded train or truck wheel moves rapidly over the floor
of a bridge
(iii) The inertia of a member resisting high acceleration and
retardation such as rapidly reciprocating levers.
In many cases it is extremely difficult to evaluate impact
forces quantitatively. The analysis of the problem is generally
more of a qualitative nature and requires recognisation of all the
factors involved and their interrelationship.
There are two general .methods to select from in designing
members to withstand impact loads.
(i) The maximum force exerted by the moving body on the
resisting member is estimated by applying an impact factor.
Afterwards this force is considered as a static force and standard
design formulas are used.
(ii) Energy to be absorbed by the resisting member is to be
estimated; and from this value stresses or deformations by formulas
for impact load on members are determined.
The dimensions of the resisting member and the properties
of the material in the member that give it maximum resistance
to an impact load (energy load) are quite different from those
that give the member maximum resistance to a static load.
A metal may have good tensile strength and good ductility
under static loading and yet fracture if subjected to a high velocity
blow.
The two most important properties of a material that indicate
its reistance to impact loading are
(i) Modulus of resilience and
(ii) Ultimate energy resistance.
Both the above properties are obtained from the stress strain
diagram.
The modulus 61 resilience represents the capacity of the material
to absorb energy within its elastic range i.e. without permanent
deformation. It represents the energy stored in kg cm/cu cm.
Art. 2-231 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 123

The ultimate energy resistance of a material indicates its

toughness or ability to resist fracture under impact loading. This is
a measure how well the material absorbs energy without fracture.
Table 2-23.1 gives the impact properties of common design
materials:

Table 2-23.1
Impact properties of common design materials

1 Tensile modulus of Ultimate energy

Material resilience resistance
kg cm/cm' kg cmicm3
_ -— - -- --- -
Grey cast iron 0.08 5
Malleable cast iron 1.2 270
Mild steel 1.5 1,120
Low alloy steel 2.5 to 2.8
Medium carbon steel 2.5 1,120
High carbon steel 6.5 350
Alloy steel 45 1,500

The following are some of the rules which may be adopted

while designing the machine elements for impact loading:
(i) Design the member such that maximum volume of the
material is stressed to the highest working stress.
(ii) Stress the entire length of the member to the maximum
stress.
(iii) Reduce stress concentrations to a minimum and
avoid abrupt changes in sections.
(iv) Steels with higher yield strengths have higher values of
modulus of resilience and are better for impact.
(v) Materials should have sufficient ductility to relieve the
stress in any area of high stress concentration.
(vi) Materials should be placed so that the direction of hot
rolling is in line with impact force, because the impact strength
in this direction is higher than if impact occurs at right angles
with the direction of rolling.
(vii) It is important to restrict the weight of the member
and yet maintain proper rigidity for its particular use or service.
124 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

This means light-weight. Well stiffened members having sufficient

second moment of area (I) should be used.
(viii) Where required to build-in protection against inertia
forces caused by rapid movement of the member, it is important
to decrease the possible acceleration through some form of flexible
support.
The use of energy absorbing devices such as springs, rubber
pads or hydraulic cushions will absorb some of the kinetic energy
and thereby reduce the energy absorbed by the member.
Table 2-23.2 gives the modulus of resilience for various types
of loading and for circular sections :
Table 2-23.2

Type of loading 1 Modulus of resilience

1-- fs
Tension or compression 1
2E
Shear; simple transverse f 2_
2G
f

Torsion, round bar (solid)

p
4G
Bending of a beam with simply supported is
ends and loaded at the centre 24E
Helical spring with axial load fs
4G
fs
Helical spring with axial twist
FE

The common example of impact load that the designer

meets in practice is on connecting rod bolts if the nuts on the
connecting rod bolts are allowed to slacken slightly. This is, in
effect, equivalent to a load falling through a short distance before
striking the machine part.
If a body of weight W falls through a height h on a machine
part of length I and cross-sectional area A and of modulus of elasti-
ety E, the maximum stress induced in the machine part will be
w r 2AEhl

If h = 0 i.e. the load is applied suddenly without impact,

we have
_2W
f —A (a)
Art. 2-23] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 125

Examples;
1. The brasses of an automobile engine connecting rod have worn so as
to allow play which gives, shock loading equivalent to a weight of 600 kg
falling through a height of 0.020 cm. The connecting rod is 25 cm long
and has a cross-sectional area 3 sq cm. Determine the stress induced
in the connecting rod. Compare the maximum stress induced with that
by a static load of 600 kg.
If f be the maximum stress induced, then
W r 2AEh
f = --
A Li + V 1 + WI
On substitution of values, we get
600 2 x3 x21 x 108 x 0.021
f = - -- [ 1 + 1/ 1 ±
3 600 x 25
= 1,044 kg/sq cm.
0
Static stress = 60 = 200 kg/sq cm.
3
2. A weight of 500 kg is being lowered by means of steel wire rope
having cross-sectional area of 2.5 sq cm. The velocity of the weight is 0.5
metre per second. When the length of the extended rope is 20 metre, the
sheave gets stuck up. Determine the stresses induced in the rope due to
sudden stoppage of the sheave. Neglect friction.
E = 0.8 x 106 kesq cm.
Due to sudden stoppage of the sheave, the impact stresses
are induced in the rope. The kinetic energy of the moving astern
is stored as strain energy of the rope. Let f be the tensile stress
induced in the rope due to impact.
Volume of the rope = 2.5 x 20 x 100
= 5,000 cu cm.
Total energy that can be stored in the rope as strain energy
f
x volume of the rope
2E
f 2 x 5000 f2
kg
2 x 0.8 x =320 cm
Velocity of the rope = 50 cm/sec.
2
Kinetic energy of the moving system 1 x- 981 x 50
= 638 kg cm.
126 MACHINE ,DESIGN

By equating kinetic energy of the moving system to strain

energy of the rope, we get
f2
320 638
Or f == V 638 x 320
= 452 kg/sq cm.
3. A power hammer of weight 400 kg strikes the anvil supported at
the middle of a beam which may be considered simply supported on supports
4 metres apart. The beam has a depth of 30 cm and the second moment
of area of cross-section is 10,000 cm'. Determine the maximum height
through which the hammer weight should be allowed to fall on the anvil if
the maximum stress in the beam is limited to 1,000 kg/sq cm.
E = 2.1 x 106 kgIsq cm.
Let us determine the equivalent static load P, which will
produce a bending stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm.
If P kg be the equivalent static load, then bending moment
acting on the beam at the anvil will be equal to
P X 400
100P kg cm.
10000
Modulus of section at the mid section 15, 667 cm3.
667 x 1000 = 100P
1000 x 667
or P= ----- 6,670 kg
100
48E1
Stiffness of the beam = - -
/3
= 48 x2.1 x 106 x 10000
= 15,700 kg/cm.
4003—
If a body of weight W falls through a height h on a machine
part of length 1 and cross-sectional area A and of modulus of elasticity
E, the maximum stress induced in the machine part will be
Wr 2AEh
Li + V 1 + WI
xA l+
or

2hk
Tv= 1 + y w .
Art. ,2-231 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 127
,
On substitution of values, we get
6670 2h x 15700
4-.015 ---- 1 + yi + 400
.

From above we get h = 3.1 cm.

Exercises:
1. Explain why connecting rods of high speed I.C. engines are made
of alloy nickel steels.
2. The piston rod of an engine is 5 cm in diameter and 100 cm long.
The diameter of the piston is 37.5 cm and the maximum steam pressure is
9 kg/sq cm. Assuming that the steam acts as a suddenly applied load but
without shock, determine the maximum stress induced in the rod.
Ans. 1,000 kg/sq cm.
3. A steel bar 50 mm diameter and 90 cm long is subjected to axial impact
loading caused by a weight of 20 kg falling under gravity at a velocity of
50 cm/sec. Determine the maximum stress induced in the bar. Also
_find the maximum stress if the length is halved.
Ans. 277 kg/sq cm; 393 kg/sq cm.
4. A weight of 200 kg is allowed to fall freely from a height of 6 cm
onto a collar attached to the lower end of a vertical steel bar 150 cm long.
Determine the least size of the bar required to withstand the impact stresses
caused if the yield strength of the material is limited to 4,500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 4.8
«. cm.
5. A weight of 600 kg falls through a distance h at the middle of
a beam of span 450 cm. The end connections of the beam may be considered
as simply supported. Determine the value of h such that the maximum
induced stress in the beam does not exceed 1,600 kg/sq cm. The modulus
of section of the beam may be taken as 200 cm3 and second moment of area
as 1,000 cm4.
•

6. A part of a machine that weighs 450 kg is raised and lowered by

40 mm steel rod that has trapezoidal threads on one end. The length of
the rod is 3 metre and the upper 1.2 metre are threaded. As the part is
being lowered it sticks, then falls freely a distance of 3 mm. Calculate the
maximum stress in the rod. What would be the maximum stress in the
rod if the lower end had been turned down to the root diameter of 32.5 mm?
(Refer art. 5-14.)
 128 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
r. g
I
2IS
1 1 Ir
.& 4

2.7 • D
a 011 N
I
.6
2 .5
\ll k
a
. V

20
2 .3
CI
2 .2. 1 1.3 1.15 . .
Ni 1J0 1.07
2 / 0

S
P.O .
1.1 r
i

1 V ik
•t 1.05 1.03
:: 1.02
1.01
,
1 .7

1
.6
1.S
* ,,
......%_
+
-................. 1
1irpp .
4r 111,1 -............
Did
1 .3 , L

.2 , I A

.1' p. • A

o 0.05 0.10 0.1S 0.20 0.25 0.j

FIG. 2-27
7. A 1,500 kg automobile (here considered rigid) strikes a mid point
of a guard rail that is ISMB 200, which is 12 metre long. The I beam
is simply supported on rigid posts at its ends. What level velocity of the
automobile results in stressing the I beam to the tensile yield strength of
3,600 igisq cm? Compare results obtained by including and neglecting
the beam mass.
 Art. 2.24] . DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 129
3.0
2.3
2,0
HI
2.7
2.5
2.5 • •

2.4
S tress c soceatiba tlon fac tor Il

2.3
22
2.1
1.5
2.0 -411

1.3
1.9
CO
1.15
1.7
1.6
11111
1.5
104 Now
1.10
lh
i
Zit • -
iam, • •

1.3
Did
1.2
1.07 1.05 1. • 2 Loy
1,1
1.00
0.05 0.10 0.15 a20 0.25 0.30
FIG. 2-28
2-24. Stress concentration:
In design procedure considered in earlier sections, we have
not considered the effect of abrupt change in cross sections or holes
in the machine parts. The stresses produced at these disconti-
nuities are different in magnitude from those calculated by the
elementary formulas seen in earlier sections. These stresses are
 130 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II
3u
.
2. 9 ' I I 4 1
2.
2
2. 11111El

2.5 _ ,

2. 4 .. . i
Stress concentration factor K

3 '
2. 2
2.
1 .01 11\ 3-
.1
1.
LOS
1
17 - .
1. 6
LC 1,46 41111111 :
5 6,
1.02
4 r
. .
4 ..........:
1.01 ,........i..._
1. 3
Did
2
Y. 1 •
1.00 I I
0.05 0.0
-
0.15 020 ° 0.25 0.3
rid
FIG. 2-29

known as the localised stresses which may give rise to a crack, during
service conditions, which may lead to a failure of the machine
part.
The effect of the localised increase in stress depends on the
type of loading, the geometry of the part and the material of the
14;1. 2,241 ' DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 131
•

Ix r
,
I 4
ul till, . I

p.7 \IA , . 0
vs
.5
oil
1 \
\
,

H 1

4
......„
4

3 \ \I

2 t
\ k 7.03
7.05
2
"Ik 1.07 1.1
.9 . • . ,
1.2 1.5 .
.11 V
i il *0
111
4 2 3
1 11 4,

., 'avi*
.7 \cgr
44 6_

1 llikks. -N ,
1.02 ‘44111
-4
---' -'•-•
141 iggliki41 1411,
1 7. - -
.3 iiii .. ..
Did 11-7 mmium.
1 .2

.1
0 .
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0:3
•
FIG. 2-30
part. The effect of the stress concentration is considered by a
factor K where
maximum localised stress
K
nominal stress- (i)
where K is known as the theoretical stress concentration factor
or a geometric factor.
132 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. II
F.0
L9 , ._ I
.

tit ,

?.7
Mil
?s L 1 1

?4 -
. .
\
?.
\
Li
?.0
1 ,9
!.9 \\\
1.7 N
1.2
1.6 L3 co
..0
&2
Ls k h -
k
W
1 .4
Iil
1.3 NilNib
: ."11 . 1t Li
: ______ ___„
_ _:
041 •1 d'n

1.2
Did 401 ,
II I ,
1.00 0.05 0.10 0.20 025 04
045
rid
FIG. 2-31

Maximum localised stress is obtained either by theory of

elasticity or by experimental stress analysis, while nominal stress
is obtained by usual formulas of strength of materials.
Stress concentration, in static loading, is very serious in brittle materi-
als such as cast iron and it is less serious in ductile materials owing to
Art. 2-24 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 133

3.0
2.3
2.8
2.7
sio A.. .....

,
2.6
2.5 1 r
4

24
2.3 r 1

2.2
2.1 \ . f

2.0 . .
1.
1.8
1. ....'
1. \
I33 .
2
1.20 41 -
149 -4111111111111111111mba...._
2
1.1
Old
1. 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.3
0.05 0.10
rid
FIG. 2-32

relief of stress concentration by plastic flow. In cyclic loading, stress

concentration is very serious for ductile material; also.
Considerable work has been carried out to determine the appro-
priate stress concentration factors to be applied in design. While
it is possible in simple cases to calculate theoretically the values
134 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

for stress concentration, it becomes necessary to resort to experi-

mental methods for the more complex cases. Fig. 2-27 to Fig. 242
show the graphical results, from which stress concentration factors
D
can be read directly for various values ofd and - . The work
d
of R.E. Peterson is outstanding in the field of stress concentration.

2-25. Notch sensitivity:

It may be defined as the degree to which the theoretical
effect of stress concentration is actually reached. Notch sensiti-
vity q of a material may be used to determine the fatigue
strength reduction factor or actual stress concentration factor K
as a function of the theoretical stress concentration factor for the
case of repeated loads. Values for q and K may be found in
"Stress Concentration Factors' by R.E. Peterson, and in other
literature pertaining to this subject.
Kf - 1

q=-K— I
Or Kr= I ± g (IC — 1) (i)
where
q = an experimental notch sensitivity value due to stress
concentration. Values range from 0 to 1.0.
K = theoretical value of the stress concentration factor.
Average values range from 1.0 to 3.0 but could be
greater than 3-0.
K1 = the actual stress concentration factor for determining
the reduction in the fatigue-strength of the material.
It should be noted that K depends on the geometry of the
component, while fatigue stress concentration factor, K f , is
dependent on the material and its method of production as well
as the geometry.

2-26. Effect of repeated application of a load:

Component parts such as crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, springs and frames are subjected to combined stresses as
well as repeated stresses in cycles. Experience has shown that the
load capacity of a machine part depends not only on the magni-
tude of the stress and the kind of stress cycle but also on the shape
and the size of the part, and even on its surface finish.
Art. 2-261 DESIGN CONSIDERATION'S IN MACHINE PARTS 135

In order to study behaviour of materials under cyclic load-

ing, fatigue testing machine is used which imparts a sinusoidal
load to the specimen and gives a stress-time diagram as shown
in fig. 2-33(a). This is done by placing a unidirectional bending

f
fl :2 f2 = fr/2

t or n

(a) (b)
FIG. 2-33

load on a rotating shaft. The stress in the shaft fluctuates between

equal values of tension and compression. A record is kept of the
number of cycles required to produce a given stress and the results
are plotted as shown by stress-cycle curves of fig. 2-33(b). This
diagram indicates that if the stress is kept below a certain value
called the endurance limit fe the number of cycles can be increased
indefinitely without cawing failure. It was originally supposed
that the stress-cycle curve did not actually flatten out but that
it simply became flat for all practical purposes. Continued
research work reveals that the endurance limit exists and if a
stress is kept below the endurance limit, the failure due to fatigue
will not occur.
The results of various tests suggest that the same factors which
influence the ultimate tensile strength of steel also influence the
endurance limit. Therefore, there seems to be a relation between
the ultimate strength and the endurance limit.
For steel: fe = 0.5 Ut
For cast iron: fe = 0.4 Ili
For non-ferrous metals and alloys fe = 0.3 Us
where fe is the endurance limit and Eh is the ultimate tensile
strength.
136 ,,; MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

2-27. Fluctuating stress for ductile materials:

In the above article we have discussed the ways of finding the
magnitude of completely reversed stress which a material can take
indefinitely. The average stress of the cycle was zero. Many-
times the stress situation may be as shown by fig. 2-34 in which the

no. 2-34

average stress is not zero. Therefore, we should be able to find the

maximum stress which can be applied an infinite number of times
if endurance limit in reversed bending, fe, and the stress range
fr are known.
Three methods are proposed to calculate the safe values of
fluctuating stress:
(i) Gerber method
(ii) Goodman method
(iii) Soderberg method.
In 1874 Gerber proposed a parabolic relation between the
stress range and an average stress. The relation proposed by
Gerber can be stated as under:

1r "_2fe [l -'(.1112]
Us
where fr = range of stress =11 — f2
fa average stress
fe = endurance strength in reversed bending and
Eh = ultimate tensile strength of the material.
If f = A - - '
m
r f2 ,_ fr
2 2
Art.' 2;27) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 137

then fm = fe [1 • (i)
fm is called the variable stress componen1.
The maximum stress fl equals fa + fm and the minimum stress
f2 equals fa — fm.
As the relation proposed by Gerber is little cumbersome
to use, the simple relation has been proposed by Goodman. This
relation is on the safer side.
[1
fr re-- 2fe Goodman formula
.—1if A]
or i'm = fe LAT — 4
tf at ]
where sAr = factor of safety.
Soderberg has proposed a relation in which instead of ultimate
tensile strength Ut, a yield stress b is taken.
fa Soderberg formula
ft = 2fe D — :
or
fin = fe BI- - *I
A
Soderberg formula can be written as
1 =-...- fin
----_-r-j_ fa (iv)
f fe b
...
In order to make Soderberg formula a design equation,
the experimental value of the endurance limit fe under reversed
bending should be reduced for size drect, surface effect and type of
variable loading if torsional or axial instead of bending. The calculated
variable stress, fm, should be increased by the actual stress concen-
tration factor Ki• for ductile material. For brittle materials the
theoretical or geometrical stress concentration factor K should
be applied to, fa, average stress and K1 to the variable stress.
For ductile materials in tension or compression, Soderberg
formula can be written as
1 _ fa _i_ /Cf . fm (v)
N — fy fe. ABC
where N = suitable factor of safety
fa = average stress
138 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. II

yield point in tension or compression and must be

fy _--,.--
given the same sign as the average stress
1C1 = actual stress concentration factor based on tht notch
sensitivity of the material
fm = variable stress component
fe = endurance limit of the material in reversed bending
A = correction factor for type of loading other than reversed
bending. Its value is normally taken as 0.7 for reversed
axial loading and 0.6 for reversed torsional loading.
B = size correction factor, its value being 0.85 for parts
ranging in size from 10 mm to 50 mm
C = surface correction factor.
1.0
1 I

09 1 --1-
--F-----
Machined surface

0.8
Sur face correc tion

0.6
Hot rolled surface
0.5

0.4 I

0.3

0.
4000 6000 8000 10000 12 000 14000
Ultimate strength kg/sq cm
FIG. 2-35
The value of the surface correction factor depends on whether
the surface is a machined surface or a hot rolled surface and on
the ultimate strength of the part. The value of the surface
correction factor can be read from fig. 2-35.
Art. 1-27] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 139

For brittle materials

• =K ffa -r Kam
fy fe ABC *
For ductile materials in shear
fa.s. • Kf•fat•s•
• fyis. fe ABC
where
fa.s. = average shear stress
fps. =-- yield point in shear
fm.s. = variable shear stress component.
In the above three design equations the factor of safety, N,
accounts for variation in material properties, uncertainty of
loading, workmanship, lack of test data, accuracy of assumptions,
etc. The value of N may be taken from 1.5 to 3 for ordinary
design. If the uncertainty is very high and the consequences of
failure are serious, the higher value of N may be taken.

Ellipse quadrant relationship

In many cases components will be subjected to combined
bending and torsion so that both tensile — compressive and shear
stresses are variable.
Let ± f = the nominal design bending stress
±fs = the nominal design torsion stress
fe = endurance limit due to bending alons,
fe, = endurance limit due to torsion alone
The above quantities can be related as follows:
Fry + r 12
Lfe Lies]
The above equation gives a useful relationship which can be
applied to any material where the theory of maximum shear
stress is applicable, such as all ductile steels; wrought iron, copper and
some aluminium and magnesium alloys.
For the application of the ellipse quadrant relationship, the
endurance limit for reversed bending and for reversed torsion
must be known. If then the bending stress to be set up by the
component is known, the permissible torsional stress can be found
out. Conversely, if the torsional design stress is known, the per-
missible accompanying bending stress can be determined.
140 ‘ MACHINE DESIGN LCh. II

Design to avoid fatigue failure:

Since the shape and finish have much influence on a com-
ponent's behaviour under fatigue conditions, the designer should
pay more attention to it. Functional components can not be made
without some geometrical discontinuities and machining costs,
complexity of shape and methods of manufacturing frequently
preclude the application of high surface finishes.
But by making unavoidable changes of section occur gradually
instead of abruptly, relieving stress concentration by removal of
metal at adjacent sections and stipulating suitable surface treat-
ment during manufacture much can be done to avoid fatigue failure.
This means particular attention should be paid to bolt heads and
shanks, collars, recesses, webs, flanges, holes, keyways, splines, etc.
the elimination of punch and stamp marks and poor quality
machining and insisting, where necessary, on corrosion protection
and suitable quality control in the form of adequate inspection and
testing.
Examples :
1. A steel connecting rod as subjected to a completely reversed axial
load of 10,000 kg. Suggest the suitable size of the rod using a factor of
safety 2. The ultimate strength of the material is 11,000 kg/sq cm and
yield strength 9,300 kg/sq cm. The value of A may be taken as 0.85, and
size factor as 0.85.
Neglect the column action and the effect of stress concentration.
For a steel the endurance limit for reversed bending is half
the ultimate tensile strength.
... fe = endurance limit = i x 11000 = 5,500 kg/sq cm.
The endurance limit correction factor for axial loading
is 0.85. Size factor is 0.85. For a machined surface the value of
the surface correction factor can be read from graph, its value being
0.76. Factor of safety is 2. Hence working stress will be
5500 'x 0.85 x 0.85 x 0.76
— 1,510 kg/sq cm.
2
If d cm be the diameter of the connecting rod, then
4 d2 x 1510 = 10000

100 10
00
or d = V — x -- = 2.95 cm; we suggest 3 cm as diameter
15 7C
of the connecting rod.
Art. 2-27 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 141

The alternative method of solution is as under:

As the load varies from 10,000 kg to — 10,000 kg, the average
10000 — 10000
or mean load = will be zero, and hence the average
2
stress will be zero.
Let d cm be the diameter of the connecting rod.
4 x 10000
fa = variable normal stress component —
Trd2
We have A = 0.85, B = 0.85 and C = 0-76.
According to Soderberg formula, we get
1 fa Kifin
.I1 r = jj: ± j'eABC
4 x 10000
0 Trd2 _ 40000
' = §SOO + 5500 x 0.85 x 0.85 x 0.76 — 3000 x.rul2
V40000 x 2
or d= = 2.95 cm; we suggest 3 cm as the dia-
3000 X IC
meter of the connecting rod.
2. Bending stress in a machine part fluctuates between a tensile
stress of 2,800 kg/sq cm and compressive stress of 1,400 kg/sq cm. What
should be the minimum ultimate tensile strength to carry this fluctuation
indefinitely according to
(a) Gerber's formula (b) Goodman's formula (c) Soderberg's
formula? &.
The factor of safety may be assumed to be 1.75. Assume that the yield
point is never likely to be less than 55% of the ultimate tensile strength
or greater than 93% of it.
fr = 2800 — (— 1400) = 4,200 kg/sq cm.
2800 — 1400
fa = 2 = 700 kg/sq cm.

Endurance limit in reversed bending is equal to 0.5Ug.

According to Gerber's formula, we have
f,, 2
fr = 2fe [l — (e``
V.)] .
On substitution of numerical values, we have
7002]
4200 = Us [1 — — a 2
142 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

or Ut2 — 4209 U: — 7002 = 0

•• • lit = 4,312 kg/sq cm.
According to Goodman
fa
fr . 2 fe [Tv
1 -—
Ut
On substitution of numerical values in the above equation,
we have
Ut
4200 = 1 •7
- — 700.
5
•• Ut = 8,575 kg/sq cm.
According to Soderberg, we have
1 fa
fr 2fe [Tv

We assume that fy = 0-551h.

On substitution of numerical values, we have
Ut 700
4200 — — 0.55 •
1.75
• • • Ut = 9,550 kg/sq cm.
From the above calculations, we conclude that a steel with an
ultimate tensile strength of 9,550 kg/sq cm will withstand an
infinite number of applications of stress fluctuating between 2,800
kg/sq cm and — 1,400 kg/sq cm without failure.
3. A 5 cm diameter shaft made from carbon steel hardened to 180
Brinell is subjected to a torque which fluctuates between 20,000 kg cm
to — 8,000 kg cm. Calculate the factor of safety by Soderberg method.
The range of torque = 20000 — (— 8000) = 28,000 kg cm.
28000 x 16
••• Range of shear stress = = 1,140 kg/sq cm.
n X 53
20000 —8000
Average torque = = 6,000 kg cm.
2
6000 x 16
Average shear stress = = 244 kg/sq cm.
lc X 53
Ultimate tensile strength = 35 X Brinell number
35 X 180 = 6,300 kg/sq cm.
Torsional endurance limit = 0•25 Ut = 0.25 x 6300
= 1,575 kg/sq cm.
Art. 2-27 I DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 143

We further assume that the yield point for steel is 0.60 of the
tensile strength and the shear yield point is 0.6 of the tensile yield
point.
Shear yield strength = 0.60 x 6300 x 0.6 == 2,260 kg/sq cm
According to Soderberg formula,
1 fm shear fa shear 1140/2 244
N = fe shear -r b shear — 1575 + 2260
N . 2.17.
4. A stepped shaft transmits q torque varying from 8,000 kg cm to
12,000 kg cm. The ratio of diameters zs 1.5 and the stress concentration
factor is 12. Determine the diameter of the shaft for an infinite life for
a design factor of safety 1.8
The ultimate tensile .strength of the material of the shaft as 6,000
kg/sq cm held stress of the material is 4,500 kg/sq cm
Consider the size effect and surface finish effect
12000 8000
Mean torque = 10,000 kg cm
2
12000 — 8000
Variable component of torque =
2
--- 2,000 kg cm
1'he properties of the material are:
Ultimate tensile strength: 6,000 kg/sq ciii
Yield strength 4,500 kg/sq cm
We assume that the endurance limit for reversed bending is
x 6000 = 3,000 kg/sq cm. We further assume that the yield
strength in shear is 0.6 of the yield strength in tension. Therefore
yield strength in shear = 0.6 x 4500 = 2,700 kg/sq cm. Let d
cm be the diameter of the solid shaft
10000 51000
Mean stress = = (13 kg/sq cm
ds
16
2000 10200
Variable stress component = = --d3— kg/sq cm.
j2
ca
16
A, correction for type of loading, is taken as 0.6. B, size factor,
is taken as 0.85 and C, surface finish factor, is taken as 0.8.
144 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

According to Soderberg equation, we get,

I _fa: _L. finK
N fys - feABC
1 51000 _j_ _10_200_x 1.8
1.8 2700 x d3 7- 3000- >6:6 >0:85 x 0.8X da
On simplification we get d = 4.1 cm.
We adopt 45 mm diameter shaft.

5. A hot rolled steel shaft is subjected to a torsional load that varies

from 3,000 kg cm clockwise to 1,000 kg cm anticlockwise as an applied
bending moment at a critical section varies from 4,000 kg cm to —2,000
kg cm. Sugge.‘t the suitable size for the shaft if the material has an ultimate
strength of 5,600 kg/sq cm and a yield strength of 4,200 kg/sq cm. Take
the factor of safety as 2. The shaft is of uniform diameter and no key
way is present at the critical section.
For steel the endurance limit for reversed bending is half the
ultimate tensile strength. Therefore fe = endurance limit
= i x 5600 = 2,800 kg/sq cm.
Equivalent normal stress due to bending:
Let d cm be the diameter of the shaft at the critical section.
32 x 4000 32 x 2000
'max and Alin =
nd ids
. 32 r4000 — 2000] = 10200 ,
fa red3 L d3 kg/sq cm.
2
fmax— Alin 32 r4000 + 20001 = 30609 kg/sq
cm.
fm = 2 — 2 L nd3 it d3 j d3
We take the value of B = 0.85 and C = 0.62 and neglecting
the effect of stress concentration if any, the equivalent normal
stress
10200 [4200] [ 30600 1 97300
——+ d3 kg/sq cm.
d3 2800 d3 x 1 x 0.85 x 0.62 j
Equivalent shear stress due to torsion:
16 x 3000 48000
fs max = = -- kg/sq cm
ird3 Tula
16 x 1000 16000
fe min = kgisq cm.
Trds = re
Art. 2-27 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 145

16 [3000 — 1000]
= Td a 2 d$ 1.,./sci cm
f. 16 r3000 — (— 1000)1 10200
m. A da kg/sq cm.
2 I d3
The value of the yield point in shear, fys, for use in the equiva-
lent shear stress equation may be taken as 0.6 times the yield point
in tension. This is in close agreement with experimental torsional
shear stress. Hence in Soderberg's equation we take A = 0.6.
We take A = 0.6, B = 0.85 and C = 0.62.
fys = 0.6 fy = 0.6 x 4200 = 2,520 kg/sq cm.
5200 2520 10200
fe.S. = da 2800
--- d3-x 0-6 x 0.85 x 0.62]
34100
= — 1/1 kg/sq cm

Equivalent maximum shear stress

1 It 97300)2 60000
341002 kg/sq cm.
d3 v k 2 = d3
For use in the maximum shear design equation, the value of
the yield point in shear, fys, should be taken as 0.5 times the yield
point in tension. This equation is based on the maximum shear theory
of failure which considers a member in simple uniaxial tension.
By equating the equivalent maximum shear stress to the
permissible shear stress, we get
60000_ 0.5--- x 4200
2- ,-- 1050
d3
f 60000
of d= = 3.86 cm; we adopt 4 cm
1050
Deszgn .Note :
When a machine element is subjected to both a variable
normal stress and a variable shear stress, the equivalent maximum
shear stress may be determined by using the theory of combined
stresses. For this purpose we use the Soderberg design equation.
The equivalent normal stress
fy f ft 11
f fa + — fe • ABC
•

The equivalent shear stress

fy.s Irf fines
fi la•S f
e ABC
146 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11

For ductile materials, we use A = 0.6 and fj = 0.6 fy.

The equivalent maximum shear stress with ductile materials

[Link] p

The equivalent maximum shear stress is equated to permissible

x0
shear stress which is equal to .5 where N is the desired
factor of safety. •

When we are designing with brittle materials, we use the

theory of maximum principal stress as the design criterion.
Therefore equivalent maximum normal stress will be

if + ff 2 and this value of maximum normal stress

2- Y
must be equated to h.
6. In some instances, it may be more economical to design on the
basis of an endurance strength for a finite life than for infinite life. A fuel
pump pusher rod is to be designed for 105 cycles while it is being subjected
to a released cycle load of 800 kg.
Test data indicate that the material from which the rod is to be made
has a yield strength of 3,800 kg/sq cm and an endurance limit of 2,600
kg/sq cm for reversed loading, but has an endurance strength of 3,500
kg/sq cm for reversed loading of 105 cycles
Suggest the suitable diameter of the pusher rod for both a finite
life of 105 cycles and for an infinite life. Adopt a factor of safety
of 2. Neglect the eject of stress concentration. Use A = 0.7, B = 1
and C = 0.88.
Let d cm be the diameter of the pusher rod.
800 1020 ,_
Since we have released loading fa = fm = = -71F Agog crn.
7C
d2
4
The design equation will be Soderberg equation.
1 fa fm
N — fy T le ABC
For a finite life of 106 cycles, by employing Soderberg equation,
we get
Art. 2-271 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 147
1 1020 + 1020 0.743
2 — 3i300 x d2 d2 x 3500 x 0.7 x 1 x 0.88 = d2 M .
d = 1/07743 x 2 = 1.22 cm.
For an infinite life,
1 1020 _L 1020 0.91
— 3800 xd2 ' d2 x 2600 x 0.7 x 1 x0.88 = ci2 '
d = 1/2 x 0.91 = 1.35 cm.
Thus economy can be effected by designing the member for
a finite life.
Exercises:
1. The maximum pressure of air in the cylinder of a double acting
air compressor of 50 cm bore is 9 kgIsq cm. What should be the diameter
of the piston rod if there are no stress raisers and no column action? Take
the factor of safety as 1.75. Infinite life is desired. Ultimate tensile
strength is 17,500 kg/sq cm. Take A = 0.85, size factor of 0.85 and
machine surface factor of 0.78. Ans. 30 mm.
2. A steel connecting rod is subjected to a completely reversed axial
load of 9,000 kg. Suggest the suitable size of the rod using a factor of
safety 1.8. The ultimate strength of the material is 11,000 kgIsq cm.
Take A = 0.85, B = 0.85 and C = 0.78.
Neglect the column action and the effect of stress concentration.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
3. A shaft supported as a simple beam, 45 cm long, is made of
AISI 3120 steel. With the shaft rotating a steady load of 800 kg is
applied midway between the bearings. The surfaces are ground.
Indefinite life is desired with a factor of safety of 1.6 based on endurance
strength. What should be the minimum diameter of the shaft if there are
no surface discontinuities? Endurance limit is 6,300 kgIsq cm. Size
factor is 0.85 and machine surface factor 0.87. Ans. 32 mm.
4. A round shaft made of cold finished AISI 1020 steel is subjected
to a variable torque whose maximum value is 7,000'kg cm. For a factor
of safety of 1.5 on the Soderberg criterion, determine the diameter of the
shaft if (i) the torque is reversed, (ii) the torque varies from zero to maxi-
mum and (iii) the torque varies from 3,000 kg cm to a maximum.
Assume A = 0.6, B= 0.85 and C = 0.87.
Ultimate tensile strength = 5,500 kgIsq cm.
Yield strength = 4,600 kgIsq cm.
Ans. (i) 35 mm (ii) 32 mm (iii) 30 mm.
148 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11

5. A shaft is made of steel (ultimate tensile strength 7,000 kg/sq cm

and yield point 4,200 kg/sq cm) is subjected to a torque varying from
20,000 kg cm anti-clockwise to — 6,000 kg cm clockwise. Calculate the
diameter of the shaft if the factor of safety is 2 and it is based on the yield
point and the endurance strength in shear.
Ans. 48 mm.
6. A cold drawn C — 1025 steel rod of circular section is subjected
to a variable bending moment of 6,000 kg cm to 12,000 kg cm as the axial
load varies from 2,000 to 4,000 kg. The maximum bending moment
occurs at the same instant the axial load is maximum. Determine the
required diameter of the rod for a factor of safety 2-25. Neglect any
stress concentration and column effect but consider the effect of size and
surface.
Ultimate strength of C — 1025 cold drawn steel u 5,600 kg/sq cm
Yield strength of C — 1025 cold drawn steel is 2,800 kgjsq cm.
Ans. 55 mm
7. A hot rolled shaft is subjected to a torsional load that varies from
3,200 kg cm clockwise to 1,200 kg cm anti-clokwise as an applied bending
moment at a critical section varies from + 4,000 kg cm to — 2,000 kg cm.
The shaft is of uniform cross section. Determine the required shaft dia-
meter. The material has an ultimate strength of 5,600 kg/sq cm and
yield strength of 4,200 kg/sq cm. Assume the factor of safety to be 2.
Ans. 4 cm.
8. A pulley is keyed to a shaft mid way between two anti-friction
bearings. The bending moment at the pulley varies from 1,500 kg cm to
4,500 kg cm as the torsional moment in the shaft varies from 500 to 1,500
kg cm. The frequency of the variation of the loads is the same as the shaft
speed. The shaft is made of cold drawn steel having an ultimate strength
of 5,500 kg/sq cm and a yield strength of 3,100 kg/sq cm. Determine the
required diameter for an indefinite life. The stress concentration factor
for the key way in bending and torsion may be taken as 1.6 and 1.3 respec-
tively. Use a design factor of 1.8, size factor 0.85 and surface correction
factor 0.88.
Use for torsion A = 0.6 and fs = 0.6 fy. Ans. 4 cm.
9. A section of a shaft of diameter d is joined to a section of shaft
of diameter 1.5d with a fillet which produces an actual stress concentration
factor of 1.2 for the shaft in torsion. The material has a yield point in
tension of 5,600 kg/sq cm and endurance limit of 2,880 kg/sq era in
Art. 2-281 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 149

reversed torsion. Using a size factor of 0.85, surface finish factor of

0.85 and A = 0.6, determine the size of the shaft required for a torque
which varies from zero to 24,000 kg cm in the shaft at the smaller
diameter. Use design factor N = 2. Ans. 50 mm.
10. If certain steel component has a fatigue limit in reversed bending
of 3,600 kg/sq cm and in torsion of 1,800 kg/sq cm and it is computed that
when in operation the bending stress will be 3,000 kg/sq cm. Determine
by using ellipse quadrant relationship, the permissible value of the torsional
shear stress. Ans. 1,000 kg/sq cm.
11. A link subjected to completely reversed axial fatigue loading
is designed as having surface finish factor of 0.7. If it is desired to reduce
its weight by 20%, what would be the surface finish factor if the material
,emains the same? Ans. 0.875.
12. Determine the maximum load for a simply supported beam of
40 cm length if the load at the mid span varies cyclically from 2P to 4P.
The size of the beam is 50 mm diameter. The endurance limit for reversed
bending is 3,500 kg/sq cm and the yield point in tension is 5,200 kg/sq cm.
Take B = 0.85 and C = 0.9. Design factor of safety may be taken
as 1.9 Ans. P = 675 kg.
13 A rotating shaft carries a 1,800 kg pulley at the centre of a
75 cm simply supported span. The average torque is 23,000 kg cm.
Assume the torque range to be 10% of the average torque. The material
has yield point of 7,700 kg/sq cm and the endurance limit of 4,500 kg/sq cm.
Determine the required diameter of the shaft based on (i) .Maximum
shear stress theory and (ii) distortion energy theory.
Stress concentration factor may be taken as 1.5 and a factor of safety 2.
Ans. 65 mm.
2-28. Light weight and minimum dimensions:
The machine element should be sufficiently strong, stiff and
wear resistant, while having the minimum possible dimensions and
weight. This requirement can be satisfied by employment of
light weight rolled sections, and hollow sections, by using high-
strength grades of cast iron and light alloys, by introduction of
non-metallic materials to replace ferrous and non-ferrous metals
and by improving the design of the machine elements.
Let us consider some examples to illustrate the above
mentioned points. •
150 mAGHINE DESIGN Ch. II
1. In the modernisation of an existing piece of machinery, a cast
iron beam forming part of the machine frame and having the form of cross
section shown in fig. 2-36(a) is to be replaced by a fabricated mild steel beam
of the same overall depth as shown in fig. 2-36(b). On the assumption
that the safe working tensile stress for cast iron and mild steel are 2.3 and
9 kg/sq mm respectively, design the cross section of the mild steel beam to
give a bending strength equal to that of the cast iron beam. The second
moment of area of the cross section of the steel beam is to be approximated
d2bt
by using the expression -- where
2
d = depth of the beam and
b = width of the flange.
Compare the deflections of two beams using the true values of their
second moments of area. The moduli of elasticity of steel and cast iron
are respectively 2.1 x 108 and 0.84 x 108 kgIsq cm.

200 ---01
(a) (b)
Cast iron Mild steel
FIG. 2-36
Area of the cast iron section = 20 x 7 + 2 x 15 + 3 x 10
= 200 sq cm.
If 2 be the distance of the centre of gravity of the section from the
lower base, then
200 x = 140 x 3.5 + 30 x 14.5 30 x 23.5
140 x 3.5 + 30 x 14.5 + 30 x 23.5
or x=
200
= 8.15 cm.
Art. 2-28] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 151

Second moment of area of the cast iron section about the lower
base
7 22 25
= f 20 x x2 dx 2x2 dx f 10x2 dx = 25,410 cm4.
0 7 22
If I be the second moment of area about a parallel axis through the
centre of gravity, then
25410 = I + 200 x 8.152
or I = 25410 — 200 x 8 152 = 12,130 cm4.
12130
Tensile modulus of section = — = 1 ,500 cm2.
8.28-
Bending moment that can be resisted by the section
= f x z = 230 x 1500 = 345,000 kg cm.
Approximate second moment of area of mild steel section
d2bt
2 = 252 x 10 x 2= 3,125 t cm4.
Modulus of section = bdt = 25 x 10 x t = 250 t cm3.
345000 = 250 t x 900
= 345000
Or t = 1.53 cm; we adopt 1.6 cm as the
250 x 900
thickness of the web and flange.
Actual second moment of area of the section
1
= [10 x 253- 8.4 x 21.89 = 5,780 cm4
Rigidity considerations :
Since the deflection, for a given loading and the length, is inversely
proportional to EI, flexural rigidity,
2.1 x 104 x 5780
.
Sm.s. = 0.84X-106 x 12130 — 1 2.
Thus the deflection of mild steel beam is less than that of original
cast iron beam.
2. In order to reduce the weight of the control and power plant faci-
lities in a certain aircraft it is planned to use all hollow shafting for power
transmission. The hollow shaft is to be 10% larger in diameter than the
solid shaft. Determine the percentage weight savings that may be qffected
through the use of hollow shafting in place of equal strength solid shafting
for such an application.
Let M = bending moment at the critical section
T = twisting moment at the critical section
152 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

d = diameter of the solid shaft

do = outer diameter of the hollow shaft
di = inside diameter of the hollow shaft.
We assume that the shafts are made of ductile material for which
maximum shear stress is design criterion. For a solid shaft sub-
jected to torsional and bending loads, the shear stress is given by
16
vd3 VM2 + T2; and for a hollow shaft subjected to the same

torsional and bending loads as above, the shear stress will be

16do
given by M2 + T2
7r (4,4— 44) V
As both the shafts are to be of the same strength, by equating the
values of the induced shear stresses, we get,
16 16d0
7cd3 = Tr (de— d24)
, _ d N3 ( dt V
or i . (i)
kdo ) k do )
Let x be the % weight savings to be effected through the use of
hollow shafting. For the same length of both shafts and having
the same materials, the weights of the shafts are proportional to
the areas of cross sections of individual shafts
Hence
7c )7:
d2
4 (42 — '12) = 1 — 100 4
or (n)
(42 — 42) = ( 1 — 1x00) d2
Substituting the value of di from equation (1) into equation (u)
and solving for x, we get

x = [1 — ( doy + -My— sti] x 100 (iii)

For this example the hollow shaft is to be 10% larger in diameter
d
than the solid shaft so d' = 1 1
.•. x = (1-- 1.12 + V114 .--1.1] x 100 = 40.
Thus the hollow shaft will weigh 0.6 of the solid shaft
3. An air craft component of 6 cm diameter solid circular cross
section subjected to lateral loading has previously been manufactured in an
aluminium alloy, but because of the imposition of more stringent weight
Art. 2-28] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 1 53

limitations it is now intended to re-design the beam in magnesium alloy

tubing. Space considerations allow the new component to have an outside
diameter of 8 cm maximum, but require the length and end fixings of the
old member to be retained. The magnesium alloy beam must be as strong
as its predecessor and at least as rigid.
Design the cross section of the tube to meet these requirements and
determine the percentage reduction in weight that can be expected.
The ultimate tensile strengths of the aluminium and the magnesium
alloys are 5,000 and 2,500 Agisq cm respectively, the moduli. of elasticity
0.7 x 106 and 0.46 x 106 kg/sq cm respectively and the densities 2,640
and 1,728 kg 'cubic metre respectively.
Let suffixes a and m refer to the aluminium and magnesium
alloys respectively.
Then ratio of stresses
Ja _ 5000 _ 2.
fm 2500
fa = 2 fm
My
itrid since f=
M-Ya = 2 Myra
/a Im
ya =2
x
ym Ia
But ya = 3 cm and ym = 4 cm
3 Im
7-1 X t-- = z
a
8
IM =

TC
la = x 64 and /m = (84 — d4) where
64 64
d is the inner diameter of the magnesium alloy tubing
x 64 x
8= ( 8
84 — d4) because /m.=3 /a
64 3 64
d = 5 cm.
Rigidity of the tubular component:
Since the deflection of each beam may be taken as equal to a
W13
constant multiplied by then
El
am W13 Eala Eala
8a = Egilm '‘ W13 == Enslin
154 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11

8m _ 7 3
8 -- 0.584.
81: — 4.6 x
Thus the deflection of the magnesium alloy beam is only slightly
above half that of the aluminium alloy component. In other words
it is approximately twice as rigid.
Reduction in weight:
Weight of magnesium alloy _ Volume x density of magnesium
Weight of aluminium alloy — Volume x density of aluminium
1728 (82 — 52)
= — 0.528
2640 (62)
since length of both the beams are the same.
Thus the expected reduction in weight is 0.472 i.e. 47.2%.
Note: This illustrative example shows the advantage of using magnesium
i----- ratio of the magnesium alloy does much to offset the
alloys. The high strength
we ght
low modulus of elasticity value of the material 'The main disadvantages of
many of the alloys of magneisum arc as under:
(i) Low resistance to wear
(ii) 'Moderate fatigue strength
(iii) Low creep strength

Exercises :
1. The spindle of a drilling machine is subjected to a maximum
axial load of 800 kg during operation. Determine the diameter of the solid
cast iron column if the tensile stress is limited to 400 kg/sq cm. The
distance between the axis of the spindle and the axis of the column is.
40 cm.
If the section of the column were to be changed to hollow section with
a ratio of outside diameter to inside diameter 2 : 1, what will be the saving
in material of the column? The permissible stress in both the cases is the
same.
Ans. 9.5 cm; 16.6%.
2. A machine tool company experimented with bases of different
steels to learn if higher strength steel might result in a more rigid base.
What will be the conclusion of their experiments?
3. "Associate Engineers" were experiencing some difficulty with
12 lever which operated at very high speeds. The engineers reasoned the
problem in a very logical manner. The actual load on this lever was very
Art. 2-28 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 155

low, the main forces being inertia forces. The engineers decided that if
a lighter metal could be used, the mass would be decreased and in turn the
inertia forces would be decreased and consequently the deflection of the levers
would be decreased. Hence they decided to replace the steel lever by alu-
minium. However the technical director of the company informs that the
problem will not be solved by changing the material to aluminium, but the
solution lies in re-designing the steel lever. Explain the stand of the
technical director whose judgement is correct.
4. A small machine is supported at the end of a cantilever beam
180 cm long. During its operation it exerts a force in this support and
must be held within an allowable deflection and the cross section of the
cantilever is shown in fig. 2-37. A new model of this machine must extend
out to 550 cm and must operate under the same conditions and allowables.
It is decided that the new beam will have a width equal to half its depth and
a wall thickness equal to 5% of its depth. Suggest the suitable cross sec-
tion
Ans. Depth 25 cm
I4,--- 75
X /// /7/ /
t
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
)//////

FIG. 2-37 FIG. 2-38

5. A standard 150 mm pipe has been used for main front support
of an earth moving scraper. Its main requirement is to resist the torsional
load within an allowable angular test. It is desired to replace this pipe
section, with a fabricated square box section having the same over all dimen-
sions. Determine the required thickness of plate for this box section to
hold it within the same angular twist. Assume bending resistance is suffi-
cient. Outside diameter of the tube 159 mm and inside diameter 144 mm.
Ans. 6 mm.
156 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. II

6. Fig. 2-38 shows a cast iron beam section which is required to

resist a torsional loading. In order to reduce the weight of the part it is
proposed to replace by a steel beam of section having the same depth and
the same overall width of the original section. Both the sections have the same
torsional resistance. Determine the saving in weight that can be ef fected
by using steel. Explain briefly how you can further reduce the weight.
Ans. Approximately 25%; 80% weight reduction is possible by adopt-
ing box section of half its overall dimensions.
7. In as much as the design criteria for most machinery structures is
rigidity, strength does not particularly enter as the resistance to deflection
is paramount. In old design the cross section of the member is an I section
of 500 mm depth and 175 mm wide flange having second moment of area
70,000 cm4. Design a steel beam that will be as rigid as cast iron beam
and still retain the external dimensions of height and flange width. Also
determine the percentage saving in weight by employing steel.
Ans. 1 cm thick; 72%
8 (a) The cross section of the frame of a punch press where the
bending is maximum is rectangular. The size of the
rectangle is 5 cm by 10 cm. The line of action of the
load is 20 cm from the nearest edge of the frame. Calculate
the maximum stress developed when the punch is punching
16 mm diameter hole from a brass plate 5 mm thick.
The ultimate shear strength of brass is 2,000 kg/sq cm.
(b) If the rectangular section is to be replaced by a circular
section having the same area as the rectangular cross
section, determine the maximum stress developed.
(c) If the rectangular section is to be replaced by a symmetrical
I section, having width 6t and depth 10t where t is the
thickness of the web as well as the flange, having the same
area as the rectangular cross section, determine the maximum
tress developed.
Ans (a) 1,600 kg/sq cm (b) 2,400 kgIsq cm
(c) 710 kg/sq cm.
9. Determine the inside and outside diameters of a hollow shaft which
will replace a solid shaft made of the same material; the hollow shaft should
be equally strong in torsion; yet weigh half as much per metre length.
d + Vic?
AM. do — iT---- .
Art. 2630} DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 157

2-29. Elastic matching:

This term is used when two connecting members are designed

so that their angular deflections are equal. This means that they
will remain aligned regardless of the value of the load applied
Consider a roller which is supported by two fixed bearings
(not self-aligning bearings). The roller will always deflect some-
what, regardless of how large and rigid it is. The bearing sup-
port will not tilt, because the uniform bearing pressure is centred
about the centre of gravity of the support. Thus the bearing
support will remain horizontal and the end of the roller will tilt
with any loading. This will result in wear and shorter bearing life.
By shifting the bearing support slightly off the centre line of
the bearing as shown in fig. 2-39, the bearing force is applied to the
support with slight eccentricity Consequently there results a
bending moment, which causes the bearing to tilt slightly. It is
then possible to calculate the proper second moment of area of the cross
section of the bearing support so that the bearing will tilt at the same angle
as the ends of the roller under any loading as shown in fig 2-40 Both
will always be in perfect alignment

Beartrig Bearing

Support Steel roll

FIG. 2-39 Mo. 2-40

2-30. Temperature stress:

When two materials having different coefficients of expansion
are connected together, stresses will be developed in the materials
when the temperature is changed. This is due to the restraining
action of low coefficient material tending to withhold expansion
of the other. For a material firmly held to an original length
(corresponding to temperature t1) the stress induced by a tem-
perature change will be,
f = Eo: (t1 t1)
158 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 11
where E = modulus of elasticity
2 = coefficient of thermal expansion
t2 — ti = temperature difference.
The stresses induced will be compressive in nature. If the
body is free to expand, no stresses will be set up.
Thermal stresses are very important in the design of pipe
lines, large internal combustion engines, steam machinery, etc.
Thermal stresses in pipe lines are relieved by incorporating a
flexible member such as expansion joint, bend, sleeve, etc.
Various parts of machines and engines are fixed by shrinking
on. Suppose a crank is to be shrunk on to a shaft, the crank shaft
is made slightly larger than the bore on the crank. When the
crank web is heated, it can be put in position on the shaft. On
cooling the crank, the contraction binds it firmly on the shaft.
In a similar manner tyres are fixed on the wheels of a carriage.
The stresses induced in the material due to shrinkage can
be calculated on the assumption that the shaft or boss does not
change in diameter. This is not the case as the shaft or connected
parts are made of elastic material. However, the assumption
made is on safer side.
f = stress = strain x modulus of elasticity ...... . . . (i)
difference in two diameters
Strain _, - - (ii)
original diameter
The above stress is induced in the hub if it is assumed that
the shaft diameter does not decrease, which condition is approached
with large diameter shafts and thin hubs.
Examples :
1. A steel collar is to be forced around a 75 mm diameter shaft.
Determine the difference between shaft and callar diameters if stress in the
collar must not exceed 1,680 kg/sq cm. The modulus of elasticity is
2.1 x 106 kgIsq cm.
E x difference in two diameters
Stress in the collar =
D
... Difference in two diameters = 1680 x 7.5— 0.006 cm.
2.1 x 10°
. 2. Determine the stresses imposed upon the jacketed vessel by difference
in thermal expansion from the following data:
Art. 2-30 ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 159

The jacketed vessel operates at 150°C, the initial temperature being 15°C.
Inner vessel:
Material : Inconel alloy
Inside diameter 240 cm
Thickness 1.5 cm
Modulus of elasticity 2 x 106 kg/sq cm
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion 16.1 x 10-6 cm l cmr C
Jacket:
Material: Mild steel
Inside diameter 250 cm
Thickness 1 cm
Modulus of elasticity 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion 12 x 10-6 cmIcm1°C
Relative expansion = (16.1 — 12) x 10-6
= 4.1 x 10-6 cm/crnrC.
Area of the inner vessel = 7T x 241.5 x 1.5 = 1,138 sq cm.
Area of the jacket = Tr x 251 x 1 = 788 sq cm.
If ej be the strain in the jacket and cv be the strain in the inner
vessel, then
2 x 106 1138
1 .38 ev
ci = 2.1 x 106 x 788 EV .-------
01 En -= 0.725 ej.
Temperature difference = 150 — 15 ----= 135°C
0.725 ei + cj = 135 x 4.1 y 10-6
-- 135 x 4.1
01 Ej --- —F7B-- X 10-6 = 0.000321
CV 0.725 x 0.000321 = 0.000232.
=
Stress in jacket = 0.000321 x 2.1 x 106 = 674 kg/sq cm.
Stress in vessel = 0.000232 x 2 x 106 = 464 kg/sq cm.
Note: These stresses are acting in a longitudinal direction. The vessel is
in COMPRESSION and the jacket is in TENSION.
Allowance should be made for this additional loading in the design of the
vessel, preferably by providing adequate means for the accommodation of resul-
tant expansion, so nullifying its effect.
The stresses incurred are independent of the length of the vessel being
considered. They are directly proportional only to the temperature difference
and the relative linear coefficient of thermal expansion—areas being equal.
The stresses induced into the material by thermal expansion are very consi-
derable for even a moderate rise in temperature and due regard should be paid
to this effect, particularly when jacketed vessels of dissimilar metals are to be heat
treated or are for service at elevated temperatures
160 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11

Exercises :
1. A locomotive wheel as 180 cm in diameter. A steel tyre is shrunk
on the wheel. Determine the internal diameter of the Ore if after shrinkage
the hoop stress in the tyre is 1,050 kg/sq cm. Assume that the wheel
is not altered in diameter due to pressure of the tyre and that the modulus of
elasticity is 2.1'x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 179.91 cm.
2. A copper cylinder 150 mm in outside diameter has walls 25 mm
thick. End plates are stayed by 24 mm diameter bar of steel which passes
through the cylinder and is just tight at 5°C. Estimate, the stress in cylinder
and stay when steam at atmospheric pressure is admitted
Assume that the end plates do not disturb.
ct.c = 0.0000181°C Ec = 1.09 x 106 kg/sq cm
ay = 0.0000111°C Es = 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm
3. The body of a small condenser is made from 200 mm outside
diameter brass tube. The end plates are also of brass and are held in place
by four long 8 mm diameter steel bolts. If these are tightened equally at
10°C so that each carries a load of 450 kg, what load will they carry at
the operating temperature of 100°C? The condenser tube is 12 mm thick
lb -..--- 0.0000171°C Eb = 0.63 x 106 kg/sq cm
xr -..---. 0-0000111°C Ec = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm
4. The two side members of a water cooler are of 18 x 5 cm bat
section aluminium 6 mm thick by 60 cm long. Between them are 256
vertical copper tubes 6 mm outside diameter, 3 mm bore of the same length.
Assuming that (a) assembly was carried out at 20°C, (b) the headers are
rigid, (c) the tubes do not buckle, and (d) the side members remain cold,
calculate for an operating temperature of 90°C, (i) the stress in the tubes
and (ii) the increase in the height of the cooler. '
ctc = 17.1 x 10-41°C Ec = 1.05 x 108 kg/sq cm
Ea = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.

EXAMPLES H

I. (a) With suitable examples of machine elements explain how the

factor of safety adopted in designing machine elements varies with the nature
and type of load imposed on them
Ex. II I DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 161

(b) Indicate the factor of safety to be used in assuming permissible tensile

stress in the following:
(i) Bolts for securing cylinder cover
(ii) I. C. engine connecting rod
(iii) Arms of a cast iron flywheel
(iv) Spring of a safety valve
(v) Springs in I. C. engine valves
(vi) Rivets in boiler joints
(vii) Flange coupling bolts
(viii) Crankshaft
2. Show how the permissible stress allowed in a given material varies with
the type of machine element for which it is used. Illustrate your answer with
suitable examples of machine elements manufactured from the same material.
3. Explain why lower safety margins are commonly used in air craft design
where failure may be disastrous, than in many industrial machines where failures
endanger no one.
4. Three beams of equal size and shape are made from cast iron, mild steel
and nickel steel. Which of these beams will be the stiffest? State your line of
reasoning in determining your answer.
5. A solid shaft transmits a torque of 8000 kg cm at a shearing stress o
250 kg/sq cm. Determine the wall thickness of a hollow shaft having an inside
diameter equal to that of the solid shaft that can transmit the given torque at
the same maximum stress.
Compare the stiffnesses of the two shafts.
Ans. 7 mm thickness; 1.44:1.
P

i
300 175 ---*I k--75 --4

FIG. 2-41

6. Fig. 2-41 shows a cast iron guide for a crosshead of a steam engine.
The end connections are with flanges and tapped bolts,. The maximum load P
is 300 kg and acts as shown in the diagram.
Design and draw a dimensioned drawing of the crosshead guide. Permissible
stress in tension for cast iron is 105 kg/sq cm. Permissible shear stress in bolts
is 280 kg/sq cm and tensile stress 350 kg/sq cm.
Ans. M10; flange thickness 2 cm; depth 6 cm.
7. A frame of a machine is in the form of I section 30 cm deep and 10 cm
wide. The web and flanges are 2.5 cm thick. The frame has been designed to
carry an axial load of 80 tonnes. The design of the machine is altered and it is
162 mAcHna DESIGN [ Ch. II
found that the load acts at a position 10 cm from the axis parallel to the width and
8 cm from the other axis. If the original design stress is adhered to, what load
may now be carried? Ans. 7.1 tonnes.
8. A straight 5 cm diameter tension rod designed to carry a load of 3,000 kg
for a certain machine was found to interfere with another member of the machine.
If clearance has to be provided by off-setting a portion of the length of the rod
near where it interferes with the other part so that the inner edge of the off-set
part may be 2 cm from the line of action of the load, what should be the diameter
of the rod in the off-set part if the maximum stress in it is to be the same as
in the straight bar? Ans. 125 mm.
9. Fig. 2-42 shows the body of a screw clamp. It is fitted with a 2 cm
diameter screw having 2 threads per cm. If the maximum load exerted by the
screw is 1,500 kg, design and draw a dimensioned drawing of the clamp body.
The maximum stress in the body should not exceed 1,750 kg/sq cm. The
depth of the section is 6 cm. Ans. x -= 26 mm.

FIG. 2-42 FIG. 2-43

10. For the loading arrangement shown in fig. 2-43, calculate the dimensions
d, t and y. Take the value of load P = 10 tonnes and 1 = 20 cm. The
material used for the construction is forged steel whose ultimate strengths in
tension, compression and shear are 54, 72, 42 kg/sq mm respectively.
Give a neat sketch of your design. Choose your own values for the factor
of safety. What will be the width of the plate?
11. The fixing arrangement of a tie rod in a partially forked bracket is
shown in fig. 2-44. The tie rod carries a load of 800 kg and is 18 mm diameter.
Determine (a) a suitable width for the bracket at AA if the depth of the section
at this position is 50 mm; the compressive stress in the bracket must not exceed
350 kg/sq cm (b) the permissible drilling error 'x' cm if the allowable tensile
stress in the bar is 500 kg/sq cm. Ans. (a) 4 cm; (b) 0.0132 cm.
12. Fig. 2-45 shows a double sheave hook block as used on a 3 tonne crane.
The sheaves are of 20 cm diameter, the hub width of each sheave being 7.5 cm.
A 5 mm thick gun metal washer is inserted between the two sheaves and
also between the sheaves and the side plates. Design the following parts of
the block:
Ex. H ] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 163

(i) Pin on which the sheaves are mounted

(ii) Pin on which the block is mounted
(iii) Side plates.
ft --= 700 kg/sq cm; fs = 500 kgisq cm; fc . 1,050 kg/sq cm and bearing
pressure intensity 150 kg/sq cm.
Ans. (a) 4.5 cm (b) 6 cm (c) 8 mm thick x 45 mm wide.

800 kg

FIG. 2-44

FIG. 2-45
13. Two shafts A and B are made of the same material and are of the same
length. They transmit the same torque under identical conditions. Shaft A is
164 MAdHllit bESIOW [ Ch. II

solid while shaft B is hollow with its outer diameter twice the inner. What is
the ratio of the weight of shaft A to that of shaft B?
(University of Bombay, 1969)
14. A machine member is subjected to the following allowable stresses:
fs = 15 kg/sq mm; fc = 10 kg/sq cm.
Take fy = 42 kg/sq mm for the material used.
Find the factor of safety by varioas theories of elastic failure.
(Gujarat University, 1969)
15. A cast iron pipe has 250 rnm inside diameter and has a wall thickness
of 10 mm. The pipe contains water under a head of 100 metre. Calculate
(i) stress due to bending, if the pipe is horizontal, 10 metre long, simply
supported at both ends and running full of water.
(ii) maximum resultant stress.
Take densities of water and cast iron as 1.00 and 7.25 kg/dm'.
(Rajasthan University, 1969)
16. The stresses at a point in a body are sx = 900 kg/sq cm; Sy = 200
kg/sq cm and sxy = 800 kg/sq cm. The material tests syp = 2,800 kg/sq cm.
Find the factor of safety by the following methods:
(i) Maximum principal stress theory of failure
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory of failure
and (iii) Mises-Hencky theory, (Gujarat University, 1970)
17. A hot rolled shaft is subjected to a torsional load that varies from 4,000
kg cm clockwise to 2,000 kg cm anti-clockwise as an applied bending moment at
a critical section varies from 4,000 kg cm to — 2,000 kg cm. The shaft is of
uniform cross section. Determine the required shaft diameter. The material
has an ultimate strength of 5,600 kg/sq cm and yield strength of 4,200 kg/sq cm.
Assume the factor of safety to be 1.8. (Sardar Patel University, 1971)

18. An aluminium alloy plate t mm thick and having a size of 100 mm x 150
mm has a tensile load of 2,700 kg applied parallel to the 150 mm side and a tensile
load of 1,800 kg applied parallel to the 100 mm side. Determine the thickness
t if the allowable stress in tension and shear are 300 and 200 kg/sq cm. What
will be the maximum shear stress if an additional compressive load of 4,500 kg is
applied to the flat faces? (University of Bombay, 1971)

19. A shaft of 40 H.P., 710 r.p.m. motor is 40 mm in diameter and is

supported in bearings 500 mm apart. Calculate:
' (i) Stress due to bending if the armature pull amounts to 1,000 kg concen-
trated at the centre acting vertically on supported length
(ii) Stress due to torsion
(iii) Equivalent shear stress and tensile stress due to moment and torque.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
20. The guide pulley of a mine hoisting machine weighing 800 kg carries
a vertical load of 10,000 kg. The pulley is fixed to the axle and positioned in the
Ex. 1.I] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE PARTS 165

middle of the span. The distance between the supports is 700 mm. Determine
the minimum allowable diameter of the axle providing for adequate bending
strength, the permissible stress of the material being 1,200 kg/sq cm. Determine
the length of each end journal if the bearing pressure intensity is limited to 30
kg/sq cm. (Sardar Patel University, 1973)

21. Explain what you understand by preferred numbers. Give R20

(10 50).
Shaft diameters are standardised by R20 series and r.p.m. are standardised
by RIO series. State which preferred number series will be used by you to
standardise torque and horse power. (Gujarat University, 1970)

22. Explain the utility of the following in design of machine elements:

(i) Stress concentration factor (ii) Safety factor (iii) Modulus of Elasticity
(iv) Modulus of rigidity.
An electric motor rated at 25 H.P., 960 r.p.m. has shaft extension of 120 mm
on which a V belt pulley is mounted for power take off. Assuming pulley centre
line at 80 mm from bearing support and ratio of belt tensions as 6, find shaft dia-
meter and key dimensions. Minimum pulley diameter can be assumed as 150 mm.
The motor can take 20% overload and has starting torque equal to 1.75 times
rated full load torque. The shaft twist should not exceed 1° in 16 diameters.
Endurance limit of mild steel shaft in bending is 1,900 kg sq cm and in torsional
shear of 1,140 kg/sq cm.
Take factor of safety equal to 2 and stress concentration factor due to keyway
equal to 1.25 (University of Bombay, 1972)

23. A circular steel bar is subjected to a load of 1,000 kg. The load is
parallel to the axis of the bar, but is displaced from it by 25 mm. The permissible
stress for the material of the bar is 800 kg/sq cm. Find the suitable diameter for
the bar. (University of Bombay, 1975)
24. A horizontal machine shaft is supported by two bearings'. The input
and resisting torque act at sections between the two journals. The input torque
is constant at 100 kg metre, but the resisting torque varies so that the torque
diagram is triangular on the later half revolution of the shaft as the base. The
cycle consists of one revolution of the shaft. The flywheel is fitted at a short
distance beyond one of the bearings so that the bending effect on the shaft near the
adjacent bearing is negligible. Taking into account only the variable torque due
to flywheel inertia, find out the shaft diameter to provide a factor of safety of 1.5.
The stress concentration factor for the shaft may be taken as 1.8, which includes
surface finish, size effect and also the weakening effect of the key way. The
material has yield and endurance strengths in shear of 3,000 and 2,000 kg/sq cm
respectively. (Sardar Patel University, 1975)
25. Discuss the phenomenon of fatigue failure in machine elements, explain-
ing the mechanism of fatigue fracture.
Discuss the factors affecting the fatigue strength of a part .
Explain the theories used to take the effect of mean stress on alternating stress.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
166 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. II

26. The spindle of a drilling' machine is subjected to a maximum load of

900 kg during operation. Determine the hollow circular section of the cast iron
post if the tensile stress is limited to 400 kg/sq cm. The distance between the axis
of the spindle and the axis of the post is 45 cm. The ratio of outside diameter
to inside diameter is 2:1. (Sardar Patel University, 1977)
27. A punch press is to be used to punch three holes of 5 mm diameter
simultaneously in a 6 mm thick mild steel plate. Ultimate shear and tensile stresses
for mild steel are 2,700 and 3,600 kg/sq cm respectively.
The frame of this press should have 'T' (4t x 4t x t) cross section. Compute
the dimensions for T section if the punching force acts at a distance of 25 cm
from the nearest edge of the frame.
Permissible tensile and compressive stresses for the material of the frame are
600 kg/sq cm and 1,000 kg/sq cm respectively.
(University of Bombay, 1974)
28. A speed reducer shaft ABCD, 800 mm long is designed to support a
pulley P at C and a worm W at B. The pulley subjects the shaft to a radial
bending load varying from 180 kg to 330 kg in the vertically downward direction
and torque varying from 300 kg cm to 600 kg cm. The worm receives the torque
and in addition subjects the shaft to axial load varying from 700 kg to 1,400 kg,
which is taken by right hand bearing and a radial load varying from 75 kg to 150 kg.
Assume the radial loads to be in the same plane, all variations with frequency
equal to the speed and in phase and in the same plane.
AB = 150 mm, BC = 525 mm and CD = 125 mm.
The shaft is made of steel heat treated and ground for which ultimate tensile
strength and yield point are 8,000 kg/sq cm and 6,000 kg/sq cm. If the diameter
of the shaft is D for 200 mm at each end and 1.25D for the remaining length,
find the value for D for a factor of safety 1.8. Theoretical concentration factors
due to keyway and shoulder are 1.5 and 2 in bending and 1.3 and 1.5 in torsion
and notch sensitivity factor is 0.8.
Use maximum shear stress theory.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
29. Discuss in detail any three of the following:
(i) Selection of working stresses
(ii) Phenomenon of creep
(iii) Mises and Hencky theory
(iv) Design of parts subjected to low temperature.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
CHAPTER 3
CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES

3-1. Introduction:
Cylindrical and spherical tanks are used to store liquids,
vapours and gases under pressure. Pipes are used to transmit
fluid under pressure. The material of the tanks or pipes is subjected
to tensile stresses which are at right angles to each other. The
thickness of the pressure vessel (i.e. tank or cylinder) must be such
that the stresses induced are within limits. As the failure of such
a vessel in service involves heavy loss of life and property, the
basic specifications of the design, the design formulas and the
allowable stresses as well as the rules of governing the erection and
operation of these vessels are specified in special regulations.

3-2. Types of vessels:

The vessels are classified as under:
(i) According to geometrical shapes e.g. cylindrical, conical,
spherical, etc.
(ii) According to the direction of the forces acting on the walls
of the vessels e.g. vessels subjected to internal wessure and
external pressure
(iii) According to end head shape e.g. flat head, dished end,
convex head
(iv) According to types of service.
The vessels may be made of sheet steel, cast iron and non-
ferrous alloys. The heads may be fastened to the shell either
permanently (by riveting or welding) or by 'bolted joints.
Chemical vessels in which the pressure and temperature of
the medium may rise owing to chemical reaction may be made of
special materials.

3-3. Design of thin cylinders:

Cylindrical pressure vessels fall into either one of the two
categories: thin or thick cylinders, depending upon whether the
168 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. III

shell thickness is appreciable or not in relation to the internal

diameter of the cylinder. The decision rests with the designer
as to the category in which a cylinder shall be placed, and the
determining factors are referred to on page 186. The ratio
d
of — = 20 can be considered a suitable line of demarcation
t
between thin and thick cylinders.
In thin cylinders the stresses may be assumed uniformly distri-
buted over the wall thickness. Boilers, pressure vessels, steam pipes,
water pipes, etc. are usually treated as thin cylinders.

Failure along longitudinal section

FIG 3-1(a)

Failure across transverse section

FIG. 3-1 (b)

There are two ways in which the failure of a thin cylinder may
occur as shown in fig. 3-1.
Thin cylinder may burst along a longitudinal seam as shown
in fig. 3-1(a) or it may fail across a transverse section as shown
in fig, 3-1(b). Due to internal fluid pressure the stresses set up
Art. 3-3] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 169

are (i) hoop or circumferential stresses acting across longitudinal

sections as shown in fig. 3-1(a), (ii) longitudinal or axial stresses
acting across sections at right angles to the longitudinal axis of
the cylinder as shown in fig. 3-1 (b) and, (iii) radial stresses which
are small compared with the previous two stresses and can be
neglected. These three stresses are mutually perpendicular and
they are principal stresses.
Let D = the internal diameter of the cylinder
t = thickness of the cylindrical shell
p = internal (gauge) pressure in the cylinder
ft = tangential or hoop or circumferencial stress
ft = axial or longitudinal stress.
Then fi = D
2t
and fi = pD e... (ii)
4t
Both the above stresses are tensile and are independent of the
length of the cylinder. The hoop stress is twice the longitudinal
stress. Thus if water in closed pipe freezes, the pipe will rupture
along a line running longitudinally along the pipe
In design of thin cylinders, in order to determine the thickness
of the cylinder, we use the formula
D
t=p_ i. (iii)
2fi
In constructing large pressure vessels or storage tanks such as
boilers, coal bunkers, air receivers, etc. several plates may be used
which necessitates the use of welded joints or riveted joints in join-
ing together the ends of the plate. So while designing the thick-
ness of the pressure vessels, we must consider the efficiency of the
joints. If 1 be the efficiency of the longitu,dinal joint, then
t=pD — (iv)
2f0)
In designing steam boilers, the thickness calculated from
equation (iv) should be compared with the plate thickness set forth
by Indian Boiler Regulations. Should the calculated thickness be
less than that required by I.B.R., the thickness determined from
I.B.R. should be adopted. It should be remembered that the
design of boilers should confirm with I. B. R.
170 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. III
•
Examples:
.1. A cylindrical shell of 2.2 metre internal diameter is constructed of
mild steel plate. The shell is subjected to an internal pressure of 8 kg/sq cm
gauge. Determine the thickness of the shell plate by adopting a factor of
safety 6. The ultimate tensile strength of the steel is 4,700 kg/sq cm.
The ef ficiency of the longitudinal joint may be taken as 78%.
The working stress of the material
ultimate tensile strength 4700
ft = 783 kg/sq cm.
factor of safety 6
Thickness of the plate is given by the formula
pD 8 x 2.2 X 108
t= = 1.44 cm; we adopt t = 1.5 cm.
2fiy) 2 x 783 Y 0 . 70
2. Determine the thickness for the cylindrical portion of a water
tube vertical boiler of Spencer Hopwood type of 1,500 mm diameter and a
working pressure of 10 kglsg cm gauge. The longitudinal joint is double
riveted butt joint with two butt straps, the efficiency of which may be
assumed to lie between 70 to 80%. Ultimate strength of the steel plate is
4,800 kg/sq cm. Assume a factor of safety to be 4.
For determining the thickness of the boiler shell we shall
employ Lloyd's register of shipping. The thickness of the shell plate
is given by
= pR
+ 0.75 mm
— 0.5p
where t = minimum required thickness of shell plate
p = design pressure
R = inside radius of the shell
f = allowable stress
= efficiency of the joint.
Design pressure is taken as safety valve setting which in this
case is 10% above normal working pressure.
p = 10 x 1.1 = 11 kg/sq cm.
As the ultimate strength of the steel plate is 4,800 kg/sq cm,
4800
for a factor of safety of 4, working pressure will be - 4 - = 1,200
kg/sq cm. We take the efficiency of the joint as 70%.
11 x 75
t= ± 0.75 mm
1200 x 0.7 — 0.5 x 11
= 1.057 cm.; -we adopt 10.6 mm.
Note: For fired pressure vessels the thickness obtained by this formula
-hould not be less than 9.5 mm.
Art. 3-3] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 171

Exercises:
1. Find the thickness of a cast iron pipe 45 cm diameter if it is
required to sustain 6 kg/sq cm inside pressure. Maximum stress in the
pipe material is limited to 140 kg/sq cm. Ans. 10 mm.

2. A compressed air cylinder for a laboratory use ordinarily carries

approximately 70 kg/sq cm pressure at the time of delivery. The inside
diameter of such a cylinder is 25 cm. If the steel has a yield point of
2,300 kg/sq cm and a safety factor of 2.5 is adequate, calculate the required
wall thickness. Ans. 1 cm.
3. For use in rural districts fuel gas for home use is frequently
stored in cylinders closed by either hemispherical or dished ends. Consider-
ing such a tank of 100 cm in diameter to be a thin cylinder made of steel
having a permissible tensile stress intensity to be 700 kg/sq cm, determine
the thickness if the working pressure is not to exceed 18 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 14 mm.
4. A thin walled cylinder is closed at both ends and contains oil
under a pressure of 10 kg/sq cm. The inside diameter of the shell is 60 cm.
If the yield point of the material is 2,500 kg/sq cm and a safety factor of
3 is selected, determine the required wall thickness. Ans. 5 mm.
5. Find the thickness of the metal necessary to make a copper steam
pipe 30 cm diameter with a longitudinal brazed seam. The inside pressure
is 11 kg/sq cm. The permissible tensile stress intensity in copper is not
to exceed 350 kg/sq cm. The efficiency of brazed joint is Z8%.
Ans. 8 mm.
6. Find the, required shell thickness for a boiler 240 cm in diameter
working on 15 kg/sq cm gauge pressure and joint efficiency of 84%. The
boiler shell plate is made of mild steel having an ultimate strength in tension
of 43 kg/sq mm. A factor of safety of 4.5 is adequate. Ans. 23 mm.
7. A vertical cylindrical gasoline storage tank is 25 metre in diameter.
The maximum level of gasoline is not to exceed 18 metre. The specific
gravity of gasoline is 0.72. If the yield point of the shell plating is 2,400
kg/sq cm and a factor of safely of 2.5 is adequate, calculate the thickness
of the wall of the storage tank. Neglect any localised bending e. ffect.
Ans. 18 mm.
8. A steel pipe, 50 cm diameter and 15 mm thick, is closed at the
ends by bolted flanges and used as a storage vessel for a fluid at a pressure of
14 kg/sq cm by gauge. Connections to the pipe necessitate, in places, the
172 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. III

use of longitudinal joints, the efficiency of which may be taken as 80%.

Each end flange is secured with 14 bolts which have core area of 5.6 sq cm.
To ensure joint tightness the bolts are screwed up to give a stress 50%
greater than that due to pressure. If the pipe and bolt material has an
ultimate strength of 43 kg/sq mm, compare the factors of safety for the
wall and the bolts. Ans. 2-245:1.
9. A boiler shell of 150 cm inner diameter is made of mild steel
plate of 1 cm thickness. Find the maximum internal pressure that the
boiler can be certified for. Assume permissible tensile stress in mild steel
to be 700 kg1sq cm. Ans. 7.8 kg1sq cm by gauge.

3-4. Design of a thin spherical shell:

As the spherical shells are self supporting, they are found in
many engineering applications. When material of construc-
tion is decided upon, the diameter and thickness of the spherical
shell are the items to be considered in the design. The diameter
of the spherical shell is obtained from the storage capacity of
the shell and thickness is obtained from strength considerations.
If D be the internal diameter of the spherical shell, and V
the storage capacity of the shell, then
v
V= -- /33
6
, = -13/6 V
or .0 (i)
7c.
Let p be the internal gauge pressure to which the shell is
subjected and t the thickness of the spherical shell.
The force tending to rupture the shell along the diametral
7r
plane is - D2p. The area of the shell that resists the rupture of
4
the shell is rDt (fig. 3-2). If ft be permissible tensile stress
intensity in the material of the shell, resistance of shell to rupture
is 7rDtfi.
By equating the bursting force to resistance to rupture, we get
7:
D2p . vDt ft..
4
or t .D
—-P- (ii)
Aft
Art. .5-4] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 173

If the shell contains a circumferential joint of efficiency 1, the

permissible pressure will be reduced and the necessary shell
thickness is given by the formula
Dp
t = 4fi
- (iii)

Spherical shell Dished end

FIG. 3-2 FIG. 3-3

In boiler construction, we come across many dished ends.

Thickness of the dished end may be calculated as follows. In
fig. 3-3, R denotes the radius of the circular base, c the camber,
t the thickness of the plate and p the pressure of the steam.
If ft be the permissible tensile stress intensity in the material
of the dished end, then
(R2 C2) h
ft = p.
4tc
p (R2 ± 2)
Or t = (iv)
4fic c
When c becomes equal to R, the dished end becomes a hemi-
spherical end and the formula (iv) becomes
t=— pD •
pR _,_• ____:_
.
2fi ift
The above formula agrees with the formula (ii) of this article.
The walls of the vessel have holes for filling it or emptying it
and for connection of the pipe fittings. To prevent weakening of
the wall these holes must be reinforced, so as to make the strength
of the plate with a hole equal to that of a plate without a hole.
The holes are either round or elliptical.
174 ' MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. III

3-5. Cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends:

Let us consider a thin cylindrical shell of thickness ti which is
closed by thin hemispherical ends having thickness t2, the internal
diameter being assumed the same for both. If the cylindrical shell
and hemispherical shell were to be made of the same material,
then for the same value of permissible stress, the thickness of the
hemispherical shell should be half the thickness of the cylindrical
shell. This will result in distortion of the joint under pressure.
In order to prevent distortion of the joint, the hoop strain at the
joint for the cylindrical shell as well as for the hemispherical shell
should be the same. Let us determine the ratiot iso that there
ti.
may not be any distortion of the junction under pressure.
Let p be the internal pressure to which the vessel is subjected.

Cylindrical shell:
pD
Hoop stress = -27- (i)
1
pD
Longitudinal stress = — (ii)
411
pD
Hoop strain = 4-4 (2 — 11.) (iii)
where u is Poisson's ratio.
Hemispherical shell:
pD
Hoop stress = (iv)
4t2
By symmetry the two principal stresses are equal, in fact the
pD
stress in any tangential direction is equal to 4 •
72

Hoop strain = PD /1 — \ (v)

412 ' iii
For no distortion of the junction under pressure we have
In \
pD k4 pD f 1
— 11.) = — k 1 — ( il.)
441 4t2

12 1-- EL
or —
ti. 2 — IL
If we take the value of Poisson's ratio IL as 0.3, we get
12 1—O'3 7
t; — 2 — 0.3 — 17
Ar:. 3-6) CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 175

If this ratio of the thickness were to be adopted, then the maxi-

mum stress will occur in the hemispherical ends, whose value will
be 17 (PD ), which isgreater than the hoop stress P-
D in the cylin-
14 2ti ti
drical shell. For equal maximum stress, the ratio C-P should be
ti
equal to 0.5.
7:
The capacity of a cylindrical vessel is equal to — D21 where 1
4
is the length of the cylindrical vessel. As it is filled with fluid,
which exerts a pressure p on its wall, tensile stresses are set up and
consequently the volume of the vessel will increase. The increase
in volume can be obtained if we know the volumetric strain of the
vessel.
3V
It can be proved that the volumetric strain — is equal to
V
8V
= 2 x hoop strain + longitudinal strain (viii)
V
For a thin spherical shell it can be shown that
3V
= 3 x hoop strain (ix)
V
To determine the increase in capacity, it is only necessary to
multiply the volumetric strain by the original volume.

3-6. General theory of Membrane Stresses in Vessels

under internal pressure:
Normally in engineering we come across many vessels which
are obtained by revolving a curve, called meridian about an axis
lying in the plane of the curve. If we neglect the end conditions and
flexure the stresses induced in the wall of such pressure vessels are
known as membrane stresses, which can be evaluated from the
equations of statics provided such pressure vessels commonly termed
as thin shells are loaded in a rotationally symmetrical manner — the pressure
loading need not be the same throughout the entire vessel but only on any
plane perpendicular to the axis of the shell.
Let f l. = longitudinal or meridional stress (stress in the meridional
direction)
f2 = hoop stress (stress along a parallel circle)
ri = longitudinal or meridional radius of curvature
176 MACHINE nEsrofsr (Ch. III

r2 radius of curvature of the element in the hoop direction

(perpendicular to the meridian)
t = thickness of the shell
p = pressure intensity.
The relation between the above parameters is given as
6 +f1! _ P. (i)
Ti r2 t
It should be noted that the pressure p and thickness t, need not
be constant over the entire vessel.
There are two unknowns f1 and f2 and hence we must have
two equations for their determination. Second equation can be
obtained by force equilibrium. Equation (i) can be used for
compartmented vessels which operate at different pressures or those
subject to varying pressures due to a head of fluid and likewise
embody corresponding thickness adjustments.
Cylindrical and spherical vessel under internal pressure, and
conical vessel under internal pressure are some of the applications
of equation (i).

Example:
1. The air receiver consists of a cylinder, of 1 metre inside diameter,
which as closed by hemispherical ends. The pressure of compressed air
inside the cylinder is not to exceed 20 kg/sq cm gauge. If the material is
a steel whose yield point is 2,500 kg/sq cm and a safety factor of 3.5
is used, calculate the required wall thickness of the cylinder and thickness
of the hemispherical ends. Neglect localised effects at the junction of
the cylinder and the hemisphere.
2500
The permissible stress in the material = = 715 kg/sq cm.
3.5
The thickness of the cylindrical wall is given by
D
t=p where p is the internal fluid pressure intensity,
2fi
D the internal diameter of the cylinder and ft the permi-
ssible tensile stress intensity in the material of the shell.
20 x 100
On substitution of values, we get t = = 1.4 cm.
2 x 715
The thickness of the hemispherical ends is given by the formula

ti =4ftD. •
Art. 3-7 1 CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 177

On substitution of the values, we get

20 x 100
t .---- = 0.7 cm; we adopt ti = 8 mm.
4 x 715
Exercises:
I. A bronze spherical pressure vessel of 2.5 metre diameter is installed
in a chemical plant. Such a pressure vessel is subjected to internal pressure
of 11 kg/sq cm. Calculate the required thickness of the shell if the permi-
ssible stress in the bronze material is not to exceed 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 1.4 cm.
2. To assist motorists, who have tyre trouble, many service stations
bring a small cylindrical tank, closed by hemispherical ends, filled with
compressed air to the scene of any difficulty. Such a tank of 50 cm dia-
meter, when filled, carries a pressure of 10 kg/sq cm. Neglecting the bending
effect in the vicinity of the connection of two elements, determine the thickness
of the cylindrical and spherical portions. Take the permissible stress in the
material to be 560 kg/sq cm. Ans. 6 mm; 3 mm.
3. A spherical metal vessel 120 cm diameter is subjected to an
internal pressure of 15 kg/sq cm. If the permissible stress in the metal is
625 kg/sq cm and the efficiency of the riveted joints is 75%, find the
required thickness of the plate. Ans. 1 cm.
3-7. Design of Pipes:
Pipes are generally made of cast iron, wrought iron, steel
and brass. Cast iron pipes are used for water and gas mains.
They are also used for sewage system. For pressures u&to 7 kg/sq
cm, cast iron steam pipes can be used. To convey water, oil and
fuels with different characteristics carbon steel pipes such as water
and gas pipes are recommended; stainless steel, red copper and
brass pipes are used for media causing considerable corrosion.
Thick walled seamless pipes made of heat-resistant chrome-
molybdenum alloy steels are used for high pressures (p > 40
kg/sq cm) and high temperatures (1° ...> 450°C). Red copper and
thin walled seamless steel pipes are used for the pipes of low power
hydraulic drives (p < 120 kg/sq cm and rate of flow < 300 litres/
minute).
Steel and wrought iron pipes may be lap welded, butt
welded, solid drawn and riveted. The majority of pipes used for
pressure purposes are lap welded but for high pressure purposes
solid drawn pipes are preferred.
178 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. 111

Of late use is being made of plastic pipes, which are especially

effective in conveying chemically active working media since they
are highly resistant to corrosion.
When the material of construction is decided upon, the main
items of design of pipe are internal diameter and thickness.
The sizes of pipes are standardised. A pipe is characterized
by its diameter, wall thickness and the material. Indian Standards
specify several wall thicknesses for each outside diameter of the
pipe. Thus the inside diameter of the pipe varies with the wall
thickness. Besides the pipe is characterized by the nominal bore
which does not always coincide with its inside diameter; as a rule
they differ somewhat.
The main purpose of pipe installation is to carry a certain
quantity of fluid from one point to another point. The velocity
of the fluid in the pipe must be specified. When velocity of
the fluid and the quantity to be handled are known, we can deter-
mine the nominal bore of the pipe.
Let D be the internal diameter of the pipe, Q the quantity
of fluid to be carried by volume per unit time and V the velocity
of fluid in the pipe per unit time, then,

Q = a D2V
4

or D . — x — = 1.13 1/3
Yv
'
r. Q (i)
If G be the discharge of flow rate measured in kg/hour for gases
and tonne/hour for liquids, V be the velocity of flow of the medium
in metre/sec and y the specific weight in kg/cu metre for gases and
tonne/cu metre for liquids, then it can be shown that

D =.-- 18.8 -Gv mm (ii)

y
After finding out the minimum value of the inner diameter of the
pipe, we select the next larger nominal bore. Then we calculate
the thickness of the wall by the equation

t .pp (iii)
2fi
After thickness has been determined, we select the outside
diameter of the pipe from the Standards.
Art. 3-7 J CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 179

The thickness of pipe wall is selected to suit the pressure

of the liquid or gas conveyed by the pipe line, with an allowance
for rigidity consideration, and method of pipe manufacture and
for wear and corrosion which depend on the material of the pipe
and the type of working medium. Hence the design formula will
be modified to
D
I=p ±c (iv)
2fi
where c is the allowance for corrosion added to the design thickness
of the wall. If t is less than 6 mm, then c is taken as 1 mm. For
values oft greater than 6 mm, r is equal to 0.18t
In fact the constant c has to also account for rigidity consi-
deration as well as the method of pipe manufacture. For cast
pipes the thickness of the pipe determined by calculations based
on strength alone is often too small to produce good casting. In
such cases the thickness of the castings should not be less than a
certain practicable minimum, which depends upon the size of
the pipe The minimum thickness will differ for each material

For determining the thickness of cylindrical part of boilers,

thin cylinder formula is modified as under
pD
t , -I- c cm (v)
2fi
where c = 0.1 for t less than or equal to 3 cm, 0.05 for t greater
than 3 cm and 0.0 for t greater than 4 cm ..
The pipes and their fittings are tested by hydraulic pressui e
upto the test pressure, which is the maximum pressure to be
applied for checking the strength of the pipe. Three types of
pressures are distinguished, viz., nominal pressure, working pres-
sure and test* pressure These pressures are covered by Indian
Standards.
When pipes are subjected to a high temperature fluid,
while selecting the value of the prmissible stress, the eject of creep
is to be taken into account. Creep is the slow and continuous deformation
of metals under steady stress, which is considerably lower than yield point.
This phenomenon is of vital importance at elevated temperatures.
The creep limit is the stress at which the creep rate is equal to a
certain value determined by specifications.
180 MACHINE DESIGN r Ch. II!

Examples:
1. Determine thickness of a cast iron pipe to carry 30 cu metre
of compressed air per minute at a pressure of 7 kg/sq cm. The velocity
of air in the pipe is limited to 8 metre/second.
Amount of air flowing per second = :0 = 0.5 cu metre/sec

Cross sectional area of the pipe = 0.5 = 0.0625 sq metre

8
If D metre be the internal diameter of the pipe, then
-- D2 = 0.0625
7
,

0.0625 x 4
Or D --,-- V - -,-- 0.282 metre; we adopt 30 cm
Jr

Let us assume the permissible tensile stress intensity in the

pipe material to be 150 kg/sq cm If t be the minimum thickness
of the pipe, then
t pD 7 x 30
= 2 x 150 -- 0.7 cm; we adopt 1 cm.
2fi
2. A steam boiler has 75 sq metre of heating surface and the rate
of evaporation is 20 kg/sq metre/hour of heating surface. The pressure
of steam generation is 8 kg/sq cm gauge. The specific volume of steam
is 0.24 cu metre/kg. Determine the diameter and thickness of the steel
steam pipe to carry steam from this boiler with a velocity of steam in
the pipe at 25 metre/sec. The permissible tensile stress intensity in the
pipe material is 400 kg/sq tin
Amount of steam generated , 75 '< 20 ----- 1,500 kg/hour
Volume of steam flowing in the pipe
-,-. 1500 x 0.24 , 0.1 cu metre/sec
60 -x 60
If D metre be the diameter of the steam pipe, then
n
D2 x 25 -,-- 0.1
4

Or
D
= -V 0.1 x4
B---5--; = 0.072 metre; we adopt 75 trim.
r
If t cm be the minimum thickness of the pipe, then
pD 8 x 7.5
,- 0.075 cm.
I = 2je = 2 3Z400
This thickness is too small. We adopt 3 mm thick pipe
Art. 3-7 CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 181

3. A cylindrical tank of 200 cm diameter, 250 cm length and 14 mm

thickness has its ends fiat, which are joined by nine tie bars, each 39 mm
diameter, equally spaced. If the tie bars are initially stressed to 500 kg/sq
cm and the tank filled with water and its pressure raised to 15 kg/sq cm,
determine the stresses in the tie bar. E -.---- 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm. Poisson's
ratio may be taken as 0-28.
Initially:
Let f1 be the compressive longitudinal stress in the cylinder walls.
Then by equilibrium equation we get
7c
fl > 7c x 200 x 1.4 = 9 x x 3.92 x 500
4
9 7r 3.92 x 500
ot = 67 kg/sq cm.
il = 7C X 4 x 200 x 1.4
There i,, no hoop stress initially
Finally.
Let f be the final tensile stress in the tie bars and f,' the final tensile
longitudinal stress in the cylinder.
From equilibrium equation we get
11' x 7: / 200 A, 1.4 -1- / x 9 x ;-- x 3.92

- fix [ ).- 2002 — 9 x n x 3.92

4 4
°' fii t 0.136f — 536 •.••
‘.
A
(i)

pD 15 x 00
Hoop stress in the cylinder . -2 , 1,070 kg/sq cm
2t 2 x 1.4
Hoop stress is not ailected by the tie bars.
We have got two unknowns and only one equation. Hence
we must make use of strain equation which can be stated as under:
The increase in longitudinal strain must be the same for both
tie bars and cylinder, i.e
(f — 500)
= final — initial longitudinal strain in the cylinder
E
1
= — 0.28 x 1070 + 67]
or f +
113 .
Substituting for from (i) in (ii), we get
f -= 536 — 0.136 f + 113
182 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. III

536 + 113
or f= = 572 kg/sq cm
1.136 —
and f1' = 572 — 113 = 459 kg/sq cm.
Increase in capacity = (2 x increase of hoop strain ± increase of
longitudinal strain) x volume
1
12 (1070 — 0.28 x 459 — 0.28
2.l x 106
x 67) + 572 — 2001 7. x 2002 x 250
= 7,230 en cm
Exercises :
1. Steel pipe 300 cm diameter is used for penstocks in a hydro-
electric plant to guide the water from intake at the top of the dam to the
turbines placed at a vertical depth of 100 metre. Calculate the necessary
thickness of the pipe at the turbine if the design stress for the pipe material
is not to exceed 700 kesq cm Ans. 22 min
2. Determine the thickness of a cast iron pipe 25 cm internal dia-
meter to withstand the fluid pressure of 12 kesq cm. The stress intensiti.
in the material of the pipe is limited to 250 ken cm. Ans. 1.2 cm.
3. A seamless steel pipe is to carry 2,000 cu metre of superheated
steam per hour at a pressure of 10 ken cm gauge. The velocity of steam in
the pipe is limited to 30 metre 1second. Determine the minimum diameter
of the steam pipe and suggest the suitable thickness for the pipe, assuming
the permissible tensile stress intensity to be 400 kgIsq cm.
Any. 16 cm ; mm.
3-8. Design of thick cylinders:
In engineering we come across many cylinders or pressure
vessels, which are frequently required to operate under pressures
upto 300 kg/sq cm or more. A cannon, while the projectile is
travelling the length of its barrel, may be considered a pressure
vessel subjected to an internal pressure which may exceed
2,500 kg/sq cm. Under such heavy pressures, the thickness of
the wall of the pressure vessel will be relatively large and so the
usual assumption regarding the uniform stress distribution in the
wall of the pressure vessel is not valid and the theory of thin
cylinder cannot be applied.
Several theories have been suggested for the stress distribution
in the wall of thick cylinders. Here, we briefly describe the theory
Art. 3-8] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 1 83

which is known as Lame's theory, and which is based on maximum

normal stress.' The following assumptions are made:
(i) The material of the cylinder is homogeneous, isotropic
and obeys Hooke's law.
(ii) The cylinder is open at ends.
(iii) The cross-section of the cylinder is symmetrical with
respect to the longitudinal axis and the load is symmetrical with
respect to that axis as shown in fig. 3-4(a).

Circumferential

(a) , (b)
Stresses in thick cylinder
FIG. 3-4
With such assumptions the deformation must be symmetrical
and plane sections which were plane before stressing remain plane
after stressing. It, therefore, follows that radial, tangential or
hoop and axial stresses (for closed cylinders) are principal stresses
and the corresponding planes are principal planes. ,
In order to derive an expression for the stresses induced in
the material, we cut an element from the wall of the cylinder and
by considering statics, geometry and mechanical properties of
the material and combining all the three we can derive a differen-
tial equation for the radial displacement of the element considered.
The solution of the differential equation gives the following
general expressions for the tangential and radial stresses at any
radius r within the cylinder wall.
BI
_
Tangential stress ------ ft = A +
r2
(i)
Radial stress = fr _= A -- B ---_.
r2
1. For further information, students are advised to refer to any standard
work on Strength of Materials such as Mechanics of Structures Vol. II by S. B.
Junnarkar: Advanced Strength of Materials Vol. II by S. P. Timoshenko, etc.
184 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. III

where A and B are constants which are to be determined from the

boundary conditions. These equations are known as Lame's
general equations for the tangential and the radial stresses at any
radius r in the wall of a thick cylinder. These stresses are the
maximum normal stresses in the wall at the radius r.
In machine design we have to deal with cylinders subjected
to internal pressure only. In this case Lame's general equations
for the tangential and radial stresses at any radius r will be
pa 2 b2
ft
= I;-2 - -a2 (1 + r )
pat b2
ft. = b2 -- a2 (1 — ri) j

where a and b are respectively the internal and external radii of

the cylinder and p the internal pressure acting in the cylinder.
(b — a) is known as the thickness of the cylinder wall.
We see that fr , the radial stress, is always a compressive stress
and ft, the tangential stress, a tensile one. The maximum value
of the tangential stress is at the inner radius and is equal to
b2 ± 2
fmax = p ............ . . . . .
• (iii.)
[ b : -- a2
The maximum value of the tangential stress is always greater
than the internal pressure.
The maximum value of the radial stress is p and it occurs at
the inner radius. The radial stress vanishes at the outer radius
which is not the case with the tangential stress. The tangential
2pa 2
stress at the outer radius is
-6-2 — a2- • Fig. 3-4(6) shows the nature
of stress distribution in the walls of a thick cylinder subjected to
internal fluid pressure.
The usual design problem is to determine the wall thickness
when the internal pressure p and allowable working stress f are
known.
From equation (iii), we get

t.a (iv)
where £ is the thickness of the cylinder wall and a the inner radius
of the cylinder.
Art. 3-8] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 185

As this equation is based on principal stress in the wall, equation (iv)

r.i applicable to brittle materials such as cast iron, cast steel and cast aluminium.
From equation (iv), we see that if the internal pressure p is
equal to or greater than f, no thickness of the cylinder wall will
prevent failure. Hence it seems that it is impossible to design a
cylinder to withstand fluid pressure greater than the allowable
working stress for a given material. This difficulty is overcome
by using compound cylinders.
Compound cylinders •
The stress distribution in fig. 3-4 shows that the maximum stress occurs at
the inside surface when a thick walled cylinder is subjected to internal pressure.
If the cylinder were to be designed for the maximum stress at the inside surface
the material is not used effectively. The dii ect method of achieving more nearly
uniform stress distribution is to subject the material near the inside wall to the
initial compressive stresses when the cylinder is not subjected to internal fluid
pressure. When the cylinder is loaded, the compressive stresses must be relieved
before any tensile stress is developed.
There are two techniques commercially adopted for this purpose. One
method consists of shrinking one cylinder over another cylinder. The inner
diameter of the outer cylinder is smaller than the outer diameter of the inner
cylinder. The outer cylinder is heated and slipped over the inner cylinder
On cooling, at junctions of two cylinders, contact pressure will be developed
which will induce compressive tangential stresses in the material of the inner
cylinder and tensile tangential stresses in the material of the outer cylinder.
The entire assembly is effective in resisting internal pressure and will withstand
higher internal pressure than a single cylinder having the same oxer all dimensions
The second technique makes use of the theory of plasticity. Temporary
high internal pressure is applied till the plastic state is reached Rear the inside
of the cylinder wall, which results in a residual compressive stress upon the removal
of the initial pressure

Barlow's equation :
From Lame's equation, we can derive an expression that can
be used for thin cylinders. The expression can be written aN
pb
t = ,.-- • (v)
,max
Equation (v) is known as Barlow's equation. This equation
is very similar to thin cylinder formula except outer radius b which
replaces the inner radius a. As this formula is derived from
Lame's equation, it is slightly more accurate than the thin cylinder
formula. This fcrmula is used for high pressure oil and gas pipes
Clavarino's equation :
'The effects of lateral deformations of the cylinder wall material
186 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. III

are considered negligible in Lame's equation for brittle material;

but when ductile materials are to be used this assumption no longer
applies. These lateral deformations, according to maximum strain
theory, affect the load carrying capacity of the cylinder walls.
Clavarino's equation is recommended for closed end thick walled
cylinders using ductile materials since it is based on the maximum
strain theory of failure. This equation can be written as follows:
t = a [1/ ff + (( 1 -
4_ 2 v)) pp 1 (vi)
v
where a = inner radius of the cylinder
f = permissible tensile stress intensity
p = internal fluid pressure
v = Poisson's ratio.
This equation is applicable to cylinders having the ends closed
or fitted with heads so that axial stresses are induced in the wall
material.
Birnie's equation:
When a ductile material is used for an open end thick walled
cylinder, Birnie's equation is most applicable since it is also based
on the maximum strain theory of failure. The thickness of the
cylinder wall by Birnie's equation, with usual notations, is given by
the equation :

i=a .] (vii)

This equation is applicable to certain type of pump cylinders,

rams, cannons, etc.
Clavarino's equation and Birnie's equation are applicable to ductile
materials such as low carbon steel, brass, bronze and aluminium alloys.
As thickness given by Birnie's equation is greater than that given
by Clavarino's equation, in case of doubt, Birnie's equation should be used.
The designation of cylinders as thin or thick depends upon the
degree of accuracy the designer requires. The actual percentage
d
error in hoop stress for various ratios of — by using thin cylinder
t
equation is given below:
d
Ratio 100 50 20 10 5 2
t
Error % 1 2 4.8 9.9 18.9 40
Art. 3-8] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 187

Since for many practical purposes an error of more than 5%

would be undesirable, the ratio of — = 20 can be considered a
I
suitable line of demarcation between thin and thick cylinders.
Examples:
1. The ram of a hydraulic press 20 cm internal diameter is sub-
jected to an internal pressure of 100 kg/sq cm. If the maximum stress in
the material of the wall is not to exceed 280 kg/sq cm, find the external
diameter.
The thickness is given by the equation, with usual notations,
[1/280 + 100
t =a[ 1/1 — 1 = 10 280 — 100 1]= 4.5 cm.
f- P
External diameter = 20 + 2 x 4.5 = 29 cm.
2. An accumulator is required to store 150 litres of water at a
pressure of 200 kg/sq cm. Assuming the length of the stroke to be 3 metre,
determine (a) the diameter of the ram, (b) the internal diameter of the
cylinder and (c) the thickness of the cylinder wall.
Note: The hydraulic accumulator consists of a loaded plunger working
in a vertical cylinder. The load may consist of number of cast iron discs 01
el tank filled with heavy scrap metal.

litre = 0.001 cu metre.

If D metre be the diameter of the ram, then
D2 x 3 = 0.001 x 150
4
D y0-150 x 4
or 0.250 metre; we adopt 26 cm.
77: X 3

Allowing a clearance of 4 cm, the internal diameter of the

cylinder will be 4 + 26 + 4 = 34 cm.
We assume that the cylinder is made .of close grained grey
cast iron, for which the stress should not exceed 600 kg/sq cm.
The thickness of the cylinder is given by the formula,

=a
Dif -Fp 1].34 r 1/666. + 200 i] 7 cm
f 2 L y 600 — 200
3. A steel tank for shipping gas is to have an inside diameter of
30 cm and a length 120 cm. The gas pressure is 150 kg/sq cm. The
permissible stress is to be 575 kg/sq cm. Determine thickness of the tank.
188 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. III

The tank is made of ductile material and is closed at the

ends; therefore, we apply Clavarino's equation for determining
thickness of the tank.
With usual notations, the thickness is given 13)

—a [Yff+T- ((11 2v v) 1]
15 [-V575(I+ 1 — 0:6) 1 50 1]
55
7, ( 0 3 ) 1 50
4.35 cm; we adopt 5 cm.
Design of a hydraulic cylinder:
4. A single acting hydraulic cylinder is to be developed to enable
a thrust of 6,000 kg to be exerted through a stroke of 15 cm. The cylinder
will be bolted to a steel table. The working fluid is oil, available at the
cylinder at a pressure of 150 kg/sq cm gauge. Determine the main overall
proportions of the cylinder and indicate the points at which effective sealing
will be necessary
6000
Minimum piston area necessary = 1 50 40 sq cm

7:
If d cm be the diameter of the piston, then 2 = 40
4d

or d=
y40 x 4
= 7.17 cm, we adopt 7.5 cm

A compact, strong and rigid form of cylinder is possible by

casting in steel. The cylinder will be subjected to repetitions of
stress when in operation so there is the possibility of fatigue. By
avoiding rapid changes of section through out the working length,
the probability of high stress concentrations will be reduced
considerably. Assuming a fatigue limit of 30 kg/sq mm and a
factor of safety of 4 bas9d on the fatigue limit, the working stress
30
becomes - 7.3 kg/sq mm i.e., 750 kg/sq cm.
4
As the cylinder is cast, we employ Lame's formula.

= d[ 1;1+.1 1 ] ,7_-5 Dr50 150

1 = 0.83 cm.
2 : 2 7 50 1 50
The cylinder bore will be machined to size and the outside
surface left as cast. To allow for surface roughness on the out-
Art. 3-8 CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 189

side, for possible surges in pressure and for the fact that easier
casting is possible with thicker sections, the cylinder will be made
12 mm thick over the greater part of the cylinder length and en-
larged at the ends to accommodate the screwed portions of the
socket head screws used for holding the cylinder covers in place.
This design form is useful when compact cylinder proportions are
desirable. Fig. 3-5 shows the suitable hydraulic cylinder for the
purpose.
0 ring Cylinder Socket head screw

.4.41 ,,,
1 •mirj
tv
-. 1 „,
N k 1rN ,,,I
-1-1
W.__

1
I IN
1011
Cylinder Cover SONO
She

Hydraulic Cylinder
FIG. 3-5

Other design considerations:

Proper seals are important to prevent leakage and loss of
190 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. Ill

hydraulic power. The sealing material must be compatible with

the hydraulic fluid and the operating temperatures.
The seals must be applied to prevent seal "break-off" which
contaminates the system. They should also be easy to replace
Sealing devices are used in cylinders to seal piston and piston rod
assembly, end covers to cylinder and for the piston rod sealing
gland. Toroidal seals should be used in this design. They form
static seals between cylinder tube and its covers and dynamic
seals between piston head and cylinder and piston rod and cover.
Seals can be seen in fig. 3-5.
The increasing use of fluid power has resulted over the last
few years in a corresponding demand for cold drawn tubing from
which to manufacture hydraulic cylinders. This kind of tubing is
made to higher standards of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish than is hot rolled tube, and has higher yield and ultimate
tensile strengths as a result of the cold drawing process.
Most of the cylinder tubes manufactured are low carbon
mild steel having an approximate ultimate tensile strength of
50 kg/sq mm minimum and yield stress of 45 kg/sq mm minimum.
These values fall to 42 kg/sq mm and 38 kg/sq mm upon stress
relieving. For design purposes we make use of the proof stress
rather than yield stress, since the latter is not clearly defined for
the material. For low-carbon mild steel the normal proof stress
of 0.1% gives 45 kg/sq mm and 38 kg/sq mm for the cold drawn
and cold drawn stress relieved tubes. Tubings may be threaded
internally or externally to take end covers or connections.
For the various sizes of the tubes, manufacturers' catalogues
should be referred to.
The factor of safety of 2 on proof stress is employed for rams
under internal pressure without shock loads or offset end loads;
and a factor of safety between 3 and 5 may be adopted if the tubes
have to withstand sudden increases in internal pressure and or
offset end loads.

Exercises:
1. A cast steel cylinder for a hydraulic press has an inside diameter
of 20 cm. Water pressure is 315 kg/sq cm gauge. Taking the maxi-
mum hoop stress as 700 kg/sq cm, determine the outside diameter of the
cylinder required by Lame's formula. Ans. 32.5 cm.
Art. 3-9 1 CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 191

2. A single acting triplex pump has a bore of 8 cm and a stroke of

18 cm. It is required to supply 80 litres of oil per minute at a pressure of
140 kg/sq cm.
Calculate the minimum number of strokes of the pump per minute.
Determine the thickness of the cylinder wall using a cast bronze with an
apparent factor of safety 6. Ultimate strength for cast bronze 2,500 kg/sq cm
Ans. 30; 18 mm.
3. The cylinder Of a hydraulic accumulator has an internal diameter
of 40 cm. The internal pressure at its maximum is to be 70 kg/sq cm.
Determine the thickness of the cylinder if the maximum tensile stress is
limited to 280 kg/sq cm. Also, calculate the minimum value of the tensile
stress induced. Ans. 6 cm; 213 kg/sq cm.
4. A gun metal hydraulic fitting is connected by a 20 cm diameter
branch to a container carrying a pressure of 84 kg/sq cm. Connection will
be made by a flanged joint. Design the thickness of the gun metal branch
allowing a safe stress of 210 kg/sq cm for the gun metal. Ans. 55 mm.
5. A hydraulic testing machine has a maximum capacity of 100
tonnes. The piston diameter is 25 cm. Calculate the wall thickness of
the cylinder. Also design the necessary gland, gland bolts and hydraulic
real for the cylinder. Give a neat sketch of the cylinder gland in position.
(Rajasthan University, 1969)
3-9. Design equation for thick cylinders:
It is possible to derive the simple design equatiok for thick
cylinders either open or closed. It is assumed that the cylinder is
made of ductile material for which theory of maximum shear stress is the
design criterion. Let fy be the permissible tensile stress intensity for the
material of the cylinder. We assume that a suitable factor of
safety has been adopted while deciding the value of b. Let k be
the thickness ratio i.e. the ratio of the miter diameter of the cylinder
to the inner diameter of the cylinder. The design equation for a
single thick cylinder will be
2p i_ 1 1
fy -7 k2 . (i)
where p is the pressure of the fluid in the cylinder. The above
equation is applicable whether the pressure acts at the inner surface
or at the outer surface. This equation is also applicable whether the
cylinder is closed or open.
192 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. Ill

In case of compound cylinders, the design equation becomes

p
-F - 1 - = 1 (ii)
fy k
where k is the product of the thickness ratios of the outer cylinder
and inner cylinder. For optimum conditions the thickness ratio
for the outer and inner cylinders should be the same.
In case of compound cylinder, the building interference will be
8R _ p
(ili)
R — E
where R = common radius of the two cylinders
E = modulus of elasticity of both the cylinders' material.
The above design equations clearly shows the advantages of
compound cylinders over single cylinders.
Let us consider a simple thick cylinder having a thickness
ratio 2. Such a cylinder will withstand an internal pressure of
If. If the internal pressure to be resisted has a value much greater
than this, the value of the thickness ratio has to be increased const-
derably. No single cylinder can be made to avoid yielding at the
bore if the internal pressure approaches half the value of the permis-
sible stress. The higher pressures can be catered for by designing
a compound cylinder. In a compound cylinder having the overall
thickness ratio of 2, the cylinder will withstand a pressure equal to
f - This pressure will require an infinite value of the thickness
2
ratio for a simple single cylinder. If the compound cylinder be
made of two tubes each of which has a thickness ratio of 2, the
overall thickness ratio will be 4 and this compound cylinder will
withstand an internal pressure of ff, which pressure is well outside
the range of the simple single cylinder.
$
, The design methods are the same for tubes made up of three or more cylinders.
The contact pressure between the first two cylinders is determined from their
interference. It is used to find the initial stresses in these cylinders. Then, using
the second interference between the unit, consisting of the first two cylinders,
(assuming it to be one cylinder of a size which is the sum of the two), and the
third cylinder the new contact pressure over the fit surface is similarly determined.
The second contact pressure is used to determine the initial stresses in the unit
of two cylinders and in the third cylinder.
The resultant initial stresses in the unit consisting of three cylinders are
obtained by the method of superposition of the obtained initial stresses due to the
Ex. III] CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES 193

first and second interference fits. The stresses due to the working pressure in the
unit consisting of the three cylinders are determined as for one solid tube of a
size which is the sum of the three. The algebraic sum of the obtained stresses
gives the design values for checking the strength of the system. This analysis
can be extended to number of cylinders fitted with interference fits.
In fitting a hollow cylinder on a solid one, the contact pressure can be deter-
mined by this theory. We shall consider this in more detail in art. 7-13.

EXAMPLES III
1. A total load of 40 tonnes has to be exerted by
the hydraulic ram (fig. 3-6). The fluid pressure is
40 kgfsq cm. A cast material is used and the stress
in tension or compression should not exceed 630
kgisq cm. Determine the external diameter of the ram
if the internal diameter is 62 mm, the diameter of the
main cylinder and the thickness of the metal in the
cylinder walls. The allowable stress in the bolts holding
the cover in position is 350 kg/sq cm. Calculate the
diameter of the bolts. Select a suitable pitch circle
diameter and obtain the flange thickness t.
Ans. 110 mm; 330 mm diameter cylinder of
thickness 12 mm; 12, M40 bolts on 540
mm pitch circle diameter; t = 42 mm. FIG. 3-6

0
Pressure 1
Motor
tank
A

FIG. 3-7
2. A hydraulic control for a straight line motion, shown in fig. 3-7, utilises .
a cylindrical pressure tank A connected to a work cylinder B. The pump main-
tains a pressure of 35 kgisq cm in the tank.
(a) Assuming that the tank A is 80 cm diameter, that its joints have
strength equal to that of the plate and that the tank is made of steel plates having
an allowable tensile strength of 500 kg/sq cm, determine the thickness of the plate
required for the tank.
194 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. in
(b) Assuming a pressure drop of 2 kg/sq cm between the tank and the
cylinder, determine the diameter of the piston required to produce an operating
force F of 2,500 kg as shown in the figure. Make an allowance for friction in
the cylinder and packing equal to 10% of F.
(c) Determine the thickness of the cylinder wall assuming that it is made
of C. I. having an allowable tensile stress of 300 kg/sq cm.
(d) Determine the H.P. output of the cylinder during a working stroke
assuming the stroke of the piston to be 45 cm and that the time required for
working stroke is 5 seconds.
(e) Determine the H.P. of the motor required for continuously operating
the pump if the working cycle repeats itself after every 30 seconds and the efficiency
of the hydraulic control is 80% and that of the pump is 60%.
Ans. (a) 2.8 cm; (b) 12 cm; (c) 7 mm; (d) 3 H.P.; (e) 0.21 H.P.

3. In a portable hydraulic riveter, the water under a pressure of 150 kg/sq cm

is admitted in the main cylinder through the cover, by way of suitable pipe
joint and drives forward the hollow ram, which carries the tool which forms
the rivet heads. The tool is detachable since the riveter will be required to
deal with different sizes and shapes of head. The maximum rivet load will
be 50,000 kg. After forming the rivet, the ram is withdrawn by admitting water
under pressure to the inner side of hollow ram through fixed piston rod of 3 cm
outer diameter. Determine the diameter of the ram head and thickness of the
main cylinder. The permissible tensile stress in the main cylinder wall is
limited to 850 kg/sq cm. Efficiency of the ram is 97%.
Ans. 22 cm; 2.1 cm.

4. In an air operated press the piston rod for the operating cylinder must
exert a force of 400 kg. The air pressure in the cylinder in 7 kg/sq cm. Calcu-
late the bore of the cylinder, assuming that overall friction due to stuffing box
and piston packing is equivalent to 8% of the maximum force exerted by the
piston rod. The cylinder bore should be selected on the basis of 3 mm increment.
Also, determine the thickness of the cylinder assuming that it is a seamless steel
tubing. The allowable stress is 210 kg/sq cm.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1965)

5. A cast iron pipe is to deliver water at the rate of 2,500 litres/second and
at the flow rate of 60 cm/second. The maximum pressure in the pipe is not to
exceed 10 kg/sq cm. Determine the diameter of the pipe and its wall thickness,
considering the pipe as a thin cylinder. Permissible stress in the cast iron is 175
kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1967)
6. A cylindrical pressure vessel of 50 cm internal diameter is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure of 100 kg/sq cm. Taking ft . 400 kg/sq cm, determine
the thickness of the shell of the vessel and also of a hemispherical cover for the
same.
(University of Bombay, 1969)
Ex. 117 1 CYLINDERS, TANKs AND pfPgS 195

7. A steam engine of 100 H.P. uses 11 kg of steam per horse power hour.
The pressure of steam is 7 kg/sq cm and the volume of steam is 0.3 cu metre/kg.
Determine the diameter and the thickness of cast iron pipe. The permissible
velocity of steam is not to exceed 1,500 metre/minute.
(Sardar Patel University, 1969)
8. Enumerate the various considerations to be taken in the design of
castings. State the difference between rational and empirical design giving a
suitable example in each case.
(Rajasthan University, 1969)
9. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 22 cm in diameter. The
pressure of the fluid is 140 kg/sq cm by gauge. Determine the suable thickness
of the cylinder wall assuming that the maximum permissible stress is not to exceed
1,050 kg/sq cm. Assuming 16 studs have been used to connect the cover to the
cylinder, determine the size of the studs. Allowable stress intensity in the bolt
material is limited to 630 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1971)
10. Clearly state the assumptions made while using thin cylinder formula
and thick cylinder formula for pressure vessels.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
11. The maximum force exerted by a small hydraulic press is 50,000 kg.
The working pressure of the fluid is 200 kg/sq cm. Determine the minimum
diameter of the plunger operating the table. Also suggest the suitable thickness
for the cast steel cylinder in which the plunger operates if the permissible stress
for the cast steel is 1,000 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
12. Explain briefly why compound cylinders are used for withstanding
high fluid pressures. Clearly state the assumptions made regarding the distri-
..
bution of induced stresses in case of thin and thick cylinders.
The internal diameter of a cast steel cylinder of a hydraulic press is 300 mm,
the internal working pressure being 400 kg/sq cm. Determine the thickness of the
walls of the cylinder based on maximum shear stress theory. Permissible shear
stress of 600 kg/sq cm is allowed.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER

RIVETED JOINTS

4-1. Introduction:
The parts of machines are connected together by various
forms of fastenings. They are classified as follows:
(i) Rivets
(ii) Screws, bolts and nuts
(iii) Pins, keys and cotters.
Rivets: They are used as permanent fastenings that can-
not be dismantled without some part or part of the joint being
destroyed.
Examples: Various boiler joints, steel structural joints, joints in ship
and aircraft structures, etc.
Screws, bolts and nuts : They are used as permanent or re-
movable fastenings to join parts which may be easily separated
by unscrewing the fastenings.
Examples: Cylinder cover joints, pipe connections, flanged joints,
halves of flange couplings, etc.
Pins, keys and cotters: They are used as permanent or re- .
movable fastening to join parts which may be easily separated out
by driving or forcing out the fastenings.
Examples: Coffered connections, components of radial valve gear
connected by pin joints, connections of pulleys to shafts, etc.
Riveted joints are used for connectng two parts in which
strength is necessary. In structural connections, strength and
rigidity are required. In pressure vessel work, strength, rigidity
and prevention of leakage are the essentialities of the joint.
Until recently the riveted joints were universelly used for various
engineering structures such as boilers, bridges, cranes, ships, etc.
During the last few decades the field of application of the riveted
joints in mechanical engineering has been radically reduced owing
to advancements in the art of welding. However riveted joints
still remain the fundamental type of permanent joint in the produc-
Art. 4-21 RIVETED JOINTS 197

tion of structures made of light alloys for which there are no reliable
methods of power welding.

4-2. Rivets:
They are the simplest kinds of fastenings. Rivets are machine
forged with a single head. The parts to be joined have punched
or drilled holes so located that the holes coincide, when the parts
are brought together. When the parts are to be joined, the rivets
are generally made red hot, inserted in the holes of the parts to be
connected, the rivet head firmly held in place and a second head
0.75D
Ra d.
0 0.7D
—f

k- D
Snap head Pan head
with tapered neck

0 50 1.50 Rad. \ 1.75D Rad.

re- -1.50
Allig.75D

1
i
60° 4\ '
Ne--
60 —
Ro unded C'sunk Hat C'sunk Conoidal

Various forms of rivet heads

FIG. 4-1

is formed from the tail of the rivet by pneumatic or hydraulic

pressure. The contraction of the rivet, as it cools, draws the
plates together closely. Whenever possible, rivets are closed red
hot under hydraulic pressure, because the steady pressure produced
on the end of the rivet staves it up better and causes it to fill the
198 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV
hole more completely than is likely to be the case with steam,
pneumatic or hand riveting where the action is percussive.
In best kind of work, the holes are drilled, the resulting
burrs on the edges of the holes being removed by a small counter-
sink. The holes are made little bigger than the rivet diameter,
but when rivets are closed they fill the holes.
The commonly adopted material for rivets is mild steel.
Where strength is not a leading factor, copper, brass and alumi-
nium rivets are suitable. Rivet material must be strong and
highly ductile. Rivets are used in such a manner that they
resist shearing action. Sometimes, they are used in tension when
the stress value allowed is very low.
4-3. Rivet heads:
Various forms of rivet heads with their proportions are shown
in fig. 4-1.
Snap heads are used for structural work, pressure vessel work
and for machine riveting. Countersunk heads are used in ship
building. In case of hand hammering, conical rivet heads are used.
Proportions of rivet heads for boiler work have been
standardised. Rivets used for structures and other purposes have
also been standardised. The specifications for rivets for general
purposes have been recommended by IS: 1929-1961, while
IS: 1928-1961 gives specifications for boiler rivets.
4-4. Types of riveted joints:
The joints are classified as follows :
Riveted joints
_ 4,

Lap joint Butt joint

4,
Single Double Triple Single butt strap Double butt strap
4,
4, 4,
Single Double Triple Quadruple
In lap riveting, one plate overlaps the other and the rivets
pass through drilled plates. In butt riveting the plates are kept
in alignment and a butt strap or cover plate is placed over the
joints and riveted to each plate. Frequently two cover straps
are used. Generally two butt straps are of equal width, some-
times the outer strap may be narrower than the inner one.
Art. 4-4 RIVETED JOINTS 199

In single riveted lap joint or butt joint only one row of rivets
is put in each plate to be joined. Two, three or more rows of
rivets might be in each plate to be joined and the joints so formed
are designated as double, triple or quadruple riveted joints as
the case may be. If the rivets are spaced opposite to each other
in adjacent rows, the joint is said to be chain riveted and if the
rivets are staggered, a zigzag riveted joint results. The distance,
between the centres of adjacent rivets in the same row, is termed
the pitch. The perpendicular distance between the centre lines
of successive rows is known as a back pitch. The distance
between the centres of the rivets in adjacent rows of zigzag riveted
joints is termed the diagonal pitch.
Fig. 4-2 shows various types of riveted joints.

rl o 00 11
O0
X 00
0 O0

Single riveted lap joint Double riveted lap joint

(Zigzag', (Chain)
Or All itift0211%:.
11 [Link]: \

0 O 0
O `"0 O HO
O 0
10 0 ° O :0
O00
O 0 O 0
4

Triple riveted lap joint Single riveted butt joint

(Two cover strops)
Riveted joints
FIG. 4-2(a)

According to purpose, riveted joints are classified as follows:

(i) Strong joints of which strength alone is required, i.e.
beams, trusses and other engineering structures
200 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IV

Tight joints which must guarantee pressure tightness i.e.

reservoirs, containers, tanks with a low pressure on the walls
Strong tight joints which must provide both strength
and tightness, i.e., steam boilers and gas tanks.
To achieve complete tightness, the joints are caulked.

PIP
ArAl IZIFINIP4741 PAPA u
%AMU 111101.111\14.410111
Err Indrillge, 111%/rAllUr 7•ArArir, !Of IA 11 IA

o -f- o
o:o
01 o o
°/4.) o;0 °
o olo 01
1
0 1 0
0
o:o
T
0 0
Double riveted butt joint Double riveted butt joint
(Two unequal cover straps) (Two cover straps)

rPrf:te!Ilt115E r
.741rArar ilAr; r.
U fr IMMOIIIle
11,
's 311viii
4 1'41rill •i

1 o o r o0 o 0 °o
io o° 0
1 00 0
10 0 0 01 : 00
00
I 0 00
I 10 o o 01
oo o
10 0 0 01 o o°
00
0 0
: o _ oo °I lo
, °
oio o o
Triple riveted butt joint
(Two unequal cover straps)
Riveted joints
FIG. 4-2 (b)

4-5. Caulking and fullering (fig. 4-3) :

wank It
i 4 iii
MP"

Caulking FIG. 4-3 F 14 llering

Art. 44] RIVETED JOINTS 201

The edges of the plates for boilers and tanks, etc. are usually bevelled to an
angle of 80° to facilitate fullering and caulking operations in which the edges
are driven by a blunt tool to close the joints. The heads of the rivets are also
turned down with a caulking tool to make the joint steam tight. Unless the
caulking is done with care, the joint may be seriously injured and also open
the joint instead of closing it. Fullering is a better method.

4-6. Design of a riveted joint for boiler work:

In the discussion of the joint dimensions, which follows, the
theoretical basis of the design of the riveted joint is given. The
rules adopted in practice for the design of boiler joints are speci-
fied by Indian Boiler Regulations (I.B.R.). These rules do not
agree exactly with those produced by the basic theory; the dif-
ferences are mainly due to produce leakproof joints.
The resistance to breaking of the joint may be investigated
by considering a pitch length of each joint.
Let
ft -= tensile stress in steel plates
fs = shear stress in steel rivets
d = diameter of the rivet hole
t = thickness of the plate
p .---- pitch of rivets
M = marginal pitch.
The joint may fail in the following ways :
(a) The plate may fracture at the edges [fig. 4-4(a)].
The distance from the edge of the plate to the side of the
nearest row of rivet holes marked M in fig. 4.4(a) must be sufficient
to prevent the plate from splitting at the edge during punching or
riveting. In practice the distance from the hole centre to the plate
edge is made at least equal to 1-5d.
(b) The plate may tear along the weakest section [fig. 4-4(6)].
Tearing resistance of plate between rivet holes is equal to
(1) — d)tft•
(c) The rivets may shear [fig. 4-4(c)].
The shearing resistance of the joints will depend upon whether
the rivet is in single shear or double shear, and number of rivets
to be sheared in a joint. In case of lap joints and butt joints with single
cover strap, the rivets will be in single shear, while in case of butt joints
with two butt straps the rivets will be in double shear. Theoretically
202 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch IV

the strength of the rivet in double shear will be double than that
of a rivet in single shear. But in actual practice it is usual to use
a factor of 1.75 to 1.875 instead of two. The Indian Boiler
Regulations specify the factor 1.875.

(a) Fracture at margin (b) Tearing of plate

Single shear Double shear

(c) Shearing of rivets

Arrows show direction of

loading
Joints are always loaded
to place rivets in shear
and not in tension

rushing of rivet or hole

Various possible failures of a riveted joint

Fic. 4-4

The resistance to shearing of one rivet in single shear in the

Tr
strip equals (Pfc. The resistance of one rivet in double shear
4
in ,the strip equals 1.875 4
77 d 2fc. From the number of rivets to
be sheared in a pitch width, the total resistance of the joint to
shearing is known. Table 4-6.1 gives the number of rivets to be
sheared for various kinds of joints for failure.
 Art. 4-61 RIVETED JOINTS 203

Table 4-6.1

EFFICIENCIES OF RIVETED JOINTS

,
Kind af Thickens No. of rivets in shear permute *smog
joint
Description of joie! Maximum pitch inches T d butt
strap inches Single shear Double Shear of of joint

Single Lap joint 1421+ 1.625 — I — 411.

x 100
riveted pI
a
m fi x 100
Joint Single butt strap 1.5314. 1.625 1.1251 i —

Double butt strap 1.751+ 1425 1.475 A fa

04251 — I x 100
Pt fi
Double Lap joint, chain or zips( Z621+ 1425 — 2 — attp.
p X 100
riveted arrangement 1

Joint Single butt strap, chain or 8.061 + 1625 1.1251 2 — x 100

zigzag arrangement Pl t
Single butt strap, alienate 4451+ 1423 3 — LA_fi
."
1.1251 it—L x 100
rivet in outer raw omitted, 2d) 7—
1
chain or zigzag arrangement
22/11
2_
Double butt strap, chain or 3.51+ 1425 0 6251 — 2 x 100
OFT—
zigzag arrangement
Double butt strap, alternate 4431 4.1.625 — 5.62fi
5,4,/;
0 6251t..-
-.-ad)
L 3 x 100
rivet in outer row omitted, P
chain or zigzag arrangement
Double butt strap, of unequal 341 + 1.625 0 751 wide 1 1 2875A
,r 100
width chain or zigzag 04251 narrow PI e
arrangement
4.631 + 1425 1 2 4 75 A
Double butt strap of unequal ii ,. jrx 1CO
width alternate rivet in outer 0 JI
row omitted, chain or eipag
arrangement
• . , .
Treble Lap joint, chain or zigzag 3471+ 1425 — 3 — JAI L
riveted arrangement
p
—i-s— x Igo
joint Lap joint, alternate rivet in 4141 + 1425 — 4 Lib. .4 100
—
outer row omitted, chain or 124 le
zigzag arrangement
Double butt strap, chain or 4431 + 1.625 — ?6251,f,
04251 3 et 100
zigzag arrangement 08 8
Double butt strap, rivet pitch 5.521 + 1.625 7 5 A/
0.62.5t — 4 ev x 100
in the middle row half that P
in the other Nino Chain or ,
zigzag arrangement
Double butt strap, alternate 04251
(p - d) — 5
9 375/,/,
x I00
61 + 1423
rivet in outer row omitted, 4 - 24 ) Pe e
chain oh zigzag arrangement
4 75 A Jr
Double butt strap, unequal 4431+ 1423 0.751 wide I 2 x 100
width, chain or zigzag io fi
0425 brow
arrangement
85
Double butt %traps of unequal 61+ 1125 0.751 wade 1 4 Ali , x Ma
width, alternate rivet in outer 04251 narrow PA
row omitted, chain or zigzag i
v
arrangement

(d) The plates or rivets may crush [fig. 4-4(d)].

If fc be safe crushing stress for rivets or plates, the crushing
resistance of rivets will be dtfc. If there be n rivets to be crushed
for the failure of the joint, total resistance of the joint to crushing
will be ndtfc. The number of rivets, that resist crushing, depends
upon the kind of the joint employed.
204 MACHINE DESIGN 11 [Ch. IV

If the load acting on a riveted joint is of the alternating type

and varies between Pmax and Pmin, the allowable stress should be
1
multiplied by -- - - — - < 1
1— Pmin
. max
where Pmin and Pmax should bear their signs.

The following procedure should be adopted for the design of

the joint according to I.B.R.:
From the diameter of the boiler shell and the working pressure,
we select the kind of the joints for longitudinal and circumferential
joints. For longitudinal joint, butt joint is adopted while for
circumferential joint, lap joint is preferred.
Such a construction for a circumferential joint permits the
insertion of various strakes with ease. For example if the cylindrical
shell is to be made of three strakes or drums of approximately equal
lengths, then middle strake will be outside the other two strakes.
After selecting the joint, suitable value of the efficiency is assumed.
By using the thin cylinder formula, the thickness of the boiler
shell is determined. The calculated thickness of the shell is
verified by I.B.R. After thickness has been obtained, the diameter
of the rivet is fixed upon.
According to I.B.R., the factor of safety in no case should
be less than 4.
There is no standard rule to decide the rivet diameter.
However some methods have been suggested by various design
engineers. In no case the rivet diameter should be less than the plate thickness.
If thickness of the plate be greater than 8 mm, the diameter of a
rivet hole is generally taken as d = 61 / t mm, where t is the thickness
of the plate in millimetre. If plate thickness be less than 8 mm the
diameter of the rivet hole is determined by equating the shearing resistance
of a rivet to its crushing resistance.
The pitch of the rivets is calculated by equating the shearing
resistance of the joint to the tearing resistance of the plate. We
adopt the nearest standard size. The pitch of the rivets should
not be less than 2d to enable the rivet heads to be formed. The
maximum pitch of rivets in the longitudinal joint of the boiler
shell has been specified by I.B.R. as follows:
Art. 4-6 I -RIVETED JOINTS 205

C x t -I- 1.625' = maximum pitch in inches where t is the

thickness of the shell plate in inches and C a coefficient as given
in table 4-6.2:
Should the pitch of the rivets exceed the maximum pitch
allowed, the permissible pitch shall be used in place of the actual
pitch in determining the percentage of plate section. The percent-
age greater than 85% is not allowed for any type of riveted joint.

Table 4-6.2

Number of Coefficient Coefficient for Coefficient for

rivets per for si ngle butt double butt
pitch lap joint strapped joint strapped joint

1 1.31 1.53 1.75

2 2.62 3.06 3.5
3 3.47 4.05 4.63
4 4 17 5.52
5 6.00

The following is the spacing of rows of rivets as specified by]

I. B.R . :
In lap joints as well as butt joints, in which there are
more than one row of rivets and in which there is an equal number
of rivets in each row, the distance between the rows of rivets shall
be not less than —
0.33p + 0.67d for zig-zag riveting and 2d for chain riveting.
In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer rows is
one half of the 'number in each of the inner rows, and in which
the inner rows are chain riveted, the distance between the outer
rows and the next rows shall be not less than 0.33p + 0.67d or
2d whichever is greater. The distance between the rows in which
there are full number of rivets shall be not less than 2d.
In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer row is one
half of the number in each of the inner rows and in which the
inner rows are zig-zag, the distance between the outer rows and the
next rows shall be not less than 0.2p + 1.15d. The distance bet-
ween the rows in which there are full number of rivets shall be not
less than 0.165p + 0.67d. In all the above distances p is the pitch
of the rivets in outer rows.
From purely theoretical stand point, the combined strength
of the cover plates need not be more than that of the drilled plate,
206 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. I1

but in practice they are made 12.5% stronger for single butt strap
and 25% stronger for double butt straps.
The following thicknesses 11 for the butt straps have been
specified by I.B.R. :
The thickness of butt strap in no case shall be less than 1 cm.
t, = 1.125t for ordinary single butt strap
(p d )
ti ----, 1.1251 for single butt straps every alternate
(p — 2d)
rivet in outer rows being omitted
ti = 0.625t for double butt straps of equal width having
ordinary riveting
d)
ti = 0.625/ for double butt straps of equal width
(p
(p— 2d)
having every alternate rivet in the outer rows being
omitted.
When two unequal width of butt straps are employed, then
the thicknesses of butt straps are given as
ti -,-- 0.751 (wide strap)
ti ------ 0.625/ (narrow strap).
Single and wide butt straps shall, wherever practicable, be
on the inside of the shell. The inner strap plate is thicker than
the outer strap to allow for considerable wastage which often occurs
on inner projecting plates.
The marginal distance or marginal pitch is kept 1.5d.
The following procedure is suggested for the design of a
circumferential lap joint for a boiler:
(1) The diameter of the rivet will be the same as adopted
for a longitudinal joint.
(2) The shear value S, of the rivet is calculated. As the
circumferential joint is a lap riveted joint, the rivets
are in single shear. Therefore, the shear value S of
the rivet will be given by
n
S . d2fs.
4
(3) Total shearing load F on the joint is calculated when
the inner diameter D of the boiler shell and the pressure
p of steam are known.
F = 7cD2p.
---
4
Art. 4.6 RIVETED JOINTS 207

(4) By knowing the shear value of a rivet and the total

shearing load on the circumferential lap joint, the
minimum number of rivets N for the joint can be
determined.

jV

(5) When efficiency of the longitudinal joint is known,

the efficiency of the circumferential lap joint can be
calculated. The strength of the end circumferential
joint shall be 50% of that of the longitudinal joint but
in no case less than 42% of the strength of the calcu-
lated thickness of the plate. The strength of the
intermediate circumferential seams must not be less
than 62% of the strength of the undrilled plate. This
allows a reasonable margin for accidental stresses arising
from shell distortion which tend to be more serious
towards the middle portion of a longer boiler such as
double ended 'Scotch' type of Marine boiler.
From the efficiency of the circumferential lap joint,
the pitch of rivets for the lap joint can be obtained.
p-d

(6) From the pitch of the rivets in the circumferential lap

joint, the number of rivets, n, that can be arranged
in one row can be obtained.
(D t)
n
p
(7) When number of rivets n in a row is known, the kind
of joint (single riveted, double riveted, etc.) can be
decided upon. If Z be the row of rivets in a circum-
ferential joint, then

Z= n •

(8) After deciding upon the number of rows, the number

of rivets and the pitch of the rivets are adjusted. The
pitch of the rivets should be such that the leak-proof
joint is obtained.
(9) The pitch p' between the rows of rivets is calculated.
208 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV

(10) Overlap 0 of the plate can finally be fixed when the

pitch between the rows of rivets is known.
0 = (Z — i)p' + 2 x marginal pitch.
Fig. 4-5 shows the portion of the boiler where circumferential
and longitudinal joints meet.
The calculations of the strong tight joints differ from those of
the strong joints in that, apart from calculating the rivets for shear,
the joint must be checked for slipping of the plates. Slipping
causes poor tightness of the joint. Hence this check replaces
calculations of the joint for tightness : if there is no slipping the joint
is pressure tight.

Shell plates Butt straps-

--..
I 4" 4r--- Circumferential
joint
I 4- Double riveted lap joint)
4- -- + + + + +
I--+- + -.- + + +
+ + + + + +- ...-.
1+ ,1
I + + + + + +
r.+ ..i. + + + +
-%.- + + + + +
t + l'' Longitudinal joint
i +
Triple meted butt pint
I
Boiler shell plate joint
FIG. 4-5

The requisite tightness of the joint is guaranteed if the follow-

ing requirement is satisfied:
P
-
f 7,
— (12 x N
4
where f is the allowable value of the specific resistance to
slipping which depends on the design of the joint, coefficient of
friction between the plates and the terminal riveting temperature,
N is the number of rivets in a joint, and p is the load coming on
the joint.
Art. 4.61 RIVETED JOINTS 209

After making a strong tight joint the boiler vessel is subjected

to a hydraulic test for tightness under pressure. Faulty parts of
the joints must be caulked.
Design of a boiler joint:
The material of construction for boiler shell and rivets should
be the same to avoid thermal stresses and galvanic action.
St 34.13 is recommended by Bach for boiler construction. The
steel St 34.13 has minimum tensile strength of 34 kg/sq mm and
average carbon percentage 0.13%.
In order to calculate the thickness of the boiler shell, the
following formula is used :
pD
1 . — + 0'1 cm
.11
where I = thickness of the boiler shell in cm
p = gauge pressure of steam in boiler kg/sq cm
ft = permissible tensile stress intensity in kg/sq cm
D ,--- diameter of boiler shell in cm
1 = longitudinal efficiency of the joint.
The thickness of the boiler shell should not be less than 7 mm.
Table 4-6.3 gives the factors of safety for various kinds of
joints •
Table 4-6.3
- -

Kind of joint Factor of sgfety

Lap joint 4.75

Single strap butt joint 4.75
Butt joint with two unequal cover straps 4.25
Butt joint with two equal straps 4.0

According to IS: 2100-1962, the chemical and mechanical

properties of steel for Boiler construction are' given respectively
in tables 4-6.4 and 4-6.5.
Table 4-6.4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Grade Carbon% Manganese% Silicon% Sulphur% Phosphorus%

1 0.20 max. 0.60 to 0.90
10.10 to 0.35 0.050 max. 0.050 max.
2 0-16 to 0.24 1.3 to /.7
210 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV
Table 4-6.5
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Grade Tensile strength Yield Strength % of

minimum tensile strength Elongation %

1 42 — 50 kg/sq mm 55 25
2 52 — 62 „ 50 20

According to IS: 1928-1961 the dimensions recommended

for boiler rivets are given in table 4-6.6.
Table 4-6.6
Diameter of
rivet hole 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 28.5 31.5 34.5 37.5 41 44 5(
d mm
Diameter of the
shank of the rivet 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33.0 36.0 39 42 4E
d' mm

Table 4-6.7 gives the factor of safety for rivets used in boiler
construction:
Table 4 6.7

Kind of joint Hand riveting Machine riveting

Lap joint 4.75 4.5

Single riveted butt joint 4.75 4.5
Double riveted butt joint 4.25 4.0

The diameter of rivet hole d is used in all strength calculations.

Diameter of rivet hole d = 1/5t — 0.4 cm for lap joints
5t — 0.5 cm for single riveted
butt joints
= 1/5t — 0.6 cm for double riveted
butt joints,
where t is the thickness of the plate in cm.
The allowable stresses for the riveted joints are selected in
accordance with the standards prepared separately for the joints of
metal structures, boilers, etc., and contained in the appropriate
reference tables.
The spacing of rivets and the thicknesses for butt straps may
be calculated as suggested in earlier part of this section.
Art. 4-7] RIVETED JOINTS 211

4.7. Efficiency of a riveted joint:

The efficiency of a joint is the ratio of the strength of the joint
to the strength of the original plate; it is calculated on a pitch
length and stated as a decimal or a percentage.
Tearing efficiency = tearing resistance of weakest part of a strip
tearing resistance of undrilled plate
(p - d) tfi (p - d)
ptft
shearing resistance of rivets in a strip
Shearing efficiency =
tearing resistance of undrilled plate
crushing resistance of rivets or holes in a strip
Crushing efficiency =
tearing resistance of undrilled plate
The lowest of the three efficiencies is taken as the joint effi-
ciency. Generally crushing efficiency is found to be more than
100%, which indicates that the resistance to crushing of rivets or
holes is greater than the tearing resistance of undrilled plate.
The following values for joint efficiency are usually assumed
in different cases for calculations:
Lap joints:
Single 45% to 65%
Double 63% to 77%
Triple 75% to 85%
Butt joints:
Single 60% to 70%
Double 75% to 85%
Triple 80% to 90%
Quadruple 85% to 95%
Examples:
1. A triple riveted lap joint is to be made between 6 mm plates.
If the safe working stresses are ft = 840 kg/sq cm, f f = 600 kg/sq cm and
fc = 1,200 kg/sq cm, calculate the rivet diameter, rivet pitch and distance
between rows of rivets for the joint. gig-zag riving is to be used.
State how the joint will fail.
As the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, we determine
the diameter of the rivet by equating the shearing resistance to
the crushing resistance. As the joint is triple riveted lap joint,
there will be three rivets in single shear and equal number of rivets
in crushing.
Shearing resistance = 3 d9 ff.
4
212 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IV

Crushing resistance = 3d tfi.

By equating shearing and crushing resistances, we get
3 Tr d2fi ------- 3d t fc
4
, 4t fc 4 x 6 1200
or a=— .xi; = x d - -,-- 15.3 mm.
v 6 o-
We adopt d = 16 mm.
To find the rivet pitch, we equate the tearing and shearing
resistances.
(p — d) t fi = 3 Ti- d2 j,

3 d2 fs
4
or p +d
= tft
3 x 0.785 x 1.62 x 600
= 4- 1.6 = 8.75 cm.
0.6 x 840
We adopt 9 cm as pitch.
Distance between rows of rivets = 0.6p
=0.6 x 9= 5.4 cm.
The lowest joint efficiency indicates how the joint will fail.
p — d = 9--
Tearing efficiency = 1-6 = 0.822 i.e. 82.2%
P -9
3 x : (12 fs 3 x 477 x 1.62 x 600
Shearing efficiency = - - -
prft § )76.6 5<86o-
= 0.84 i.e. 84%.
3d t fc 3dfc 3 x 1.6 x 1200
Crushing efficiency =
PO pft 9 X 800
= 0.8 i.e. 80%.
The joint will fail by crushing of the rivets.
2. Two 15 mm thick plates are to be jointed by a triple riveted doable
cover strap butt joint. The rivet pitch is to be the same in all the rows and
chain riveting is to be used. Determine the rivet diameter, rivet pitch,
distance between rows of rivets, strap thickness and efficiency of the joint.
The following stresses are to be used:
ft = 840 kg/sq cm; fs = 630 kg/sq cm.
As the thickness of the plate is greater than 8 mm, the diameter
of the rivet in mm is obtained by the formula d =-• 6 V t mm.
... d=61/15=23•2 mm. From IS: 1928-1961, we adopt 23 mm.
Art. 4-7 ) RIVETED JOINTS 213

We assume that the rivets in double shear are 1.875 times

as strong as those in single shear.
Tearing resistance = (p — d) tfi.
7:
Shearing resistance = 3 x 1.875 x 2 fs. (As the joint
4 d
is triple riveted butt joint, there are three rivets in double shear.)
By equating tearing and shearing resistances, we get the equa-
tion for determination of the pitch.

(p — d)tft = 3 x 1.875 x ; d2f5

3 x 1.875 x n d 2js
4
Or p= +d
tfi
TC
3 x 1.875 x 4 x 2.32 x 630
+ 2.3
1.5 x 840
= 14 cm.
Strap thickness = 0.625 x thickness of the plate
= 0.625 x 1.5 = 0.94 cm; we adopt 1 cm.
Distance between rows of rivet = 0.8p = 0.8 x 14
---. 11.2 cm; we adopt 12 cm.
The lowest of the two efficiencies will be the joint efficiency
p— 14 — 2'_33
Tearing efficiency --,--- d ,_ 0.835 i.e. 83.5%.
P 14

3 x 1.875 x 7r- d 2fs

4
Shearing efficiency =
P [Link]
r:
3 x 1-875 x x 2-32 x 630
4
- 14 x 1-5 x 8410
= 0.835 i.e. 83.5%.
The efficiency of the joint is 83.5%.
3. A double riveted, double strap butt joint is to join 2 cm thick plates.
The pitch of the rivets in the outer row is to be twice that of the inner row.
Zig-zag riveting is to be employed with the following working stresses:
fs = 630 kg/sq cm and ft =.-- 840 kg/sq cm. Calculate rivet diameter, rivet
pitches in the inner and outer rows and the thickness of the butt straps.
214 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV
Assume the rivets to be 1.875 times as strong in double shear as in
single shear.
As t is greater than 8 mm, the diameter of the rivet in mm is
obtained by the formula d = 61/ t mm.
•• • d = 61/20=26.8 mm; from IS 1928-1961, we adopt 28.5 mm.
As the joint is double riveted two strap butt joint, there will
be three rivets in double shear as the pitch of the rivets in the
outer row is twice that of the inner row.
Tearing resistance = (p — d) t fa.
Shearing resistance = 3 x 1.875 x d2 fs.
By equating the tearing and shearing resistances, we get
the rivet pitch in the outer row.
(p — d) t fi = 3 X 1.875 x d2 fs
=. ,124
3 x 1.875 x 'is
or P tft +d

(2.85)2 x 630
3 x 1.875 x4 +2.85=16.35 cm.
2 x 840
We adopt 16 cm.
Rivet pitch in the inner row = 8 cm.
—d
Thickness of the butt strap = 0.625t
p 2di
r
= 0.625 x 2 16 — 2.85
1
16 — 5.7
1.6 cm.
4. A locomotive boiler of 180 cm internal diameter is required to
generate steam at 14 kg/sq cm gauge. Calculate the thickness of the shell
plate and design the triple riveted longitudinal double butt strap joint with
unequal straps.
Use the following data:
fi = 770 kg/sq cm, fs = 600 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,350 kgisq cm.
Efciency of triple-riveted longitudinal butt joint 84%.
Design pressure is taken as safety valve setting which we shall
take as 10% above normal working pressure.
Art. 4-7] RIVETED JOINTS 215

With usual notations, the thickness of the boiler shell is given

by the formula,
ph 1.1 x 14 x 180
t= — — 2.145 cm; we adopt 214 cm.
2frq 2 x 770 x0.84
The diameter of the rivet is obtained by formula d = 614t mm.
d = 61/224 = 28.3 mm; from IS 1928-1961 we adopt 28.5 mm.
The joint will be arranged in such a manner that the alter-
nate rivets in outer rows will be omitted. The rivets in the outer
rows will be in single shear, while those in inner rows will be in
double shear.
Let p be the pitch between the rivets in outer rows. In one
pitch length there are five rivets of which four are in double shear
while one is in single shear. (Refer table 4-6.1.)
The tearing resistance of the plate = (p - d) t ft.
The total shearing resistance of all the rivets will be
.7c 7r
4 X 1.875 x — d2 fs + III til1 fs = 8.5 — d2 f f.
4 4 4
Equating the tearing and shearing resistances of the joint,
we get
(p -- d) tfi = 8.5 4 d2fs
7C
8•5 X -- efs
4
or p- +d
tfi
7C
8.5 x 4 x 2.852 x 600
= + 2.85 = 21.8 cm.
2 x 770
The maximum permissible pitch in inches, for such a joint
according to Indian Boiler Regulations is given by the formula
p = 6t + 1.625, which will be 6 x 1 + 1.625 = 6.875",
i.e. 17.5 cm.
As the calculated pitch is more than the permissible pitch,
we modify the diameter of the rivet and pitch.
We adopt 25 mm diameter rivet at 17 cm pitch.
17 -- 2.5
Tearing efficiency of the joint = 17
2= 0.855 i.e. 85.5%.
216 MACHINE DEMON [Ch. IV

7t
8.5 x-4- x 2-52 x 600
Shearing efficiency of the joint =
17 x 2.24 x 770
= 0.852 i.e. 85.2%.
5 x 2.5 x 2 x 1350
Crushing efficiency = — =1.29, i.e. 129%.
17 x 2 x 7'10 —
The efficiency of the joint will be 85.2%.
Thickness of wide butt strap = ft = f x 2.24 = 1.68 cm.
say 1.7 cm.
Thickness of narrow butt strap = ft = 1 x 2.24 = 1.4 cm;
we adopt 1.4 cm.
The edge distance = 38 mm.
The distance between the outer rows and next rows shall be
not less than 0.2p + 1.15d = 0.2 x 17 + 1.15 x 2.5 = 6.28 cm;
we adopt 6.5 cm.
The distance between the rows in which there are full number
of rivets shall be not less than 0.165p ± 0.67d --,--- 0.165 x 17 -1-
0.67 x 2.5 = 4.5 cm.
According to I.B.R. single and wide butt straps where practic-
able will be on the inside of the shell.
5. It is desired to specify the main dimensions for a longitudinal
and circumferential joints for a boiler of 180 cm diameter having safety
valte .setting of 15 kg/sq cm gauge. The average efficiency of the longitudinal
joint may be taken as 84%.
Determine the thickness of the boiler shell and the size of the rivet.
It may be assumed that in a longitudinal joint, within one pitch length
of the outer rivets, there are 8 rivets in double shear and three in single shear.
Thus in a pitch length, between the centres of two rivets in the outermost
row has one rivet at pitch, say p, the next inner row, the two rivets at pitch
of P-- and the third and fourth rows each four rivets at pitch the rivets
2 4'
on the other side of the joint being a mirror image of the rivets described
above. Determine the pitch of the rivets for the longitudinal joint. Deter-
mine also the width and thickness for each butt strap for the longitudinal
joint. Design also the circumferential joint completely. The transverse
pitch may be taken as 2.5 times the diameter of the rivet for all the rows.
The following design stresses may be assumed:
ft = 770 kg/sq cm, ft = 630 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,260 kglsq cm.
Art. 4.7] RIVETED JOINTS 217

The strength of a rivet to double shear may be taken as 1.875 times

that of a rivet in single shear.
If t be the thickness of the boiler shell, then
pD 15 x 180
t = - -- =-- --.. = 2-09 cm; we adopt 2.2 cm.
2fi x .ri 2 x 770 x 0.84
The diameter of a rivet hole d is given by
d = 1/61— 0.6
= V5 x 2.2 — 04) = 2.72 cm; we adopt diameter of rivet
hole as 2.85 cm
If p be the pitch of the riveted joint, then by equating the
shearing resistance of the joint to tearing resistance of the drilled
plate, we get
(p — 2.85) x 2.2 x 770 = (8 x 1.875 + 3) 7. x 2.852 x 630

From the above equation we get p = 45.55 cm; we adopt 45 cm

as the pitch of the longitudinal joint.
Thickness of the wider strap -,-. 0.75 x 22
= 16.5 mm; say 17 mm
Thickness of the narrower strap = 0.625 x 22
-= 13.75 mm; say 14 mm
the joint is quadruple riveted butt joint with unequal straps
Transverse pitch =--- 2.5 x 2.85 = 7 cm
Marginal pitch = 1.5 x 2.85 ..-
= 3.8 cm.
Width of the wider strap -= 2 [3.8 + 3 x 7 1- 3.8]
= 57.2 cm; we adopt 58 cm
Width of the narrower strap ---= 2 [3.8 + 7 + 3.8]
-,--- 28.2 cm; we adopt 30 cm

Design of a circumferential lap joint:

It
Diameter of a rivet hole = 2.85 cm.
In a lap joint rivets are in single shear Hence shear strength
of the rivet will be
rc x 2.852 x 630 = 5,100 kg. Shearing load
4
7C
on the joint will be x 1802 x 15 = 48.5 x 104 kg. Hence the
4
48.5x 104
minimum number of rivets in the lap joint will be - — = 95.
5100
218 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV
The efficiency of the lap joint can not be more than 42%.
Hp' be the pitch of the circumferential joint, then — 2, -85 = 0.42
P
or p' = 4.86 cm; we adopt 6.5 cm.
6.5
The efficiency of the lap joint will be 6.52 -85= 0.562 i.e.
56.2% which is more than 42%.
Number of rivets that can be arranged in one row in circum-
+ 2.2)
ferential lap joint = = 88 rivets.
6
We have to arrange at least 95 rivets in a lap joint; hence
we adopt two rows of rivets in each row there being 88 rivets.
Pitch between the rows of rivets may be taken as 7 cm.
Over lap of the plate will be 3.8 + 7 + 3.8 = 14.6 cm.
Exercises :
1. How are boiler plates joined?
2. What forms of rivet heads are allowed in boiler construction?
3. What forms of riveted joints are used in boiler construction?
4. Describe and sketch:
(a) single riveted lap joint (b) double riveted lap joint
(c) double riveted butt joint with double straps (d) triple
riveted butt joint with double straps of unequal width.
5. Why is a butt joint preferable to a lap joint?
6. What preparation of plates and butt straps is necessary to ensure
good riveted joints?
7. Should rivet holes be punched or drilled?
8. What is caulking and why is it necessary?
9. What are various ways in which a riveted joint may fail?
10. What is meant by single shear and double shear?
11. What is meant by the efficiency of a riveted joint?
Explain how you would find the ef ficiency of a single riveted lap joint,
double riveted lap joint, double riveted butt joint and triple riveted butt
joint with two unequal straps and alternate rivets in outer rows being omitted.
12. What formula is used for calculating the diameter of a rivet?
13. Determine the efficiency of a single riveted lap joint having a
rivet pitch 8 cm, a rivet diameter of 28.5 mm and a plate thickness of
13 mm? Ans. 50%.
Art. 4-7 ] RIVETED JOINTS 219
14. What is the efficiency of a double riveted lap joint having a
rivet pitch of 10 cm, a rivet diameter of 25 mm and a plate thickness of
13 mm? Ans. 62%.
15. Two boiler plates 13 mm thick are connected by a double riveted
lap joint having a pitch of 6.5 cm. Determine the least tensile stress in
19 mm rivets of the joint which will enable it to remain tight under a tension
of 40 tonne/metre, along the joint, if the coef ficient of friction is 0.2.
16. Design the longitudinal joint and the girth seam of a marine
boiler 3 metre diameter and 2.7 metre length for a working steam pressure
of 10.5 atg giving a neat sketch of portions of the joints.
Calculate also the tearing efficiency, shearing efficiency and crushing
ef ficiency of the joints designed.
17. Design a double riveted, double cover butt joint for plates 18 mm
thick and find the efficiency of the joint. fs = 0.8 ft and ft = 1.3 ft.
Take the strength of a rivet in double shear as 1.875 times its strength
in single shear.
18. Design a triple riveted double butt strap joint for the longitudinal
seam of a boiler 180 cm in diameter when working pressure is 10 kg/sq cm.
You may assume ultimate tensile strength of the plate at 4,200 kg/sq cm,
crushing strength 6,500 kgIsq cm and shearing strength 3,080 kg/sq cm.
Joint efficiency may be assumed as 85%.
19. 4 steel tank 150 cm in diameter is used for storing air at 18
kg/sq cm. Design a double riveted butt joint with unequal cover plates
for longitudinal seam and a lap joint for the girth seen. Sketch the
intersection of these two joints assuming all details and diamensions.
20. A boiler shell 200 cm diameter has to withstand an internal
steam pressure of 12 atg, the material is mild steel having a see tensile
strength of 11 kgIsq mm. Assuming an efficiency of 70% of the longi-
tudinal joint, calculate the thickness of the shell plate. Design and draw
a sketch of a double riveted butt joint with double cover straps for the longi-
tudinal seam of the above boiler. The safe shear stress of the rivets is
8 kg/sq mm and the safe crushing strength of the rivet is 16 kg/sq mm.
Rivet in double shear is 1.75 times as strong as a rivet in single shear.
Calculate the diameter of the rivets, the pitch of the rivets and the efficiency
of the joint.
21. A locomotive boiler shell 200 cm in diameter and under an
internal pressure of 12 kg/sq cm, is to be made of steel plate, of ultimate
tensile strength of 3,850 kgIsq cm, and a factor of safety of 5. The
220 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV

efficiency of the treble riveted butt joint is 85% and of double riveted
circumferential lap joint is 70%. Determine the thickness of the shell
and design the suitable longitudinal and circumferential joints.
22. Design the longitudinal and circumferential joints of a cylindrical
boiler shell 2 metre diameter made of 24 mm steel plate. The longitudinal
joint is to be a butt joint with two cover plates and the circumferential joint
is a lap joint. The working pressure in the boiler is to be 20 kg/sq cm by
gauge. For plates and rivets take
ft = 1,000 kg/sq cm, f; = 600 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,200 kg/sq cm.
Sketch the joint. (University of Bombay, 1973)
23. A pressure vessel has an internal pressure of 15 kg/sq cm gauge
and a diameter of 3 metre. Design and draw a treble riveted double strap
longitudinal butt joint for best efficiency for the vessel.
(Gujarat University, 1973)

4-8. Joints for Storage Tanks:

The chief requirement for the riveted joints in case of ordinary
tanks, coal bunkers, bins for bulk material are the strength and
rigidity rather than leakage. The usual proportions for the riveted
joints approach to the proportions from the theoretical consi-
deration of equal strength.
The thickness of the plate is calculated from the thin cylinder
formula._ The diameter of the rivet is calculated by formula
d = 61/ t where t is the thickness of the plate in mm. The
pitch of the joint is calculated by equating the strength of the
joint in tension to the strength of the rivets in shear. As there
is no consideration of caulking, the pitches permitted in such
joints are larger than that employed in design of pressure vessels.
Joints for storage tanks are single or double riveted lap joints.
The edges of the storage tanks are stiffened by angle irons.
The permissible stress values are greater than that employed
in the design of pressure vessels. The values commonly adopted
in such joints are given below:
For plates in tension 1,400 kg/sq cm
For rivets in shear 1,050 kg/sq cm
For crushing of rivets and plates
Single shear .. 2,240 kg/sq cm
Double shear 2,800 kg/sq cm
Art. 4-9 ] RIVETED JOINTS 221

Table 4-8.1 due to Rotscher, will be of much use in design of cylindrical

storage tanks:
Table 4-8.1

Thickness of the 4 5 —6 6 —8 8 —12 11 —15

plate d mm 2 3

Diameter of the
shank of the rivet 8 9 10 12 14 16 20
d' mm
Diameter of the
hole of the rivet 84 9.5 11 13 15 17 21
d mm
Pitch of rivets 32 35 38 47 56 65
p=3d-I-5 mm 29
---- —
Marginal pitch 16 17 17 18 21 25 30
rn mm
---
Stiffner angle 45x45 50x50 75x75 80x80
40x45 x5 x7 x9 x12 x12
iron
For exhaust pipes, chimneys, etc. the pitch of the rivets p may be 5d.

4-9. Lozenge Joint:

Fig. 4-6 shows a riveted joint for two plates of a girder for
roof or bridge work and such ,a joint is known as lozenge joint.
BA

-0 -0

"Q Cf

C BA
Lozenge joint
FIG. 4-6

This is the joint of greatest economy in which the section of the

bar is not reduced by more than one rivet hole. The plates to
be connected are either butted together_ and riveted as shown in
fig. 4-6 to a single or double butt strap or the plates are simply
lapped one over the other. By arranging the rivets as shown in
fig. 4-6 the joint is made of uniform strength.
Let us analyse such a joint.
222 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IV

Let b and t be respectively the width and thickness of the

plate to be connected and d be the diameter of the rivet. We
assume that the plates are connected by single butt strap.
Before the joint can fail across BB, one rivet must be sheared
and the plate must tear through a section of area t (b — 2d).
Resistance along BB = 7 d2f, + t (b — 2d) ft.
Similarly before the joint can fail across CC, three rivets must
be sheared and the plate must tear through a section of area
t (b — 3d). Resistance along CC = 3 x 4. _75_ d2 fs + t (b — 3d) ft.
In such a joint, as the section of the plate decreases, the number
of rivets to be sheared increases.
The following procedure is followed:
From the thickness of the plate, the diameter of the rivet
is determined and the kind of joint (lap, single butt strap, double
butt strap) is decided upon. Shearing resistance as well as the
crushing resistance of the rivet is calculated. The lower of the
two values is taken in order to fix the number of rivets. It is
assumed that the resistance of a rivet in double shear is 1.75 times
that in single shear in order to allow for possible eccentricity of
load or defective workmanship.
The strap thickness t1 equals 0.75t approximately for double
cover plate joints. For single cover plate joints, t1 = 1.25t
approximately.
For this joint, as we proceed from outer row of rivets to inner
row of rivets, the resistance of the joint to failure increases. The
weakest section will be . the outermost row, which has been
weakened by one rivet diameter. In general, the efficiency of
—
(bbd)
lozenge joint can be written as where b and d are the
width of the plate and the diameter of the rivet respectively.
The permissible values of the stresses for the design of riveted
connections in structural engineering are higher than those used
in pressure vessel design. The centres of the rivets are not less
than 1 id, from the edge of the plate, where d is the diameter of
the rivets.
The following proportions will be of much use in design of riveted connec-
tions in structural engineering:
Art. 4'4] RIVETED JOINTS 223

Thickness of plate t mm
Diameter of rivet hole d = t + 10 mm
Diameter of a shank of a rivet d' = d-1 mm
Pitch of rivets p> 2.5d < 6d
Marginal pitch in a direction of load m1 2d < 6d
Marginal pitch sideways m, ? 1.5d < 4d.
IS: 1929-1961 recommends the following sizes for rivets for general purpose:

Diameter of
the hole d mm 13.5 1 15.5 1 17.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5 29 32 35 38 41 44 50
Diameter of
the shank of 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 48
a rivet d' mm
In design for lighter construction such as in aeroplane industry, duralumin
is used. The permissible stress for duralumin is 0.4 or 0.5 of the yield point.
The following gives the yield point stresses for duralumin:
Tensile (plate): 2,700 kg/sq cm
Shear (rivet): 1,800 kg/sq cm
Crushing: 4,100 kgisq cm.
The usual proportions for the riveted joints for lighter construction are given
below:
The rivet heads are formed cold so as to strain the rivets in shear.
Diameter of the rivet hole d = 1.5t + 2 mm
Pitch of rivets p. 2.5d to 6d
Marginal pitch dm = 2d
Distance between the rows of rivets = 2.5d to 3d
Diameter of a shank of a rivet d' = d-,- 0.1 mm for d < 10 mm
= d-0.2 mm for d , 10 mm.
Example: r
I. Mild steel tie bars, for a bridge structure, 35 cm wide and
2 cm thick are to be connected by a double cover butt joint. Design this
joint allowing safe working stresses as follows:
ft = 9 kg/sq mm, fs = 7.5 kgIsq mm, fc = 15 kg/sq mm.
The diameter of the rivets in mm is obtained by the formula
d = 6Vt ram.
.. d = 6V20 = 26.8 mm; we adopt 25.5 mm as the rivet dia-
meter.
We assume that the resistance of a rivet in double shear is
1.75 times that in single shear. Resistance of plate to tearing at
outer row = (35 — 2.55) 2 x 900 = 58,500 kg.
Shearing resistance of one rivet = 1.75 x 7.4-c x 2.552 x 750
= 6,700 kg
224 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV

Crushing resistance of one rivet = 2 x 2.55 x 1500 = 7,650 kg.

As the shearing resistance of the rivet is less than the crushing
resistance, we use the former in deciding upon the number of
rivets. Equating the tensile strength of the plate to the shearing
resistance of n rivets, we get
58500 = n x 6700
58500
or n =- -6,7 Of) = 8.2.
Hence 9 rivets may be used and they may be arranged as
shown in fig. 4-7.

ARCP
FIG. 4-7
The thickness of the butt straps will be 0.75t./ x 2=1-5 cm.
We investigate the strength of the joint at four critical sections
AA, BB, CC and DD. Although the joint might fracture at any
one of the sections AA, BB, CC or DD, it cannot fracture along
BB without shearing one rivet in double shear, along CC, without
shearing three rivets in double shear and along DD without
shearing six rivets in double shear. .
Along AA, joint has a strength of (35 — 2.55) x 2 x 900
, 58,500 kg.
. Along BB joint has a strength of (35 — 2 x 2.55) x 2 x 900
± 1 x 6700 = 60,500 kg as the fracture along BB cannot take
place without shearing one rivet in double shear.
Similarly we can determine the strength along CC and DD.
Strength along CC = (35 — 3 x 2.55) x 2 x 900 + 3 x 6700
.--- 69,300 kg.
Strength along DD = (35 — 3 X 2.55) x 2 x 900 + 6 x6700
= 89,400 kg.
Shearing resistance of all rivets = 9 x 6700 = 60,300 kg.
Art. 4-9 I RIVETED JOINTS 225
The lowest strength of the joint is along AA.
(b — d) (35 — 2.55)
Efficiency of the joint = =
35
= 0.928 i.e. 92.8%.
Note: It should be noted that if instead of diamond form of joint, had
we adopted chain riveting with three rows of three rivets in each, the least strength
of the joint would be (35-3 x 2.55) x 2 x 900 = 49,200 kg, which gives an
35 — 3 x 2.55
efficiency of — 0.782 i.e., 78.2%.
35

Exercises:
1. Design a diamond, double cover butt joint for a tie bar of 25
mm thickness subjected to an axial load of 35 tonnes. Maximum tensile
and shear stresses are limited to 11 kg/sq mm and 8.5 kg/sq mm respectively.
Ans. Use 29 mm diameter 3 rivets on each side,
assuming 1 and 2 rivets in rows; 15 cm wide.
2. Two lengths of flat steel bar 2 cm thick, are to be connected by a
double cover butt joint to carry a load of 40 tonnes. Determine the dia-
meter and number of rivets required for the joint. Also, determine the
width of the bar. Assume a rivet in double shear to be 1.75 times
stronger than that in single shear. Take ft = 900 kg/sq cm; fs = 750
kg/sq cm and fc = 1,500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Use 29 mm diameter 6 rivets on each side,
assuming 1, 2, 3 rivets in rows; 15 cm wide.
3. A tie member in a roof truss has to carry an axiarload of 46
tonnes. The member is a flat bar 15 mm thick and of constant width.
Design and sketch a double cover butt joint. Take ft = 1,500 kg/sq cm,
fs --,--- 900 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,800 kg/sq cm.
Determine the diciency of the joint.
Ans. Use 25.5 mm diameter, 9 rivets on each side,
assuming 1, 2, 3 and 3 rivets in rows; 15 cm wide.
•
4. Two 15 mm thick tie plates are connected by a lap riveted joint.
The tie carries a load of 15,000 kg. Calculate (a) width of the plate,
(b) diameter and number of rivets, (c) rows of rivets and (d) ef ficieng of
the joint. Suggest also the arrangement of rivets in rows. Take
ft = 770 kg/sq cm, fs = 610 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,360 kg/sq cm.
Ans. (a) 18 cm wide (b) Use 25.5 mm diameter 7 rivets
(c) Three rows 2, .3, 2 rivets (d) 74-5%.
226 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. ,117

5. Two lengths of flat steel bar 18 mm thick are to be connected by a

double cover butt joint to carry a load of 40 tonnes. Design and draw a
neat dimensioned two view sketch of the joint. Assume ft = 900 kg/sq
cm, fs = 750 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,500 kglsg cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1971)

4-10. Eccentric loads on riveted connections:

In general the line of action of the load must pass through
the centroid of the rivet areas. Manytimes we come across
connections in which the load is not applied through the centroid
of the rivet formation as shown in fig. 4-8. In such connections
all rivets are not equally loaded. The direct shear on each
rivet will be accompanied by a secondary shear caused by the
tendency of the force to twist the joint about the centroid.
The following procedure for the design of a rivet is adopted:
Generally all the rivets are of the same size. The centroid
of the rivet group is determined. Two equal and opposite forces
to P are introduced at the centroid of group of rivets as shown in
fig. 4-9. We denote these forces by P1 and P2.
FI

13.--1 II

F7

Eccentrically loaded rivets Secondary shear loads

FIG. 4-8 FIG. 4-9

Let n be the number of rivets in the group. Due to P1 = P, the

direct shear load coming upon each rivet is the same and is equal
P
to F = — , the direction of direct shear load being parallel to the
applied load. Due to the turning moment Pe, the secondary load
produced in any rivet in the group is proportional to the distance
that the rivet is from the centroid of the group and is at right
angles to the line joining the centroid of the rivet group to the
Art. 4-.11 J RIVETED JOINTS 227

centre of the rivet. Therefore, the resisting moment of the rivet

about the centre of rotation varies as the square of the moment
arm. Let F1 represent the secondary shear load induced in the
rivet situated at a distance li from the centroid of the rivet group.
If 12, 13, etc. represent the distances from the centroid G to the
rivets 2, 3, etc., then the external moment Pe being equal to the
summation of the resisting moments due to n rivets, we get

Pe . —F1 [1 2 + 122 ± 132 + + 1n2

11 1
From the position of the rivets, the distances 11, 18 are
known and hence, secondary shear loads on all rivets are calculated.
The primary and secondary shear loads are added vectorially to
determine the resultant load R on the rivet as shown in fig. 4-10.
F1

tIG /
i
i Ie

Resultant shear loads on eccentrically loaded rivets

Flo. 4-10
The heavily loaded rivet will be one in which the included angle
between the primary and secondary shear is the least. The
heavily loaded rivet becomes the critical one for determining the
strength of the connections. When the permissible shear stress is
known, the diameter of the rivet can be specified.
4-11. Advantages of Welding over Riveting:
The basic advantages of welding over riveting are as under:
1. Economy of material and lighter weight of the structure
owing to
228 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. 11,

(a) better utilisation of metal elements since their working

sections are not weakened by the rivet holes, consequently
the sections of welded pieces can be made smaller than
the sections of riveted elements for the same acting forces;
(b) possibility of using butt joints requiring no cover straps,
(c) lighter weight of the joining elements as rivets weigh
more than welds.
2. Less labour is required since there is no need for marking
out and drilling or punching holes
3. Possibility of joining curvilinear parts
4. Tightness and impermeability of the joint
5. Noiselessness during fabrication of elements.
Examples:
1. Fig. 4-11 shows a column to which
a bracket is riveted, carrying a load of 10
10 1" unite
tonnes at a distance of 25 cm from the centre
line of the column. Examine the distribution
of load among the rivets. If the maximum
shear stress in the rivet is limited to 630 kg sq
cm, determine the diameter of the rivet.
The centroid of the rivet formation
is at the centre rivet E, and the centres
of all the rivets are equidistant from the FIG. 4-11
centroid of group of rivets and is equal to 7.51/2 -, 10.6 cm.
There are 5 rivets.
Direct shear load per rivet = -V-' =----- 2 tonnes.
Due to eccentricity of 25 cm, the load has a tendency to turn
the plate in clockwise direction about the central rivet E. The
turning Moment = 10 x 25 = 250 tonne cm.
The turning tendency of the plate is resisted by four rivets
A, B, C and D. As all these reivts are situated at equal distances
frOm E, the secondary shear load induced in each of these rivets
will be of the same magnitude and the direction of each of these
forces on each rivet will be at right angles to the moment arm of
that rivet. If F be the magnitude of secondary shear load on
each rivet, then
4F x 10.6 = 250
F= 250
or ---- 5.9 tonnes.
4 x 10.6
Art. 4-11 I RIVETED JOINTS 229

The magnitude of resultant load on each rivet will not

necessarily be same as it depends not only on the magnitudes of
primary and secondary shear forces but also on the included angle
between the two. The maximum resultant load will be on rivets
B and C. The included angle between two shear forces 2 tonnes
and 5.9 tonnes is 45°. Therefore, the maximum resultant load
R on the rivet is given by
R = V22 + 5.92 + 2 x 2 x 5.9 cos45° = 7.45 tonnes.
If d cm be the diameter of each rivet, then
7 d2 x 630 = 7.45 x 1000
4
-V7.45 x 1000 x 4
)1- d = = 3.84 cm;
TC X 630
we adopt 41 diameter rivet.
300
2. Find the size of rivets required for the
bracket shown in fig. 4-12. The plate is 3 50
800 kg
mm thick and the rivets which are to be all
of the same size, are in single shear. Take
FIG. 4-12
18 kgIsq mm as the ' permissible shear stress.
800
Direct load on each rivet = - = 160 kg.

Distance of line of action of 800 kg load from centroid will

be 7.5 cos30° = 6.5 cm.
Distance of rivets 1, 2, 3 and 4 from centroid =i5V2
. 3.54 cm.
Distance of rivet 5 from centroid = 0.
Load in rivets 1, 2, 3 and 4 due to torque will be equal to
800 x 6.5
= 340 kg.
4 x 3.54
Load in rivet 5 due to torque = 0.
The resultant force on each rivet can be found out graphically
or mathematically as the angle can be calculated. The maximum
force on any rivet is to be on rivet 1 and is equal to 497 kg, from
which the diameter of the rivet may be obtained.
TC
.•. - d2 X 1800 = 497
4
497 x 4
or d=
1800 x _r
._, 0.525 cm; we adopt 6 mm.
230 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV

Check for crushing:

load 497
Crushing stress area = 0.6 = 2,760 kg/sq cm.
x 0.3
This stress is well below 2fs = 2 x 1800 = 3,600 kg/sq cm; there-
fore the rivets will withstand crushing.
3. A bracket supporting a vertical load of 6,000 kg is to be riveted
to an adjacent member. The number of rivets thought to be necessary is
provisionally fixed at six, but the rivet arrangement pattern has yet to be
decided. Fig. 4-13 shows three possible patterns, the line of action of the
load being in each case 25 cm from the vertical centre line of the rivets.
Determine which of these patterns will enable the smallest diameter of the
rivet to be used and what that diameter will be if the rivets are in single shear
and the permissible shear stress intensity is limited to 400 kgisq cm.
We assume that the rivets are fitted in reamed holes. The
rivets in each arrangement are subjected to primary shear load and
secondary shear load. The primary shear load on each rivet in
6000
each pattern is the same and its magnitude will be ---= 1,000
6
kg. The direction of this load is vertically downwards. Let us
consider the secondary shear load coming in each arrangement.
250 —4 )50 4— 250
14--1)5-)14- /25 r •
1
0.11
a-4-0
tr,
-
LC,
250
P C.D.
9 „c.

125 i125-11 0 __1-

(a) (b) (c)
FIG. 4-13
Circular arrangement [Fig. 4-13 (c)] :
As all the rivets in this arrangement are situated at equal
distances from the centroid of group of rivets, the magnitude of
the secondary shear load on each rivet will be the same; however
the line of action of the secondary shear load will be at , right
angle to the line joining the centroid of the group of rivets and
the centre of the rivet under consideration. If Q be the secondary
shear load on each rivet, then
6000 x 25=
Q x 6 x 12.5 = 6000 x 25 or Q 2,000 kg.
6 x 12.5
Art. 4-11] RIVETED JOINTS 231

The resultant load will be maximum on a rivet which is nearest

to the line of action of the load. As the line joining the centre of
this rivet and the centroid of group of rivets is horizontal, the
line of action of the secondary shear load will be vertical. Hence
the maximum resultant shear load in circular pattern as shown
in fig. 4-13(c) will be 1000 + 2000 = 3,000 kg.
Rectangular arrangement [Fig. 4-13(b)]:
In this arrangement, the distance of the centre of each
corner rivet from the centroid of group of rivets will be
12.5 ----
V 1 + 4 = 6.25 N/5 = 14 cm.
2
If q be the magnitude of secondary shear load in a rivet situated
at a unit distance from the centroid of group of rivets, then
4q x 142 + 2q x 6.252 = 6000 x 25
6000 x 25
or q_ kg.
4 x 142 + 2 x 6.252 —
Maximum secondary shear load = 174 x 14
= 2,436 kg.
Angle of inclination between the primary and secondary shear
load on a rivet which is nearest to the line of action of load
6.25 =
= tan-1 26°-34'
12.5 .
Hence the maximum resultant shear load in the rectangular pattern
as shown in fig. 4-13(b) will be
R = V 16002-44362+2 x 1000 x 243-6 cOs26°-34' - S 3,420 kg.

Triangular arrangement [Fig. 4-13 (a)]:

In this arrangement the centroid of group of rivets will be
at the centroid of the triangle. The length of the median of the
triangle will be V252 — 12.52 = 21.6 cm. As the centroid trisects
the medians, the three rivets are situated at a distance of 7.2 cm
from the centroid of group of rivets and the remaining three at a
distance of 14.4 cm.
If q be the magnitude of the secondary shear load in a rivet
situated at a unit distance from the centroid of group of rivets,
then
3q [14.42 + 7.22] = 6000 x 25
6000 x 25
or q— m = 193 kg.
51.8 x3 x ‘1
232 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. IV

Maximum shear load on the rivet = 193 x 144

= 2,780 kg.
Angle of inclination between the primary and secondary shear
load on a rivet which is nearest to the line of action of load = 30°.
Hence the maximum resultant shear load in the triangular
. arrange-
merit as shown in fig. 4-13(a) will be
R = 1 10002 + 27802 ± 2 x 2780 x 1000 3icoi30°
. = 3,680 kg.
Thus the circular arrangement will be the best. Hence this
arrangement should be adopted.
If d cm be the diameter of the rivet, then 7
4 d2 x 400 = 3000

3000 x 4
or d = V -- --- = 3.09 cm; we adopt 32 mm diameter rivets.
77 x 400
Note: This illustrative example suggests the optimum soloution out of three
possible solutions.
Exercises:
I. Fig. 4-14 shows a riveted joint with an eccentric load. The
rivets are 18 mm in diameter. Find the shear stress in most heavily loaded
rivet. If the plate is 1 cm thick, find the crushing stress on the rivet.
Ans. 1,110 kg/sq cm; 1,570 kg/sq cm.

50 50 1250 kg

-WOO kg
h— 250-
250-0.1

Itt
FIG. 4-14 FIG, 4-15
2. Find the diameter of the rivet for the riveted joint shown in fig.
4-15. The maximum shearing stress on the most heavily loaded rivet is to be
560 kg/sq cm. Ans. 3,750 kg; 32 cm.
3. A group of six rivets 30 mm diameter are placed at equal distances
from each other along the circumference of a circle of a radius of 12 cm.
This group of rivets is subjected to a load of 15 tonnes at an eccentricity of
Ex. IV ] RIVETED JOINTS 233

25 cm in the plane of the rivets. Check whether the size of the rivet is
sufficient or not for a permissible shear stress of 750 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Not safe.
4. A mild steel bracket is connected to a vertical member by six rivets
of equal diameters—three in each of the two vertical rows. The distance
between the two rows is 150 mm and the distance between two adjacent rivets
in a row is 80 mm. A vertical force of 3,000 kg acts in the plane of the
rivets at a horizontal distance of 300 mm from the centre line of the rivet
arrangement. Suggest the suitable size of the rivets for a permissible
shear stress of 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 12 mm.
5. A bracket supporting a vertical load of P kg is to be riveted to an
adjacent member by three rivets placed at the corners of the equilateral triangle.
The eccentricity of the load is e. Sketch the arrangement so that the secondary
shear load induced in a heavily loaded rivet is minimum.

EXAMPLES IV

1. A cylindrical boiler of 250 cm diameter is to be of riveted steel plate

construction and is to operate at a maximum steam pressure 10 kg/sq cm gauge.
Determine a suitable thickness for the plates forming the shell. The steel
has an ultimate tensile strength of 45 kg/sq mm.
Design the main longitudinal and circumferential riveted joints, using
treble-riveted butt joints with two cover straps for longitudinal joints and double
e
riveted lap joints for circumferential joints.
Adopt reasonable working stresses. The diagonal pitch should be estimated
from the expression 0.65p -1- 0.35d.
Sketch a portion of each joint showing the main dimensions.
2. A cylindrical pressure vessel is to be of diameter 1.5 metre and length
2.5 metre and is to be of riveted construction using high tensile alloy steel plates.
The greatest working internal pressure is to be 42 kg/sq cm.
Determine a suitable thickness for the plates' and design a treble riveted
butt joint for the longitudinal seams. Make the spacing of the rivets in the
outer rows double than that in the inner rows.
Describe all the ways in which the joint might fail and calculate its efficiency
in each case.
Give a fully dimensioned sketch of a small portion of the joint showing
several pitch lengths.
The working stresses are:
fi ----:. 24 kg/sq mm, is . 11 kg/sq mm and fe = 22 kg/sq mm.
234 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IV

3. A double cover butt joint is made up of two 15 mm thick mild steel

plates riveted together. The joint is subjected to a tensile load of 14 tonnes.
Assuming that the plates are not weakened by more than one rivet hole in the
outermost rows, design the joint and draw completely dimensioned sketch of the
joint. Calculate also the efficiency of the joint designed. Assume the follow-
ing safe stresses for the plates and rivets.
ft = 7.5 kg/sq mm, fs = 6 kg/sq mm and fc = 13 kg/sq mm.
4. Fig. 4-16 shows a bracket fixed on a steel column by means of 3 rivets.
Derive an eitpression for the maximum load on a rivet in terms of P, e, 11 and
is due to the overturning effect of the force P.
Calculate the size of the rivets used if P = 1,500 kg, e = 50 cm, 11 = 5 cm
and 12 = 40 cm.
Take permissible tensile and shear stresses as 700 and 560 kg/sq cm respectively.

FIG. 4-16 FIG. 4-17

5. Fig. 4-17 shows a 15 mm plate riveted to a vertical member by rivets
19 mm diameter. a = 10 cm, b = 15 cm and L = 45 cm. What load F this
connection will carry if the design stress in shearing for the rivets is 600 kg/sq cm
and the design stress in crushing for the plate and the rivets is 1,100 kg/sq cm?
6. Find the load P, fig. 4-18, that the riveted connection shown can take if
the shear stress in the rivets is not to exceed 1,100 kg/sq cm. The size- of the
rivets used is 25 mm diameter.

,,-- 150 Axis of tie

4' ar
o
SS

-4)-- I .
4-68-T-68
(j) 4 `r^ Steel
-0— -{ --`--* i -I\ plate
30 10 mm
thick
FIG. 4-18 FIG. 4-19
Ex. IV j RIVETED JOINTS 235
7. Fig. 4-19 shows a cleat 1 cm thick to connect a tie-bar, inclined at 55'
to the horizontal to the flange of an 20 x 15 x 16 kg section used as a vertical
column. The cleat is to be riveted to the section with four rivets of equal diameter
in single shear as shown. The mean flange thickness of the section is 16.5 mm.
The maximum pull in the tie bar is 2.5 tonnes and this may be assumed to
act in the plane of shear of rivets.
Determine the force on each rivet under this maximum load and hence
decide the diameter required, using the following working stresses•
fs . 6 kg/sq mm and fc = 15 kg/sq mm
8. Fig. 4-20 shows an arrangement for supporting a pulley carrying a wire
rope hoisting cable. The tension in the cable is to be 4,500 kg. Determine
a suitable diameter for the rivets, explaining the method used and the assump-
tions involved. Also, determine a suitable diameter for the pulley spindle and a
suitable thickness for the plates.
Assume working stresses of 6 kg/sq mm for she= and 15 kg/sq mm for crushing
Neglect bending effects. Graphical methods may be used if desired

14--200--).1 3008 SS I.S.C.

ip

FIG. 4-20
9. Design and prepare working drawings of a treble riveted double-strap
butt joint suitable for the longitudinal seam of a Lancashire boiler 2 m diameter
and working pressure of 10.5 kg per sq cm gauge. Plates and rivets are to be
made of mild steel having ultimate strength in tension, crushing and shear, 4,200
kg per sq cm, 6,300 kg per sq cm, and 2,800 kg per sq cm respectively. Factor
of safety 5. The efficiency of the joint may be assumed as 85%. The pitch in the
outer row of rivets is to be double than that of the inner rows. Resistance of rivets
in double shear is equal to 1.75 times that of rivets in single shear. Check the
efficiency of the joint. (Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
10. Design the longitudinal and circumferential joints of a cylindrical boiler
shell 2.5 metre diameter and made of 16 mm steel plate. The longitudinal joint
is to be a butt joint with two cover plates and the circumferential joint a lap joint
236 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IV
The working pressure in the boiler is to be 16 kg/sq cm gauge. For plates and
rivets take ft = 1,200 kg/sq cm, fs = 800 kg/sq cm and A = 1,600 kg/sq cm.
(Bombay University, 1967)
11. In a structure, three flats carry tensile loads of 12 tonnes, 16 tonnes and
20 tonnes respectively. Their lines of action meet at a point. A gusset plate
joins the flats through 15 mm rivets. Design the joint and draw two fully dimen-
sioned views of the joint.
Is = 0.8 tonne/sq cm, ft = 1 tonne/sq cm and fs =. 2 tonne/sq cm.
(Bombay University, 1969)
12. A punching tool clamp is fitted to the frame by 3 rivets arranged in a
line normal to the load line and the central rivet 20 cm from the load line. The
rivets on either side of the central rivet are at a distance of 10 cm. Calculate the
diameter of the rivet required to punch holes of 1 cm diameter in 5 mm thick
plate having fs,u1. = 55 kg/sq mm. fs for rivet is 800 kg/sq cm.
If the central rivet is not there, find the size of the rivets required.
(Gujarat University, 1970)
13. Design a triple riveted butt joint for a steam generator. The diameter
of the steam generator is 2 metre. Pressure of steam is 15 kg/sq cm. The permissible
stresses in tension and shear are 950 kg/sq cm and 750 kg/sq cm respectively. The
efficiency of the joint should not be below 85% . (Gujarat University, 1971)

14. Two 22 cm wide and 12 mm thick plates for a tie rod are joined by a
butt joint with double covers using 18 mm diameter rivets in 19.5 mm diameter
rivet holes. The total number of rivets used in this joint,is 12. Calculate the
maximum load the joint can carry and its efficiency. Give neat sketches showing
all dimensions. Assume fe = 2,000 kg/sq cm, ft = 1,200 kg/sq cm and fs = 1,000
kg/sq cm (M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
15. A zigzag triple riveted lap joint is to be made between 8 mm plates.
If the safe working stresses are fc --- 1,200 kg/sq cm, ji = 800 kg/sq cm and
fs = 600 kg/sq cm, calculate the rivet diameter, rivet pitch and distance between
rows of rivets for the joint. State how the joint will fail.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
16. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the welded joints over
riveted joints.
Design a double riveted butt joint, with unequal cover straps outer pitch
being double the inner pitch, for a longitudinal seam of a pressure vessel 150 cm
in diameter and with an internal fluid pressure of 12 kg/sq cm by gauge.
For the circumferential joint, design a double riveted lap joint
Use the following design stresses for the plates and rivets:
ft = 1,000 kg/sq cm, fs = 700 kg/sq cm and fc = 1,400 kg/sq cm.
The desired minimum efficiency for the butt joint is 75%.
Give neat sketches of the joints showing clearly the junction of the butt and
lap joints. (Sardar Patel University, 1973)
17. A compressed gas tank 900 mm in diameter has a single riveted lap
joint girth seam whose main dimensions are as follows:
Ex. IV 1 RIVETED JOINTS 237

Thickness of the plate 7.5 mm; diameter of rivet hole 20 mm; pitch 50 mm
and marginal pitch 30 mm.
Determine the safe gas pressure and efficiency of the joint if the shell is made
of Alcoa 245 aluminium alloy and the rivets are of Alcoa 175 aluminium and are
hot driven. The allowable stresses are as follows:
Alcoa 245, tension 5.5 kg/sq mm
Alcoa 175, shear 6.5 kgisq mm, crushing 18.5 kg/sq mm
Determine what changes should be made in the pitch and margin to obtain
a maximum safe pressure. Also find the new joint efficiency.
(University of Bombay, 1973)
18. Fig. 4-21 shows arrangement of assembly of tie rod to jib of a crane.
Maximum tensile load on the tie rod is 5,000 kg.
All parts are made of mild steel. Design and draw the assembly
Assume suitable stress values
(University of Bombay, 1972)

4 Rivets 4 Rivets

-150 mm 100mm ---) 16 ram

FIG. 4-21

19. A gusset plate is attached to a vertical member by means of 5 rivets in a

vertical line. The load line is inclined at 30° to the vertical line of rivets and
passes through the second rivet from the bottom. The load of 5 tonne acts on the
joint. Determine the size of the rivets if the permissible shear stress in the material
of the rivets is limited to 500 kg/sq cm and the pitch of the rivets is 120 mm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER

BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS

5-1. Introduction:

The screw thread is a form obtained by cutting a continuous

helical groove on the cylindrical surface. The threaded portion
engages with a corresponding threaded hole in the nut or machine
part, the two elements form what is called a screw pair.
Screws have two general purposes in engineering :
(a) to act as fastening to secure one member to other member,
(b) to transmit power.
The first of these purposes requires strong threads of a low
efficiency and they should not be loosened during the service.
Screws used for transmission of power must have a high efficiency
so as to reduce power loss during power transmission to a mini-
mum.
5-2. Definitions:
The major diameter is the largest diameter of the screw thread. It is often
referred to as the outside diameter, crest diameter or full diameter on external
threads. The size of the screw is specified by its nominal major diameter.
The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread. It is often
referred to as the root diameter or core diameter on external threads.
The pitch is the axial distance from a point on a screw thread to a con es-
ponding point on the adjacent thread.
1
Pitch = •
number of threads per unit length of screw
The lead is a distance which a screw thread advances axially in one turn.
On a single thread screw, the lead and pitch are identical; on a double thread
screw, the lead is twice the pitch; on a triple thread screw the lead is three times
the pitch and so on.
5-3. Forms of screw threads:
Screw threads commonly adopted by engineers arc British Standard Whit-
worth (B.S.W.), British Standard Fine (B.S.F.), British Standard Pipe (B.S.P.),
British Association (B.A.), American National Standard, Lowenherz, Metric
Screw threads — Systeme International (S.I.), Acme, Square and Buttress.
Flip 5-1 shows the thread proportions for various kinds of threads. Whitworth
thread is the standard British thread. The proportions for B.S.W., B.S.F. and
Art. 54] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 239
B.S.P. (both parallel and tapered) are the same. In B.S.F. threads finer patches
are used. These threads are used where small axial adjustments are necessary
such as on bolts for piston rod — and connecting rod ends, in automobile work,
etc. In B.S.P. threads finer pitches are provided. These threads arc used for
steel and iron piping and for tubes carrying fluids. For external threaded

=lob ----A —
1-
60!

(a) Metric
1< p ---t.4 .0.3707p-+1
1 29°
...

(b) Acme
Imo---- p

( c) Square

1 4-- p --H
T.
Irk
-4-
0.04p ao
as cs
..._. _.... _.... _±..
r.0.12055p A:0.50586p S = 0.13944
F =0.27544 P 1=0.24532 p
(d) Buttress
Various kinds of screw threads
Flo. 5-1(a)
240 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

pipes, the threads are specified by inner diameter of the pipe. B.A. threads are
used in instrument work. Lowenherz threads are used in Germany on measure-
ing, precision and physical apparatus. Acme, square, trapezoidal and buttress
threads are used for power transmission such as screw jacks, lead screw of a lathe,

British Standard Whitworth (B.S.W )

(f) British Association (B.A.)

••••
...I

- 431)
i
(g) American National Standard

_L. P
=leo
1,--• — —
1
•n

(h) Lowenherz
Fm. 5-1(b)
vices, presses, etc. Acme and trapezoidal threads are cheaper to manufactu: c
than square threads, but less efficient than square threads. Acme threads are
sometimes used with a split nut in order to facilitate the engagement and disen-
gagement of the nut Both these threads can transmit power in any direction
Art. 5-5] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 241
Buttress threads are used to transmit power in one direction. It has got advan-
tages of both trapezoidal and square threads. Acme or trapezoidal threads are
used in machine tools where disengaging nut is required.
The dimensions for screw threads in metric system for general purposes,
are specified in IS: 1362-1962.

5-4. Advantages of square threads over V threads:

The force acting on a screwed rod is axial which is supported by the reaction,
which is normal to the surface of the threads, between surfaces of the threads
on the screw and nut.

Forces acting on a triangular thread

FIG. 5-2

Let T be the axial tensile load acting on the screw, N the normal pressure
on the threads, which is also the measure of friction and B the bursting force
on the nut, as shown in fig. 5-2. From the force triangle, we see that bursting
force on the nut increases with the angle of thread and the friction between the
nut also increases with the angle of threads. In square threads the sides of the
threads are parallel and the bursting force on the nut vanishes and the axial
tension in the screw is practically equal to the normal pressure on the threads.
For these reasons, square threads are adopted for transmission of power.

5-5. Screw fastenings:

The following important screw fastenings are met with in
construction of machines: (See fig. 5-3.)
(a) Through bolts
(b) Tap bolts and cap screws
(c) Machine screws
(d) Set screws
(e) Studs.
Through bolts: A through bolt is shown in fig. 5-3(a). It is a cylindrical bar
with an integral head at one end with threads at the other end. The nut is pro-
vided at the threaded end4 The cylindrical part of the bolt is known as shank.
The shank of the bolt raay be rough or finished. The bolt is known as machine
bolt when the shank is rough Different minor characteristics which through
bolts may possess to fit them to a specific usage create different names by which
they become known, such as machine bolts, eye bolts, carriage bolts, automobile
242 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

bolts, etc. The head and nut may be rough or finished. The head and nut
are square or hexagonal. When a through bolt is put under tension by axial
loading, it should be easy fit in the holes. If the load acts perpendicular to the
axis of the bolt tending to slide one of the connected parts along the other, thus
causing a shear load on the bolt, the holes should be reamed and the shank should
be finished all over its length. Such bolts are known as coupling bolts. They
are costlier to manufacture. Another form of a bolt known as carriage bolt
is chiefly used for wood construction.

Through bolt Stud

(c)

flax. head cap screw Oual head czp screw

v7,3ir/A

Set screw Collar screw

Various kinds of screwed fastenings
no. 5-3

Special kinds of bolts are used in automobile work. The heads and nuts
of these bolts are hexagonal in shape and are smaller in size. Finer pitches are
adopted. The nuts are recessed or castellated in order to facilitate the locking by
means of cotter pins. When through bolts are used, no threading is required in
parts to be connected.
Art. 5-6 ] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 24S

Tap bolts and cap screws:

They do not require nut but screw directly into one of the pieces to be con-
nected. The holding power is due to the pressure exerted by the head of the
screw. As the head of the tap bolt is larger than that of the cap screw, the hold-
ing power of the latter is less than that of the former. The head of the cap screw
is rounded on the top. Cap screws make an excellent fastening for machine
parts that do not require frequent removal.

Machine screws:
Very small cap screws are known as machine screws. The heads of these
screws are slotted so that they can be tightened by means of a screw driver. They
are used in assembly of small machines such as type-writers, jigs, carburettors, etc.
Set screws:
The function of set screws is to prevent the relative motion of machine
parts such as collars on the shaft, hub of the pulley on the shaft, etc. A set
screw is screwed through a tapped hole in one part until the end or the point of
the screw is pressed against the other part. The holding power of a set screw
is the frictional resistance set up at the point. They are used for transmission
of light loads. They are made with square heads or without heads. The points
of set screws are hardened. Set screws are commonly used for connecting
pulleys or gears transmitting light load. In order to get the appropriate size of
the set screw for a given diameter D of the shaft, the following empirical formula
is used:
Diameter of the set screw = 0.125D + 8 mm.
Stud:
A stud is a bolt in which the head is replaced by a threaded end. It passes
through one of the parts to be connected and is screwed into the other part.
Thus the stud always remains in position when two parts are disconnected.
Clearance between the threads and hole facilitates the removal of the part without
injury to the free end of the stud. With this construction, the wear and crumbl-
ing of the threads in a weak material are avoided.
Studs are employed 'for connecting heads of cylinders in engines and pumps.
The dimensions for various kinds of studs are recommended by IS: 1862-1961.

5-6. Locking devices for nuts:

In machine parts subjected to rapid movement there is a considerable tendency
for a nut to work loose owing to constant vibration. this tendency is prevented
by using the lock nut which is an extra nut, which is screwed down tightly on to
the ordinary nut. As the duty of the lock nut is only to jamb the first nut and not
to take much or any of the stresses, it may be much thinner than the usual standard.
As a rule the thin nut is generally made equal to half the bolt diameter. As the
top nut practically takes the whole load, thick nut should be there at the top
as shown in fig. 5-4(a) and the thin nut should be inside. This arrangement is
not practically convenient as ordinary spanners are frequently too thick to admit
of fitting on the thin nut the thick nut. The obvious way of overcoming this
difficulty is to arrange the thin nut on the top as shown in fig. 5-4(b) which will
244 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. V

put all the load on the thin nut which is not desirable. In actual practice the
compromise is obtained by keeping the total thickness to be the same and making
both the nuts of the same thickness as shown in fig. 5-4(c).

(
a) 11•1 ez (b)
---i.
CI
rams (c) • m1.1.

-,....m
--rAE
MO • =...:
gig' ,

Lock nuts

(1)
(e)
Castle nut

(g)
Nut with
Nut with split pin
Split nut spring lock washer

Locking devices
FIG. 5-4

There are many other ways of locking the nut of which the most common
method is to employ the taper pin or split pin [fig. 5-4(d)]. The pin passes
through the bolt just above the nut. Strictly speaking this arrangement does
not lock the nut, it simply prevents the nut from screwing off. Some of the common
arrangements are: use of spring lock washer [fig. 5-4(e)], castellated nut [fig.
5-4(f)] and split nut [fig. 5-4(g)]. Use of castellated nut is much favoured in
automobile industry. More information on various locking devices can be
obtained from a standard work on Machine Drawing.
5-7. Washers:
The function of a washer is to provide sufficient and suitable bearing area
for a nut or a bolt head. They are also used when the hole through which
bolt passes is much larger than the bolt, so as to provide sufficient bearing area
They are used when screwing down nuts against wood or stone, to distribute
the load over larger bearing area.
Washers are thin circular plates made with a central hole slightly larger
than the bolt diameter. They are specified by a nominal diameter d, which
is meant to be the diameter of the bolt with which the washer is to be used. The
thickness of the washer is usually taken to be equal to 0.15d. The outside dia-
meter of the washer is twice the nominal diameter but the relationship between
these two dimensions is not constant for all nominal sizes.
Art. 5-9] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 245

5-8. Eye bolt:

This bolt consists of a ring of circular section material having screwed shank
forged integral with it. Eye bolts are used for lifting and transporting heavy
pieces. A tapped hole is generally provided above the centre of gravity of
heavy parts such as cylinder frame, turbine casing, frames of heavy electric motors
or generators, etc. so that an eye bolt can be inserted for lifting purposes. They
are also used for the suspension of lifting tackles. The average proportions for
an eye bolt are shown in fig. 5-5.

Example:
1. A 2,000 kg gear box is provided
with a steel eye bolt for use in moving it.
What size bolt should be used if (a) coarse
threads are used? (b) fine threads are used?
The ultimate strength of the steel
used will be 4,900 kg/sq cm. We adopt
a factor of safety of 6. Therefore allow-
490
able stress will be ° = 815 kg/sq cm.
6
Minimum core area required at the
2000
bottom of the thread will be — 2.45 Eye bolt
815
sq cm. For coarse threads, we adopt FIG. 5-5
M22 which has a stress area of 3.03 sq cm, while for fine threads
we adopt M20 x 1.5 having a stress area of 2.72 sq cm.

Exercises:
I. A motor weighing 2,000 kg is lifted by a wrought iron eye bolt
which is screwed into the frame. Decide upon a design factor and deter-
mine the size of the eye bolt if (a) coarse threads are used and (b) fine
threads are used. Ultimate strength 3,400 kgisq cm.
Ans. Design factor 6, (a) M24; (b) M22 x 1.5.
Design note: Fine threads are not recommended for brittle materials.
2. Design an eye bolt to carry a tensile load of 1,000 kg. Assume
the permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt material to be limited to
600 kesq cm. (Sardar Patel University, 1975)

5-9. Efficiency of threads:

When we consider thread friction only, the efficiency of
V-threaded screw is given by the expression,
246 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

cosf3 — i.L tans

1
()asp + IL co t a (i)
where a = angle of helix
p = half the thread angle
N, = coefficient of friction between threads.
For square threads, we have p = 0 i.e. cosf3 = 1.
The efficiency expression simplifies to
1 ....-,_ 1 — p. tans _ tana
1 + II cots tan (a + 4))
where 4) = tan-11.1..
In order to calculate the over-all efficiency when a nut or
screw is being turned, we should take into account the additional
friction against the surface on which the nut or head bears.
5-10. Stresses in screw fastenings:
In order to determine the dimensions of screwed fastenings,
we should consider the stresses due to the static loading as well
as dynamic loading. The following stresses should be considered
in screw fastenings with static loading:
(a) Initial stresses due to screwing up
(b) Stresses due to external forces
(c) Stresses due to combination of forces of types (a)
and (b).
5-11. Initial stresses:
The stresses in a bolt, stud or screw when it is screwed up
tightly are: (a) tensile stress due to stretching of the bolt
(b) compression or crushing stresses on the thread (c) shearing
stresses across threads (d) torsional shear stresses caused by the
frictional resistance of the threads and (e) bending stresses if the
surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly normal to the
bolt axis. None of these above mentioned stresses can be accurately
determined. So the bolts are designed on the basis of direct tensile
stress with a very high factor of safety which will allow for tightening
stresses.
In the following few lines the procedure for estimating the
tightening stresses has been outlined.
An equation for determining initial tension P in a bolt is
P = 284 d kg (i)
where d = nominal diameter of the bolt in mm.
Art. 5-12] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 247

This value is to be used for bolts which are tightened up to

make the joint fluid tight. This value may be reduced for
fastenings not set up as tight as for a fluid tight joint.
The above equation is based on experiments conducted at
Cornell University and confirmed by experiments carried out in
Germany. Generally, where the joint is to be made fluid tight
bolts less than M 16 should not be used as they are likely to rupture
during tightening. M16 means the nominal diameter of
a bolt is 16 mm and metric coarse threads are used.
The torsional shear stress can be calculted by the formula
fi = 16T _ (u)
7cdc*
where T = torque applied
fs = torsional shear stress
dc = core diameter of the thread.
According to experiments carried out in Germany, it is obser-
ved that the tightening torsional moment increases, with repeated
unscrewing and tightening, due to gradual scoring of the threads.
The bending stresses induced in the shank of the bolt, when
the outside surfaces of the parts connected are not parallel, can be
estimated by the formula
xE

where x = the difference in height between the extreme corners

of the nut or head
I = length of the shank of the bolt •-
E = modulus of elasticity of the bolt material.
Crushing stress and shearing stress for the threads can also
be estimated by formulas for simple stresses when the tightening
load is estimated. We shall get the average values of the shear
stresses and crushing stresses.
5-12. Stresses due to external forces:
Bolts, studs and screws are subjected to tensile stresses by the
external forces acting on them, but occasionally the bolts are
subjected to shear loads also, the common example being the
bolts of the flange coupling. When a bolt is subjected to an axial
tensile load, the weakest section will be at the root of the thread.
If de be the diameter at the root of the thread, then 4
7c
external load = 4— dc2 X ft (i)
248 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

where ft is the permissible tensile stress intensity in the material

of the bolt. The diameter at the root of the thread will be obtained
from the above equation. The next step will be to refer to the
table of metric screw threads and the most suitable standard dia-
meter will be obtained, when the types of threads are selected.
If the external load acting on the machine part is to be resisted
jointly by n bolts, we have
7C
external load = n X — de2 X ft (ii)
4
Since the table of threads gives the area at the root of the
threads, the calculations for the size of the bolt will be simplified
if we solve the equation for the minimum area of the bolt. If
tables for the metric screw threads are not available, the follow-
ing relation is employed to calculate nominal diameter d from
core diameter dc in case of coarse threads.
dc = 0.84d (iii)
Examples:
1. Find the safe load in kg which the following bolts will carry,
assuming a safe tensile stress of 400 kgIsq cm. •
M5, M10, M16, M20, M27, M30 and M39.
If a bolt is not initially stressed, the maximum safe axial load
which may be applied to it is given by:
cross sectional area at bottom of thread x permissible stress.
.. P = safe load in kg = 400 x ac.
ac can be seen from tables for Metric threads which are given
in appendix. The safe load for each bolt is given in table
below:

Diameter Cross sectional area at the

d nun bottom of the thread = ac sq cm P = 400 X ac kg

5 0.142 56.8
10 0.58 232
16 1.57 628
20 245 980
27 4.59 1,836
30 5.61 2,242
39 9.76 3,904
Art. 5-12] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 249

2. The cap of a connecting rod end is secured by two bolts. If

the maximum pull in the connecting rod is 6,000 kg, find the diameter of
the bolts if the tensile stress is not to exceed 350 kg/sq cm. Assume fine
threads.
6 00 0
The load shared by each bolt = = 3,000 kg.
2
Minimum area required at the bottom of the thread
3000
= — 8.57 sq cm.
350
From IS: 1362-1962 we adopt M36 x 3 which has 8.65
s q cm area at the bottom of the thread and 3 mm pitch.
3. The area of the valve face of a D-slide valve may be taken as
a rectangle 25 cm by 20 cm, the pressure of steam to be 9 41 sq cm by
gauge, coef ficient of friction between valve and seat to be 0.2. The stress
at the bottom of the screw thread is not to exceed 200 kg/sq cm. Determine
the diameter of a steel valve spindle, assuming the engine to be non-condensing.
Area of the valve face = 25 x 20 = 500 sq cm.
Normal force acting on the valve = 9 x 500 = 4,500 kg.
Frictional resistance to motion of the valve = 4500 x 0.2
= 900 kg.
The force in the valve rod will be due to frictional resistance
to the motion of the valve.
Maximum force in the valve rod = 900 kg.
900
Minimum cross sectional area of valve spindle _--.
200
= 4.5 sq cm.
Assuming the diameter of the valve spindle to be 3 cm, the
cross sectional area at the bottom of the threads will be 5.61 sq
cm if coarse threads are provided.
4. A lever loaded safety valve has a diameter of 7 cm and the blow
off pressure is 15 kg/sq cm. The fulcrum of the lever is screwed into the
cast iron body of the cover. Suggest the suitable size of the threaded part
of the fulcrum if the permissible tensile stress intensity is limited to 400
kg/sq cm. The leverage ratio is 10.
The valv6 is required to blow at a pressure of 15 kg/sq cm.
Tr
Load on the valve = 4- ,- x 72 x 15 --= 576 kg.
250 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

As the leverage is 10, the weight at the end of the lever will
76
be 5 = 57.6 kg. Load on the fulcrum will be 576 -- 57.6 =
10
518.4 kg. Fulcrum of the lever loaded safety valve is subjected •
to axial tensile load (fig. 12-23).
Minimum cross sectional area required at the bottom of the
8.4
threads = 51—4
-6-6 — 1.3 sq cm.

We assume coarse threads. We adopt M16 which has 1.57

sq cm area at the bottom of the thread. The pitch of the threads
is 2 mm. The minimum length of the threaded portion of the
fulcrum will be 32 mm.
5. Suggest the suitable size for the pillar of a boiler stop valve,
if the maximum compressive load on the spindle of the stop valve is
2,000 kg.
The pillars are made of mild steel. The compressive load
in the spindle is transmitted by the bridge to the two pillars which
are subjected to tensile load. The pillars are screwed into the
body cover at lower end and the top screwed portion receives the
nut. We assume permissible tensile stress intensity as 500 kg/sq cm.
00
Load on each pillar = 2 0 = 1,000 kg.
2
Minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread
1000
= — = 2 sq cm.
500
We adopt coarse threads on 20 mm diameter, which will
provide 2.45 sq cm area at the bottom of the thread.
Note: For rigidity, the diameter on the plain portion of the pillar may be
increased to 22 mm. The pillars are provided with collars at top and bottom es
shown in fig. 18-17. The lower collars have two flats machined on them to
take a standard spanner.

Exercises:
1. Calculate the axial tensile load that can be safely applied to a
M36 bolt, allowing a safe tensile stress of 550 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 4,500 kg.
2. A ball bearing company give in their tables the following approxi-
mate safe load on coarse threaded bolts:
Art. 542] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 251

Diameter in mm Safe load in kg

6 70
8 125
12 300
14 400
Upon what safe stress are these loads calculated?
Ans. 350 kg/sq cm.
3. If the eye-bolt not tnitially stressed is subjected to a direct load
of 3,500 kg, determine the nominal diameter of the eye bolt. Assume that
the permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt material is not to exceed
550 kg/sq cm. Ans. M33.
4. The cover of a hydraulic cylinder is secured by two studs. The
internal diameter of the cylinder is 5 cm and internal water pressure 60 kg/sq
cm. Taking safe stress of studs as 180 kg/sq cm, give the outside diameter
of the nearest practical stud. Ans. M24.
5. The cover of a main cylinder of a hydraulic machine is subjected
to a total load of 62,000 kg. It is closed by means of studs. The number
of studs used should be a multiple of four and it is better to use a large
number of small studs than a fewer of large size in order to give a more
uniform clamping pressure around the circumference. It was decided to
use 16 studs. Suggest the suitable size of the studs if the permissible stress
is not to exceed 600 kg/sq cm. Ans. M33.
6. The tension member of a jib crane is subjected to jz tensile force
of 4,500 kg. This member is round with coarse threads on each end.
Determine the diameter of the rod if the permissible stress intensity be
850 kg/sq cm. Ans. M30.
7. A connecting rod cap is fixed by two studs. The maximum
tensile load on the connecting rod is 700 kg. The studs are made of nickel
steel having an endurance limit of 3,150 kg/sq cm. Assume the factor
of safety to be 4.
Design and prepare a dimensioned free hand sketch of the stud with
a suitable nut. Ans. M16.
8. Find out the diameter of the screwed end of a piston rod for a
double acting steam engine having a cylinder of 30 cm diameter and the
maximum pressure of the entering steam not exceeding 8.4 kg/sq cm
gauge. Permissible stress intensity is not to exceed 420 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 4.5 cm.
252 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V
9. The face of a D slide valve is 40 cm x 25 cm. The effective
steam pressure on the valve is 8 kg/sq cm. If the coefficient of friction
between the valve and the cylinder face is 0.2, determine the pull or thrust
in the valve rod and design and sketch the valve rod end fitted to the valve.
Ans. 1,600 kg; 30 mm diameter based
on 300 kg/sq cm permissible stress.
10. A symmetrical balance weight of magnitude 40 kg is attached to
the crank web by 2 bolts having coarse threads. The crank rotates at 400
r.p.m. and the balance radius is 30 cm. Permissible tensile stress in the
bolt material due to inertia is limited to 400 kg/sq cm.
Ans. M25.
11. The poles of a generator running at 600 r.p.m. are connected to
their rotor by two bolts each. Calculate the size of the firing bolts having
coarse threads for a permissible tensile stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm. Each
pole weighs 50 kg and the centre of gravity of each pole is 30 cm from the
axis of the rotor. While designing bolts, test speed 60% higher than the
running speed should be considered.
Ans. M39.
5-13. Stresses due to combined load:
In case of steam engine cylinder cover joints, the bolts arc
subjected to initial tightening load as well as to steam load. The
resultant load on each bolt will depend upon relative elastic
yielding of the bolt and the connected members. If the con-
nected members are very yielding as compared with the bolt, the
resultant load on bolt will be approximately the sum of the external
load and initial tension. This will be the case when there will be a
soft gasket between the cylinder cover and the flange. If the bolt is
very yielding as compared with the connected members, the resultant load will
be either the external load or the initial tension whichever is greater. This
will be the case when there is metal to metal contact between the
cylinder flange and cover, or when there is a hard gasket between
the connected parts. The metal to metal joint is used for very high
pressures. The metal surfaces must be very precisely ground to
prevent leakage. This joint is very costly. So when the surfaces
are machine finished but not ground, a thin inelastic gasket made
of cooper or lead sheet or a thin asbestos sheet is introduced which
does not change the conditions materially.
The resultant load on bolt in general is given by the equation
P =-- Pi + KP2 (i)
Art. 5-13] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 253

where P = resultant load on the bolt

P1 = initial tightening load on the bolt
P2 = external load on the bolt

K= - where kb is the stiffness constant for

kb + kc
the bolt and kc is the stiffness constant for
compressed member.
Table 5-13.1 gives the values of
kb
K = kb- 4_ k- used by many designers while making
b c
preliminary calculations for the bolt design.

Table 5-13.1

Type of joint K

Metal to metal joint 0.00 to 0.10

Hard copper gasket 0.25 to 0.50
Soft copper gasket 0.50 to 0.75
Soft thick gasket 0.75 to 1.00

From the above discussion it is clear that it is not very easy

to calculate the stresses in bolts in a flanged joint. The difficulty
will be further increased as the initial tightening load will not be
known. In such circumstances the following design procedure
can be suggested:
We allow the nominal stress for the bolt material. In order
to get the resisting force for all the bolts, we assume that bolts are
called upon to resist a force equal to the full internal working
pressure acting over the area of the circle just touching the inner
side of the bolt holes. The pitch of the bolt is generally not more than
5 times the diameter of the bolt in order to make the joint fluid tight.
It is not less than 3 times the diameter of the bolt in order to have sufficient
room for tightening the nut by a wrench. Generally the number of bolts
are multiples of 2 or 3.
Sometimes the cylinder cover is spigoted into the cylinder
and if the fit is a good one, we may assume that bolts are called
upon to resist a force due to steam or gas pressure acting only
on the cross-sectional area of the cylinder.
In important joints, we should design the bolt as described
in the earlier part of the article. In such design (accurate design)
254 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

the higher permissible stress may be allowed depending on the

quality of the steel.
A characteristic feature in the selection of the allowable stresses
for pretensioned bolts is the dependence of the allowable stresses
both on the material and diameter of the bolt. This is due to the
fact that it is difficult to check the tightening force or the torque
moment on the wrench in shop conditions where there is a risk of
overtightening and twisting the bolts, primarily those with a small
diameter. That is why the allowable stresses assumed for small
diameter bolts are considerably lower than that for the large diameter
bolts.
Examples :
1. A cylinder cover of a steam engine is secured by 12 studs. The
cylinder is 30 cm diameter and has a steam pressure of 11 kg/sq cm by
gauge. Calculate the diameter of studs assuming the permissible stress
intensity to be 280 kg/sq cm.
Design note:
In connecting cover to the engine cylinder the studs are preferred to bolts
because the absence of bolt heads allows the flanges to be made narrower as a
result the bending stresses at the root of the flange will be decreased. There
will be no interference with the lagging round the cylinder. The depth of the
tapped hole should be 1.25d for steel casting, 1.5d to 1.75d for cast iron and 1.75d
to 2d for aluminium.
Let p = pressure of steam in the cylinder
n = number of studs for the joint
ft = permissible tensile stress intensity in bolt material
D = diameter of the cylinder
dc = diameter of the bolt at the bottom of the thread.
II: 7C
We have ,T.
, dc2 xfi xn= — x D2p
4
or dc = D 11 p
n x fi •
On substitution of numerical values, we get
30 ii 1
tic = 280 — 1.72 cm.
r 12 x
From is : 1862 — 1961; we adopt M18 studs.
2. The head of a steam engine cylinder 60 cm diameter is subjected
to a steam pressure of 13 kg/sq cm. The head is held in place by 16
M39 bolts. A copper gasket is used to make the joint steam tight.
Determine the probable stress in the bolt. Take K = 0.25.
Art, 5-13] BOLTS, NUTS ANn SCREWS 255

The resultant load on the bolt = P1 + Kp.

where P1 = initial tightening load and
P2 = applied load on the bolt.
Initial tightening load = 284d = 284 x 39 = 11,076 kg.
7C
X 602 x 13
4
Applied load on each bolt = = 2,300 kg.
16
Resultant load on bolt = 11076 + 0.25 x 2300
= 11,652 kg.
From table, the cross sectional area at the bottom of threads
for M39 bolt = 9.76 sq cm.
11 652
... Probable stress in the bolt — = 1,193 kg/sq cm.
9.76
3. The external load applied to a bolt fluctuates between zero and
800 kg. The ratio of the cm deflection per kg of load for the bolt to that
for the members is 3. The endurance limit of the bolt material in reversed
axial loading is 2,100 kg/sq cm and the yield point is 3,500 kg/sq cm.
The root area of the thread is 1.15 sq cm. Assume a stress concentration
factor of 2.5 and a factor of safety 1.8 based on the yield strength of the
material. The stress concentration factor takes into account the eject of
surface and size.
Determine the minimum initial tightening load that must be applied
to prevent separation. Plot the Soderberg working stress diagram for the
material and determine if the bolt is safely loaded based on an initial load as
determined earlier. ,...
The fatigue strength of a bolt depends upon the maximum
and minimum loads to which it is subjected. When the external
load Pg is fluctuating, the initial tightening load P1 should be
sufficient to prevent separation with a reasonable factor of safety.
Separation will be pending when the resultant load P is equal to
external bolt load P2. Then
Pa = Pi + IC Pa
or P1 Z Pg (1 — K) to prevent separation. When no separation
occurs, the load may vary between P1 and P1 + IC Pt The initial
tightennig load must be greater than or equal to
800 (1 — i) = 600 kg.
800
Maximum resultant load = 600 + -4- = 800 kg.
Minimum resultant load = 600 + 0 = 600 kg.
256 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V
800 + 600
Mean load = = 700 kg.
2
Variable load = 800 — 600 = 200 kg.
70 0
Average stress = 17— = 608 kg/sq cm.
.15
10 0
Variable stress component = 1 — 87 kg/sq cm.
.15
K x fr = 2.5 x 87 = 218 kg/sq cm.
Fig. 5-6 shows the Soderberg line. The sum of the average
and variable stress is shown at point A of the fig. 5-6. Since
the point A falls below the working stress line, the bolt is safely
loaded.

/5/N1
le _2100 _ n69 kg/sg cm
N — 18

sIke
fY
= 3500 = 1945
IP0,.. e, N 18
4. 14). kgisg cm
9 stees. 4,p
e,..„
4*e
fA
= 608 kglsg cm
218 kg/s9 cm
1Y/N

FIG. 5-6

It should be noted that the stress concentration factor is

applied only to variable stress components and not to average stress
components which may be considered as static.
Design Note:
Stress concentration at the root of a standard coarse thread is very high.
Photoelastic tests indicate stress concentration factors as high as 5 6. This may
not be too serious for bolts made of ductile material when subjected to static
loads. However the stress concentration factor has been found to reduce the en-
durance limit of standard coarse threads by factors ranging from 2 to 4. There-
fore the fluctuating stress in a threaded bolt must be multiplied by a suitable
stress concentration factor.
4. The cylinder head of a 25 cm x 45 cm Freon compressor is
attached by 10 studs made of C 1118 as rolled, the gas pressure being 14
Art. 5-13] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 257

kg/sq cm by gauge. The initial tension in the bolts, assumed to be equally

loaded such that a cylinder pressure of 28 kg/sq cm by gauge is required
for the joint to be on the point of opening. The bolted parts are cast steel
and for the first calculations, it will be satisfactory to assume the equi-
valent diameter of the compressed parts to be twice the bolt size. For a
design factor of 2, suggest the suitable size of the stud in accordance with
Soderberg criterion.

Design note:
The magnitude of the load carried by the bolts will depend upon three factors:
(a) the initial pre-tension in the bolts; (ii) the magnitude of the external load
and (c) the value of the stiffness coefficient.
The smaller the value of the stiffness coefficient, the less will be the proportion
of external load carried by the bolts. Also, the greater the initial pre-tension,
the less will be the value of the alternating load carried by the bolts. Since from
a fatigue view point, a fluctuating component is more damaging than a static
component, this suggests that a high pre-tension is desirable to resist fatigue failure.
In conclusion we can state that fatigue failure can be avoided by taking the
following precautions:
(i) The bolt should be as flexible as possible.
(ii) The connected member should be as rigid as possible.
(iii) The pre-tension in the bolt should be at least 30% in excess of the
maximum anticipated service load, provided that this does not induce shear
stresses in excess of about 90% of the torsional sheai strength of the material.
(iv) The nut material should be softer than the bolt material particularly
where high tension bolts arc involved.
The diameter of the compressor cylinder is 25 em and the
stroke 45 cm. For AISI C 1118, ultimate tensile strength is 5,200
kg/sq cm and yield strength 3,200 kg/sq cm.
TC X 252
Force on head = x 14 =---- 6,900 kg.
4
Force per stud = -9i0 = 690 kg.
Ice = 3 kb.
Icc
Initial load in stud = Q., X P2 x kb where Q, is the factor
kc
that depends upon the pressure required for the joint to open out.
28 kb
P1 = 14 x 690 x 3kb = 690 x 2 x I = 1,035 kg.
kb
Minimum load = 1,035 kg
kb
Maximum load = 1035 + 690 X — 1 ,515 kg.
kb ± 3kb
258 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V
1515
Average load = 1035 + = 1,275 kg.
2
Variable component of load = 240 kg.
We assume a stress concentration factor of 2.8 and the value of
endurance strength for reversed axial loading as 0.7 the value
of endurance limit in reversed bending. If A sq cm be the area at
the bottom of the thread, according to Soderberg criterion, we get,

1= [ 1275 ,_ 2.8 x 240

A x 3200 m 0.5 x 0.7 x 5200 x A]
1275 2.8 x 240]
or A = 2 = 1.54 sq cm.
[3200 + 1820
We adopt coarse threads. From tables we adopt M 18 studs.
Exercises:
1. Steam engine cylinder has 30 cm bore. The maximum steam
pressure is 9 kg/sq cm by gauge. Assume safe stress in studs to be 220
kg/sq cm, determine the diameter of studs and also their number.
Ans. M20; 12 studs.
2. A 60 cm diameter pressure vessel is to be used for the preservative
treatment of lumber. The treating cycle employs pressure upto 12 kg/sq cm
by gauge. The vessel is to use a head fastened with 12 bolts on 75 cm
pack circle diameter. Determine the diameter of the bolt allowing 350
kg/sq cm as the permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt material.
Ans. M39 bolts.

3. The cylinder head of an air compressor is held in place by steel

studs. The cylinder bore is 40 cm and the maximum air pressure is
9 kg/sq cm by gauge. The head to cylinder contact surfaces are ground
together, no packing being necessary. Determine the number and sizes of
studs to be used if 1,000 kg/sq cm is the permissible tensile stress
,. • •
intensity in bolt material. Ans. M16; 12 studs.
4. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 22 cm in diameter.
The pressure of the fluid is 140 kg/sq cm by gauge. Determine tke suitable
thickness of the cylinder wall assuming that the maximum permissible
stress is not to exceed 1,050 kglsg cm. Assuming 16 studs have been used
to connect the cover to the cylinder, determine the size of studs. Allowable
stress intensity in the bolt material is limited to 630 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 20 mm; M39 studs.
Art. 5-13] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 259
5. The diameter of the air cylinder of an air operated arbor press is,
20 cm in diameter and the cylinder assembly is held together by six tension
bolts which are of the length of the cylinder. The maximum operating air
pressure in the cylinder is 9 kg/sq cm and because of a back load on the
piston rod 4 kg/sq cm pressure must be maintained when the press is of
Experience with previous designs indicates that the gasket must be pre-
loaded with 2,000 kg force to prevent air leakage. liggest the suitable
diameter for the tension bolts which have rolled threads and are made of
steel having 5,400 kg/sq cm as the yield strength. Assume the factor of
operated safety to be 2.8 and kc = 3kb. Ans. M8.
6. A cast iron cylinder head is fastened to a 500 mm inside diameter
cylinder by means of 8 bolts. Consider the bolt to be extremely flexible
as compared to the bolted parts. For an internal pressure of 14 kg/sq cm,
what is the axial force on each bolt if the bolts were tightened just enough
to prevent the joint opening under a pressure of 20 kg/sq cm?
Ans. 4,900 kg.
7,. A through bolt is used to fasten two plates with a gasket between
the two plates. It is known that the ratio of deflection of the bolt per unit
load to the deflection of the bolted part per unit load is e. What percentage
of the applied load to the plates will be added to the initial tightening load
of the bolt? Assume that the plates will not separate under load.
Ans. 80% of the applied load goes into bolt.
8. The external load applied to a bolted joint fluctuates between
zero and 800 kg. The bolt is tightened with an initial load of 650 kg.
The root area of the bolt is 1.15 sq cm. The ratio of deflection per unit
load for the bolt to that for members is 3.
Determine the maximum and minimum bolt loads. Determine the
average stress and the variable stress, assuming a stress concentration factor
of 3 which includes surface and size effects. Plot the Soderberg working
stress diagram and determine if the bolt is safely loaded for a factor of safety
of 1.8. The material has a yield point of 2,800 kg/sq cm, and an endur-
ance limit in reversed axial loading of 1,400 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 850 kg; 650 kg; 655 kg/sq cm; 87 kg/sq cm.
The bolt is safely loaded.
.9. A cast iron Diesel Engine cylinder head is held on by 8 stud bolts
with coarse threads. These bolts are made of AISI 3140 steel. Assume
that the compressed material has an equivalent diameter twice the bore size.
The maximum cylinder pressure is 50 kg/sq cm and the bore of the engine
260 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

is 20 cm. The initial load in the bolt is such that a cylinder pressure of
100 kg/sq cm brings the joint to opening. For a design factor of 2, suggest
the suitable size of the bolt according to Soderberg criterion. Take the
stress concentration factor as 3.8, endurance strength in reversed axial
loading as 5,200 kg/sq cm and yield strength as 9,400 kg/sq. cm.
kc = 1.45kb. Ans. M16.
fk
10. A circular saw with 500 mm diameter is secured on a shaft
between two washers, and is held against slipping by the forces of friction
created by tightening the nut on the end of the shaft. Find the diameter of
the threaded portion of the shaft if the coefficient of friction between the
saw and the washer is 0-1. Inside diameter of the washer is 100 mm
and the outside diameter 140 mm. The resistance to cutting is 40 kg force.
Assume that the friction moment should be stronger than the moment of
cutting force by 25%. ft = 650 kg/sq cm. Ans. M30 x 2.
11. A cylinder of 100 mm bore and 150 mm stroke contains fluid under
pressure varying from 4 ata to 40 ata. The variation taking place 400
times/minute. The cylinder is fitted with fiate plates. The cylinder and
cover plates are made from fine grain cast iron.
Design the studs to fix cover plates to the cylinder assuming an asbestos
gasket is used. State clearly the effect of gasket on the initial tension of
the studs. Select suitable material for the studs.
(University of Bombay, 1976)

5-14. Bolts of uniform strength:

Sometimes the bolts are subjected to shock or impact loads
as in connecting rod bolts, fastening of power hammers and presses.
In such cases the bolts should be designed to absorb impact energy.
If a bolt of the useful form having a full sized shank and
threaded end is used to support an impact load, the larger part of
the energy will be absorbed in the threaded portion as the stresses
are higher in the threaded portion and the energy absorbed per
cubic centimetre is prdportional to the square of the stress. If
the shank of the bolt is reduced in diameter as shown in fig. 5-7(a)
shank of the bolt will undergo a higher stress and hence will absorb
a greater proportion of the energy thus relieving the material at the
section near the thread. A reduction in the shank area corres.
ponding to the thread root area will result in design of bolt of
Art. 5-14] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 261

uniform strength. Instead of turning down the body, the area of

the shank can be reduced to the root area by drilling a hole, as
shown in fig. 5-7(b), down to the thread end.
If d1 be the diameter of the hole to be drilled, then,
d1 = Vd2 — dc2 (i)
where d = nominal diameter of the bolt
dc = core diameter of the bolt.
The bolt with an axial hole is more expensive to manufacture
than a bolt with a shank of reduced diameter.

..__T
4 _....
I
(a)
•
/
L__ _ ______ _ _ i ___I —
--.
c,
r
(b)
Bolts of uniform strength
FIG. 5-7
Examples:
1. A M27 bolt has an effective length of 60 cm and i js subjected to
an impact load which is equivalent to a load of 100 kg acting through a
free distance of 0.5 cm. Determine the unit stress in a standard bolt and
in a bolt of uniform strength. What size hole must be drilled in a bolt
to make it a bolt of uniform strength? Assume the modulus of elasticity
to be 2.1 x 106 kg sq cm.
The stress induced in the shank of the bolt material is
2P [x I
given by f = — — -I- 1] (i)
Ae
where P = impulsive load
A = area of cross section of the shank
x = distance through which the impulsive load acts
e = total elongation of the bolt.
The above equation is obtained by equating the strain energy
to the external work done.
262 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

Iff be the stress induced in the bolt material, the total elonga-
tion of the bolt will be
f x
e= — 0.286f x 10-4 cm.
2.1 x6106
Area of cross section at the shank of the bolt = 5.72 sq cm.
On substitution of values in equation (i), we get
4. 2 x 100 r0.5 x 104 A_ 1 ] .
j = 5.72 L 0.286f -T-
From the above equation, we get f = 800 kg/sq cm.
800 x 5.72
The resultant stress at the threaded part will be
4.59
= 996 kg/sq cm.
If the bolt of uniform strength is used, the bolt shank area will
be equal to the root area of the thread and stress will be
it 2 x 100 r0.5 x 104 + 1] =
894 kg/sq cm.
= 4.59 1_ 0.286f
This stress is greater than 800 kg/sq cm for the standard bolt,
but its root area, which is the weakest point, is subjected to a
stress of 996 kg/sq cm. While the threaded part in the bolt of
uniform strength is subjected to a stress of 894 kg/sq cm. The
diameter of the axial hole should be equal to
, -1/4 (5.72 — 4.59)
gi = = 1.2 cm.
7C

2. A M16, 25 cm long bolt is subjected to an impact load. The

kinetic energy to be absorbed is 50 kg cm.
(a) Determine the stress in the shank of the bolt if there is no
threaded portion between the nut and the bolt head.
(b) Determine the stress in the shank if the area of the shank is
reduced to that of the root area of the threads.
n
The area of the shank is x 1.62 = 2.011 sq cm, while the
4
core area is 1.57 sq cm.
The energy of impact will be absorbed by elongation of the
bolt whose length is 25 cm. If F be force caused by impact and 8
the deformation caused by impact, then energy of impact U will
F
be iF x 8. Deformation will be equal to — where 1 is the
AE
length of the member undergoing deformation, A the area of cross
section which is uniform throughout and E the modulus of elasticity.
Art. 5-14] BOLTS, Nun AND SCREWS 263

F x 8 F Fl P1
••• U =
2 = x AE = 2AE
F . 112AEU
or
/ •
Assuming the modulus of elasticity to be 2.1 X 106 kg/sq cm.,
2 x 2.011 x 2.1 x 106 x 50
we get F = 11 = 4,100 kg (impact load).
25
If we neglect the stress concentration at the root of the threads,
4 100
the stress based on the root area will be 1.57 = 2,615 kg/sq cm.
If the diameter of the shank of the bolt is reduced to root dia-
meter, then
-1/2 x 1.57 x 25 x 106 x 50
F= = 3,640 kg (impact load).
2
Stress = 3640
1.57 — 2,320 kg/sq cm.

Design Note:
We notice that the stress due to impact may be reduced by making the shank
diameter equal to the root diameter of the thread by increasing the length of
the bolt.

Exercises:
I. A bolt is subjected to axial shock load so that maximum applied
load equals 1,180 kg. (a) Assuming an allowable stress of 560 kg/sq cm,
determine the size of the bolt using standard bolts. (b) It 'is desired to
increase the shock absorbing capacity of the above bolt, determine the dia-
meter of the hole required to reduce the cross sectional area of the shank to
that at the root of the threads. (c) Determine the percentage of improve-
ment in shock absorbing capacity by using the drilled bolt.
Ans. (a) M30; (b) 1.5 cm; (c) 100%.
2. A safety stop is composed of steel tension bolt of 50 cm long
and is arranged to catch a platform in case of failure of a support. In
this case each bolt is subjected to an impact load of 1,000 kg, dropping
through a distance of 1.2 mm. The bolts' are turned to 22 mm dia-
meter which is less than the root of the threads. Using a factor of safety
equal to 2, what mechanical property of the material and what value of
that property would you specO?
3. Derive an expression for the maximum stress induced in the shank
of a horizontal bolt of length l and area of cross section A when the head
264 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

of the bolt is subjected to an impact of a concentric weight W moving with a

velocity v, neglecting the effect of stress concentration and bending of bolt
______
due to weight W. -11 WE
Ans. -
gAI
5-15. Screwed boiler stays:
Most boilers have one or more large flat plates. When flat
plates are subjected to pressure, they will try to bulge out. The
bulging tendency of flat plates in boilers is prevented by members
known as stays.
The kinds of stays are: (a) gusset stays, (b) diagonal stays,
(c) longitudinal stays, (d) girder stays and (e) stay bolts.
Here, we are concerned with screwed boiler stays of the types longitudinal
through stays and stay bolts. Through stays run right through the boiler and
are liable to sag in the middle. As a result their use in a modern Lancashire
boiler fades away and it is confined to more compact cylindrical marine and
loco-type boilers. The main difference between through stays and stay bolts is
in fength only. When through stays are short, they are called stay bolts. They
are commonly found in water legs of locomotive boilers.
Let A .--- area of the plate supported by the stay
p = pressure of steam acting on the plate
ft -,-- safe tensile stress allowed in the stay.
Minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread of
A xp
the screwed stay = (i)
fi
When core area of the screwed stay is known, the diameter
for the stay rod can be specified.
The support afforded by screwed through stay is spread
over an increased area by using a thick washer under the outer
nut. This thick washer is riveted to the boiler end plate.
Examples:
1. Find the diameter of copper screwed stays in a boiler. Each
stay supports an area equal to a rectangle of 15 x 10 cm. The pressure
of steam is 11 kg/sq cm by gauge. The permissible tensile stress intensity
in the stay material is limited to 280 kg/sq cm.
The area supported by each stay = 15 x 10 = 150 sq cm.
The load on each stay = 150 x 11 = 1,650 kg.
1650
Minimum area at the bottom of the thread = —
280
= 5.9 sq cm.
Art. 9-16] BOLTS, NUTS AND scazws 265

From IS: 1362-1962, for coarse series, we adopt M33 diameter

stays.
2. The longitudinal bar stays of a short boiler are pitched at 35 cm
horizontally and vertically. The steam pressure is 7 kg/sq cm by gauge.
Find the diameter of the stay, the material being mild steel having the
safe tensile stress as 500 kg/sq cm.
Area of plate supported per stay = 35 x 35 = 1,225 sq cm.
Load on longitudinal bar stay = 1225 x 7 = 8,757 kg.
8757
Minimum area at the bottom of the thread =
500
= 17.5 sq cm.
From the table, we adopt 6 cm diameter stays.
Exercises:
1. A fiat surface in a marine boiler is constructed of 2 cm plates
with wrought iron screwed stays 15 cm apart horizontally and vertically.
The pressure of steam is 5 kg/sq cm. If the safe stress for the screw is
280 kg/sq cm, suggest the suitable diameter for the stay. Ans. M27.
2. The longitudinal .stay of a boiler 5 metre long supports an area
40 cm x 40 cm on each end plate. The working pressure of the boiler
is 10 kg/sq cm by gauge. Determine the diameter of the longitudinal stay if the
permissible tensile stress intensity in the stay due to steam pressure alone is
limited to 500 kg/sq cm. Show by sketches how the ends of the stays are
connected to the end plates of the boiler. Ans. M 76.
5-16. Bolts subjected to shear: Or

Screws subjected to shearing stress should be avoided as far

as possible by the use of dowel pins fitted accurately into place
after the screws have been fitted. Where it is not possible to use
dowel pins, bolts should be fitted tightly into reamed holes.
A bolted joint to withstand shear is designed by the formula
A .--- —P- . (i)
n. fs
where P = total shear load on bolts
n = number of bolts
fs = working shear stress in bolts
A = area of cross section of the body of the bolt.
Having determined the area, the diameter of the bolt can be
obtained. The plane of shear should never be across threaded
portion of the shank. In the best design, the diameter of the shank
266 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

is made slightly larger than the threaded part of the bolt to avoid
injury to the thread. When bolt is subjected to both tension and
shear as in common bearing, the diameter of the shank is approxi-
mated from shear load and threaded part from tension load. A
diameter slightly larger than that required for either shear or
tension can be assumed and stress due to combined shear and
tension should be checked by the formula
fs max = i (Vfi2 + 4fsa) (ii)
ft max = Eft + Vfi2 ± 4fi2) (iii)
Maximum values of shear stress and principal stress should
not exceed the permissible limits.
Example:
1. An overhung gear transmits 30 h.p. at 120 r.p.m. The gear
wheel is connected to the flange by means of four bolts on a pitch circle
diameter of 20 cm. If the permissible shear stress in the bolt material
is not to exceed 300 kg/sq cm, suggest the suitable size for the bolt.
71620 0x 30
Torque to be transmitted to gear= .17,900 kg cm.
12
20
Pitch circle radius = — = 10 cm.
2
17900
Shearing load on all the bolts = — 1,790 kg.
10
79 0
Shear load on each bolt = 1 -4— = 447 kg.
447
Area of cross section of the body of the bolt
= 300
= 149 sq cm.
The suitable diameter of the bolt will be 14 cm.
Exercises:
I. A single plate clutch transmits 20 h.p. at 1,200 r.p.m.
The driving unit is connected to the driving shaft by means of four medium
carbon steel bolts placed on a 12 cm pitch circle diameter. Determine
the suitable diameter of the bolt if the permissible shear stress is limited
to 140 kg/sq cm. Ans. M18.
2. What is $he maximum horse power that can be transmitted safely
by a flange coupling with 6-1 cm diameter bolts on a 8 cm diameter bolt
circle when revolving at 1,000 r.p.m.? Use a design shear stress of
210 kglsg cm. Ans. 5;5 h.p.
3. A mild steel M24 bolt is subjected to a direct pull of 1,200 kg
and to a shearing force of 1,000 kg. Find the maximum tensile and
shearing stresses for the bolt. Ans. 500 kglsg cm; 331 kg/sq cm.
Art. 5-17 ] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 267

4. A shaft transmits 125 h.p. at a speed of 270 r.p.m. The ends

are connected by a flange coupling with a flange thickness of 2 cm and bolts
on 20 cm pitch circle. Make calculations to determine the number of bolts
needed and to check the flange thickness. Use a design stress of 240 kg/sq cm
for bolts in shear and 1,000 kg/sq cm for the flange in crushing.
Ans. 6 bolts.
5-17. Bolts under eccentric loading:
In many engineering applications the bolts are subjected to
an eccentric loading. There are two possible cases: (a) the direc-
tion of the load is parallel to the axis of the bolt (b) the direction
of the load is perpendicular to the axis of the bolt. Bolts are
subjected to tensile loading only when the direction of the load
is parallel to the axis of the bolt. When the load is perpendicular
to the axis of the bolt, shear as well as tensile stresses are induced.
Shear stresses can be avoided by fitting dowel pins correctly.
(a) When load is parallel to the bolt axis —
(i) Rectangular base
Bolts holding a bracket as shown in fig. 5-8 are not efficient.
The load tends to rotate the bracket about the edge 00, thus
stretching each bolt by the amount depending upon its distance
from the tilting edge. All the bolts are not equally stressed.
However, for convenience and economy, all the bolts are made of
the same size.
a.

Fastening of a bracket
FIG. 5-8
As the flange is heavy, it may be considered to be a rigid
body. In order to determine the force in any bolt, the following
procedure is followed:
Let W be the load in a bolt, situated at a unit distance from
the tilting edge due to the turning tendency of the bracket.
268 1 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

Load in a bolt at a distance 4 from the tilting edge will be

W4. The moment of this. load about the tilting edge will be W/12.
There are two bolts situated at a distance 4 from the tilting edge.
Thus the resisting moment due to these two bolts will be 2 W4.2.
Similarly the resisting moment due to two bolts situated at a dis-
tance 4 from the tilting edge will be 2 W122. By equating the
moment of the bolt loads about the tilting axis to the moment
of load P about the same axis, we have
PL = 2 W (42 ± /22) (i)
From equation (i), W, the load in a bolt situated at a unit
distance can be calculated.
W ...,.. PL
••• (ii)
2(42 + 122)
When load in a bolt situated at a unit distance is known, the
loads in individual bolts can be obtained.
The load in bolts situated at a distance 4 from the tilting edge
will be W4 and in bolts situated at a distance /2 from the tilting
edge will be W12.
In general, the most heavily loaded bolts are those at the greatest
distance from the edge of turning. When the maximum load in a bolt
is known, the size of a bolt for any allowable stress can be
obtained. In our case the maximum load for a bolt will be
PL 12
2(42 + 122)
(ii) Circular base:
Columns or machine members are frequently made with a
circular base similar to that shown in fig. 5-9 in which a represents
the radius of the column flange and b the radius of the bolt pitch
circle. To simplify the discussion, a round flange bearing with
six bolts will be analysed. We number the bolts as shown.
Adopting a notation similar to that used with rectangular base,
and by equating the external moment PL by the sum of the
moments of the bolt loads about the axis AB, we get
PL= 14,7(42 + 122 ± 132 ± /42 + /52 + 42)
PL
or 147 = (42 + / 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 + / 2)
2 3 4 5 5
From the geometry of the figure
4 = a — b cos° 14 = a + b cog)
Art. 5-17 ] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 269

12 = a- b cos(13 + 60) is = a ± b cos(0 + 60)

/3 =--- a + b cos(60 - 0) /1 = a - b cos(60 - 0)
Substituting these values in (iii), we get
PL
W=( (iv)
6a2 + 3b2)
PL (a- b cos())
Load in a bolt situated at 1 - (v)
(6a2 ±3b2)
Now to determine the maximum load for a given moment
PL and dimensions a and b, it is evident that this occurs when cos0
is minimum i.e., cos° - - 1, which is the case when 0 = 180°.
PL a( +
Maximum load in a bolt will be - - - b2) (vi)
3(2a2 -I- )
A A

FIG. 5-9 FIG. 5-10

In general if we have n bolts equally spaced along a pitch
circle radius b, maximum load in a bolt will be
2PL (a + b)
(vii)
n (2a2 + b2)
The maximum value should be used if the direction of load
can change with relation to the bolts as in the case of a pillar
crane. If the direction of load is fixed, the maximum load on
the bolt can be reduced by positioning the bolts so that two of
them will be equally stressed as shown in fig. 5-10.
The maximum load for the bolt in such a case will be

2PL
(a + b cos 1800
n
)
—x . (viii)
n (2a2 + 62)
270 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

When the maximum load for a bolt is known, 'the size of the
bolt can be obtained.
(b) When load is perpendicular to the axis of the bolt:
Fig. 5-11 shows the connections by means of bolts in which
the direction of the load is perpendicular to the bolt axis. Fig.
5-11(a) represents a solid cast iron flanged bearing frequently
found on heavy machine tools. Due to power transmitted the
bearing is subjected to a load P which tends to produce shearing
stress in each of the bolts. If the bolts are fitted in reamed holes,
they are assumed to be stressed equally. If rough bolts are used
in clearance holes, the shear load will be distributed between two
bolts. Generally dowel pins are used to take shear load. In fig.
5-11(a), two dowel pins are shown. Hence bolts should be de-
signed to carry tensile load only.
Due to eccentric load P the bearing is subjected to an external
moment PL, which must be balanced by an equal moment due
to the tension set up in bolts. The maximum load on each bolt
can be obtained by the procedure explained earlier.
P

Fastening of a circular base bracket and a flanged bearing

FIG. 5-11(a)
The diameter of the bolt is assumed and direct shear stress
is calculated if no dowel pins are used. Similarly, we calculate
the maximum tensile load coming upon the bolt which is farthest
from the tilting edge. Two stresses are combined and the
resultant stress should not exceed the permissible limit.
The other procedure will be to determine the equivalent
tensile load T, = il7 T + V T2 + 401 (ix)
or equivalent shear load QE = i IV T2 + 4Q21 (x)
where T = maximum tensile load coming on any bolt
Q = average shear load coming on the same bolt.
Art. 5-17] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 271

When equivalent loads are known, the size of the bolt can be
specified when allowable stresses are known.
The projecting lip is provided for rectangular base to take
the direct shear as shown in fig. 5-11(b).
P

Fastening of a rectangular base bracket

FIG. 5-11 (b)
The methods discussed in article 4-10 in connection with rivets
may be applied to eccentrically loaded bolted assemblies also.
Examples:
1. The pillar crane shown in fig. 5-12
is fastened to the foundation by 12 bolts spaced
equally on a bolt circle of 180 cm diameter.
Determine the size of the bolt when a load of
4,000 kg acts at a radius of 800 cm. The
diameter of the pillar flange is 210 cm. The
allowable stress intensity for the bolt material
is 900 kesq cm.
The maximum load on a bolt of a
pillar crane foundation will be
T=
2P (L — a) (a + b) 2a
X
n (2a2 + b2)
where FIG. 5-12
T = maximum load on a bolt
P = maximum value of eccentric load
L = the eccentricity of the load
a = radius of the pillar flange
n = number of foundation bolts
b = radius of the bolt pitch circle.
272 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. V

We have (L — a) = 800 — 105 = 695 cm.

On substitution of values, we get
2 x 4000 x 695 (105 + 90) ___ 6,500 kg.
T ----- x
12 (2 x 1052 + 902)
Minimum cross sectional area required at the bottom of the
500
thread = -6- = 7.22 sq cm.
900
From IS: 1362-1962, we adopt M36.
2. What load is the crane runway bracket shown in fig. 5-13 capable
of supporting if the stresses produced in the two 25 mm bolts used in fastening
the bracket to the roof truss is limited to 700 kg/sq cm?
There are two bolts; one at 3.7 cm from the tilting edge and
the other at 33.7 cm from the tilting edge. The distance between
the tilting edge and the line of action of the load is 45 cm. Let
P be the maximum load that a bracket
can support. We assume that the bolt nearer i 37
300 14- 37
to the tilting edge carries no load, the assumption
being on the safer side.
The probable cross sectional area at
the bottom of 25 mm bolt having coarse
threads will be 3.54 sq cm. As the per-
missible stress in the bolt material is limit-
ed to 700 kg/sq cm, the maximum load 25 [Link]
in the bolt should not exceed, 3.54 x 700
= 2,478 kg. By equating the external *‘
tilting moment to the moment due to FIG. 5-13
bolt load, we get

2478 x 33.7 = P x 45
2478 33.7
or P. 1,860 kg.
45
3. A bearing similar to one shown in fig. 5-11(a) is fastened to the
frame of a machine by means of four cap screws spaced equally on 25 cm
pitch circle. The bearing flange is 35 cm in diameter. The load of
3,500 kg is located at 12.5 cm from the frame. Assuming that the cap
screws are relieved from all shearing action by the use of two 20 mm dowel
pins, suggest the suitable diameter for the cap screw, assuming 550 kg/sq
cm as the allowable stress intensity in the material of the cap screw.
Art. 5-17 ] DOLTS) NUTS AND SCREWS 275

We assume that the direction of load is fixed and the bolts

are so located that two of them will be equally stressed.
With usual notation the maximum load on a cap screw is
given by
T_ 2P_LI a + b cos 180/n 1 .
n 1 2a2 + 0
On substitution of values, we get
2 x 3500 x 12.5 f 17.5 + 12.5 cos 451
T= ------ 1,250 kg.
4 t 2 x 17.52 + 12.52
As the permissible stress intensity is not to exceed 550 kg/sq cm,
the minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread
1250
will be -6-5--0- = 2.27 sq cm.
From IS : 1362-1962, we adopt M 20.
4. Fig. 5-14 shows the dimensions for the forked attachment of
a tie bar to a jib in 5 tonne wall crane. The line of action of pull in a tie
bar is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. The maximum value
of the pull in the tie bar is 6,500 kg. Determine the size of the bolt when
the allowable tensile stress intensity in bolt material is limited to 850 kg sq cm.

125 ti!
25 25

18 1.1 1*-18 341t*---

4. 62
-+134 6500 k9

FIG. 5-14
Resolving the pull of 6,500 kg in two components — vertical
and horizontal — we get: k

Horizontal component =6500 cos 30°=stoo x 0.866=5,630 kg.

Vertical component = 6500 sin30° = 6500 x 0.5 = 3,250 kg.
Vertical component produces a direct tensile load in each
2 50
bolt = 3---4 = 812.5 kg.
Horizontal load produces a direct shear load in each bolt
5630
= = 1,410 kg.
4
274 MACHINE DESIGN' t Ch. 17

In addition, the horizontal load produces tensile load due

to its moment about the tilting edge. If W be the load in the
bolt situated at a unit distance from the tilting edge, we get
5630 x 6.2 = 2 W[2.52 + 152] = 2 W (231)
5630 x 6.2
Or W= = 75.6 kg.
2 x 231
The maximum tension load due to the tilting action will be
in bolts at the right and will be 75.6 x 15 = 1,135 kg.
Total tension on these bolts = 1135 + 812.5 = 1,947.5 kg.
Shear load on each bolt = 1,410 kg.
•• . Equivalent tensile load will be P where
P = H1947.5 + 1 1947.52 + 4-3.c14102] = 2,686 kg
The permissible tensile stress intensity is 850 kg/sq cm.
• • Minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread
2686 =
3.16 sq cm.
— 850
From metric table, we adopt M24 bolt having 3.53 sq cm
area at the bottom of the thread.
In fact area of 3.16 sq cm is required for the shank of the bolt
and not at the bottom of the threads as the core section is not
subjected to a shear load.

Exercises :
1. The pillar crane shown in fig. 5-12 is fastened to the foundation
by 8 bolts spaced equally on a bolt circle, the diameter of which is 2b.
Derive an expression for the maximum load coming upon any bolt, assuming
the diameter of the pillar flange to be 2a, in terms of load P and eccentricity
L. Determine the size of the bolts having given the following data:
P = 5,000 kg; L = 500 cm; 2a = 180 cm; 2b = 160 cm.
Allowable tensile stress intensity is 700 kg/sq cm.
Ans. P (L — a) ( a-Fb_\ .
M30.
4 k 2a2 4=12)1
2, The crane runway bracket shown in fig. 5-13 carries a maximum
load of 1,500 kg. If the bracket is connected to the roof truss by two
coarse threaded bolts and if the permissible tensile stress intensity in the
bolt material is limited to 630 kg sq cm, determine the nominal diameter
of the bolt. Ans. M27.
Art. 5-171 BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 275

3. A bearing similar to one shown in fig. 5-11(a) is fastened to

the frame by 6 bolts spaced equally on a 25 cm bolt circle. The bear:ng
flange diameter is 30 cm and the load of 4,200 kg is applied at 27.5 cm
from the frame. Determine the size of the bolts and tensile, shear and
resultant stresses produced on each of the bolts (a) with two bolts located
in the vertical plane of symmetry of the bearing and (b) with two bolts
located in the horizontal plane of symmetry of the bearing. Assume the
permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt material to be 850 kgIsq cm.
Ans. M20.
4. The inside diameter of the stator of a 100 KW, 960 r.p.m.
motor is 100 cm. Starting torque may be assumed to be 200 per cent of
the running torque. The maximum belt pull on the motor shaft is 900 kg.
The shaft centre is 62.5 cm above the base line. There are four founda-
tion bolts spaced 65 cm on centres axial?), and 110 cm on centres normal
to the axis. The width of the base is 125 cm. Determine the load on
each bolt and the proper diameter for these bolts. Permissible tensile
stress intensity in the bolts is 850 kg/sq cm. Ans. M12.
5. The screw of a shaft straightener as shown in fig. 5-15 is subjected
to a maximum load of 2,000 kg. Determine the size of the two bolts
required to fasten the straightener to the base, assuming the allowable stress
to be 550 kgIsq cm. Neglect tightening up stresses. Ans. M30.

375
Ii 300 1,
—A
:

2000 kg 100 kg ip
0 P 2000129
150 -01 250

FIG. 5-15 FIG. 5-16

6. A pulley bracket is supported by four bolts two at A and two

at B as shown in fig. 5-16. The weight of the pulley and the bracket
equals 100 kg and the load on the rope, P, is 2,000 kg. Assuming that
the bracket is held against the wall and prevented from tipping about 0 by
276 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. V
two bolts at A (i.e. neglecting the bolts at B) and using an allowable tensile
stress in the bolts as 400 kg/sq cm, determine the size of bolts required.
Ans. M27.
7. In the machine frame shown in fig. 5-17(a), the guide post is
bolted to the base by means of eight bolts, four on each side. Determine
the proper size of bolts assuming 700 kg/sq cm as the permissible tensile
stress intensity in the bolt material.
Ans. 30 mm.
8. Fig. 5-17(b) shows the column of a
press secured to the bottom of the block by 8
bolts. The load P = 5,000 kg lies in the plane
of the radial arm but is inclined at an angle of
30° to the vertical. Suggest the suitable diameter
of the bolt, if the maximum permissible tensile
0
and shear stresses are limited to 850 and 650
kg/sq cm respectively. no. 5-17(a) and (b)
9. Calculate the size of the bolts for the three hole bracket as shown
in fig. 5-18. Use coarse threads and a design stress of 270 kg/sq cm.
Ans. M20.

\2000 kg

FIG. 5-18 no. 5-19

10. Fig. 5-19 shows a cap screw subjected to a load of 2,000 kg
inclined at an angle 45°. Determine the size of the screw if the tensile
stress intensity in the material is limited to 560 kg/sq cm and shear stress
intensity in the material to 450 kg/sq cm. Ans. 50 mm.
5-18. Design of a nut:
The calculation of the stresses in bending, shear and compres-
sion that are set up in the threads of a bolt and nut of mild steel are
Art. 5-Y9] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 277

not required if the effective height of a nut is made equal to the

nominal diameter of the bolt. When a nut is made of weaker
material than the bolt, the nut should have larger thicknesses such
as 1 id for gun metal, 2d for cast iron and 2id for aluminium alloys.
Where cast iron or aluminium is used, V threads are permissible
for permanent fastenings because frequent screwing and unscrewing
may damage the threads. When bolts are to be screwed and
unscrewed frequently, screwed in steel bushing for cast iron and
cast in bronze or monel metal insert should be used for aluminium
and it should be drilled and tapped in place.

5-19. Power transmitting capacity of set screws:

They are used only where the force transmitted is low. Mr.
B.H.D. Pinckney gives the following expression for the safe holding
power of a cup or flat pointed set screws in terms of tangential
force at the surface of the shaft.
If D cm be the diameter of the shaft on which the set screw
of diameter d is pressed, then
d = 0.125D + 0.8 cm (i)
The tangential force at the surface of a shaft in kg is given by
F = 132d2.3 kg (ii)
If T be the torque transmitted by a set screw in kg cm, then
FD
T .---- - kg cm (iii)
2
TN
H.P. transmitted = (iv)
71620
where N is the speed of the shaft in r.p.m.

Example:
1. A 15 cm pulley is fastened to a 3 cm shaft by a set scrw. If a
net tangential force of 30 kg is applied to the surface of the pulley, what
size screw should be used when the load is steady?
15
Force on the set screw = 30 X — = 150 kg. Let us adopt a
3
design factor of 3. Holding force required = 150 x 3 = 450 kg.
If d cm be the diameter of the set screw, then 450 = 1320.3
2.8 4:5-
0—
or d = V -- = 1.157 cm; we adopt 12 mm.
132
278 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. V

Exercises:
1. A lever 40 cm long is fixed to the spindle 50 mm diameter by
means of a set screw. Suggest the suitable size of the set screw, for a
design factor of three. 20 kg will be the maximum force that will be
applied at the end of a lever.
Ans. 3.25 cm.
2. A 30 cm gear is mounted on a 5 cm shaft and is held in place by
a 12 mm set screw. For a design factor of 4, what would be the tangential
load that could be applied to the teeth? Ans. 8.3 kg.

EXAMPLES V

1. For ease of transportation, heavy flywheels are cast in pieces and assembled
at the site. In such a type of flywheel the cross sectional area of the rim is 70
sq cm and the maximum hoop stress in the rim is limited to 110 kg/sq cm.
Suggest the suitable size of the bolts, two in number, required to join two sections
at the rim if the tensile stress in the run is limited to 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. M36.
2. A symmetrical cast iron balance weight is attached to the crank web
by two long bolts, which pass through clear holes and therefore incapable of carry-
ing any shear force. Suggest the suitable size of the bolt if the permissible tensile-
stress intensity in the bolt material is limited to 350 kg/sq cm. The distance
between the axis of the crankshaft and the centre of gravity of the balance weight
is 30 cm. The crank shaft rotates at 360 [Link]. Ans. M20.
3. Design, giving a neat sketch, an eye bolt to lift the upper casing, of an
experimental Parson's reaction turbine, weighing 1,500 kg. Find how far the
screwed end of the eye bolt should be inserted in the cast steel body for which
permissible shear stress may be taken as 300 kg/sq cm. The permissible tensile
stress intensity may be taken as 600 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 22 mm diameter with 25 mm threaded length.
4. A hanger bracket for a line shaft is fixed by eight bolts as shown in fig.
5-20. The axis of the shaft is 10" (25 cm) below the ceiling and belt load is
equivalent to a horizontal pull of 2,400 lb (1,200 kg). The thickness of hanger
flapge is 5/8" (1.5 cm) and that of the ceiling beam is 3/4" (18 mm).
Design and draw a working (free hand) sketch of one of the bolts. Permis-
sible stresses in bolts are 5,000 psi (350 kg/sq cm) and 4,000 psi (280 kg/sq cm)
in tension and shear respectively. (Gujarat University, 1953)
5. In fig 5-21 the column of a drill press bolted to a cast iron base by cap
screws is shown. Under the action of the load of 5 tons (5 tonnes) the screws are
elongated in proportion to the distance of their centres from the tilting edge.
Assuming that the base and column are infinitely rigid, determine a suitable size
for the screw from B.S.W. table (Metric table) using an allowable stress value in
tension for the material of the bolt of 12,500 psi (875 kg/sq cm). If you use a
formula, prove it. (Roorkee University, 1953)
Ex. VI ] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS 279

6. A pillar crane has a circular base 60 cm diameter and is fixed to the con-
crete base by 4 M30 bolts equally spaced on a bolt circle 500 mm diameter.
(a) Find the distance of the load from the centre of the pillar in the position
`XX' so that a load of 6 tonnes may be lifted without stressing the bolt in excess
of 600 kgisq cm. (b) Determine, also, the stress if the load is applied on a line 27
of the boom, at the same distance as in (a). See fig. 5-22.
7. The pillar crane shown in fig. 5-23 is fastened to the foundation by
12 bolts spaced equally on a bolt circle of diameter 2b. Derive an expression
for the maximum load corning upon any one bolt, assuming the diameter of
the pillar flange as 2a.

600Dia.

9
[Link] 500
P.C.D.
FIG. 5-20 FIG. 5-21 FIG. 5-22
Determine the size of the foundation bolts using the following data:
Load P=10 tonnes; radius L= 6 metre; diameter of pillar flange circle = 240
cm; bolt circle diameter = 200 cm and permissible tensile stress on bolts = 4.3
kgfsq mm.

-40 111M
1 T thick
— pir, -250
—1-411 .Oat .,
Section AA

FIG. 5-23 FIG. 5-24

8. Fig. 5-24 gives incomplete details of a cast iron hanger bracket. The
journal diameter is 55 mm and it is 125 mm long. If the weight of the bracket
be neglected, find (a) the maximum value of the tensile stress in section AA.
(b) the size of the four supporting bolts if the safe stress is limited to 630 kgisq cm.
The loading may be taken as vertical and equal to 20 kg/sq cm of bearing
area.
280 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. V

Complete the design, including the bearing and give sketches showing the
main dimensions. Ans. 115 kg/sq cm; M18.
9. Discuss the uses and relative merits of bolting, riveting and welding as
means of fastening. Explain why in some bolts part of the shank is turned down
to the core diameter of the threads.
The pulley bracket shown in fig. 5-25 is to be fastened to the back of the
vertical channel stanchion by six bolts in single shear, spaced as shown. A hori-
zontal rope passes over the pulley and supports a counter balance weight weighing
1,250 kg. The rope force may be assumed to act in the plane of the bolted joint.
Determine the greatest shearing force set up on a bolt and hence select a
suitable bolt diameter, using a working shear stress of 6.5 kg/sq mm.
Ans. 1,428 kg; M20 bolt.

300
L„...11 1250 kg
200 x 80 channel i 20 Tonne

FIG. 5-25 Fio. 5-26

10. In fig. 5-26 is shown a round rod R forming part of the swivelling
crane hook which has to carry a maximum load of 20 tonnes. Calculate the
dimensions of the rod R, the supporting block S with two end bearing B-B
and the collar C.
Assume a tensile stress of 11 kg/sq mm for the screwed portion of the rod,
bearing pressure of 140 kg/sq cm for the collar and for the end bearings and
tensile stresses of 7.5 kg/sq mm for the supporting block. Make a neat
dimensioned sketch of the end view of the assembly without bearings.
11. A shaft is supported on a wall bracket by 3 bolts. Find the size of the
bolts, required for a permissible tensile stress of 400 kg/sq cm. The maximum
force exerted by the shaft on the bracket is 2,000 kg and it acts vertically down-
wards at a distance of 300 mm from the wall. Assume bolts to be arranged in a
triangular fashion with two bolts 100 mm below shaft centre and third bolt 400
mm below shaft centre. The lower edge of the bracket is 50 mm below the
lower bolt. Sketch the arrangement. (M. S. University of Baroda, 1965)

12. A pedestal bearing is supported by a I hanger. A vertical load of

1,500 kg is acting down on the bearing. The square base of the hanger is fixed
with ceiling by 4 bolts. The distance between the centre lines of the bolts is
20 cm. The load line is 4 cm away from the vertical line through the c.g. of the
Ex. V] BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS • 281
base of the hanger. Find a suitable diameter for the bolts. The tensile stress
for the bolt material is limited to 350 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
13. Calculate the diameter of the screwed end of a piston rod for a double
acting steam engine:
Cylinder diameter 30 cm
Maximum steam pressure at entrance 8 kg/sq cm
Condenser pressure 0.136 kg/sq cm
Permissible stress in the rod 250 kg/sq cm (Bombay University, 1967)
14. In an air operated press the piston rod for operating the cylinder must
exert a maximum force of 400 kg. The air pressure in the cylinder is 7 kg/sq
cm gauge. Calculate the diameter of the cylinder bore required, assuming that
the overall friction due to stuffing box and piston packing is equivalent to 10%
of the maximum force exerted by the piston rod. The cylinder bore should be
selected on the basis of 5 mm increment. Also determine the thickness of the
cylinder, assuming that it is a seamless steel tubing. The allowable tensile stress
for the steel tubing is 200 kg/sq cm.
If the bolts of size M7 for the cover are used, find the number of bolts
required. The allowable stress for the bolts is 350 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1968)
15. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 22 cm in diameter. The
pressure of the fluid is 140 kg/sq cm by gauge. Determine the suitable thickness
of the cylinder wall assuming that the maximum permissible stress is not to exceed
1,050 kg/sq cm. Assuming 16 studs have been used to connect the cover to
the cylinder, determine the size of the studs. Allowable stress intensity in the
bolt material is limited to 630 kg/sq cm. (Bombay University, 1971)
16. (a) The pillar crane is fastened to the foundation by 'n' bolts spaced
equally on a bolt circle of diameter '26'. Derive an expression for the maximum
load coming upon any bolt assuming the diameter of the pillar flapge as '2a'.
(b) Determine the size of foundation bolts using the following data:
(i) Load 8 tonnes
(ii) Distance between load centre and pillar centre 500 cm
(iii) Pillar flange diameter 220 cm
(iv) Bolt circle diameter 180 cm
(v) Permissible tensile stress 400 kg/sq cm. (University of Bombay, 1975)

17. The bolts which connect the cylinder head to the cylinder block of an
I.C. engine are subjected to impact loading. Explain how you would proceed to
design these bolts. Illustrate your answer by designing the size and number of
bolts for the cylinder head of a Diesel engine with cylinder diameter of 200 mm.
What would be the initial tension in the bolts so that the joint does not open
under impact? (Bombay University, 1976)
18. Design and draw a sketch of an eye bolt to be screwed into the frame of
an electric motor weighing 400 kg, the allowable stress in the bolt shank on
lifting the motor being 500 kg/sq cm. Use coarse threads.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER 6
COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS

(A) DESIGN OF COTTERED JOINTS

6-1. Introduction:
A cotter is a flat wedge-shaped piece of steel which is used
to connect rigidly rods which transmit motion and to work in the
direction of their lengths, without rotation. Such a joint may be
subjected to tensile and/or compressive forces along the axes of
the rods. Examples of cottered connections are the connection of
piston rod to the crosshead of an engine, pump or compressor,
valve rod and its stem, a steam engine connecting rod strap end, a
rod connecting a steam cylinder to a base plate in a marine
engine, a piston rod and its extension as a tail or pump rod, etc.
When a cotter joint is used to connect two rods, one of the
rods is made with a socket end B, as shown in fig. 6-1, into which
the other end A fits or a separate sleeve fits over the end of each
rod as shown in fig. 6-2. The cotter C is driven tightly through
the sleeve and rod ends or through socket and rod ends. The
slots are made little wider than the cotter. The cotter tapers in
width and not in thickness and the usual taper is 1 in 24. The
relative positions of the slots are such that the driving in of the
cotter tends to force the rod into the socket. The taper of the
slot as well as on the cotter is usually on one side. Clearances
between the cotter and slots in the rod end and socket allow the
driven cotter to draw together the two parts of the joint until
the socket end comes in contact with the collar on the rod end as
shown in fig. 6-1. The bearing edges of the cotter and rods are generally
made semi-circular as this gives a better surface than square edges, and
allows the cotter holes to be drilled. The draw of the cotter need not
exceed 3 mm.
The advantage of this joint is that it can be quickly and
easily made or taken apart and the parts always occupy exactly
the same relative positions after re-assembly.
Art. 6-2]. COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 283

6-2. Design of cottered joints (fig. 6-1) :

We assume that the rod end, socket end and cotter are made
of the same material. Let ft, fs and fc be permissible tensile,
shearing and crushing stress intensities respectively. Let P be
the tensile force to which the joint is subjected. The failure of
such a joint may take place in any one of the following ways
discussed below :

Clearance 2 to 3mm
--'1# t 1 -4P

Y
omajr•••

em
OE/
13

\
Cotter L A

/ --k- Thickness t
C
Cotter joint
FIG. 6-1
(a) Tension failure of the rods at diameter t/:
The area that resists tearing of the rods is 7C4 d2 and the internal
n
resistance of the rod will be 2 ft. By equating external force
4d
P to internal resistance of the rod, we get
7:
P=
4 d e ft ' (i)
From equation (i), diameter of the rod can be found out.
(b) Tension failure of the rod across slot:
7c
The area resisting tearing of the rod across slot is ( die -- At).
4
Hence, the strength equation will be
P = (4 d12 — d1t) ft (ii)
284 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI
From this equation, d1, the inner diameter of the socket can
be obtained when the thickness of the cotter is known. The
thickness of the cotter is given by the equation,
t =-- 0.31 d (iii)
(c) Tension failure of the socket across the slot:
The area that resists the tearing of the socket across the slot
7' tkD12 — d1
is 4- d 2) — (D1— d1) t.

P 4
- (D 12 --- d12) — (Di — d1) tlft
7C
(iv)
= {
From equation (iv), D1, the outer diameter of the socket can
be obtained.

(d) Shear failure of the cotter:

The cotter is in double shear. The area that resists the shear
of the cotter is 2bt. Therefore, the strength equation will be
P = 2bt fs (v)
From this equation, we determine the width of the cotter.
(e) Shear failure of the rod end:
The rod end is in double shear. The area that resists the
shearing of the rod end is 2ad1.
.• . P = 2adi fs (vi)
From this equation, dimension a can be calculated.
(f) Shear failure of the socket end:
The socket end is in double shear. The area that resists
the shearing of the socket is 2c (D — di ).
... P = 2c (D — d1) f, ;vii)
(g) Crushing failure of the rod or the cotter:
The area that resists the crushing of a rod or a cotter is d1t.
The crushing resistance is ditfc. By equating the crushing resist-
ance to external load, iwe get
P = ditfc (viii)
(b) Crushing failure of the socket or the cotter:
The area that resists crushing is (D — d1) t.
... P . (D — di ) tfc (ix)
Art. 6-2] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 285

The cotter joint as illustrated in fig. 6-1 may also be used

for transmitting compressive load also. Tensile load is transmitted
from one 'rod to another rod via cotter, while compressive load
is transmitted via collar. When compressive load is transmitted,
cotter is not stressed.

8d
.L..--..
3mm
I

N .N*
-

( ri ,tr '1 r'l

,1 4.-
t
II ..

s1

11.254E--2.5d

Cotter joint with a sleeve

FIG. 6-2

(1) Failure of the collar by crushing:

=
The area that resists the crushing of the collar is 4 (d22 — d15).

...P -, 7C (d22 — di2) fe oi. (x)

4
From this equation, the diameter d5 can be obtained.

(j) Failure of the collar by shearing:

The area that resists shearing of the collar is td1t1.
P r---- td, ti fs . (xi)
From this equation, the thickness of the collar t1 can be
determined.
To ensure that the cotter does not work back, the taper should
not exceed 1 in 24. If a greater taper is required a locking device
must be provided.
Cotters are frequently bent when being driven into position.
When bending occurs, the bending moment cannot be correctly
286 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

estimated, as the distribution of pressure on the bearing surface

is unknown. However, by making simplifying assumptions, the
bending stresses in the cotter can be estimated. The bearing
load on the cotter in the rod end is assumed uniformly distributed
while in the socket end it is uniformly varying over the length
as shown in fig. 6-3.

14-d 1 -•i
Loading of a cotter in a cotter joint
FIG. 6-3

The bending moment will be maximum at the middle length

13
_ f di + (D — di)
of the cotter and its magnitude will be
2 4 6
and the maximum bending stress will be (fig. 6-3)
P f di _L (D — d1)1
bending moment 2 1.4 + 6
`ft= modulus of Section = tc2
6
Tightening of a cotter introduces initial stresses that are
difficult to estimate. In many cases, it is necessary to alter the
proportions obtained from theoretical analysis in order to meet
the conditions of service.
In practice the following proportions in terms of d are generally adopted
when all components of the tottered joint are of mild steel, where d is the
diameter of the rod, the sizes being dimensioned to nearest commonly adopted
millimetre sizes.
A . 1.21d D =2.4d a .---- c = 0.75d t = 0.31d
da = 1.5d D1 = 1'75d c = 1.3d ti = 0.45d
Draw of the cotter 2 to 3 mm.
Taper of the cotter 1 in 24.
Art. 6-2] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 287

If the rod and cotter are both made of mild steel or both of
wrought iron, the tensile stress may be taken as one and quarter
times the shearing stress and the compressive stress may be taken
as equal to twice the tensile stress, i.e. fs = 0.8fi and fc = 2fi.

Example:
1. Design a cottered joint like that of fig. 6-1 to resist safely a load
of 4,000 kg that acts along the coincident axes of the rods connected by
the cotter. The material of the cotter and rods will permit the following
safe stresses:
ft = 500 kgIsq cm; fc = 1,050 kgIsq cm; fi. = 400 kgIsq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the rod, and as the rod proper is
in direct tension, we have
4 (12 x 500
4000 = 71
-1/4 X 4000
OT d .---- = 3.2 cm; we adopt 3.5 cm.
n x 500
The maximum tensional stress in the rod end is at the section
through the cotter hole, and we have
P== (: di! — i di) fi.
di
In practice t is made equal to — or 0.31d. Here we adopt
4
the former value.
If this value is substituted in the above equatiofi, we get
I/ 4P 1/ 4 x 4000
— 3.87 cm; we adopt 4 cm
d1 = y 2-14fi = y 2.14 x 500
di
and t= =4 -,-- 1 cm.
4 4
The greatest tensile stress in the socket is at the section through
the cotter hole, and
7 (D12 — d12) — (D1 — d1 ) t). ft.
P = {4

From which
75- ./)12 — 42) — 1 (D1 — 4)1 500.
4000 = 4

The equation for determination of D1 will be

D12 — 1.27D1 — 21.1 = 0.
288 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VI

Solving this affected quadratic equation by the algebraic

formula, we get
Di .---- 5.3 cm; we adopt 6 cm.
The cotter is in double shear; therefore
P -== 2bt fs
P 4000
Or b= = 5 cm.
2t fs = 2 x 1 400
Checking for crushing between the rod and cotter, we have
P 4000
1,000 kg/sq cm.
IC = dlt — 4 x 1 =
The above value of fc is less than the assumed safe crushing
stress of 1,050 kg/sq cm. Therefore, the design is safely dimen-
sioned for this area in crushing.
The diameter D is obtained from the crushing of cotter and
socket. The force between the cotter and socket is
P -, (D — di ) t fc
_P d 4000
Or
D tfc ' " 1 = 1 x 1050 +- 4
= 3.8 + 4 ---- 7.8 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
To obtain a, by using the formula P = 2adi fs
P 4000
we get a , x 400= 1.25 cm
2di f s 2 x4
P 4000
and C=2 = 1.25 cm.
(D di )fs 2 (8 — 4) 400
This completes the design of the joint except for the taper
of the cotter which is usually 1 in 24.
The diameter and thickness of the collar on the rod end
are determined by the compressive load, since the only load on
the collar when the joint is in tension is that due to driving in the
cotter. The magnitude of this load is unknown, but it is at least
as large as the compressive load on the rod. The diameter and
thickness of the collar are taken as 6 cm and 1.5 cm respectively.
The induced crushing stress intensity and shear stress intensity
shall not exceed 255 and 212 kg/sq cm respectively. These values
are within permissible limits.
Art. 6.., j COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 289

Exercises:
1. Define a cotter.
2. Give several examples of use of cotters in machine construction.
Of what material are they usually made?
3. Give sketches showing the usual proportions for a cottered joint
suitable for securing tie rods.
4. What taper is usually given to cotters?
5. What are the advantages of rounding of the edges of the cotter?
6. What is meant by the draw of a cotter?
7. Make a neat sketch showing the views of a cotter joint and write
equations showing the strength of a joint for the most probable methods of
failure.
8. Design a cottered joint like that of fig. 6-1 to safely resist a load
of 3,500 kg which acts along the axes of the rods connected by the cotter.
The material of the cotter and rods will permit the following safe stresses:
ft = 560 kg/sq cm; fs• = 450 kgIsq cm; fc = 980 kgIsq cm.
Ans. d = 3 cm; di = 3.8 cm; d2 = 4.5 cm; D = 7.2 cm;
b . 4 cm; D1 = 5-3 cm; a = c = 2.4 cm; t = 1 cm; t1 = 1.4 cm.
9. A rod 4 cm diameter is to be pierced with a slot 5.5 cm long
and 1 cm wide. Find the diameter to which the rod must be increased at
the slot in order that there shall be no loss of strength. ...
Ans. 4.8 cm.
10. Design a cottered joint to connect two mild steel rods of equal
diameter transmitting an axial force of 2,500 kg which is subject to
slow reversals of direction. Tensile stress in the material is limited to
500 kg/sq cm. The shear stress has the value 1 of the permissible tensile
stress. The bearing pressure between the cotter and the rods is limited to
600 kg/sq cm.
Ans. d = 3 cm; di = 3.5 cm; D = 7 cm; a = c = 2.5 cm;
t = 1.5 cm; b = 3 cm,
11. A cottered joint is required to carry a load of 7,000 kg. Design
and set out to scale full size, the transverse section through which the cotter
passes, and also determine a suitable width for the cotter. The cotter
thickness is i x diameter of the rod at the cotter hole. The tensile stress
290 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VI

in the rod and socket is 400 kg/sq cm and the shear stress in the cotter is
350 kg/sq cm. State the crushing stress on the rod and cotter, and also
give the diameter of the socket collar if the crushing stress is to have the
same value on both bearing faces of the cotter.
12. If the diameter of the rod in a cottered joint is 4 cm, find the
dimensions of the cotter. Take fs = 0.8 fa and fc = 2ft.
Ans. 1.5 cm; 6 cm.
13. Design a cotter joint of the spigot and socket type to connect two
rods of equal diameter transmitting an axial force of 7,500 kg. Take
ft = 500 kg/sq cm, ft = if: and fc = 1,000 kg/sq cm for the cotter
and the rod material. Give a neat sketch showing two views of the joint
designed by you. (M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
14. Design a cotter joint to transmit a reversible load of 5,000 kg.
(Gujarat University, 1973)
15. Two steel rods are connected by means of steel sleeve and two
cotters. Rods are subjected to reversible load. Maximum tensile load
is 3,000 kg, and maximum compressive load is 3,500 kg. Design and
prepare a neat dimensioned (free hand) sketch of this sleeve type cotter joint.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
6-3. Gib and Cotter :
When a cotter is used for the purpose of connecting a thin
strap and a thicker rod as in the case of steam engine connecting
rods as shown in fig. 6-4, the friction between the cotter and the
straps causes the strap to open out as shown by the dotted lines
in fig. 6-4 when the cotter is driven in. This may be prevented
by the use of a gib as shown in fig. 6-5. The gib and cotter are
parallel along their outside edges and taper on their inside edges.
Sometimes a small set screw is fitted, a screwing through the rod
jamming against the cotter and prevents it loosening or if this is
not possible the gib is extended by a screwed rod fastening the
cotter with the top and bottom nuts. The gib also gives larger
surface for the cotter to slide on. To make the sliding surface
same on each side of the cotter, two gibs are used as shown in
fig. 6-6. Thus, the fitting of a gib serves the following purposes:
(i) It opposes the tendency of the cotter to open the jaws
of a strap when this is a counter-part of a socket.
,(ii) It enables parallel hole to be used.
(iii) It provides larger surface for the cotter to slide on.
Art. COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 291

The thickness of the cotter is usually about one-fourth of

the width or breadth of the cotter, and the total width B for the
gib and the cotter is the same as for the cotter used by itself for
the same purpose. The depth and length of the gib head may
be taken equal to the thickness of the cotter.
Cotter Jib Jib

FSI

Strap Rod
Cotter without a gib Use of a gib Cotter with double gibs
Flo. 6-4 FIG. 6-5 FIG. 6-6

Strap end form of a connecting rod

FIG. 6-7
The strap end form of a connecting rod end is shown in fig. 6-7
in which all parts are held together by means of a gib and a cotter.
292 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

The connecting rod is subjected to tensile and compressive

stresses. Let P be the maximum value of the thrust or pull in
the connecting rod. We denote by b, the width of the strap which
is generally equal to the diameter of the adjacent end of the
round part of the rod. The area that resists the failure of the
strap due to tearing is 2bti, where tl is the thickness of the strap
at the thinnest part. By equating resistance of the strap to
tearing to external load, we get
P = 2bti ft (i)
where ft is the permissible tensile stress intensity in the material
of the strap. From equation (i) the thickness of the strap at the
thinnest part can be calculated. The thickness of the strap at the
cotter is increased such that the area of the cross section of the
strap at the cotter hole is not less than the area of the strap at
the thinnest part.
The thickness t of the cotter is assumed to be f x width of
the strap. The combined width B of the cotter and gib is
obtained by considering shearing of the gib and the cotter. As
the cotter is in double shear the equation for determination of
B will be
P .-- 2B t fs (ii)
where fs is the permissible shear stress intensity for the material
of the cotter and the gib.
The following are the usual proportions for the common strap end•
4 = thickness of the strap at the thinnest part
4 = 1.154 to 1.54 /2 = 24
is = 1.24 to 1.54 /2 = 2.5e,
b
e = thickness of the cotter --
4
Width of a cotter = 0.45B; width of a gib = 0.55B

Example :
I. The big end (common strap end type) of a connecting rod as
shown in fig. 6-7 is subjected to a maximum load of 3,500 kg. The dia-
meter of the circular part of the rod adjacent to the strap end is 6 cm. Deter-
mine (a) the width of the strap end, (b) the thickness of the strap at the
thinnest part, at the cotter hole and at the crown and (c) the width and
thickness of the gib and the cotter. Safe tensile stress in the material of the
strap is limited to 225 kg/sq cm. Safe shear stress value in the cotter and
the gib is not to exceed 175 kgIsq cm.
 Art. 6-3] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 293

The width of the strap is generally equal to or slightly

greater than the diameter of the adjacent end of the round part
of the rod. The width of the strap is taken to be 6 cm. The
connecting rod is subjected to tensile load of 3,500 kg. As the
permissible tensile stress intensity is limited to 225 kg/sq cm, the
minimum cross sectional area to be provided at the thinnest part
350 0
of the strap will be 225 = 15.5 sq cm.

As the width of the strap is 6 cm, the thickness of the strap

at the thinnest part will be taken as 1.3 cm. The area provided at
the thinnest part of the strap is 6 x 2 x 1.3 = 15.6 sq cm, thus
inducing 225 kg/sq cm as the tensile stress intensity.
The thickness of the gib and cotter is taken as one-fourth
the width of the strap which gives us 1.5 cm as the thickness of the
gib and the cotter.
If t3 be the thickness of the strap across the cotter holes, by
equating the area of the thinnest part of the strap to area of the
cross section of the strap at the cotter hole, we get
2t3 (6 — 1.5)— 2 x 1.3 x 6
2 x 1.3 x 6
or 13 — = 1.73 cm; we adopt 1.8 cm.
2 x 4.5
The thickness of the strap at the crown is taken as 1.5 times
the thickness of the strap at the thinnest part.
The thickness of the strap at the crown t2 = 1.5 Prx 1.3
= 1.95 cm; we adopt 2 cm.
If B be the total width of the cotter and the gib combined, its
value can be obtained by considering the shear failure of the cotter
and the gib. As the cotter and the gib are in double shear, we get
2Btfs = P
.
3500
or B = 2P
—= ---- - 6.67 cm; we adopt 7 cm.
tfs 2 x 1.5 x 175 — -
The width of the gib is taken as 4 cm., while that of the
cotter is taken as 3 cm.

Note: If an oil hole is provided in the strap, weakening effect of the

hole should be considered while determining the thickness of the strap at the
thinnest part.
294 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

Exercises:
1. Explain the use of a gib.
2. Show two methods by which a cotter may be prevented from
slackening back.
3. Sketch a connecting rod end with a strap, a gib and a cotter.
4. The big end of a connecting rod as shown in fig. 6-7 is subjected
to a maximum load of 7,000 kg. Calculate the diameter of the circular part
of the rod adjacent to the strap end if the permissible tensile stress is limited
to 250 kg/sq cm. Also, determine the width of the strap end and the
thickness of the strap at the thinnest part, at the cotter hole and at the crown.
If the shear stress value in the cotter and the gib is not to exceed 150 kg/sq
cm, suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for the gib and the cotter.
Ans. Diameter of circular part 6 cm; other dimensions can be fixed
from proportions given on page 292.
6-4. Connection of a piston rod to a crosshead:
In small engines the piston rod is often screwed into the boss
of the crosshead and secured by a check nut. This arrangement
is convenient for the lengthwise adjustment. The most general
method is to use a cotter. This method is very expensive and
inconvenient from the manufacturing point of view; and further-
more it does not admit of the same convenient lengthwise adjust-
ment. Fig. 6-8 shows a common construction employed in fasten-

Piston rod Cotter Crosshead

Connection of piston rod and crosshead by means of a cotter
FIG. 6-8
ing a piston rod to a crosshead in which the piston rod is tapered
to, resist the thrust instead of being provided with a collar
for the purpose. The taper on the piston rod may be from
1 in 24 to 1 in 12.
Art, 6-4 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 295

The diameter d of the parallel part of the piston rod is

calculated from the column formula. The tapered length of the
piston rod is taken to be 2.2d. When tapered length of the
piston rod is known, diameter, 4, at the tapered end of the piston
.rr
rod is known. The bearing area provided will be - (d2 — d12).
4
The thickness of the cotter is usually taken to be one-fourth the
diameter of the piston rod at the cotter. The width of the cotter
is obtained by considering the shearing of the cotter. The
taper of the cotter may be 1 in 30.

Example :
1. A small engine has a crosshead attached to the piston rod by a cotter,
the end of the rod fitting in a tapered socket formed in the crosshead. All
the parEs are of the same material, suitable working stresses being 225 kg/sq cm
in tension and in shear and 800 kg/sq cm in crushing. The piston is 25 cm
in diameter and the effective steam pressure on piston 7 kg/sq cm. Determine
(a) diameter of the rod through the cotter hole, (b) width and thickness of the
cotter, (c) diameter of the socket through the cotter hole and (d) the diameter
of the enlarged end of the socket.
7C
Area of the piston of the steam engine = 252
D2 = - >e
4 4
= 491 sq cm.
Maximum load on the piston = 491 X 7 = 3,437 kg.
We assume the thickness of the cotter to be the diameter
of the piston rod at the cotter.
If d be the diameter of the piston rod at the cotter, then
7C
' 2 )fi = 0.535 deft.
P = 7 2 — dt) ft = (— d2 — td
(4 d 4
— P . .-_-.. 3437
.. d= = 5.35 cm; we adopt
ii0.535 x ft Y0.535 x 225 55 mm.
55
Thickness of the cotter will be equal to r-- 15 mm.
4
The cotter is in double shear. If b be the width of the cotter,
then
P 21)0.
L P 37
43
b 5 X 225 = 5.1 cm; we adopt 55 mm.
2tfi 2 x 1.
296 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. VI

If Di be the diameter of the socket through the cotter hole, then

3 (D12 — 5.52 )— 1 .5 (Di — 5.5)1 225 = 3437.
4-
After simplification, we get D12 — I.91D1 — 39.2 = 0.
Solving we get D1 = 7.28 cm; we adopt 75 mm.
As the area provided in crushing by the socket is too small,
we have the end of the socket enlarged to diameter D2 which is
obtained on the basis of crushing. The equation for determi-
nation of D2 is
P = t (Da — d) fc.
P+, 3437
••• + 5-5.8.36 cm; we adopt 85 mm.
D2 =.,-;
rt " = 860X 1.5
Exercises:
I. Give sketches showing how you would fix a piston rod to a cross-
head by means of a cotter.
2. The piston rod of a steam engine is 12 cm in diameter and carries
a load of 30,000 kg. It is connected to the crosshead by means of a
cotter of 3 cm thickness. Calculate
(i) the width of the cotter if the permissible shear stress in the
cotter is limited to 400 kg/sq cm, and
(ii) the length of the rod in the crosshead after the cotter y- the
permissible stress in shear is limited to 150 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 13 cm; 8.5 cm.
3. Design and draw a cotter Joint for connecting a piston rod'to the
crosshead of a double acting steam engine having cylinder diameter of 30 cm
and the effective steam pressure at the beginning of the piston stroke is 7
kg/sq cm. The thickness of the cotter is to be 0.3 times the diameter of
the rod at the point where cotter is located. The allowable stresses for
the material of the cotter and the rod are:
ft = 550 kg/sq cm, fs = 420 kg/sq cm and fb = 850 kg/sq cm.
4. Design and prepare the drawing of a cotter joint for fastening
the piston rod to the crosshead of a steam engine having a cylinder diameter
of 30 cm and mean pressure of 10 kg/sq cm gauge. The rod end fitted in the
crosshead is tapered. The thickness of the cotter is to be 0.3 times the
smaller diameter of the rod at the cotter hole. The safe stresses are:
" tensile 500 kg/sq cm, shear 400 kg/sq cm and crushing 850 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
Art. 6-5] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 297

6-5. Cotter foundation bolts:

Cotters are often used as fastenings in such cases as found-
ation and holding down bolts for machines and engines, where it
is not possible or convenient to use an ordinary bolt or stud. An
example of such cotter foundation bolt is shown in fig. 6-9, where
the bolt is dropped down from above and the cotter is driven in
from the side, and the whole arrangement is tightened by screwing
down the nut.

?22
Cotter

Cotter foundation bolt

FIG. 6-9
In fig. 6-9, F is the flange to be bolted down, S the stone bed,
A the bolt and C the cotter.
The illustrative example explains the principle underlying
the design of a cotter foundation bolt.
Example :
1. A foundation bolt with a circular end is secured to the floor by
means of a steel cotter. If the pull on the bolt is 14,000 kg, design the bolt
and the cotter.
We assume the material of the bolt and the cotter to be the
same. Let us assume the following values of the permissible stresses:
fi = 550 kg/sq cm; fs = 420 kg/sq cm; ft. = 1,100 kg/sq cm.
Let d be the diameter of the bolt.
ait d2 x 550 = 14000
d 114000- X 4
or 5.7 cm; we adopt 6 cm.
550 X •rc
298 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

Let d1 be the diameter of the enlarged end of the rod and the
thickness of the cotter be 41 •

From the strength equation, we get

TC d2
(- d, — - 4.- )) 550 = 14000.
4 i 4
From the above equation we shall have d1 = 6.9 cm; we
adopt d1 = 7 cm.
t = 4 x 7 = 1.75 cm; we adopt 1.8 cm.
In order to determine the width of the cotter, we consider
the shearing of the cotter. If b be the width of the cotter, the
equation for determination of b will be
2x 1.8 x b x 420 = 14000
14000
or b -=-: = 9.3 cm; we adopt b = 9.5 cm.
2 x 1-8 x420
Let us check the dimensions for the crushing stresses.
Crushing stresses induced between the cotter and the rod will
14000—
be -- = 1,110 kg/sq cm.
7 x 1 .8
As this value exceeds the permissible limit, we increase the
diameter of the enlarged end of the rod to 7.5 cm and the thickness
of the cotter to 2 cm. The induced crushing stresses will be
14000
reduced to - — 935 kg/sq cm, which is within safe limits.
7.5 x 2
The length of the cotter must be such that no excessive crush-
ing is induced between the cotter and the foundation. The
length of the enlarged end of the rod beyond socket is taken as
4.5 cm. With this dimension the shear stress shall not exceed
223 kg/sq cm which is within safe limits.

Exercises :
1. Show the use of a cotter in connection with a foundation bolt for
fastening down an engine bed.
2. Fig. 6-10 shows two views of a tottered connection. Find
the maximum load P that may be applied so that the following stresses are
not exceeded: Tensile 350 kg/sq cm, shear 210 kg/sq cm and crushing stress
intensity 800 kg/sq cm. Neglect the effect of stress concentration.
Ans. 1,890 kg.
Art. 6-5] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 299

3. A foundation bolt with a circular end is secured by means of a

cotter. Determine (a) the diameter of the enlarged end of the rod at the
slot, (b) the thickness of the cotter and (c) the width of the cotter in terms
of the diameter of the bolt. Assume shearing stress on the cotter to be £th,
and crushing stress twice the tensional stress in the bolt. Find the dimen-
sions if the diameter of the bolt be 5 cm.
Ans. Diameter of the enlarged end of the rod at the slot .--- 1.22d
Thickness of the cotter = 0.26d
Width of the cotter = 1.33d.

FIG 6-10
0
4. In a cottered foundation bolt, the diameter of the bolt through
which the cotter passes is 5 cm and the thickness of the cotter 1.4 cm.
Determine the width of the cotter. What is the crushing stress between the
cotter and the bolt? Take fs = 500 kg sq cm and ft = 600 kg/sq cm
Ans. 5.5 cm; 1,090 kg/sq cm.
5. Determine the weakest part of the cottered
bolt shown in fig. 6-11. Diameter of the bolt 45 mm;
thickness of the cotter 14 mm; depth of the cotter 50 mm;
distance from the cotter to end of the bolt 65 mm. Assume
the following values of the permissible stresses..
ft = 630 kg/sq cm; fs = 500 kg/sq cm;
fc = 950 kgIsq cm.
Ans Crushing failure of the cotter.
FIG. 6-11
300 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI
(B) DESIGN OF A KNUCKLE JOINT
6-6. Introduction:
Knuckle joints or forked joints are used to connect two rods
or bars, that are under the action of tensile loads, although
if the joint is guided the rods may support a compressive load.
This joint permits a small amount of flexibility or angular movement
if necessary. This joint can be readily disconnected for adjust-
ments or repairs. Such joints are very common in both, machines
and structures. Common uses are with valve and eccentric rods,
air brake arrangement on locomotive, the reversing gear on any
steam engine, remote control of steam valves, lever and rod con-
nections of many kinds and tension links in bridge structures.

Knuckle joint
FIG. 6-12
Fig. 6-12 shows a knuckle joint. An eye is formed at the
end of a rod and a fork or double eye is formed on the end of the
other rod. The eye fits between the fork or the double eye. Two
parts are connected by a turned pin passing through both and
may be secured by a split pin or a tapered pin.
The tapered pin may be secured by a thin nut screwed upto
a shoulder on the end of a pin. The knuckle pin may be prevented
from rotating in the fork by means of a small stop pin.
In designing such a joint the proportions of the pin and eyes
are made to be of equal strength with the rod. The methods of
failure of the joint are indicated in a tabular form in which the
strength of the joint for each method of failure may be specified.
In the following analysis stress concentration is neglected.
Art. 6-61 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 301

1
Kind of failure Area resisting Resistance of the
No. failure part to failure
- - _ —

1 Tension failure of a solid rod 7' dg 4: d' ft

4
2 Tension failure of an eye (D — d1) B (D— d1) B fa
3 Tension failure of a fork end 2 (D — d1) A 2 (D — (11) Aft
4 Shear failure of a knuckle pin 2 d 2 : dig fs
4 1
(Pin is in double
shear)
5 Shear failure of an eye (D — di) B (D — d1) B fs
6 Shear failure of a fork 2(D — d1) A 2(D— d1) A fs
7 Crushing failure of a pin in an eye d1B diB fe
8 Crushing failure of a pin in a fork 2d1A 2d1A fe

In the above table, d denotes the diameter of the rod, d1

the diameter of the knuckle pin, D outside diameter of the eye,
A the thickness of the fork and B thickness of the eye.
If a knuckle pin is loose in the forks, it is subjected to bending.
Considering the load to be uniformly distributed along the eye
and uniformly varying over the forks, the bending moment will be
maximum at the mid section of the pin, its value being
[ A
M=PB+- and the maximum bending stress is
2 4 3 '
P r B + Al
2 L4 3 j
ft — — - - from which
nd 3
32 1
I B A
4 16P (- + — )
V 4 3
d1 =
TO
The proportions of the joint in terms of d, diaMeter of the rod, are given
below •
A = 0.75d; B = 1.25d; D = 2d; d1 = d.
After adopting the dimensions of various parts of the joints
in terms of the rod diameter d, the joint will be represented
in terms of the rod diameter as shown in fig. 6-12.
No part of the joint will be weaker than the rod with the above
proportion. The pin could be made somewhat smaller as can
302 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. VI

be seen from the stress analysis, but making the knuckle pin of
the same size as the rod provides a margin of strength to resist
bending action which occurs when the pin is somewhat loose fit
or becomes worn.
From strength analysis the dimension A should be equal to
one-half B. However the dimension A is greater than one-half B
in order to prevent deflection or spreading of the forks which would
introduce bending of the pin.
Another form of a knuckle joint is shown in fig. 6-13(a).
Pin

Another form of a knuckle joint

FIG. 6-13(a)

Knuckle pin Fork of rod C

Fork of rod B Eye of Rod A

Knuckle joint for connecting three rods

FIG. 6-13(b)

The knuckle connection is also employed for uniting more

than two rods in a common joint. Such an arrangement is met with
in toggle press. Two rods are forked and third has got an eye formed
Art. 6-71 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 303

at the end of the rod. Fig. 6-13(b) shows such a connection. The
dimensions of the joint can be calculated from first principles.
The pin will be longer and so in order to resist the bending stresses
it shall be of slightly larger diameter.

6-7. Joint of suspension links :

Suspension links or plate link chains are used in suspension '
bridges. Fig. 6-14 shows the joint of such a link. In order to allow
for weakening effect of the hole in the links, the width of each
link is increased at least by the amount equal to the diameter of
the pin.

P P

, /7/ 77
774-177-7
7A— i

P1 \ ‘.• \ N ' sr -1 1̀+ \ \ ' \

e
Suspension link
FIG. 6-14

The following procedure should be adopted for the design of

such a joint:
(a) The diameter, d, of the pin should be calculated by
considering the double shear of the pin.
(b) The thickness, t, of each side link is obtained by con-
sidering the crushing of the pin.
(c) The width of each link, b, is calculated by considering
the tensional failure of the link.
(d) The width, B, of the enlarged end of the link is obtained
by considering the tearing across hole. B will be at least
equal to (b + d).
304 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

Examples :
1. A knuckle joint is required for a rod which has to withstand a tensile
load of 10,000 kg. Find the diameters of the rod and the pin. Safe work-
ing stress both in tension and shear is 800 kg/sq cm. Suggest the suitable
dimensions for the entire joint.
If d cm be the diameter of the rod, then

7C d2fi -= P
4
d _: I/1P ___:__ 1/4 x 10000
or = 4 cm.
y 7rf, r TC X 800
We assume the following dimensions for the joint -
Diameter of the pin 4 cm
Thickness of the eye 5 cm
Outside diameter of the eye 8 cm
Thickness of the fork 3 cm
Diameter of the head of the knuckle pin 6 cm
Thickness of the head of the pin 1.0 cm.
Let us check the stresses in various sections of the joint. The
area of the section of the eye of the rod by a plane at right angles
to the axis of the rod and containing the axis of the pin is
(8 — 4)5 = 20 sq cm. The tensile stress in the eye of the rod
10
000
is -- = 500 kg/sq cm.
20
The area of the fork of the rod by a plane at right angles to
the axis of the rod containing the axis of the pin is
2 x 3 (8 — 4) = 24 sq cm.
The tensile stress at this section is, therefore,
10000
. 417 kg/sq cm.
24
The knuckle pin which is 4 cm in diameter, is subjected
to shearing stress at the two sections just inside the fork. The
shearing stress in the pin is, therefore,
10000
=--- 398 kg/sq cm.
.7c
2 x --4-. x 42

There are crushing stresses between the connecting pin and

the sides of the holes in the eye and the fork. For the eye the
Art. 6=7 J COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 305

bearing area is 4 x 5 = 20 sq cm and corresponding crushing

stress is
1000
= 500 kg/sq cm.
20
For the fork the crushing area on the pin is 3 x 2 x 4=24 sq cm
and the corresponding crushing stress is
10000
= 417 kg/sq cm.
24—
Thus, we see that the stresses are within limits and the joint
is safe.
2. The suspension link in a steel structure zs subjected to a maximum
load of 30 tonnes. Thickness of each side link is 1.5 cm. Determine
(a) width of the link at the middle, (b) diameter of the knuckle pin and
(c) width of the link at the centre line of the pin.
Safe stresses should not be greater than 1,200 kg/sq cm in tension
and 800 kgfsg cm in shear.
Also, calculate the crushing stress on the pin.
If b be width of the link, then
b x 2t x fi = P
P 30 x 1000
or = 8.34 cm •, we adopt 8.5 cm.
b = -2-tft = 2 x 1.5 x 1200
The knuckle pin is in double shear. The diameter of the
pin is obtained by the equation
It dr
2 x — d 2 fs = P
4
2P 2 x 30000
or d = y 4-86 cm. We adopt 5 cm.
„is V . x T. =
The width of the link at the centre line of the knuckle
pin is 8.5 + 5 = 13.5 cm.
In order to know the crushing resistance, we determine the
projected area of the pin which is 5 x 3 = 15 sq cm and the
corresponding crushing stress will be
30000
= 2,000 kg/sq cm.
15
Note: Generally in suspension links the value of the permissible crushing
stress is 50% more than the tensile stress. In this case it is 67% more. The
crushing stress can be reduced either by increasing the diameter of the pin,
or by increasing the thickness of the side link or both.
306 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI
3. An es is forged at one end of one half of a tie rod and a fork at
the end of the other half. A pin is passed through the two sides of the fork
and through the eye. The pull in the rod is 12,000 kg. If the tensile
stress is not to exceed 625 kg/sq cm and the shearing stress 280 kg/sq cm,
determine the diameter of the tie rod and the pin.
If d be the diameter 'of the tie rod, then : d 2 x 625 = 12000

/4 x 12000
or d = -- — = 4.95 cm, say 5 cm.
1 -rr x 625
rc
If dp be the diameter of the knuckle pin, then 2 x — dp2fs = P.
4
--1/2 x 12000
• • dp = - —--.5-23 cm, say 5.5 cm.
It x 280
4. Determine the loading dimensions of the link shown in fig. 6-15
which is to operate under a tensile load P that varies between 3,000 and
4,000 kg several times each hour. Safe tensile
stress of 9 kg/sq mm and shear stress of 7
kg/sq mm may be assumed for the material of
the link.
Note: The link can be considered to be
subjected to a static load. It should be remem-
bered that the static loading does not mean that
the load carried by the part never varies in any
manner. By static loading we understand that
the load variations are relatively few and these
variations are so slow that neither fatigue nor
impact should be considered.
The leading dimensions of the link FIG. 6-15
will be, the rod diameter d1, the knuckle pin diameter d2, the eye
diameter D and the width of the fork K.
If d1 be the diameter of the rod, then
it
if d12 x 900 = 4000.

= -1/4 x 4000
or d1 = 2.38 cm; we adopt 2.5 cm.
V Tc X 900
The knuckle pin is in double shear. We have
4 d22 x 700 = 4000
2 x '7

-V 2 x 4000
Or d2 --= 7r x 700 = 1.92 cm; we adopt 2 cm.
4rt. 6-71 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 307

We assume that there is no bending of the pin; so the diameter

of the knuckle pin obtained from the shear strength is adopted.
The diameter of the eye D is taken as twice the diameter of knuckle
pin, 4 cm. The width of the fork, K, is taken as thrice the diameter
of knuckle pin, 6 cm. With these dimensions we check the tensile
stresses in the eye and the fork end.
The area of the section of the eye of the link by a plane at right
angles to the axis of the link and containing the axis of the pin is
(D — d2) x thickness of the eye. The tensile stress in the eye of the
4000
link will be — = 667 kg/sq cm which is less than the permissible
3 x2
value.
There are compressive stresses between the knuckle pin and
sides of the holes in the eye and the fork. This value is the
same for both and its magnitude is 667 kg/sq cm.
If we consider the shear failure of the eye and the fork, magni-
tude of shear stress is 667 kg/sq cm, which is less than the permissible
value of 700 kg/sq cm.
5. The maximum force on a toggle pin in hydraulically operated
clamp is 6,000 kg. Determine the diameter of the toggle pin, which is in
double shear. Choose your own material with a suitable factor of safety.
We select steel whose ultimate tensile strength is 90 kg/sq mm.
Assuming that an ultimate shear strength to be 70% of the ultimate
tensile strength, the ultimate shear strength will be ?,0 x 0.7 = 63
kg/sq mm. We further assume that the load is gradually applied
without shock; hence factor of safety of 5 will be adequate.
63
Permissible shear stress = -y = 12.6 kg/sq mm.

If d mm be the diameter of the toggle pin, which is in double

shear, then
n
2 x 4: d2, x 12.6 = 6000

or d= V 6000 x 4 =17.5 mm.

12.6 x 2 x .7.c
Even with fitted pins and bushed holes the pins may bend
slightly, and to allow for this and to keep the bearing and crushing
pressure within satisfactory limits the pin diameter will be increased
to 20 mm.
308 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VI

Exercises:
1. Mention some of the applications of the knuckle joint in engineering.
2. Make a neat sketch showing two views of a knuckle joint, and
write equations showing the strength of the joint for the most probable
methods of failure.
3. Give two views with figures and dimensions of a knuckle or forked
joint, suitable for connecting two rods of 3 cm diameter.
4. Make a working drawing of the end of a suspension link to take
a load of 15 tonnes; the width of the link is 1.5 cm. Use a working tensile
stress of 8 kg/sq mm. If the diameter of the pin is 10 cm, to which shear
stress is the pin subjected? Also, calculate the crushing stress on the pin.
Ans. t = 7 mm; 190 kg/sq cm; 1,070 kg/sq cm.
5. A knuckle joint is subjected to a load of 5,000 kg. Design the
following :
(i) Pin diameter taking fs = 500 kg/sq cm
(ii) Rod diameter taking fs = 800 kg/sq cm.
Also determine the bending stress in the pin.
6. The pin supporting the exhaust valve lever of an internal combustion
engine is subjected to a shear load of 400 kg. Determine the diameter of
the pin if shear stress is limited to 400 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 1 cm.
7. Design a knuckle joint to transmit a reversible load of 4,000 kg.
(Gujarat University, 1972)

6-8. ' Design of a coupler or a turnbuckle:

This is a machine part which is used for connecting two
members which are subjected to tensile loading and which require
slight adjustment in length. One end of each bar is threaded,
threads on each of them being of opposite nature i.e. one threaded
bar has right hand threads cut on it while the other has left hand
threads. When the coupler is given one complete rotation either
both ends of the bars approach or recede by the amount equal to
twice the lead depending upon the direction of rotation.
Fig. 6-16 shows the types of turnbuckles in general use.
There is an obvious advantage in using the form of coupling
shown in fig. 6-16(b) in which two ends of the rods can be seen.
Art. 6-8 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 309

The following is the procedure in the design of a coupler:

(a) The diameter of the rod is calculated from the tensile
stress considerations.
Let dc be the core diameter of the rod and ft be the per-
missible tensile stress intensity at the core section.
7C
Load = P 4. dc2 ft (i)
From above equation core diameter is calculated and we
can specify the diameter of the rod, when kinds of threads are
known. Generally coarse threads are used.

L.H.

P44
1ALPzzrz
14-- I -01

Turnbuckle
FIG. 6-16(a)

8d
•.
[Link]
111111121/11U1111111111111

Turnbuckle
6-16(b)
(b) The length of the screwed portion of the coupler at each
end is determined from the considerations of the shearing of the
threads in the nut.
Let 1 be the length of the screwed portion in the coupler,
fs the shearing stress in the nut and d the diameter of the rod.
Area that resists the shearing of the th4ads in the nut is
equal to nld.
Load = P = nies (ii)
310 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

From the above equation the length of the screwed portion of

the coupler can be calculated.
The calculated value comes out to be very low. In actual
practice 1 varies from d to 1.25d for steel nuts and 1.5d to 2d
for cast iron and softer material nuts, so the calculated value
of 1 should be modified.
(c) The outside diameter of the coupler at the nut portion
can be calculated from the tensile stress considerations.
Let D be the outside diameter of the coupler at the ends.

Area that resists the tearing of the nut = -4 (D2 — d2).

The materials of the rod and coupler may be different; so

we adopt permissible tensile stresses as ft and ft' respectively.
If f t' be the permissible tensile stress intensity in the material
of the nut, then
load . P = 7C- (D2 - d2) ft' (iii)
4
From above equation, as d is known, outside diameter of the
coupler at nut ends can be calculated.
(d) The outside diameter of the coupler at the middle is calcu-
lated from tensile stress considerations.
Let D1 be the diameter of the hollow portion from inside and
D2 be the diameter of the coupler at the outside.
The area that resists the tearing of the nut in the middle
7C
_ fp 2 - p 2) .
= 1
4 ' 2
7C
Load = 4 (D22 - D12 ) ft' (iv)
In the above equation, we have two unknown D1 and D2.
The inside diameter of the coupler is taken as d + 6 mm.
After D1 is known, from the above equation D2 can be calculated.
(e) The total length of the coupler can be calculated when
the amount of adjustment required is known. Generally, the total
length of the coupler is taken 6 times the diameter of the rod.
The outside portion of the coupler is given the hexagonal
shape so that it can be turned by a spanner. Sometimes a tommy
bar may be used for the same purpose and this is inserted in a hole
in the coupling and is indicated in fig. 6-16(a) by the dotted circle.
Art. 6-61 COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 311

Example :
1. The pull in a tie rod of an iron roof truss is 10 tonnes. Calculate
the diameter of the rod if the greatest intensity of stress is not to exceed 750
kg/sq cm. Find the dimensions of the coupling joint for the above tie rod
assuming the safe shearing stress to be 300 kg/sq cm.
(a) Diameter of the rod:
The load is of 10 tonnes and the permissible tensile stress
intensity is not to exceed 750 kg/sq cm.
Minimum cross sectional area necessary at the bottom of the
thread = 10000 = 13.35 sq cm.
This is the area at the core section. We adopt coarse
threads. From the table, we adopt M50.
(b). Length of the screwed portion of the nut at each end:
Let I be the length of the screwed portion at each end.
The shear area provided =rx5 xi sq cm.
•• n x5 x/x 300 = 10000.
From above equation, we get l = 2.13 cm.
This length is too small. We adopt the length of the screwed
portion at the nut equal to 1.20 x diameter of the rod. In our
case it will be 1.2 x 5 = 6 cm. The crushing stresses on the
threads will be much reduced.
(c) Outside diameter of the coupler at the nut portion:
Let D be the outside diameter of the coupler at the ends.
We get
(D2 — d2) x ft = load, where d is the diameter of the rod.
4—
On substitution of the values, we get
(D2 — 52) x 750 = 10000
4

or = V10000 x 4 + 52 = 6.5 cm; we adopt 7 cm.

750 x
(d) Outside diameter of the coupler at the middle:
The diameter D1 of the hollow portion from inside = 6 cm.
Let D2 be the outside diameter of the coupler at the middle;
7t
then we get — (D22 62) x 750 = 10000
4
312 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

V10000 x 4
or D2 --= + 62 = 7.28 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
750 x rc
Total length of the coupler we take as 40 cm.
Exercises:
1. The pull in C. I. turnbuckle of the stay rope of an electric post
is 1,350 kg. Design the turnbuckle assuming the safe tensile stress ft
for the rods to be 7.5 kg/sq mm. The permissible values for cast iron in
tension and shear are 3 kgIsq mm. Use coarse threads.
Ans. 20 mm diameter rod.
2. The pull in the round tie rod of an iron roof truss is 4,000 kg.
Find the diameter of the rod if the greatest intensity of stress is not to exceed
700 kg/sq cm. Design and draw a suitable coupling joint for the above tie
rod assuming the safe shear stress to be 300 kg/sq cm.
How much would the rods be drawn together for one turn of the
coupling joint? Ans. M 33; twice the pitch.
3. A rod 20 mm in diameter has an eye formed at each end. Nor-
mally the centre to centre distance between the eyes is 70 cm, but this
distance may occasionally have to be increased to 72 cm or decreased to
68 cm. Give dimensioned sketches of any suitable arrangement for
effecting this.
4. A rod 2 cm diameter is too long to be made in one piece. Give
dimensioned sketches of any suitable arrangement for connecting two
portions. The joint is not to be flexible.

EXAMPLES VI

1. Two wrought iron rods arc connected by a cottered joint and are subjec-
ted to a pull of 4,000 kg that acts along the coincident axes of the rods connected.
Determine the diameter of the rods and the main dimensions of the joint including
the cotter which is made of steel, considering that the allowable stress in the
materials, as given below is not exceeded.
Tensile stress, 550 kg/sq cm; crushing stress 840 kgisq cm and shear stress
420 kg/sq cm.
The taper of the cotter may be taken as 1 in 24.
2. Two 4 cni diameter steel rods are to be connected by a cottered joint .
The ends of the rods are to be suitably enlarged by forging. Design the joint
for uniform strength giving a fully dimensioned sketch. The following stress
values should not be exceeded: tensile 850 kg/sq cm; shear 650 kg/sq cm;
crushing 900 kg/sq cm.
Explain the advantages and limitations of this type of joint illustrating your
answer by examples from common practice.
Ex. VI] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 313

Discuss the effect of the form of the parts on the stress concentration.
What is the purpose of using .a gib in cottered connections for strap ends?
3. A cottered foundation bolt shown in fig. 6-17
is required to carry a maximum load P of 4,000 kg.
A flat steel cotter is used to make the joint. The end
Cotter
of the bolt is made square in section with side of
a bolt
length s to allow for the slot for accommodating
the cotter of thickness t.
Design the bolt and the cotter.
Safe stresses ft for bolt 450 kg/sq cm.
fs for cotter 300 kg/sq cm
fe for cotter 600 kg/sq cm. Thickness
14-s
4. A cottered foundation bolt is required to
carry a load of 5,000 kg. Calculate (a) the bolt FIG. 6-17
diameter, (b) the width of the cotter, assuming the_ thickness of the cotter to be
quarter the width, (c) the size of the square portion of the bolt through which
the cotter passes, and (d) the thickness of metal at the end of the bolt i.e. to
prevent the cotter from tearing through. Assume safe stresses for tension 700,
shear 560 and crushing 840 kg/sq cm.
5. Two steel rods square in cross section are connected by a gib and cotter
joint as shown in fig. 6-18. The rods are subjected to a maximum pull of 8 tonnes
axially. The gib, cotter and the rods are made of the same material. The total
width "B" of the gib and cotter may be taken as 6 times their thickness "t".

•k
C
c, .%17
l—
00 ee
II
Square cross section Square
cross section
FIG. 6-18
Design the joint taking allowable stresses in tension, shear and compression
as 12 kg/sq mm, 6 kg/sq mm and 15 kg/sq mm respec-
tively. Make a neat dimensioned sketch of the joint.
6. A mild steel tie rod is hinged to a cast iron
bracket by a steel pin as shown in fig. 6-19. The rod,
carries a tensile load of 5 tonnes. Design (a) the tie roc,
(b) proportions of the eye and (c) dimensions of the pin.
Assume suitable values of stresses.
7. A driving chain of the type having double strap
links of rectangular section transmits 7 h.p. at a speed of
12 metre/min. The depth of the link is four times its
thickness and the diameter of the pin at each end is half
the depth of the link which is not enlarged or thickened
at the ends. FIG. 6-19
314 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI

Find, to the nearest size of a mm the sizes of the section of the links and
determine the shear and crushing stress on link pins and the maximum tensile
stress in the links. The stress in the plain section of the link is 350 kg/sq cm
and the slack side tension may be taken as zero.
8. Fig. 6-20 shows a turnbuckle used to connect two round rods in
a steel structure. The maximum pull is estimated to be 5 tonnes. Design
the turnbuckle assuming that the working stresses for the material are as noted
below:
Tension=7 kg/sq mm; shear=3 kg/sq mm and crushing = 9 kg/sq mm.
Make a neat dimensioned sketch of the turnbuckle.

Circular cross section

R.H. L.H.

5 Tonne 5 Tonne

Riveted

FIG. 6-20

9. The pull in the turnbuckle of a stay rope of an electric distribution

post is 1,000 kg (See fig. 6-21). Design and draw a suitable turnbuckle, assuming
safe tensile stress for rods of M. S. as 7.5 kg/sq mm and for C. 1. 3 kg/sq mm
and safe shear stress for threads to be 3 kg/sq mm. Use coarse threads. Modify
result to practical values.

Cast
dc d IV
t11111111 Mill
-f "1"...
144414--- L

FIG. 6-21

10. A tottered bolt is subjected to a tensile load of 6,000 kg. The thick-
ness of the cotter is approximately equal to 0.3 X diameter of the bolt. Assume
the following values of the permissible stresses:
ft = 600 kg/sq cm, fs = 450 kg/sq cm and fc = 900 kg/sq cm.
Suggest the diameter of the bolt and section of the cotter.
(Sardar Patel University, 1970)
11. Sketch and design a connecting rod with strap, gib and cotter for a
maximum load of 4,000 kg.
(Gujarat University, 1972)
Ex. 171] COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS 315

12. The pull in the C. I. turnbuckle of the stay rope of an electric post is
1,350 kg. Design the turnbuckle assuming the safe tensile stress for the rod to be
750 kg/sq cm. The permissible value of stresses for cast iron in tension and shear
is 300 kg/sq cm. Use coarse threads.
(Gujarat University, 1971)
13. A knuckle joint is subjected to an axial force of 6,000 kg. Assume that
the thickness of the eye is 1.5 times the diameter of the pin. The allowable stress
of the pin material in tension and compression is 850 kg/sq cm, in shear is 850
kg/sq cm and in bearing is 200 kg/sq cm. Determine the required pin diameter.
(University of Bombay, 1973)
14. Two co-axial rods are to be connected together. Suggest and design a
suitable joint if the rods are subjected to a purely axial compressive load of
500 kg. It should be possible to assemble and dissemble the joint quickly.
Assume suitable materials. (University of Bombay, 1976)
15. Design and draw a cotter joint for fastening the piston rod to the
crosshead of an engine having cylinder diameter 25 cm and steam pressure
10.5 kg/sq cm. The thickness of the cotter is to be 0.3d at the point where the
cotter is located. ft = 525 kg/sq cm, fs = 420 kg/sq cm and fc = 840 kg/sq cm.
(Banaras Hindu University, 1977)
16. The force in the tie rod of an iron roof truss is 5.25 tonnes. Design
suitable screw joint. Permissible tensile stress 8 kg/sq mm and shear stress 9
kg/sq mm. Draw full size two suitable views of the joint.
(Banaras Hindu University, 1977)
CHAPTER

SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS

1.0•••••••••••••••V•4•00\40

7-1. Introduction:
A shaft is a rotating member which transmits power from one
point to another point. It may be divided in two main groups:
transmission shafts and machine shafts. Shafts which are used
to transmit power between the source and the machines absorbing
power are called transmission shafts. Such shafts carry machine
parts such as gears and pulleys and, therefore, they are subjected to
bending in addition to twisting. Lineshofts, countershafts, head-
shafts and all factory shafts are included in this group. Machine
shafts are those which form an integral part of the machine itself,
the common example being the crankshaft.
A spindle is a short revolving shaft that imparts motion either
to a cutting tool or to a work piece. Drill press spindles and
lathe spindles are examples of each type. .
Shafts are usually cylindrical, but occasionally they may be
square or cross shaped in section. They are solid in cross section.
Sometimes hollow shafts are also used.
Another machine part which is shaft like in appearance is
called an axle, which does not necessarily rotate. It simply acts
as a support for some rotating body such as a hoisting drum, a car
wheel or a rope sheave. In general, it is subjected to transverse
loads and are stressed principally in bending.

7-2. Materials and design stresses:

The material commonly adopted for shafts is mild steel.
When greater strength is required, as in high speed machinery, an
alloy steel such as nickel, nickel chromium or chrome vanadium
steel is used. When resistance to corrosion is desired, some copper
alloys are used. Shafts are made by hot rolling and finished to
size by cold drawing or by turning and grinding. Cold drawing
produces a shaft of fairly uniform diameter which is stronger than
that produced by hot rolling and finished by turning and grinding.
The cold rolled shaft has higher residual stresses which cause dis-
Art. 7-2] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 317

tortion of a shaft when it is subjected to machining operations such

as slotting or milling. Machine shafts are generally forged.
The following are the common sizes of transmission shafts (Dimensions are
in millimetres.):

25 50 90 160 260 360 460

30 55 100 180 280 380 480
35 60 110 200 300 400 500
40 70 125 220 320 420
45 80 140 240 340 440

The lengths of shafting will not exceed 7 metre on account of transport

difficulties.

For shafting purchased under definite physical specifications

the allowable tensile stress is taken equal to 60 per cent of the elastic
limit in tension but not more than 36 per cent of its ultimate
strength. The maximum allowable shear stress is taken equal to
50 per cent of the allowable tensile stress which gives a design
stress equal to 30 per cent of the elastic limit in tension and not to
exceed 18 per cent of the ultimate strength in tension. In shafts with
keyways the allowable stresses are 75% of the values just given.
The following stresses are usually adopted for the design of
a shaft.
ft = 1,200 kg/sq cm maximum permissible tensile or com-
pressive stress ..
fs = 600 kg/sq cm maximum permissible shear Stress.
Before selecting the proper value of the working stresses, the careful study
of the straining action should be made. The more frequently occuring straining
actions are as follows:
(a) Straining action chiefly a bending moment constant in direction during
the revolution of a shaft. The flexural stress on each fibre ranges from +ft to—ft
in each revolution of the shaft.
•
(b) Twisting moment constant in direction, stress varies from fs to 0
infrequently.
(c) Twisting moment constant in direction but fs varies in magnitude;
stress ranges from fs to 0 frequently.
(d) Twisting moment varies in magnitude and direction.
(e) Combined bending and twisting.
Careful study of the straining action will lead to the proper choice of the
working stresses when the material of construction is known
318 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

7-3. Design of axles:

From the view point of design, axles can be divided into two
main groups:
(i) Axles rotating in the bearings together with the members
rigidly fixed to them
(ii) Stationary axles which support members rotating on them.
The axles are made of St. 50.11 (the minimum ultimate tensile
strength of the material is 50 kg/sq mm and the average carbon
content is 0.11%).
Axles are subjected to effect of bending loads, originated in
working drives. The following procedure is adopted for determining
the diameter of the axle:
. (i) Draw a diagram of axle loading and determine the
forces acting on the axle.
(ii) Construct the diagrams of bending moments in two
planes and determine the values of the resultant bending
moments for the critical sections.
(iii) Find the allowable stress according to the type of load
and the material selected. The stresses originated in
the transverse section of a stationary axle are either
constant or vary as the load acting on the axle varies.
In the first case the allowable stress is selected as for
static loading and in the second case as for repeated load
cycle.
(iv) Determine the axle diameters at critical sections from
the resultant bending moments and allowable stress.
If M be the maximum bending moment acting on the axle of
diameter d, then
d3f
M 32 d3x f = 10.2 .
10.2M
f = d3 (i)

i 10.2M _
Or d
= —f — —
2.169
cm f
(ii)

where f equals the fibre stress in tension and compression. We

have determined the diameter of the axle where the maximum
bending moment occurs. The diameter at any other point can be
Art. 7-3] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 319

obtained &Om the maximum diameter if it is remembered that the

diameters at any two points should be proportional to the cube
roots of the bending moments at those points. If the section is
not circular, it is still convenient to design a cylindrical axle and
then to replace the cylindrical section by equivalent section of
any other form. For the rotating axle the cylindrical form is
the only form which gives equal strength in all directions.
If the axle were to be cylindrical and hollow, its diameter
can be obtained by the equation
M
D= 2.169
17f (1 — k4 )
where D -,-- outside diameter of the cylindrical axle and
— inside diameter
k •
outside diameter
The usual value of k is taken as 0.5; then we have

D = 2.217 1/M
-- (iv)
f
The following permissible values are adopted for axle:
Stationary axles: 600 to 1,000 kg/sq cm
Rotating axles: 300 to 600 kg/sq cm
Apart from strength calculations axles are sometimes checked
for stiffness. As a rule it is assumed that the allowable deflection
varies from 0.001 to 0.003 times the axle span (distance between
bearings). For extra stiff axles the allowable deflection ranges from
0.0001 to 0.0005 times the axle span. 0
Sometimes the axles are made in stepped portions. Such a
shape is justified by the tendency to bring its outline as close as
possible to the shape of a beam of uniform strength. In this case
the complex form of a cubic paraboloid of a beam is replaced by
tapered and/or cylindrical sections of the axle.
Example :
1. A rope sheave of a balance weight for the cage is supported on an
axle 25 cm long. The maximum tension in the rope is 1,500 kg. Deter-
mine the diameter of the axle if it is made of St 50.11. Assume the suitable
factor of safety.
The ultimate tensile strength of the St 50.11 is 50 kg/sq mm
i.e. 5,000 kg/sq cm. We assume the factor of safety to be 8.
00
The permissible stress will be = 5 0 = 625 kg/sq cm.
8
 320 MACHINE DESIGN [d. YII
Maximum load on the axle = 2 x 1500 = 3,000 kg.
The point of application of load on the axle is not known.
In such circumstances, the assumption to be 'made is that the
load acts at the middle of the span. Maximum bending moment
at mid span will be
3000 x 25
= 18,750 kg cm.
4
If d cm be the diameter of the axle, then
18750 -,-- 3 x 625.
32 d
-1718750 x 32
••• d 6.73 cm; we adopt 70 mm.
625 x
Exercises:
I. The trunnions of a mixing machine have
an effective length of 30 cm and the weight which
comes on each trunnion is 1,250 kg. What should
be the diameter if the fibre stress is not to exceed
350 kg/sq cm?
Ans. 8 cm. 1111
I////ii c/V/1 r
2. Fig. 7-1 shows the arrangement for turning 156
the wire rope of a crane through 90°, by means of
a guide roller. The maximum tension in the wire
rope is 900 kg. Determine the diameter of the axle
on which guide roller is mounted. The permissible
.stress in the axle material is limited to 1,000 kg/sq FIG. 7-1
cm. Ans. 55 mm.
Note: To reduce the deflection and hence the flexural stresses, the guide
pulley should be mounted near the supports. It is kept in position on the axle by
means of positioning collars as shown in the figure. The diameter of the position-
ing collar may be taken as twice the diameter of the axle.
3. An axle is supported on two end journals and carries a load of
7,000 kg at a point 60 cm from one journal and 120 cm from the other
journal. Determine the diameter of the axle at the point of application of
load. The stress allowed is 600 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 16 cm.
4. A pair of wheels of a railway waggon carries a load of 6 tonnes,
4 on one wheel and 2 on the other, centres of the axle boxes are 190 cm
and gauge of rails is 150 cm. Determine the diameter of the axle at the
wheel. Safe stress 7.5 kg/sq mm. Ans. 105 mm.
Art. 7-4 ] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 921
7-4. Design of shafts on the basis of strength:
Shafts may be subjected to torsional, bending or axial loads
or to a combination of these loads.
When a pure torque T acts on a circular shaft of diameter d,
the relation between applied moment T and the shear stress
induced in the outer most fibre is given by

T = 16 d3 fs (i)
Transposing we get
fs. = 16dsT (ii)
Ir
f i6 T =
Or d= x 1.72 i
i-
T. (iii)
n fs ,
For hollow shafts,
16 TD
fa — 7r (D4 - d4) (iv)
16 T
fs = 7c132 (1 — k4)
D = i3/ 16 . T = __ .
or
it fs (1 — k4 ) 1-72 fl fs (1 T (v)
— k4)
wherp
d = diameter of the solid shaft 0
D = outside diameter of the hollow shaft
di = inside diameter of the hollow shaft
k = ratio of inside diameter to outside diameter.
A rotating shaft carrying pulleys, sheaves, gears and sprockets
is subjected to both bending and twisting when used for the trans-
mission of power. In designing shafts subjected to combined
bending and torsion, several formulas based upon different theories
of elastic failure are advocated by various investigators.
The results of various investigators are given below:
(a) The maximum normal stress theory (Rankine's
theory): This theory is not considered for ductile materials. It
gives good results for brittle materials.
Me = i (M + V M2 + T2) = Lei-, (vi)
322 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

(b) The maximum shear stress theory (Guest's theory) :

This theory is considered for ductile materials.
Te = ArS12171- T2 = Of; (vii)
16
(c) The maximum strain theory (St. Venant's theory) :
Me = 4 (1 — v) M + 4 (1 + v) V M2 + T2 (viii)
where v is Poisson's ratio.
When v =-- 0.3, we have

Me - -=- 0.35 M + 0.65 04.2 + T2 = .g dsfi (ix)

32
This theory is often used by designers in European countries.
In many instances the bending actions on a shaft are not all
in one plane; in such cases the resulting bending moment at a given
point on the shaft is obtained as the vector sum for the two com-
ponent moments at that point.
In order to determine the bending moments at various points
on the shafts, all loads can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components, from which the horizontal and vertical components
of the reactions may be computed. Horizontal and vertical shear
force diagrams can be drawn for the load and reaction components
and the bending moment diagrams may be drawn for horizontal
and vertical loads. The resulting bending moment M in the shaft
is found by combining the horizontal and vertical moments Mh
and Mu as follows :
M __, V Mh2 + Mv2 (x)
Since rotating shafts are subjected to reversal of stresses, fatigue
factor must be used. When bending and torsional loads are sub-
ject to variations, the stresses will be greater than those calculated
by static conditions. In order to account for increase in stresses,
we employ shock factor. Thus, when a shaft is subjected to combined
bending and torsion, combined shock factor Kt and fatigue factor
Km are applied respectively to computed twisting moment T and
computed bending moment M.
Shafts subjected to axial thrust combined with twisting
moment are frequently met with in machinery. Common examples
of such shafts are the propeller shafts of ships and shafts for driving
Art. 7-4] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 323

worm gears. Occasionally vertical shafts carrying heavy rotating

parts are subjected to combined twisting and axial thrust.
Table 7-4.1 gives the values for Kt and Km.
Table 7-4.1

Stationary shafts: Kt Km
Gradually applied loads 1 1
Suddenly applied loads 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2
Rotating shafts:
Gradually applied or steady loads 1 1
Suddenly applied loads, minor shocks only 1.0 to 1.5 1.5 to 2
Suddenly applied loads heavy shocks 1.5 to 3 2.0 to 3

Let P be the axial thrust in a shaft of diameter d, which is

subjected to a twisting moment T.
4P
Direct compressive stress = -
Tcd 2.
Maximum torsional shear stress = 16T
re d3 .
Maximum value of the principal stress will be
= 2 Fp lip2 + 64 T2
ft d2
7Cd2 L
+

If the maximum shear stress theory is the design criterion,

then the maximum shear stress fs is given by
21/ 64T2
Is = nd2 V P2 + d2 (xii)
In order to determine d from equations (xi) or (xii), we
assume a trial value for d somewhat larger than that required
for the twisting moment alone and stresses are evaluated. If the
calculated value of the stress does not come near the allowable
maximum, make a second calculation and §o on.
The above analysis holds good for the short shafts. For long
shafts the buckling effects should be considered.

Empirical design of shafts:

In many cases it is not easy to predict the loads on the shafts
particularly if the member has more than two bearings, which
involves the theory of continuous beams. For these reasons, empi-
rical formula is adopted for the design of shaft in terms of horse
324 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

power transmitted and the speed of shaft rotation in revolutions

per minute.
171-LP. x C
d= cm (xiii)
R.P.M.
where C is a constant with a value 810 for transmission shafts
subjected to torsion only, 1,290 for line shafting subjected to limited
bending loads and 2,180 for main or head shafts subjected to
heavy bending loads.
The distance between bearings on lineshafts and counter-
shafts is limited by excessive deflection and bearing wear.

7-5. Design of Shafts on Basis of Rigidity:

In many cases the shaft is to be designed from rigidity point
of view. We should consider torsional rigidity as well as lateral
rigidity.

Torsional rigidity:
The angle of twist, 6, in radians for a circular shaft of
uniform crosssection is given by
T1
0= - i (1)
JG
When the angle of twist is measured in degrees, the equation
(1) is modified to
584/T
0— (ii)
Gd4
where 1 = length of the shaft
T = torque on the shaft
G = modulus of rigidity
d , shaft diameter.
When value of permissible shear stress and the allowable
angle of twist are specified, then the limiting length of the solid
shaft is given by
6 . 21;/
(iii)
Gd
The permissible value of the angle of twist depends on the
particular application. Widely used specifications for shafts
Art. 7-6] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 325

state that the angle of twist must not exceed 1 degree for a length
of shaft equal to 20 times the diameter. In lineshafts 2.5 to 3.5
degrees per metre may be taken as the limiting value. The tor-
sional rigidity of machine tool shaft should be very high. The
twist in drive shafts of machine tools should not exceed 0.26 degree
per metre.
Lateral rigidity:
In order to maintain proper bearing clearances or gear teeth
alignment the diameter of shaft is decided from lateral deflection.
The shaft is generally of variable crosssection so the usual formulas
of mechanics of materials cannot be used and the graphical method
is employed. It is desirable to limit the permissible maximum
transverse deflection of the line shaft. The ratio of maximum
deflection to length of the shaft between bearing supports should
not exceed 1
1200

7-6. Design of Hollow and Square Shafts:

The material of the solid shaft is not used effectively as the
centre portion of the shaft does not contribute much to the torque
transmitting capacity of the shaft; therefore, hollow shafts are used
for large transmission of power. A hollow shaft has greater
strength and stiffness than solid shaft of equal weight. In addition
the removal of the core from the centre of large shafts increases
their reliability.
The formulas derived for the solid shafts can be used for the
hollow shaft by taking the suitable value of the polar second
moment of cross section area about axis of rotation in equations
..„,1 T1
-Tj- - dailau
A
r TO •

For a hollow shaft to be equal in torsional strength to a solid

shaft their resisting moments must be equal. If both shafts are
made of the same material and are stressed to the same intensity,
then, if d is the diameter of the solid shaft, we have
n (D4 — 441 7r
16 D ) 16 d3.
D3 ris dg
where k = -b- •
=1 — k4
326 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

If k = 0.5,
D = 1.022 d (1)
From equation (i), we see that a hollow shaft having inside
diameter one-half of outside diameter would be only 2.2% larger
than a solid shaft of equal strength but there would be a reduction
in weight of 22-6%. If both shafts are of the same diameter, the
hollow shaft would be 93.7% as strong as the solid shaft, yet the
reduction in weight would be 25%.
According to St. Venant the moment of resistance to twisting
of square shaft of side a is given by
T . -13a3fs (ii)
Note: For detailed discussion for the torque transmitting capacity of
non-circular shafts, standard text books on Advanced Strength of Materials
should be referred.

Examples :
1. A circulating water pump of a condenser is of the centrifugal
type and connected directly to a three phase induction motor running at 900
r.p.m. The pump delivers 30,000 litres per minute against the dynamic
head of 10 metre. Determine the horse power of the motor required to drive
the pump, if the pump efficiency is 80%. If the maximum torque on the
motor shaft is 30% more than the average torque, determine the diameter
of the motor shaft if the permissible shear stress in the shaft material is
not to exceed 550 kg/sq cm.
As the quantity of water delivered is 30,000 litres/min = 30
cu metre against a dynamic head of 10 metre, the water horse
power will be
30 x 10 x 1000
- 75-- — = 66.6 h.p.
x 60
The pump efficiency is 80%; therefore the horse power of
6
6.6
the driving motor will be 0 = 83.5 h.p.
1.
71620 x h.p. 71620 x 83.5
Torque = - - - -- -- - -- 6,650 kg cm.
$
-peed 900—
As the maximum torque is 30% more than the average torque,
the shaft should be designed for a torque 1.3 x 6650 = 8,650
kg cm. If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
-16 da x 550 = 8650
Art. 7-6 ] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 327

f8650 16
or d= x — = 4.3 cm; we adopt 4.5 cm.
550 .rc
2. A 20 H.P. 1,400 r.p.m. motor drives a centrifugal pump through
a single set of 3:1 reduction gear. The load may be considered to be
suddenly applied with minor shocks for which the combined shock and
fatigue factor may be taken as 1-5. Determine the diameters of the pump
and motor shafts if the permissible torsional shear stress intensity is limited
to 500 kg/sq cm.
Torque on the motor shaft = 71620 x 20= 1,030 kg cm.
1400
Design torque = 1.5 x 1030 = 1,545 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
.rc 3
16 d x 500 = 1545

d f1545- 16 n
or 566- x ---- = h *J cm.
7r
As the pump shaft rotates at ird the speed of the motor shaft,
the design torque for the pump shaft will be 3 x 1545 = 4,635 kg
cm. Hence diameter of the pump shaft will be 2.5 A3/3 = 3.6 cm;
we adopt 4 cm as the diameter of the pump shaft.
3. The bar of a boring machine having a diameter of 60 mm is
subjected to a shear stress of 400 kg/sq cm and has an angle of twist of 0.01
radian. Determine the length of the bar. G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
lor
The angle of twist is given by the equation
2f .1
-= where
Gsd
angle of twist, fs = intensity of induced shear stress,
1 = length of the member undergoing twisting, G = modulus of
rigidity of the material, and d = diameter of the solid shaft.
1 =6Gd
2fs
On substitution of values we get,
0.01 x 84 x 106 x 6
1= = 63 cm.
2 x 400
4. Determine the inside and outside diameters of a hollow shaft which
will replace a solid shaft made of the same material; the hollow shaft should
be equally strong in torsion, yet weigh half as much per metre length.
328 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Let d be the diameter of the solid shaft which is to be replaced

by a hollow shaft whose outside diameter is do and inside dia-
meter is di.
As two shafts are to be equally strong in torsion, for the same
material, their moduli of sections in torsion should be the same.
Jo = r _ dsa
16 16 do
or di4 = do4 — dsdo (i)
As the hollow shaft weighs, half of the solid shaft for the same
material, we get
7C
x d2 — _ (doe d,2 )
4
d2
or die = do2 — (ii)
2
Elliminating di from equations (i) and (ii), we get
d4
d2d02 — d3do — — 0 (iii)
4
The positive root of the equation (iii) gives the value of the
outer diameter of the hollow shaft in term of the diameter of the
solid shaft. We get
d d
do = (iv)
2
When outer diameter of the hollow shaft is known, the inner
diameter of the hollow shaft can be obtained either from equation
(i) or (ii).
Note: This example illustrates the method of replacing hollow shaft by a
solid shaft to satisfy the given requirements.

4. A cold drawn monel propeller shaft for a launch is to transmit

400 h.p. at 1,500 r.p.m. without being subjected to significant bending
moment and the slenderness ratio is less than 40. The ef ficiency of the
propeller is 70% at 30 knots. (1 knot = 1.85 kmlhour). Determine
the shaft diameter based on maximum shear stress theory. Permissible
shear stress may be taken as 500 kg/sq cm.
71620 x 400
Torque = = 19,100 kg cm.
500
, 30 x 1.85 x 1000
Velocity = — 15.4 metre/sec.
60 x 60
Art. 7-6] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 329

If F be the axial load on the shaft, then

F x 15.4 400 x 0.7 x 75
— 400 x 0.7 or F = = 1,360 kg
75 15.4
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
1360 1730
fe — — kg/sq cm.
TC d2
d2
4
19100 97500
fs = - - , — d3 -- kg/sq cm.
d2
16
According to maximum shear stress theory, we get
1 y( 1730 \2 F9750012
500 =--- x 4.
2 k d2 d3
Thus by solving the above equation we get d = 6 cm.

5. The shaft of uniform diameter as shown in fig. 7-2 carries belt

pulleys at A and B with vertical belts. It is supported in self-aligning bear-
ings at C and D. The shaft transmits 10 h.p. at 400 r.p.m. The tension on the
tight side of belt A is 200 kg and that on the tight side of belt B is 90 kg.
Pulley A weighs 20 kg and pulley B 40 kg. Estimate a suitable diameter
for the shaft, adopting a working shear _ stress of 420 kg/sq cm. The
equivalent torque formula Te = M-2 + T2 may be used. Compute
suitable lengths for the bearings at C and D if the bearing pressure must
not exceed 10 kgIsq cm.

150+--- S0 0 --- 250

-T
.a 6

B
A

FIG. 7-2

The shaft transmits 10 h.p. at 400 r.p.m.

71620 x 10'
6 .• Torque acting on the shaft = -- 400 = 1,792 kg cm.
330 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII
The shaft is subjected to twisting moment due to power
transmitted and is subjected to bending due to vertical belt pulls
and weight of the pulleys.
1792
Net effective tension at pulley A -,---- --15 = 119.5 kg.
Tension on tight side of belt A is 200 kg.
Tension on slack side of belt A = 200 — 119.5 = 80.5 kg.
Total belt pull vertically downwards=200-1-80.5=280.5 kg.
-Weight of pulley A = 20 kg.
Total bending load on shaft at A = 280.5+20=300.5 kg.
1792
Net effective tension at pulley B = = 59.7 kg.
30
Tension on tight side of belt B is 90 kg.
• • Tension on slack side of belt B = 90 — 59.7 = 30.3 kg.
Total belt pull vertically downwards =90 + 30.3 =120.3 kg.
Weight of pulley B = 40 kg.
•• • Total bending (vertically downwards) load on shaft at B
equals 90 + 30.3 + 40 = 160.3 kg.
The twisting moment is constant from A to B, while the
bending moment varies over the entire length. The bending
moment will be maximum either at C or at D. Therefore, the
critical section for the design will be either at C or at D.
Bending moment at C — 300.5 x 15 ----: 4,500 kg cm.
Bending moment at D = 160.3 x 25=4,007 kg cm.
The bending moment at C is maximum; therefore, equivalent
twisting moment at C is to be determined in order to determine
the shaft diameter.
Te -= 1 45002 —I— 17922 .=---- 4,830 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
7r 3
X 420 = 4830
16 d
V4830 x T6
Or d =- -------- = 3.9
cm; we adopt 4 cm.
420 x 7C
In order to determine the suitable length for the bearings
at C and D, we calculate the reactions at the bearings by taking
moments ,about C and D. We denote reactions at C and D by
Rc and RD respectively.
RG x 80 ,--= 300.5 x 95 — 160.3 x 25
RD x 80 = 160.3 x 105 — 300.5 x 15
Art. 7-6 ] - SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 331

... Rc = 304 kg; RD = 156.3 kg.

If 11 be the length of bearing at C, then
304
= 7.6 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
4 ='-- 4 x 10
If /2 be the length of the bearing at D, then
156.3
= 3.95 cm; we adopt 4.0 cm.
12 = 4 x 10
6. Three pulleys A, B and C are mounted on a shaft and are at
distances of 1,200 mm, 2,100 mm and 2,700 mm respectively from the left
hand bearing. The bearings are 3,600 mm apart. Pulley A is 50 cm, B 75 cm
and C 37.5 cm in diameter. A power unit supplies 20 h.p. to A and
machinery takes 12 h.p. from B and 8 h.p. from C. A horizontal drive
is arranged to A, while the drive from B has to be vertically downwards.
The drive from C is taken off at 45° to drive A and in a downward direc-
tion. The speed of the shaft is 200 r.p.m. and the allowable shear stress
in the shaft is 320 kg/sq cm. The angle of lap of belt on pulley is 180°
in each case, and the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0-32.
Obtain the shaft diameter.
Fig. 7-3(a) shows the arrangement of pulleys on the shaft
360 cm long. D and E are the bearings.
The shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m.
"5--2.9 = 7,162 kg cm.
Torque on shaft at A = 7--16-?-2(00
71620 x 12
Torque on pulley B = = 4,297 kg cm.
200
Torque on pulley C __71620 x— 8 — 2,865 kg cm.
200
The torque diagram for the shaft is shown in fig. 7-3(b).
The angle of lap of the belt on each pulley is 180° and the co-
efficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0-32.
If T1 and T2 be the tensions in the tight and slack sides of
the belt respectively, then
T1= ege = e0.32n =2.73.
1-2
Pulley A :
Torque -=---- 7,162 kg cm; radius = 25 cm.
7162
... T1 — T2 = - - = 286 kg. But T1 = 2.73 T2.
25
332 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. VII

B
A
,

1200 —s--4---- 90 600 900-40

(a) Space diagram

f 1
1 ---
4297 kg cm
7162 kg cm 4

(b) Torque diagram

0 kg i,
61g kg 234 kg
( c1 ) Horizontal load diagram

0 kg 246 kg 234 kg
(c 2 ) Vertical load diagram

343.4 kgm
564.6 kgm 4 31 8 kg m
.f 4:
( d ) Horizontal B.M. diagram
i
24-2 lzgetl_—*•—_,,7129 m
338.1 kg m i _
.,_,,...
T
(d2 ) Vertical B.M. diagram

1 548 kg m 1
596 7. 44 8 kg m

(d 3 ) Resultant B.M. diagram

FIG. 7-3
Art. 7-6] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 333

... 2.73 T2 - T2 = 286 kg.

. . T2 = 166 kg; T1 = 166 + 286 = 452 kg.
T1 -- T2 77--- 452- 166 = 618 kg.
Pulley B :
Torque = 4,297 kg cm; radius = 37.5 cm.
•-• T1 — T2 = 37.5
4297 = 114 kg. But Ti = 2.73 Ts.
••• 2.737-2 — T2 = 114 kg.
• • T2 =66 kg; 2; = 66 ± 114= 180 kg.
• • T1 + T2 = 180 + 66 = 246 kg.
Pulley C:
Torque = 2,865 kg cm; radius = 18.75 cm.
= 2865
T1 — T2 1845 = 153 kg. But T1 = 2.73 T2.
.• 2.73 T2 — T2 = 153 kg
• T2 =--- 88.5 kg; T1 = 88.5 + 153 = 241.5 kg.
•

.. Ti + T2 -'=----- 88.5 + 241.5 = 330 kg.

The shaft is subjected to twisting moment due to power trans-
mitted and to bending due to the pull in the belts. The weight
of the pulley is neglected. As all loads are not parallel, we
resolve them into two components along two perpendicular
directions — horizontal and vertical. Fig 7-3(c) shows the bend-
ing loads on the shaft along these two directions.
The horizontal loading on the shaft is as underi,
At pulley A, 618 kg, at pulley B, 0 kg and at pulley C,
330 cos 45° = 234 kg.
The vertical loading on the shaft will be 0 kg at A, 246 kg
at B and 234 kg at C.
Fig. 7-3(d) shows bending moment diagrams for the horizontal
and vertical loading and resultant loading.
Horizontal loading:
The horizontal component of reaction at D is determined
by taking moment for all the horizontal forces about E.
618 x 240 + 234 x 90
RD H = — 470.5 kg.
360
Similarly,
618 x + 234 X 270
REH 7-7--- = 381.5 kg.
120360
334 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Bending moment for horizontal loading:

B.M. at D = 0
B.M. at A = 470.5 x 1.2 = 564.6 kg metre
B.M. at B = 470.5 x 2.1 — 618 x 0.9 = 431.8 kg metre
B.M. at C = 381.5 x 0.9 = 3434 kg metre
B.M. at E = 0.
Vertical loading:
The vertical component of reaction at D is determined by
taking moment for all the vertical forces about E.
234 x 90 + 246 x 150
REw --=---- - — 161 kg.
360
Similarly,
234 x 270 + 246 x 210
Rhy = - = 319 kg.
360
Bending moment for vertical loading :
B.M. at D --, 0
B.M. at A = 161 x 1.2 = 193.2 kg metre
B.M. at B = 161 x 2.1 , 338.1 kg metre
B.M. at C = 319 x 0.9 = 287 kg metre
B.M. at E = O.
The resultant bending moments for salient points are calculated
as follows :
B.M. at D = 0
B.M. at A = 1564.62 + 193.22 = 596 kg metre
B.M. at B r, V431.82 + 338.1 2 = 548 kg metre
B.M. at C = V343.42 + 2872 = 448 kg metre.
Thus, from the resultant bending moment values and the
twisting moments we see that the critical section is at the pulley
A where the maximum values of the bending moment and twisting
moment occur.
B.M. -,-, 596 x 100 = 59,600 kg cm.
T.M. ------ 7,162 kg cm.
.. Equivalent twisting moment = V596002 + 71622
= 60,100 kg cm.
If d be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
16- d3 x 320 = 60100
Art. 7-6] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 335

-1760100 16
or d -= ?(---- = 9.87 cm; we adopt
7L x 320 10 cm.
7. A cast gear wheel (fig. 7-4) is driven,
by a pinion and transmits 100 h. p. at 140 r.p.m.
The gear has 200 machine cut teeth having pressure
angle of 20°. Gear weighs 200 kg. The pitch circle
diameter of the gear is 120 cm. Determine the
diameter of the gear shaft if the allowable shear
stress is 300 kg/sq cm. The value allows for
the weakening effect of the key way.
71620 x 100 FIG. 7-4
Torque on the gear shaft = — - -
140
= 51,200 kg cm.
torque 51200
Tangential tooth load F = -- - - --
radius of pitch circle 60
854 kg.
Pressure angle --, 20°.
P 854
. •• Maximum tooth load Q = 908 kg.
cos20° — 0.9397 -=.
The force F is the driving force and puts the torque on the
gear shaft while Q produces bending effect. The maximum tooth
load Q is inclined at an angle of 20° with the horizontal. The
weight of the gear will act downwards at the centre of the gear.
For the bending of the shaft the greatest possible ;Fsultant of
maximum tooth load and weight must be considered. The
resultant of these two forces is found out either by a formula or
by a parallelogram of forces. The angle between the two forces
is 70°. The resultant of these two forces is
R ---,-- 1/9082 + 2002 + 2 x 968 x 200 cos70° = 1,000 kg.
R x 1
Note: The bending moment on the gear shaft ,---- ---, --- where / the
4
length of the shaft between the bearings. This formula gives a higher bending
moment as a result we obtain a stronger shaft. In the above formula the reac-
tions are assumed to act at the centre of the bearing.
1000 x 40
The maximum bending moment on the shaft = - - - - - - -
4
= 10,000 kg cm.
The twisting moment at the middle of the shaft = 51,200
kg cm. The shaft will be under bending and shear stresses, and
336 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

the former will be alternating in nature. The equivalent

twisting moment by Guest formula (assuming the failure of the
shaft due to maximum shear stress) will give us
Te = 1512002 + 100002 = 52,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
-1-
7 3 x 300 = 52000
16 d
s/52000 x 16
or d =------ = 9.59 cm; we adopt 10 cm.
300 X it
8. A steel spindle 15 mm diameter and 60 cm long transmits 2 h.p.
at 1,000 r.p.m. It is found that the angle of twist is excessive. It is
desired to reduce the angle of twist to one-quarter of its original value by
fitting a sleeve of different material over the spindle and connecting the two
rigidly at the ends. Determine the outside diameter of the sleeve.
For the spindle, G --,--- 0414 x 108 kgIsq cm.
For the sleeve, G = 0.35 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Original spindle
71620 xh.p. ,_
71620 X2
--
Torque transmitted = -- = 143.2 kg cm.
speed 1000
143.2 x 60
Angle of twist in radian ___ TI _
—W
0.84 x 106 x 7 (1.5)4
32
= 2.06 x 10-2 radian.
As the angle of twist is to be reduced to one-quarter of its
original value, the angle of twist for the sleeved shaft will be
2.06 x 10-2
= 0.00515 radian. The applied torque will be shared
4
by the original spindle and the sleeve. The angle of twist of
both will be the same. As the angle of twist is proportional to
the torque transmitted and as the angle of twist is reduced to lth
of its original value, the torque transmitted will be reduced to one-
fourth of the original value. The torque transmitted by spindle
143.2
will be --35.8
4
= kg cm.
The torque transmitted by sleeve =143.2 — 35.8=107-4 kg cm.
Angle of twist of sleeve = 0.00515 radian.
60
. N. 0.00515 = 107.4 x or J = 3.55 cm6.
0.35 x 106 x J
Art. 76] SHAFTS, KEYS ANL) COUPLINGS 337

If D cm be the outside diameter of the sleeve, then

(D4 — 1.54) = 3.55.
32
D = 2.54 cm; we adopt 2.6 cm.
The shear stresses induced in the spindle and sleeve will be
54.5 and 35.3 kg/sq cm respectively.
9. A hoisting drum 50 cm in diameter is keyed to a shaft which is
supported in two bearings and driven through a 12:1 reduction gearing by
an electric motor. Determine the horse power of the driving motor if the
maximum load of 800 kg is hoisted at a speed of 50 metre/min. and the
efficiency of the drive be 80%. Also, determine the torque on the drum
shaft and the r.p.m. of the motor. Determine the diameter of the shaft
made of machinery steel, the working stresses for which are 1,150 kg/sq cm
in tension and 560 kg/sq cm in shear. The drive gear, whose diameter is
45 cm is mounted on the end of the shaft such that it overhangs the nearest
bearings by 15 cm. The combined shock and fatigue factors for bending
and torsion may be taken as 2 and 1.5 respectively.
Torque on the shaft of the hoisting drum = 800 x 50
= 20,000 kg cm.
Energy supplied to hoisting drum per minute = 800 x 50
= 40,000 kg metre.
H.P. at the hoisting drum shaft = 40000 —
4500
.
89

8
H.P. of the driving motor = .90 = 11.1.
0.8
Angular speed of hoisting drum = linear velocity
radius of the drum
50
= = 200 radian/min.
50 1
X 100
As the gear ratio is 12 :1, the angular speed of the electric motor
will be 200 x 12 = 2,400 radian/min.

•• • Speed of the motor = 2400 = 382 r.p.m.

2 7T
The torque on the shaft = 20,000 kg cm.
00 x 2
Tangential tooth load on gear = 200 4 = 890 kg.
5
338 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Assuming the pressure angle to be 20° the maximum bending

890
load on the shaft due to tooth load - = - --- = 947 kg.
cos 2 0°
As the overhung is 15 cm, the bending moment at the bearing
will be 947 x 15 = 14,200 kg cm.
As the shock and fatigue factor for bending is 2, the shaft
should be designed for a bending moment of 14,200 x 2 = 28,400
kg cm. The shock and fatigue factor for twisting is 1.5, the shaft
should be designed for a twisting moment of 1.5 x 20000 = 30,000
kg cm.
Equivalent bending moment, according to principal stress
theory (Rankine's theory), is given by
Me = iim + Vm2 + T21 = 4128400 + 1/284002 ± 3006021
= 35,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
Tt
- d3 x 1150 = 35000
32
-1/3 3 5000 32 =
x 6.77 cm.
1 1 50
Equivalent twisting moment, according to maximum shear
stress theory (Guest's theory), is given by
Te = 1 / M2 -I-- T 2 — 1/284002 + 300002 = 41,400 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
1--6 d3 x 560 -= 41400

d f 41400 x 16
= --- - - - --- - = 7.22 cm.
560 x IC
We adopt 7.5 cm diameter shaft.

10. A pulley is keyed to a shaft mid-way between two anti-friction

bearings. The bending moment at the pulley varies from 1,500 kg cm
clockwise to 4,500 kg cm anticlockwise as the torsional moment in the shaft
varies from 500 to 1,500 kg cm. The shaft is made of cold drawn steel
having an ultimate strength of 5,600 kg/sq cm and a yield strength Y. 4,000
kg/sq cm. The frequency of the variation of the loads is the same as the
shad('t ,speed. Determine the required diameter of the shaft for an indefinite
life. The stress concentration factor for the, keyway in bending and torsion
may be taken' as 1.7 and 1.4 respectively. Use a design factor of 1.8.
Art. 7-61 SHAFTS, XEYS AND COUPLINGS 339

Let d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft.

Let us, first of all determine the equivalent normal stress
45900
Maximum stress due to bending = 4500 x 32 = kg/sq cm ,
7cds cis
Minimum stress due to bending= -- 1__ °:; 1? — -
1 300
-kg/sq cm .
d3
(45900 — 15300) 15300
Mean stress due to bending= = —d3— kg/sq cm.
2d3
Variable stress component due to bending
=
[45900 — (— 15300)]
2d3
30600
_. d3 - kg/sq cm.
---,

We assume that the endurance limit is half the ultimate tensile

strength i.e. 5600 x 0.5 = 2,800 kg/sq cm. We assume size
correction factor as 0.85 and surface correction factor as 0.88.
fy Kf X fm
The equivalent normal stress is fa + ye--• -
BC
15300 _,_ 4000 1.7 x 30600 1
fe normal
— (is -r 2800 X 0.85 x 6:88 x d3
115300
= kg/sq cm.
cis
After determining the value of the equivalent normal stress,
let us determine the value of the equivalent shear stress.
16 x 1500 7635
Maximum shear stress = - d3
--.1z.(is - = - kgiscl cm-.
16 .x 500 2545 . .s
Minimum shear stress = cm.
-rr d3 d3 kg/ q
7635 -I- 2545 5090
Mean shear stress = —ds— kg/sq cm.
2d3
7635 — 25i5 2545
Variable stress component = --2- -13--- = 715- kg/sq cm.
(
We assume that yield strength in shear is equal to 0.6 of the
yield strength in tension. We assume A = 0.6 and the size factor
as 0.85 and surface factor as 0.88.
5090 0.6 x 4000 1.4 x 2545
fe shear = ----,— ± —
as 5606 x 0.6 x 0.5 X 6:85 x 0:88 di
12390
= kgisq cm.
ds
340 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII

4000 x 0.5
Allowable shear stress = = 1,100 kg sq cm •
1.8
Design note:
It should be noted that we have used a factor 0.6 for pure torsional shear to
determine the yield strength but we have used a factor 0.5 for combined stress
shear, according to maximum shear stress theory of failure.
f[115300T [12390T 69000
.. 1100 = ±
2d3 d3 j d3
1769000
Or d= Trois = 3.98 cm; we adopt 45 mm diameter.

Exercises:
I. Determine the diameter of a solid steel shaft to transmit 120 h.p.
at a speed of 290 r.p.m. if the angle of twist per metre length is not to
exceed 0.1°. The modulus of rigidity of the shaft material is 0.84 x 106
kg1sq cm.
Ans. 12 cm.
2. The shaft running at 120 r.p.m. transmits 625 h.p. The
working conditions to be satisfied by the shaft are (a) the shear stress must
not exceed 560 kesq cm, (b) the angle of twist must not be more than 1°
on a length of 16 diameters. Calculate the diameter of the shaft. The
modulus of rigidity is 0.85 x 108 kgIsq cm.
Ans. 16 cm.
3. A shaft 9 cm between bearing supports a 60 cm pulley 30 cm
to the right of the left hand bearing and the belt drives a pulley directly below.
Another pulley 45 cm in diameter is located 20 cm to the left of the right
hand bearing and the belt is driven from a pulley horizontally to the right.
The angle of contact for both the pulleys is 180° and the tension ratio is
2.2. The maximum tension in the belt on a 60 cm diameter pulley is 225
kg. Determine the suitable diameter for a solid shaft allowing ft :-,--- 630
keg cm and fs = 420 kgisq cm.
Ans. 5 cm.
4. A mild steel shaft transmitting 20 h.p. at 280 r.p.m. is supported
on two bearings 75 cm apart and has keyed to it a pulley and a gear. The
power is supplied to the shaft at a pulley of 45 cm diameter and the belt ends
are horizontal and the tension ratio is 2. The pulley is keyed at a distance
20 cm to the right of the left hand bearing. A 15 cm diameter 14i°
involute gear, located at 15 cm to the right of the right hand bearing, delivers
power to a gear directly below the shaft. Calculate the diameter of the
Art. 7-6 ] SHAFTS, KEY AND COUPLINGS 341

shaft assuming working stresses to be 700 kg/sq cm in tension and 560

kg/sq cm in shear. Draw the bending moment diagrams.
5. A shaft 150 cm long is supported at the ends by journal bearings
and rotates at 125 r.p.m. A vertical load of 800 kg is applied 30 cm from
the left bearing, a load of 1,200 kg acting downward and forward at
an angle of 45° with the horizontal is applied midway. between bearings
and a load of 1,000 kg acting downward and forward at an angle of 60°
with the horizontal and 25 cm to the left of right hand bearing. Power of
20 h.p. is supplied at the first load, a power of 12 h.p. is taken off at the
second load and the remainder at the third load. Determine the suitable
diameter for the shaft if the permissible shear stress is limited to 500 kg/sq cm.
Draw the bending moment and torque diagrams for the shaft.
6. An automobile transmission shaft is required to transfer 60 h.p.
at 500 r.p.m. The outside diameter must not exceed 5 cm and the maxi-
mum shear stress is not to exceed 840 kg/sq cm. Compare the weights of
hollow and solid shafts which would just meet these requirements.
Ans. 2.4 :1.
7. The driving shaft of a scraper conveyor 50 mm in diameter
transmits a torque of 200 kg metre to a driving sprocket mounted at a
distance of 400 mm from the working end of the shaft. • Determine the
angle of twist and the shear stress induced in the shaft material.
G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 0.00775 radian, 407 kg/sq cm.
8. The shaft of a 40 h.p., 800 r.p.m. direct current motor is
75 cm from centre to centre of the bearings. The magnetic pull on the
armature is equivalent to a uniformly distributed total load of 625 kg
distributed over middle one-third of the length of the shaft. Suggest the
suitable diameter for the shaft if the permissible value of the shear stress
in the shaft material is not to exceed 420 kg/sq cm. Also, calculate the
maximum value of the tensile stress in the shaft. .
Ans. 5 cm; 860 kg/sq cm.
9. A hoist with 120 cm diameter drum lifts a cage by means of a
wire rope that winds on the drum. The drum is driven by an electric
motor through a double reduction gear. Determine the diameter of shaft
if the permissible shear stress is limited to 350 kg/sq cm.
The maximum acceleration of the cage is limited to 1 metre/sect. The
weight of the system is given as follows:
342 MACHINE DESIGN I. GIL 1

Speed Weight Radius of

R.P.M. kg gyration, cm
Rotor of motor and piston 1,440 226 11.5
Intermediate gear 340 363 23
Low speed gear 75 900 69
Drum and shaft 75 1,140 61
Cage 1,800 ---
Rope rising 450
Ans. 55 mm.
10. The power output of a gas engine is absorbed by means of a
friction brake, the brake drum having an effective diameter (allowing for
belt thickness) of 75 cm, the angle of lap being 180' and the coefficient
of friction between belt and drum being 0.35. The brake drum is over-
hung on the crankshaft, its central plane lying 22.5 cm out from the end of the
nearest bearing. When the engine is delivering its maximum of 16 h.p.
at 200 r.p.m., calculate the tensions in the belt on each side of the drum.
Deduce a satisfactory diameter ,for the shaft allowing a maximum
value of principal stress of 420 kg/sq cm and neglecting the weight of the
drum. Design a suitable key for fixing the brake drum to the shaft, assum-
ing a maximum shear stress in the key of 350 kg/sq cm, a crushing stress
of 840 kg/sq cm and width of the key ,-- 1 diameter of the shaft.
Ans. 70 cm.
11. A shaft 90 cm long is to be supported at each end in short swivel
bearings held in C brackets attached to a wall. The shaft is driven by a
belt at a point 25 cm from one end and drives on to a second belt 25 cm from
the other end, the power transmitted being 5 h.p. at 500 r.p.m. The both
pulleys are 20 cm diameter with a belt lap of 180°.
Determine the diameter of the shaft, which may be treated as simply
supported with concentrated loads. Neglect the weights of the pulleys and
shaft. Take the coefficient of friction for the belts on the pulleys as 0.4
and the safe shear stress as 310 kg/sq cm. Make fully dimensioned
sketches of one bearing with its support bracket.
Ans. 40 mm.
12. A solid horizontal steel shaft is to run in self aligning bearings
A and B as shown diagrammatically in fig. 7-5. It is driven from the
right of B, and A is a terminal bearing.
From the pulley C which is 550 mm diameter, a belt drive supplies
power to a machine, the belt being inclined at 64° to the horizontal.
Art. 7-76] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 343

The maximum belt tensions are 180 kg and 85 kg as shown. The belt
is 10 cm wide and 6 mm thick and its angle of lap is 180°. The pulley
may be taken to weigh 50 kg.

1200 - -- — 1350--4
C e

...

• FIG. 7-5
Assuming there are no transverse forces to the right of B, determine
the necessary size of the shaft, using the maximum shear stress criterion. The
working shear stress is to be 400 kg/sq cm. Comment on this value of the
working stress. Make a neat proportioned sketch of the pulley suitable for
C giving leading dimensions. Provision is to be made for shifting the belt
on to a loose pulley on the machine.
Design and sketch the key for securing the pulley to the shaft.
Ans. 70 mm diameter shaft.
13. Fig. 7-6 shows a solid mild steel cross-shaft in a brake mechanism.
The shaft is supported at each end in bearing having spherical seatings.
The two levers CD and EF actuate horizontal links which exert equal pulls
whose maximum value is such as to require a total operating force P of
value 750 kg on the driving lever AB. Draw the diagriim of resultant
bending moment for the shaft and determine a suitable diameter for it, using
maximum shear stress criterion for the design. Also, decide suitable dimen-
sions for the levers. State the values of the maximum forces on the bearings.

2251*-- 600— 600-4-215

FIG. 7-6
14. A ship requires 300 h. p. to drive it at a forward speed of 5
metre/sec and at this speed the propeller rotates at 180 r.p.m. The
horizontal propeller shaft is. not liable to buckle. Find the diameter of the
344 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch: VII

shaft if the maximum allowable shear stress is 450 kg/sq cm and the twist
in degree per metre if the modulus of rigidity C = 0.8 x 106 kg/sq cm.
. Ans. 90 mm.
15. Determine the diameter for a hollow shaft having inside dia-
meter 0.6 times the outside diameter. The maximum allowable shear stress
for the shaft is 850 kg/sq cm. The shaft is driven by a 90 cm diameter overhung
pulley placed vertically below it. The weight of the pulley is 60 kg.
The tension on the tight and slack side of the belt are 290 kg and 100 kg
respectively. The overhung is 25 cm. Assume angle of lap of the belt on
the pulley to be 180°. Ans. 105 mm.
16. A short stub shaft, made of SAE 1035 as rolled receives 30 h. p.
at 300 r.p.m. via a 30 cm spur gear, the power being delivered to another
shaft through a flexible coupling. The gear is keyed midway between
the bearings. The pressure angle of the gear teeth is 20° and the design
factor is 1.5 on maximum shear stress theory with varying stresses.
Bearings are 40 cm apart.
Neglecting the radial component of the tooth load, determine the shaft
diameter. Considering both the tangential and radial components, compute
the shaft diameter. Is the difference enough to change your choie of shaft size?
Ans. 40 mm.
7-7. Form of Keys:
A key is a device which is used for connecting two machine
parts for preventing relative motion of rotation with respect to each
other. In many applications the key prevents the lengthwise
relative motion also. The connected parts act as a single unit.
A groove called a keyway or keyseat is usually cut into the shaft
and the hub of the part to be connected. As the keyway is cut,
the shaft is weakened due to reduction of metal near the circum-
ference and due to stress concentration at the corners. Keys are
generally made from cold rolled mild steel bars. The commonly
adopted forms of keys may be divided into four classes: (1) saddle
key, (2) tangent key, (3) sunk key, (4) round key and taper pins.

7-8. Keys:
Saddle key as shown in fig. 7-7 is used for light services. A
keyway is provided only in the hub of the part to be attached and
the key is hollowed to fit the shaft. The holding power of the
key is due to frictional forces set up. Sometimes to increase the
Art. 7-8] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 345

holding power, the surface of the key is left flat and the shaft is
planned off to accommodate the key The key is called a flat key
(fig. 7-7). Tangent keys are fitted each to withstand torsion in
one direction only. Sunk keys (fig. 7-7) are designed to fit in a
sunk keyway whose bed is parallel to the axis of the shaft. Sunk
keys are of the following types:
(i) Rectangular or square key (ii) Gib headed key
(iii) Feather key (iv) Woodruff key.
The holding power of the sunk key is due to the resistances
which they offer in shear and crushing.
Key

Saddle key Flat key Sunk key

Uniform thickness t
\.

AM

Splined shaft Woodruff hey

Various forms of keys

FIG. 7-7 •

The square key is square in section while in rectangular key

the thickness is smaller than the width. They are designed so that
one-half of the key is in the shaft while the other half is in the hub.
The fitting of the key should be done very accurately. It should
accurately fit at the sides while theoretically it should touch the
top and bottom with a light pressure. These keys may be with
tapered sides to facilitate the insertion and removal of the key.
346 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII
The taper occurs on the hub side. The insertion of the tapered
key sets up a high pressure between the shaft and the hub which
produces bursting pressure on the hub at the same time a large
frictional force that is helpful in transmission of power. When
one end of the keyseat is inaccessible, then in order to permit
easy removal of the key the gib head is provided.

When axial relative motion between the shaft and the hub is
necessary, feather keys or splines are used. The working clear-
ances are allowed in the sliding keyway at the top and at the sides.
In some types the key is so constructed that it can be made fast
to the hub while in other types it is fastened by countersunk
screws to the shaft.
Splined shafts arc extensively used in automobile industry.
It has a number of key like projections, as shown in fig. 7-7, integral
with it, equally spaced round the circumference. These projec-
tions engage with corresponding recesses in the splined hub.
Woodruff keys, as shown in fig. 7-7, resemble segments of circles
in shape. The shaft is carefully milled to accommodate the
circular portion of the key and to allow the key to extend into
the hub a distance of one-half the thickness of the key. Among
advantages of this type of the key is the ease of removal from the
shaft. The extra depth in the shaft gives a deep base for the key
and prevents any tendency to tip over. It is successfully used on
tapering shaft ends. When considerable power is to he transmitted,
two or more keys can be placed end to end having a common key-
seat in the hub. Woodruff keys find their applications in machine
tools, automobiles and aircraft constructions.
Round keys are of circular section and fit in holes drilled
partly in the shaft and partly in the huh while the taper pins are
inserted in through holes drilled in shafts and hubs.

7-9. Design of sunk keys:

If T .be the torque transmitted by the shaft, then the tangen-
T 2T
tial force at the shaft radius will be where d is the
d I2 d
diameter of the shaft. Due to power transmitted shearing and
crushing failures of the key are likely to take place. We assume
that half the thickness of the key is in the shaft and the remaining
Art. 7-10] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 347

half in the hub (See fig. 7-7.). Let 1, b and t respectively be the
length, breadth or width and thickness of the key.
Area that resists the shearing of the key is lb. The tangential
2T
shearing force at the shaft radius is P -=d .
P T
. . Shear stress induced in the key = --, -- d and this value
lb b
should not exceed the permissible value of the stress.
1t
Area that resists the crushing of the key is —- •
2
P 4T
Crushing stress induced in the key --,--- 2 =---- -- and this
/t/ t- d I
value should not exceed the permissible value of the stress.
When the key is fitted on all the four sides, the permissible
crushing stress is more than twice the permissible stress in shear.
In this case, generally, we check the key for shear strength only.
When the key is not fitted on all the four sides, the permissible
crushing stress is about 1.7 times the permissible shear stress and
the key must be checked for crushing also. When the key is
made of the same material as the shaft, the length of the key if the
keyed member transmits practically the whole shaft torque, is
determined by equating the shear strength of the key to the tor-
sional shear strength of the shaft.

The usual design procedure for the key is to obtain the dimensions of the
key and then to check for the stresses. P:
Let U be the unit of proportion.
U — d+ 13 mm
1:
Width of the kcy --, 4
i7
Thickness of the key —
6
Length of the, key - -- 1.5U.
If the connected element transmits only a portion of the torque of the shaft,
the length of the key is reduced.

7-10. Effect of keyways in shafts:

The effect of cutting the keyway in the shaft is to reduce the torsional
strength of the shaft. This is due to the remolial of the material and serious
stress concentratiorm at the re-entrant corners of keyways. According to the
results of tests conduced by H.F. Moore C1 the ratio of the presumable torsional
strength of a solid circular shaft having an ordinary keyway to the strength of
the same sized shaft without keyway may be expressed by the ratio.
348 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

h
C1 = — 0.2 — — 1.1-- •
d
where h is the depth of the keyway and b the width, and d the diameter of shaft.
Generally, it is assumed that by cutting the keyway the torsional strength
of the shaft is reduced by 25%, which value is higher than that given by the
above ratio.
The effect of cutting the keyway is to increase the angle of twist for that
portion of the shaft. Since at the portion of the shaft, hub of the connected
element tends to stiffen at that point so the effect of keyway is nullified. If the
keyway is long, then we must consider its effect. The angle of twist is increased
in the ratio C5 expressed by the equation
G = 1 + 0.4 0.7 - •
d
The extensive use of keys is largely due to their simple and
dependable design, convenience of assembly and dissembly and
low cost. The main disadvantage of this type of joint is need
for key way which not only makes the effective cross section of the
parts smaller but also involves considerable stress concentration.
Another important shortcoming of keyed connections is that
they can not be fitted closely enough to ensure accurate concen-
tricity of parts and that single key can not transmit large torques.

7-11. Taper pin:

When small torque is to be transmitted, the shaft and the
connected elements are fastened by taper pins as shown in fig. 7-8.
Hollow shafts are connected by means of a sleeve and a taper pin.
Standard taper for taper pins is 1 in 50. The pin holes should
be drilled and reamed with a taper reamer after the parts have
been assembled. The mean diameter of the taper pin can be
obtained from first principles as under.
Taper pin Taper pin Shear pin
Kr/ ril'AFWAreff,
qt.N.101101NS VILNANNOVIA.N1.
—0—
'10\ :16,10116‘1001106\10101
WAFAKKed1,41.01

Shaft Sleeue Sprocket

Taper pins Use of a shear pin

FIG. 7-8 FIG. 7-9

If T be the torque transmitted by the taper pin of mean

diameter d1 and d be the diameter of the shaft, then the force
Art. 7-121 SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 349

T T•
tending to shear the pin will be If fs
be the per-
c//2 = 2d
missible value of the shear stress in the pin, then, as the pin is in
double shear, we get
n 2T
2 x --,f. d12 x fs = -d---

_ 1/: T
Or di.
Such pins are used as a safety device against overloading of
the connected parts. The pin will shear off before any damage is
done to the connected costlier parts. In such connections the
pin is known as the shear pin and the diameter is calculated by
considering the ultimate shear strength. Fig. 7-9 shows such an
application.

7-12. Feather keys and splined shafts:

They are used when the connected parts are required to be
moved axially along the shaft when the power is being transmitted.
The key is, generally, tight in the shaft and the clearance is being
provided between the key and the hub keyway. The force
required to slide the connected part along the shaft depends upon
the number of keys. 'The use of two feather keys equally spaced
requires half the axial force than the use of one key. The
feather key is very tight in the shaft and for stress analysis purpose
it may be considered rigidly fixed in the shaft. .
In fig. 7-10, the key is fixed in the shaft which rotates in the
direction of the arrow and drives the connected element. The
torque is transmitted by a force P at the key and a similar force
F acting at the circumference of the shaft. If d be the diameter
Pd
of the shaft, and T is the torque being transmitted, then T = 1-
2T
or P ---= - •

The axial force required to move the hub axially = Wy. ±

Pt/ = 2 Piz where (2 is the coefficient of sliding friction and P= W.
Where two feather keys are used and if they are well fitted
so that each takes an equal share of the load, the shaft will assume
the position as shown in fig. 7-11.
Torque = P1 x d
350 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

T
or P = -- - - - , which is half the pressure for the case of
1 d
fig. 7-10.
Force to slide outer member along the shaft will be equal to
I.LP1 + IL W1 = 2121)1, which is half of that for the case of fig. 7-10.
From the above analysis the advantage of splined shaft is
seen when the connected part is required to be moved along the
shaft.
A splined shaft is provided with a number of parallel keys
formed integral with the shaft (external splines) which correspond
to grooves cut in the hub (internal splines). The splined shaft
(fig. 7-7) has a section with splines spaced equidistantly from each
other. The hub which mates with this shaft is made with longitu-
dinal grooves. Splines may be of rectangular, trapezoidal,
involute and triangular profiles. Rectangular splines have found
the greatest application in engineering, as they ensure required
strength of the joint and are convenient to machine. Splined
shafts are particularly useful when bushings, clutches, gears, etc.
are required to slide axially along the shaft.

Shaft with one feather key Shaft with two feather keys
Flo. 7-10 FIG. 7-11

Splined connections have the following advantages over keyed connections:

(i) Greater strength of the splined shafts at varying and impact load
(ii) Larger contact area of splines which can transmit greater loads
(iii) Perfect centring of the rotary part mounted on the shaft.
Splined joints have the following main disadvantages:
(1) Local stresses in the re-entrant corners of the groove (especially with straight
sided splines) which are, however, lower than in the case of key ways
(ii) Inevitable uneven load distribution between the splines
(iii) Requirement of special machineries for the manufacture of splined shafts
and hubs .
Art. 7-12] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 351

The operating conditions for the splined shafts correspond

to that of a feather key. An analysis of the failures observed during
machine operation confirms the importance of bearing faces of
splines for crushing. Let n be the number of splines, a the design
bearing surface of each spline, x the coefficient taking into account
the non-uniform load distribution on the bearing surface, rm the
spline-mean-radius and T the torque transmitted by the connection.
I
T
Tangential force at mean radius .=- .
rm
T
Crushing force on each spline = ---------- .
rm X n

Crushing stress intensity on each spline = ----1--------

rm xnxa
Maximum crushing stress intensity that may arise due to
T
non-uniformity of load will be - - •
r m >' n x a ›- x
The value of x may be taken as 0.75.
The permissible value of the crushing stress intensity depends
on operating conditions and heat treatment of the spline bearing
surfaces.
For fixed joints and under favourable operating conditions the
crushing stress intensity may range from 800 to 1,200 kg/sq cm
without heat treatment and from 1,200 to 2,000 kg/sq ecru if special
heat treatment is carried out.
For sliding joints, with a view of protecting the splines from
excessive wear and sometimes from seizure, the value of bearing
pressure is reduced drastically and it may range from 30 to 200
kg/sq cm depending upon the operating conditions.

. If _permissible bearing pressure or crushing stress intensity is

given, the torque tra1smitting capacity of the splined connections
can be determined.
The design bearing surface a of each spline and spline-mean-
radius rm will depend on the nature of splines i.e. rectangular,
trapezoidal, involute and triangular.
The size of the involute and triangular splines may be calculated as for the
key or obtained from the table 7-12.1.
352 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Table 7-12.1

Number of Width of the Height of the Root diameter

splines spline spline of the shaft

4 0.241D 0.075D 0.850D

6 0.250D 0.050D 0.900D
10 0.156D 0.045D 0.910D
16 li 0.098D 0.045D 0.910D

D is the diameter of the shaft on which splines are cut.

Examples :
1. A propeller of an outboard motor has 3 cm outside diameter hub
which fits on 2 cm diameter shaft. The hub and the shaft are fastened by a
brass shear pin. If the overload occurs at the propeller, the pin will shear
thus avoiding damage to the rest of the mechanism. Calculate the diameter
of the shear pin which will fail at a torque of 860 kg cm with an ultimate
shear strength of 2,800 kg/sq cm.
The brass shear pin will be a taper pin passing through the hub and the
shaft. The pin will be in double shear and the areas that resist the shear of
the pin will lie along the surfaces of the shaft.
Let d cm be the diameter of the brass shear pin. The rupturing
torque for the shear pin will be 2 x 7c
,i_ d2 x 2800 x 1 kg cm.

860 = 2 x n
4 d2 x 2800

-11 860 >c 4

Or d -,-- 2n x 2800 = 0•44 cm.

Note: Here we do not round off the dimension to the next higher value
as in that case the pin may not shear at 860 kg cm torque.
2. A rectangular sunk key 14 mm wide x 10 mm thick x 75 mm
long is required to transmit 12,000 kg cm torque from a 5 cm diameter
solid shaft. Determine whether the length is sufficient or not if the per-
missible shear stress and crushing stress intensities are limited to 560 and
1,680 kg/sq cm respectively. •
1200 0
Tangential load at the shaft radius = —2 5-— = 4,800 kg.
Area that resists the shearing of the key = 7.5 x 1.4
= 10.5 sq cm.
Induced shear stress intensity = 4800= 457 kg/sq cm,
10.5
which is less than the permissible value of 560 kg/sq cm.
Art. 7.12} SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 353

Area that resists the crushing of the key = 7.5 x 0.5

= 3.75 sq cm.
4800
Induced crushing stress intensity = 3.7 — 1,280 kg/sq cm,
5
which is less than the permissible value of 1,680 kg/sq cm.
As the induced stress intensities are less than the permissible
values, the design is safe.

3. A flywheel of weight 3,000 kg is keyed to a shaft 125 mm diameter.

The shaft drives rollers for rolling plates. When in operation each plate
takes 1i second to pass through and speed drops from 70 r.p.m. to 50 r.p.m.
during this period. The radius of gyration of the flywheel is 90 cm. Determine
the torque necessary for operation, the shear force on the key and the shear
stress in the shaft. Discuss other aspects of the design that could be
considered. Assume that the diameter of the hub of the flywheel is 200 mm.
x 0.92
Moment of inertia of the flywheel = 3000
9.81
= 248 kg metre sect.
(70 — 50) 27r
Change in speed of the flywheel —
60
= 2.1 radian/sec.
This change of speed takes place in 1.5 seconds; therefore,
the angular retardation of the flywheel, assuming it to be uni-
form, will be .-- = 14 radian/sect. IC

Torque necessary for operation = 248 x 1.4 = 347 kg metre

= 34,700 kg cm.
34700 x 2
Shear force on the key = = 5,620 kg.
12.5
If fs be the shear stress intensity induced in the shaft material,
due to retardation, then I

TC
x 12.53 x fs =14700
16
or ft (inertia stress) = 34700 x 16= 90 kg/sq cm.
n x 12.53
The diameter of the hub of the flywheel is 22 cm. The
shear stress induced in the hub material 'during the rolling
operation can be obtained by the equation
354 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII

224- 12.54]
ff = 34700
7i L
r 22
= 34700 x 22 x 16
Or le .---- 18.5 kg/sq cm.
js it [224 — 12•54]
Note: This example illustrates the principle of inertia forces in design.

4. A driving pulley 75 cm diameter rotates at 300 r.p.m. and is

keyed to a 60 mm shaft. The shaft is attached to a pump which is required
to deliver 1,000 litres of water per minute against a head of 30 metre. The
coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0.4 and the belt has an angle
of lap on the pulley of 180°. If the overall efficiency of the pump is 60%,
determine the size of a suitable driving motor. A belt 6 mm thick is to be
used on the pulley. Obtain the width of belt for a safe stress of 20 kg/sq cm.
A key 13 mm x 10 mm is to be used to secure the pulley on the shaft;
calculate the length of the key for a shear stress of 420 kg/sq cm.

Water horse power = 1000 x 30 6•66.

4500
The efficiency of the pump is 60%; therefore horse power
of the driving motor will be = 11.1.
0.6
Let us consider h.p. transmitted by 1 cm width of the belt.
The thickness of the belt is 6 mm and a safe tensile stress is to be
limited to 20 kg/sq cm; the maximum tension in the tight side of
the belt will be limited to 20 x 0.6 = 12 kg/cm width.

The belt tension ratio equals 0'0 e0.47c = 3. 5.

T2
12
The tension in the slack side = = 3.43 kg/cm width.

.. Net pull = T1 — T2 = 12 — 343 = 8.57 kg/cm width.

H.P. transmitted = - _
8.57 X it x 0.75 x 300
= 1.34.
4500
Width of the belt required = 11.1
1:34 = 8.3 cm; we adopt 10 cm.

The maximum torque exerted on the pump shaft by the motor

— 71620 x 11.1 2,645 kg cm.
300
2645
Shear force on the key = — x 2 = 882 kg.
6
Art. 7-12] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 355
The width of the key is 1.3 cm. If l be the length of the
key, then
882 = i x 1.3 x 420
882
or / --.-- 420 = 1.6 cm.
1.3 x
This length is too small for the pulley and, therefore, we adopt
the length of the key equal to the length of the hub which will be
near about 8.5 cm, i.e. 85 mm.
5. A splined connection in an automobile transmission consists of
10 splines cut on a 60 mm diameter shaft. The height of each spline is
2.7 mm and the keyways in the hub are 50 mm long. Determine the
horse power that may be transmitted at 2,500 r.p.m. if the allowable normal
pressure on the spline is limited to 50 kg/sq cm.
Total surface area of splines = 10 x 5 x 0.27
= 13.5 sq cm.
Torque that can be transmitted = 13.5 x 50 x (3 — 0.27
2 )
= 2,000 kg cm.
2000 x 2500
H.P. = - - -- 70.
71620 —
Exercises :
1. A belt pulley running at 200 r.p.m. transmits 100 h. p. The
pulley is mounted on a 80 mm diameter shaft by means of a rectangular sunk
key of dimensions 22 x 18 x 100 mm. Determine the value of the stresses
induced in the shaft and the key.
Ans. 357 kgIsq cm; 407 kgIsq cm; K1,000 kgIsq cm.
2. A shaft and a key are made of the same material and the key width
is 1 of the shaft diameter. Considering shear only, determine the minimum
length of the key in terms of the shaft diameter. The shearing strength of
the key material is 60% of its crushing strength. Determine the thickness of
the key to make the key equally strong in shear and crushing.
Ans. 1.57d; 0.3d.
3. A 40 cm long lever is fixed to a 4 cm diameter shaft by means of
a taper pin passing through its hub perpendicular to the axis, the mean dia-
meter of the pin being 1 cm. A force of 12 kg is applied at the end of a lever.
Is the pin safe if the shearing stress in the pin is limited to 600 kg/sq cm?
What maximum torsional shear stress is induced in the shaft?
Ans. Safe; 38.3 kg/sq cm.
4. The transmission gears of an automobile are carried on 50 mm-6
spline shaft and slide when under load. The hub length of each gear is
/mamma
reariatiA4.- [Link]; Libtai..
356 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

4 cm. Determine the pressures on the spline if the horse power transmitted at
2,000 r.p.m. is 80. The following proportions may be adopted:
D
The width of the spline is 7 and the thickness of the spline To,
where D is the diameter of the shaft. Ans. 306 kg/sq cm.
5. A 40 cm gear transmitting 60 h.p. at 120 r.p.m. is to be fastened
to a shaft having splines. The hub is 1.5 times the shaft diameter D.
D
Determine the spline dimensions if the width of the spline is — and the
4
•D
thickness of the spline — . The permissible shear stress intensity in the
10
shaft material is not to exceed 560 kg/sq cm and the crushing stress intensity
on the splines is limited to 85 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 100 mm diameter; 6 spline shaft.
6. Calculate horse power transmitted by a shaft of 15 mm diameter
running at 300 r.p.m. Two feather keys are fitted to the shaft and the
axial force required to slide the outer member along the shaft is 15 kg. The
coefficient of sliding friction is 0.15.
Ans. 0.314 h.p.
7. In a plate rolling mill the plates take 3 seconds to pass through a pair
of rollers. To maintain the speed as constant as possible, a flywheel
weighing 4 tonnes is keyed to a 15 cm diameter shaft, but the speed drops from
65 r.p.m. to 50 r.p.m. The radius of gyration of the flywheel is 100 cm.
Obtain the torque applied to the shaft, the shear stress induced in the shaft
and the shear force on the key. Comment on assumptions that you have
made in your approach to the design.
Ans. 216 kg metre; 32.4 kg/sq cm; 2,880 kg.
8. A propeller is fastened by means of a sunk key to a shaft subjected
to torsion only. Find the ratio of sectional areas of the shaft and the key
for equality of strength of the key and the shaft. Find the length of key 2 cm
wide for a shaft 7 cm in diameter. Take allowable shear stresses for the
key and the shaft as 550 and 660 kg/sq cm respectively. Ans. 12 cm.
9. Draw the sketches of various types of keys used and indicate where
each one is preferred. Give your reasons for the choice. A belt pulley is
fastened to a 75 mm diameter shaft running at 200 r.p.m. by means of a
key 16 mm wide and 125 mm long. Allowable stress for the shaft and the
key materials are 400 kg/sq cm in shear and 1,000 kg sq cm in crushing.
Find the horse power transmitted and the depth of the key required.
Ans. 92.5 h.p. ; 1 cm.
Art. 7-13] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 357

10. If a key and a shaft are made from the same material, determine
the necessary length of the key for equal strength of the shaft and the key. The
d 3d
key is rectangular with a width — and a height of — . The shaft is under
4 16
torsion only. Ans. Key length = 1.57d.
11. Feather keys and splines, for use when there must be sliding while
the torque is being transmitted, are often designed on the allowable pressure
of 70 kg/sq cm between the key and the keyway.
(a) Derive an equation for the shaft diameter as a function of a
constant and the torque when two diametrically opposite square feather keys
are used if the allowable contact pressure intensity is limited to 70 kg/sq cm,
and the hub length is one and half-times the hub bore.
(b) Determine the shaft diameter to transmit a torque of 6,000 kg
Cm.
(c) Determine the axial force required to effect the relative movement
between the shaft and the connected part to transmit a torque of 6,000
kg cm if a coefficient of friction between the keys and key ways is 0.08.
12. (a) Sketch various types of keys used in shafts and couplings
and describe the design process of a square key.
(b) Prove that a square key is equally strong in shear and compression.
(c) Determine the required length of a square key if the key and the
shaft are of the same material and of equal strength.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
or
7-13. Force and Shrink Fits (Driving Fits on Solid Shafts):
This is a particular case of the theory of thick cylinders, which
has been discussed in chapter 3. This is an elementary design
application in which these fits are used for connecting hubs and
shafts, sometimes in addition to keys, when an especially rigid
connection is desired.
Let us consider a hub of nominal 'external radius r2 and
internal radius r1 forced onto a solid shaft of nominal radius r1.
Let E1 and th be young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for
the material of the shaft and let E2 and R2 be the corresponding
values for the hub. Let p be the shrinkage pressure at the contact
surface. This pressure is also called the interface pressures.
The tangential and radial stresses due to the force fitting
of the hub on the shaft are given by the general expressions
358 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Tangential stress = ft = A +

Radial stress =fr = A— ;B

.-2

where 11 and B are constants which are to be determined from

the boundary conditions. Both the above equations apply to a
solid shaft as well as the hub. The boundary conditions for both
the elements will be different; hence constants A and B will be
different for the shaft and the hub.
For a solid shaft if the constant, B, were to be other than zero,
at the centre, the tangential and radial stresses will be infinite.
The stresses should remain finite and hence for the solid shaft,
the constant, B, is zero and hence we deduce that at all radii for the
solid shaft the hoop and radial stresses are equal and of the same type i.e.
compressive, and the value of this stress is that of the necessary interface
pressure to ensure no slipping at the interface.
If, therefore, the fit allowance on the nominal interface
diameter is 8 then this force fit allowance must be given by the
decrease in diameter of the shaft added to the increase in internal
diameter of the hub. If p be the corresponding interface
pressure which is compressive, then we get at the interface
Tangential stress in the shaft = — p.
Radial stress in the shaft = — p.
Radial stress in the hub at interface = — p.
[r22 r12
Tangential stress in the hub at. interface = p r 2
2
Circumferential strain in the shaft (compressive)
F1
= r i (P - 41P) = .•--a ( 1 - 41)
p F r22 2
Circumferential strain in the hub = ri
E2 Lr22 - r12 112
8 1Er 2 + ri2 1 112
.•. p E-
(i) 2
2rl l E1 ES 2 r12 -1- EaI
r
Thus when the interface pressure is given, the diametral
interference can be obtained or vice versa.
1
In practice is usually of the order —
ZS 2000
If the hub is of cast iron and the shaft is of steel, the modulus
of elasticity for steel is twice that for cast iron and Poisson's ratio
for steel and cast iron are virtually the same and its value may be
taken as 0.27.
Art. 7-l3] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 359

8
2r1 EL
,
If the hub and shaft both the are made of the same material,
pr r22 + r121
r12
2pr22
(ii)
When the interface pressure intensity is known, the torque
that the fit will transmit and the force needed to make the fit may be
estimated. If 1 be the length of the fit and D the diameter at the
interface, the contact area is n131. The normal force is p7rD1
and the frictional force is 1.07.0/ and the moment of the frictional
force about the axis of the shaft is ppreD/ x - • Thus the torque
2
that can be transmited by this fit is
7_ = pprcD21
2
If N is the design factor then the fit can be used to transmit
T [Link]
torque.
ff--. 2N
,Joints of this type may be assembled by force or shrink fits.
The mean values of the coefficient of friction for steel and cast iron
parts are
p. = 0.08 for a force fit
= 0.14 for a shrink fit.
The axial force required to press the hub onto the shaft is
the product of the area rill, the interface normal pressure p and
the coefficient of friction p.. Thus the axial force F = RprDl. . . (iv)
The strength of a press fitted joint may be defined is its ability
to resist an axial thrust or torque or the joint action of both these
forces, which tend to displace one part relative to the other.
The load carrying capacity of a press-fitted joint depends
primarily on the amount of interference 8 i.e. the difference between
actual diameters of the shaft and the hole measured before assembly.
When the joint is subjected to an axial thrust P, then
P <14701 (v)
If the joint transmits the torque T, then
p.p7d3 2/
T< , (vi)
2
If the joint transmits the torque T and simultaneously resists
the axial thrust P, then
2 71 +
. .,
I"2 < 147rDI (vii)
.73
360 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII

Examples:
I. A 15 cm diameter steel shaft is to have a press fit with 30 cm
outside diameter by 25 cm long hub of cast iron. The maximum tangential
stress is to be 350 kgIsq cm. The coefficient of friction may be taken as
0.12 and Poisson's ratio for both the metals may be taken as 0-3. Deter-
mine the safe torque capacity of the assembly with a design factor of 10.
What will be the axial force required to press the hub on the shaft?
Also suggest the suitable value of the diametral interference.
The maximum tangential stress occurs at the bore of the outer
member and it is tensile. Let p be the interface pressure.
350 ______. F152 + 7.521
p L152 7'52

Or p -= 350 [152 ±
152 7.52] = 210 kgisq cm.
— 7.52

Axial force required to press the hub on the shaft

. 210 x it x 15 x 25 x 0.12 = 30,000 kg.
15
Torque required to shift the hub relative to shaft = 30000 x -y
= 225,000 kg cm.
Safe torque that can be transmitted with a design factor of
10 will be 225°° ° = 22,500 kg cm.
10
We assume that the modulus of elasticity of cast iron is half
that of steel, which is 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
1 0.3 1
• • 8 = 210 x 15 [ — -
2.1 x 106— 2.1 x 106 4- FO5 x 106
052+7.521 0.3
1152-7.52 + 1.05 x 106
_ 210 x 15 [ 1 — 0.3
— - -
1
- —
x +
5 0.3 ]
108 2.1 2.1 + 1.05 3 1.05
= 0.00692 cm.
2. A steel shaft 50 mm diameter is to be pressed into a cast iron
hub 150 mm diameter and 100 mm long, so that no slip occurs under
a torque of 50,000 kg cm. Find the necessary force fit allowance and the
maximum hoop stress in the hub. If after assembly, the shaft is subjected
to an axial compressive stress of 800 kg/sq cm, what is the resultant
increase in the maximum hoop stress in the hub?
Estee = 2Ecast iron = 2.0 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Poisson's ratio = 0.25 for both, and coefficient of friction between
surfaces = 0.3.
Art. 7-13 J SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 361

Let p be the interface pressure. Then

torque = tip x surface area x radius
50000 = 0.3 xp Xrc x5 x 10 x 2.5
Or 400 kgisq cm.
50000
P = 0.3 x .7rX 5 x 10 X 2.5 =
For the shaft, decrease in diameter will be
5 x 400
(1 — 0.25 x 1) = 0.00075 cm.
2 x 106
{152 + 52}
Hoop stress at inside of the hub = 400 152_ 52
--,--- 500 kg/sq cm.
(500 + 0.25 x 400) x 5
Increase of inside diameter =
106
= 0.003 cm.
Force fit allowance = 0.00375 cm.
Let 11 be the increase in maximum hoop stress in the hub
when an axial stress of 800 kg/sq cm is applied to the shaft. Then
the corresponding increase in radial pressure at the inside surface
is determined by the dimensions of the the hub,
and ji = 1152 ± 521
15 2 - 52 x increase in pressure
giving an increase in pressure as 0.8f1.
The radial and hoop stresses in the shaft must also increase
by 0.8A numerically, since they are both equal and compressive.
Increase in hoop strain at the outside of the shaft
1
,- 1 + 0.25 x 0.8f1 + 0.25 x 800]
2 x 108 [ 0.8f
= Increase in hoop strain at inside of hub
1
1 x 106 [fi + 0.25 x 0.8f1]
-
From above we get f1 = 67 kg/sq cm.
Exercises:
1. A bronze disc 5 cm thick is to be pressed onto a steel shaft which
has a diameter of 10 cm and the disc has an outside diameter of 30 cm.
When assembled the fit must be capable of withstanding a torque of 81,000
kg cm. Determine the allowance which must be made to obtain this force
fit. The coefficient of friction for the two surfaces is 0.3.
E for steel 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm
E for bronze 0.945 X 108 kg/sq cm
II may be taken as 0.25 for both metals. Ans. 0.0064 cm.
362 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

2. A gear with 20 teeth of module 12 mm is pressed on a 120 mm

diameter solid shaft. The gear is cut from a steel blank having a uniform
thickness of 12 cm. In service the gear must transmit a peak torque of
60,000 kg cm but must pass a static torque test at twice this value without
movement. Estimate the interference required between the bore and the shaft
and maximum assembly force. Tooth dedendum may be taken as 1.25 times
the module.
ii. = 0.15 and E = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 20,000 kg; 0.005 cm.
7-14. Couplings — Introduction:
Whenever lengths of shafting exceeds some 7 metre in length,
it is made up of two or more lengths. In such conditions it
becomes necessary to join the ends of two shafts in such a
manner that both the shafts act as the same unit. The elements
which join two shafts are known as couplings or clutches. Couplings
are permanent connections while clutches are such that the
operator can connect or disconnect the other shaft at will, as in
automobiles, while in motion.
Shafts to be connected may have collinear axes, intersecting
axes or parallel axes at a relatively small distance. Oldham coupl-
ing is used to connect two parallel shafts when they are at a very
small distance apart. Hooke's coupling is used to connect two shafts
having intersecting axes. When the axes are in the same straight
line, rigid and flexible couplings of various constructions are
employed. In this chapter, we shall consider some of the couplings
both of rigid and flexible types. Each coupling should as far as
possible satisfy the requisite requirements of a good coupling.
The important requisites of a good coupling are:
(a) It must transmit the full torque of the shaft.
(b) It must keep the shafts in perfect alignment.
(c) It must be easy to assemble or dissemble.
(d) The bolt heads, key heads, nuts and other projecting
pans should be protected by suitable flanges, rims or
cover plates .

7-15. Sleeve coupling or muff coupling:

This is a simple coupling which is used to connect two shafts
rigidly. Fig. 7-12 shows one form of sleeve coupling. It consists
Art. 7-15] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 363

of a sleeve or a hollow cylinder, generally made of cast iron, which

is fitted over the ends of the two shafts to be connected and then
keyed by means of a sunk key, whose material is generally the same
as that of the shafts to be connected. The torque is transmitted
from one shaft to the sleeve and then to the other shaft.
As it has no projecting parts, its exterior is perfectly smooth
which is the clear advantage from safety point of view. Though
the coupling is simple one, it requires very careful fitting. The
depth of the keyway in each of the shafts to be connected should
be exactly the same and the diameters should also be the same. If
these conditions are not satisfied, the key will be bedded on one
shaft while in the other it will be loose. In order to prevent this,
many engineers make the key in two lengths and drive them both
in from the same end one for each shaft or they may be driven
from opposite ends. The following design procedure is suggested :

Sleeve or muff coupling

FIG. 7-12

The sleeve is designed as a hollow shaft transmitting the entire

torque of the shaft. As the sleeve is made of cast iron, the per-
missible value of the shear stress is taken Jo be 140 kg/sq cm.
The width and thickness of the key are obtained from the
proportions. The length of the key is calculated from the consi-
deration that the moments of the shearing and crushing resist-
ances of the key must each be equal to or greater than the torque
of the shaft. The effective length of the key for the calculation
purpose is that length which is in one of the two shafts. If we use
one key, the total length of the key will be twice the calculated
length.
364 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. VII

Following are the usual proportions for cast iron sleeve couplings:
Outside diameter D of the sleeve = 2 x diameter of the shaft + 13 mm
Length of the sleeve = 3.5 x diameter of the shaft
Length of the key is at least equal to the length of the sleeve.

7-16. Clamp or Compression coupling:

This is the modification of the sleeve coupling. The sleeve
is split in two halves which are connected by through bolts which
are housed in the recesses formed in the sleeve (fig. 7-13). This
is also of the rigid type. The coupling can be readily assembled
and dissembled very easily. Generally, the coupling is placed
over the ends of the shaft to be connected and a key is inserted.
In fig. 7-13, the key is first placed in position afterwards two
halves of the clamp coupling are tightened. The coupling is so
bored that upon assembly of two halves of the coupling, it clamps tightly
against the shaft. The ribs add strength and serve as a protection
to the workman against injury from the revolving bolt heads and
nuts. The considerable frictional holding power is set up between
the shafts and the coupling. This coupling may be used for the
transmission of heavy torques. It is conveniently used for the
lineshaft service.

Key Clamping bolt

3.5d
T Shaft
rrh
kw,
1 4 II 13 \• • Xi

Muff

Clamp or compression coupling

FIG. 7-13

The following are the usual proportions for the sleeve of the compression
coupling:
Diameter of the sleeve = 2 x diameter of the shaft + 13 mm
Length of the sleeve = 3.5 x diameter of the shaft.
In order to calculate the diameter of the holding down
bolts, we assume that the entire torque of the shaft is transmitted
by friction between the clamp and the shaft.
Art. 746] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 365

Let d1 be the root diameter of the clamping bolts, n the num-

ber of clamping bolts, d the diameter of the shaft, v. the coefficient
of friction between the shaft and the sleeve, ft the allowable tensile
stress in the bolt material and T the torque to be transmitted by
the shhft.
n
Area of the cross section of the bolt = 4-. (42.

As the permissible tensile stress intensity is ft, load per bolt

n
will be — d12 ft. Half the number of bolts will give clamping
4
pressure on each shaft.
n 7L
Clamping load on the shaft =-- x 4 (42 ft.

Clamping pressure intensity between the shaft and sleeve

n TC
X d 2
1 ft
. where / is the total length of the sleeve
d x 112
If p. be the coefficient of friction between the sleeve and the
shaft, the tangential frictional force per sq cm of the shaft periphery
7C fi n
will be IL x 4 ddl12 kg.

The torque that can be transmitted by the sleeve coupling

---=-- radius of the shaft x peripheral area of the shaft x
tangential frictional force per sq cm the of shaft periphery
dl n fi
T— 2 X 7; x ti. x d 2 ---7- x n
2 4 1 di
7C 2
nd (1)
= 1-6- d12fi II
From the above equation, the diameter of the coupling bolt
can be calculated. If P be the load due to .clamping in each bolt,
T
P = -4 --
Anti (ii)

The coefficient of friction between the sleeve and the shaft

depends on the material, working of the bore and the pressure
between the surfaces. The approidmate value of the coefficient
of friction is taken to be 0.3. The number of bolts should be
multiple of 4.
366 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

7-17. Flange-coupling:
They are designed to withstand severe service. They may be
of two rigid types (as shown in fig. 7-14 and 7-15). This coupling
consists the flanges keyed to two shafts. Thes6 two flanges are coupled
together by means of bolts fitted in reamed holes so that the bolts share
Flange Protecting circumferential flange

Coupling bolt

Flange coupling Flange coupling of protected type

FIG. 7-14 FIG. 7-15

the load equally. On important works flanges are forced on the

shafts and keyed tightly in place. As a protection to workman
the nuts and bolt heads are covered by projecting flanges. To
insure true alignment, one shaft may enter the coupling of the
other shaft by 1 cm or a cylindrical projection is provided on
one flange which fits into the corresponding recess in the other
as shown in fig. 7-15. Coupling for marine or automotive pro-
peller shafts demand great strength and reliability; for this
service the flanges may be forged integral with shafts as shown in
fig. 7-16, in which two bolts are shown with nuts.
The flanges of the coupling are usually constructed of cast
iron but sometimes steel is also used. Coupling bolts are made of
steel. The couplings are located very close to the bearings.
 Art. 7-17: SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 367

The following design procedure is suggested for the flange

coupling:
The outside diameter of the hub is calculated by considering
the hub to be a hollow shaft transmitting the torque of the shaft,
the inner diameter of the hub being equal to the diameter of the
shaft. The hub must also provide the sufficient length for the
key so that its resisting moment about the axis of the shaft will be at
•least equal to the torsional strength of the shaft. The thickness
of the flange should be such that it does not shear off at the hub;
at the same time the crushing stress on the bolt is not exceeded.
To prevent the shearing of the flange at the place where it joins
the hub, the moment of the shearing resistance of the flange must
at least be equal to the torsional moment transmitted by the shaft.
The number of bolts is fixed depending upon the diameter of the
shaft. - The pitch circle diameter is fixed such that enough space
is provided between the hub and the lip so that the coupling bolts
can be tightened by using a socket wrench. The size of the bolts
is proportioned so that the bolts can transmit the full torsional
strength of the shafts. The key for each flange is designed as ex-
plained in art. 7-9. The thickness of the circumferential safety
flange should not be less than one-half that of the radial flange.
The inside diameter of the circumferential flange is such that the
bolt holes are located midway between the inner periphery of
the flange and the hub.
The following derivation is commonly used to determine the
de
size of the coupling bolts:
Let d be the diameter of the shaft, di the diameter of the bolt,
B the diameter of the pitch circle, n the number of bolts, fs
allowable shear stress in steel bolts and T the torque transmitted
by the coupling.
The bolts are subjected to direct shear. The area resisting
TC
direct shear of each bolt = -4 d12. As the permissible shear stress
intensity in bolt material is fs, shear load on each bolt will be
7C .rt B
-4- d12 fs. Torque that can be transmitted by each bolt = 4 di% X 2 •

As there are n bolts, the total torque that can be transmitted

by the coupling will be ri X 4 (112fs X 2 •
368 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. VII

.•. [Link] ic d 8 f.f x (i)

-4 1 2
From the above equation the size of the bolt is determined
when number of bolts, pitch circle diameter and allowable shear
stress are known.
The following are the usual proportions for the cast iron flange coupling:
Outside diameter of the hub = 2 x diameter of the shaft
Pitch circle diameter of the bolt = 3 x diameter of the shaft
Thickness of the flange = i x diameter of the shaft
Thickness of the protective circumferential flange.* x diameter of the shaft
Length of the hub = 1.5 x diameter of the shaft
n = 3 for shaft diameters upto 4 cm
= 4 for shaft diameters upto 10 cm
= 6 for shaft diameters upto 18 cm.
In ordinary work, the bolts fit the holes with clearance to allow for slight
variations in the positions of the matching holes. These inaccuracies cause the
bolts to share the load unequally. For this reason, in such cases, it is assumed
that half the bolts carry the load.
Transverse loads induce bending stresses in the flange which reverse during
a complete rotation as a result the fatigue failure is likely to occur. However
the flanges of the standard coupling are such that the failure from fatigue is not
expected.

Shaft

Hangs Flange
Marine type of flange coupling
FIG. 7-16

7-18. Marine type of flange coupling:

Fig. 7-16 shows the coupling which is used in marine engineer-
ing. The flanges in this type of coupling are forged on the ends
Art. 7-20 ] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 369

of the shaft. The bolts are generally tapered and they are made
with or without heads. The bolt holes are always reamed after the
flanges are placed together, thus ensuring perfectly fitted bolts
as a result each bolt will share the same load. The method of
arriving at the diameter of the bolt is similar to that given for
flange coupling. The thickness of the flange is obtained from shear
stress consideration, and finally it should be checked for crushing
stress intensity.
Generally, the following proportions in terms of the diameter of the shaft,
d, are adopted for the coupling:
Diameter of the bolt circle will be 1 6d
d cm
Number of bolts +2
---
— 7.5
Number of bolts must be even
rhickness of the flange =
5
Taper of bolts = 1 in 32

7-19. Flexible coupling:

Perfect alignment of two theoretically collinear shafts is
practically impossible to attain, and still more difficult to maintain
because of bearing wear and other causes. Misalignment of the
shafts cause continuous stress reversal and exessive bearing wear.
For these reasons flexible couplings are employed for moderate or
heavy duty transmission service. The flexible couplings prevent
transmission of shock from one shaft to other and eliminate stress
reversals when either shaft is subjected to deflection at or near
the coupling. Numerous forms of flexible couplings are manu-
factured by various companies. We shall not go into the details
of all those couplings but shall consider some of them.

7-20. Bushed pin type of flexible coupling:

This type of coupling has a cushioning effect due to the flexible
element inserted in one of the flanges. They are used to connect
directly prime-mover and electric generator or an electric motor
and a centrifugal pump or an electric motor and a reducing gear.
Fig. 7-17 shows the coupling with its essential elements. From
the figure it can be easily seen that it is the modification of the
rigid type of flange coupling. The coupling bolts are known as
pins having the special shape as shown in the figure. These pins
are rigidly fastened by nuts to one of the flanges while their dia-
370 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. VII

meters are enlarged _and covered with a flexible material like

leather or rubber washers and the drive takes place through the
medium of compressible leather or rubber washer.
Rubber bush Coupling bolt Protecting circumferential
flange

Flexible flange coupling

FIG. 7-17

The following procedure for the design is adopted :

The usual proportions for the rigid type of coupling are
determined and these will be modified to reduce the bearing pres-
sure on the rubber bushes, which are the main feature of the design.
For available thickness of rubber bushes, the designer should
refer the catalogue from manufacturers. The suitable value for
the bearing pressure will be 3.5 kg/sq cm if longer life is desired
although higher values than this are sometimes specified.
From the torque considerations, the load on each bolt can be
calculated. In order to keep the dimensions of the rubber bushing
reasonably low, the pitch circle diameter will be increased in flexible
coupling and the number of bolts will also be more.
Let 1 be the length of the bush and d its outside diameter.
If p be the bearing pressure on the pin, then load on each pin will
be equal to p x d x 1, which we denote by F.
The torque transmitting capacity of the coupling is given by
T----nxFxR
where n is the number of pins on pitch circle of radius R and
T the torque to be transmitted by the coupling.
Since the pin is not rigidly held in left hand face [See fig.
7-17.] and the rubber is compressible, the tangential force F at the
Art. 7-21 1 SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 371

pitch circle radius R will exert a bending action on the pin. Its
effect on the smaller diameter portion will be reduced by the longi-
tudinal resistance of the shoulder to bending but in estimating
bending stresses, this resistance will be neglected.
We assume that load F is distributed on the bush uniformly.
Fl
Maximum bending moment on the pin = — •
2
If d' be the diameter of the pin,
Fl _ IL
d'3 (i)
2 — 32
After bending stresses have been calculated, the pin should
be checked for either principal stress or for shear stress. Since the
applied shear stress will be very small compared with the direct
stress, the maximum principal stress in the reduced section will
be the design criterion, which may be taken as 420 kg/sq cm.
With bolts of ordinary mild steel the value may be taken as 280
kg/sq cm.
Note: It can be easily seen that the two halves of the coupling will be
dissimilar in construction as a result separate pattern should be made for both
the flanges.
As this coupling is used for high speed service, it should be machined all
over for perfect alignment and balance.

7-21. Bibby type of flexible coupling (fig. 7-18):

This type of coupling is used for high degree of resiliency,
for accommodating loss of alignment and for damping out shocks
and vibrations in the heavier drives. Some of the applications
of these couplings are found in the following drives:
To gear steam engine with rotary pumps, to drist electric
generators from steam turbines, to connect oil engines with vertical
pumps, to gear up propellers with air ship engines.
The construction consists of two serrated discs, which are
keyed to the respective shafts. These serrated discs are connected
by a grid spring. As shown in fig. 7-18(b), the grooves are flared
so that many spring members have long flexible spans at normal
loads but become supported by sides of the grooves when over-
loads occur.
We assume that the torque is transmitted by the spring by
shearing action similar to that of the coupling bolts in rigid type
372 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

of flange coupling. The springs are made-of steel having an

elastic limit of 14,000 kg/sq cm when hardened and tempered.
They are enclosed in grease tight cover.
Coupling bolt

Imps!

Shaft Key
Light load

Spring Normal load

Flange

Cover
Shock load
(a) (b)
Bibby type flexible coupling
Flo. 7-18

From fig. 7-18(b) it is easy to see that under light load, the
coupling is very flexible and resilient to absorb vibration. Under
normal load the span is decreased and the strength is increased.
Under over load the span is smallest and the stiffness is maximum.
In large couplings to decrease the spring cross section the
coils are laid in two or three rows.
Depending on the tooth contour these couplings may have
a linear or non-linear characteristic.
7-22. Leather pad type flexible coupling:
Fig. 7-19 shows the leather pad flexible coupling. This
type of coupling is used where the changes in the length of the
shaft due to temperature are to be accommodated. The material
of the coupling may be cast iron, cast steel or steel.
The following procedure is adopted for the design of the
coupling:
(1) The torque transmitted by the coupling is calculated
from the horse power and speed of rotation.
Art. 7-221 SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 373

(ii) The diameter of the shaft is calculated from the torsion

formula T d8 fs or d 8 T
16 72 -Vfs--- The permissi-
ble value for St 50 is limited to 200 kg/sq cm. In order
to account for bending, lower value of permissible shear
stress is adopted.
Leather rings Coupling bolts

Leather pad flexible coupling

FIG. 7-19

(iii) The diameter of the hub of the coupling is taken from

2d to 2.2d for cast iron and 1.8d to 2d for cast steel and
steel. ••
(iv) The length of the hub of the coupling is taken from 1.5d
to 2d for cast iron and d to 1.3d for cast steel and
steel.
(v) The number of bolts are located on a pitch circle radius,
which is larger than that for the rigid coupling in order
to reduce the shear load on the bolts necessary to transmit
a given power.
(vi) The thickness of the leather or rubber pad varies from
0.4 to 0.5 cm. The number of pads will depend upon
the bearing load on each bolt. The bearing pressure
varies from 10 to 20 kg/sq cm.
(vii) The size of the bolt is calculated from bearing considera-
tions. Since the bolt is not rigidly held in the right
hand face and the leather or rubber is compressible the
374 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII

tangential force at the pitch circle radius will exert a

bending action on the bolt and hence the bolts should
be checked for bending as explained in article 7-20. The
value of the bending stress is limited to 750 kg/sq cm.
Experience indicates that the peripheral velocity of C.I.
coupling does not exceed 1,800 metre/min, because at a higher
frequency of load repetitions the rubber pads become heated
and disintegrate.
7-23. Oldham's coupling:
This coupling is a rigid coupling which is used for connecting
two shafts whose axes are parallel and a short distance part.
Fig. 7-20 shows the constructional details of this coupling. It

)
Central disc

Oldham's coupling
FIG. 7-20
consists of two flanges each having a rectangular recess and each
flange is keyed to the shaft to be connected. There is a central
disc between the flanges. On the opposite faces of the central
disc ,there are two rectangular projecting parts which are at right
angles to each other and which fit into corresponding recesses in
two flanges. With this coupling the rotary motion is transmitted
by means of the sliding contact. The angular velocity of the
driver and the driven is the same at any instant. This coupling
is the inversion of the double slider crank chain.
This Oldham's coupling is, sometimes, used as a flexible coupl-
lag. In such cases the central member is made of fibre or has
leather faced contact surfaces.
Art. 7-241 SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 375

The following are the usual proportions for the cast iron Oldham's coupling:
Diameter of the shaft = d
Diameter' of the bosses = 2d
Distance between centre lines of shafts = c
Diameter of disc or flanges = Di = 3d + c
Length of the boss = 1.75d
i
Breadth of grooves = --6- = w

Thickness of the grooves = breadth of the groove

2
w
Thickness of the central disc t =--
2
Thickness of the flange = V.

7-24. Universal coupling:

These couplings are rigid couplings that connect shafts whose

axes will intersect if produced. The coupling shown in fig. 7-21
consists of two forks which are keyed to the shafts. These two
forks are pin jointed to a centre-block which has two arms at
right angles to one another. The Angle between the shaft axes
may vary slightly during operation but these joints should not be
used to compensate for excessive misalignment. The usual pro-
portions for the joint when made of mild steel are shown in fig. 7-21.
It can be shown from first principles that the speed of the driven shaft for
w cos 0 Ir
any given angular position 0 of the driving shaft is where 0 is
1 — cosi° sin2a
measured from the position in which the driving shaft fork lies in the plane of
the shafts, ca the uniform velocity of the driver shaft and a the angle between two
axes. The variability of the velocity ratio can be eliminated by using a double
Hooke's joint with an intermediate shaft and the forks at the ends of the inter-
mediate shaft lie in the same plane. The intermediate shaft should make equal
angles with the driver and driven shafts.

The following procedure for the design Of shafts and the pin
is suggested. From the horse power requirement at a given speed,
the mean torque on the shaft can be calculated and by knowing
the permissible value of shear stress we get the diameters of the
shafts. The pin is in double shear. If dp be the diameter of the
pin which is in double shear, we get
rc
— dp2 x fs
x 2d = torque to be transmitted.
4
376 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII

In the above equation, fs denotes allowable shear stress in the

pin, and d the diameter of the shaft. The other dimensions are
obtained from the proportions given in fig. 7-21.

Universal coupling or Hooke's coupling

Flo. 7-21

7-25. Safety couplings :

These types of couplings are used in various mechanisms for
limiting the torque transmitted and protecting the parts of the
machine against breaking under overloads exceeding the rated
value. Overloads may occur during starting or in the course of
operation.
The most elementary type of safety coupling is the shear pin
coupling, in which a steel pin, inserted into hardened steel bushings,
connects the coupling members. Thus the torque is transmitted
from one coupling member to the other by the pin alone, which is
in shear. In case of overload, the pin is sheared. After eliminating
the cause of emergency overload, the machine can be restarted only
after a new pin is inserted instead of the one that has been sheared.
While determining the diameter of the shear pin, the value of the ultimate
shear strength should be taken and the diamension so obtained should not be
rounded of to the higher value. Various types of safety couplings have
Art. 7-25] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 377

been devised We do not discuss them here due to limitations of

space.
Examples:
1. Design and draw a sleeve or muff coupling which is used to
connect two steel shafts transmitting 50 h.p. at 330 r.p.m.
The diameter of the shaft is calculated from the maximum torque trans-
mitted. The dimensions of the crosssection of the key (width and thickness)
are found out from proportions. The dimensions of the sleeve are determined
from the proportions as a hollow shaft and checked for the stresses. The propor-
tions for the sleeve are as follows
Diameter of the shaft = d cm
Diameter (outside) of the sleeve - D = 2d -f 1 3 cm
Length of the sleeve = 3fd cm
The coupling may fail to transmit the full magnitude of the shaft torque
due to the following causes.
(a) The coupling may twist ofl.
(b) The key may fail due to shearing or crushing
Moment of resistance ,for the coupling ..fs x section modulus
ir (D4 -- d4)
- fs -
X 16 D
Shearing load on the key = Jr x width of the key x length of the key
thic2kness
Load for crushing of the key =--- fc x - x length of the key

71620 X 71620 x 50
h.p.
Torque acting on the shaft ----
r.p.m 330
-= 10,850 kg cm ,
Assuming that the maximum torque is 25% greater than the
mean torque, we get Tmax ---- 1.25 x 10850 =-.. 13,600 kg cm
If allowable shear stress in the material of the shaft be
420 kg/sq cm, we get 13600 = ;776 d3 x 420

l'ii 3600 16
or x
d --- - -
420 • n -----5.5 cm
We assume that the material of the sleeve is cast iron.
D -,- outer diameter of the sleeve = 2 x 5.5 + 1.3 = 12.3
cm; we adopt 12.5 cm.
If fs be the torsional shear stress induced in the material of
the sleeve,
[12.54 — 5.54 1 i
13600 .-- — - -
16 12.5 - 115
378 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VI!

13600 x 16 x 12.5
or .fs = n [12 .54 — 5.54] = 36.7 kg/sq cm which is less
than the permissible shear stress intensity for the cast iron which
is 150 kg/sq cm.
The length of the coupling = 3.5 x 5.5 ----- 19.3 cm; we
adopt 20 cm.
The width and the thickness of the key will be adopted 20 mm
and 13 mm respectively.
20
The length of the key in each shaft = -2-- = 10 cm.

13600
5. x 2
The tangential load at the shaft radius = 5
= 4,950 kg.
The area that resists the shearing of the key in each shaft
= 10 x 2 = 20 sq cm.

Shear stress induced in the key , 4200 ------ 248 kg/sq cm

which is well within limits.

Crushing stress induced in the key = -4950 x 2

10 >T1-.3
-,--- 762 kg/sq cm which is also within limits.
The actual length of the key will be slightly greater than the
adopted length of the key.
2. The split muf f coupling is to be designed to transmit 90 h.p.
at 180 r.p.m. Determine the diameter of the solid shaft if the permissible
shear stress in the shaft material is limited to 420 kg/sq cm. Assuming that
the two halves of the coupling are connected by 8 bolts, determine the dia-
meter of each bolt if the permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt
material is limited to 700 kg/sq cm. The coefficient of friction between
the shaft and the muff may be taken to be 0.3.
71620 x h.p.
The torque to be transmitted by the shaft =
r.p.m.
71620 x 90
— .----- 35,810 kg cm.
180
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft,
...

16 da x 420 = 35810
Art. 7-251 SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 379

358 10
or d=P , :=
X 1- 7.5 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
Y 420 7
The effective bolts for each shaft will be 4.
If P be the tensile load induced in each bolt, then we have
T
P= 4 (from equation (u) of art. 7-16).
1.1.n7rd
On substitution of values, we get
4 x 35810
P. = 2 380 kg.
0.3 x 8 X 7T x 8 '
The permissible tensile stress intensity in the bolt material
is 700 kg/sq cm. Therefore, the area of the bolt at the root of the
2 380
thread will be — = 3.4 sq cm. Assuming coarse threads the
700
diameter of the bolt will be 24 mm having 3.4 sq cm as the area
at the bottom of the thread.
3. The pitch circle diameter of the flange coupling for 10 cm
diameter shafts is 30 cm. Suggest the suitable diameter for the coupling
bolts if the working shear stress is 560 kg/sq cm. The permissible shear
stress intensity in the shaf.t material is 630 kg/sq cm.
We assume four bolts for the coupling.
Maximum torque that can be transmitted by shaft will be
equal to - x 103 x 630 = 124,000 kg cm.
16 IC

Shear load on each bolt = 124000 = 2,070 kg.

4 x 15
If d1 cm be the diameter of the coupling bolt, then

d 2 x 560 = 2070
4n1
y2070 x 4
or d1 = 2.17 cm ;.we adopt M 22 bolts.
560 x 7c =
4. Find the diameter of the shaft for a marine engine of 3,600 h. p.
making 90 r.p.m. If in the couplings for the shaft 8 bolts are used,
determine the mean diameter of the bolt if the shear stress allowed in the
bolts is equal to the maximum stress in the shaft which is 630 kg/sq cm.
The pitch circle radius of the bolts may be taken as 0.8d, where d is the
diameter of the solid shaft. Also determine the minimum thickness of the
flange.
380 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

71620 x h.p. 71620 x 3600

Torque = — 2,864,800 kg cm.
r.p.m. 90
If, d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then

dB x 630 = 2864800
16
isi2164860 x 16
or d= = 28.5 cm; we adopt 30 cm.
630x ir
Pitch circle radius of the bolts = 0.8 x 30 = 24 cm.
2864800=
Shear load on each bolt = 14,900 kg
24 x 8
If d1 cm be the diameter of the bolt, then

d1 2 x 630 = 14900

/14900 x 4
or 5.5 cm; we adopt 6 cm.
d1 y ----
If t cm be the minimum thickness of the flange, then
TC x t x 30 x 630 x 15 = 2864800
2864800
or t = 3.23 cm.
x 30 x 630- x 1 =
We adopt 4 cm. Crushing area provided is 4 x 6 24
sq cm which will give reasonably low value of the stress.

5. A mild steel shaft has to transmit 100 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. The
allowable stress in the shaft is limited to 400 kg/sq cm and the angle of twist
is not to exceed 1° in a length of 20 diameters. Calculate the suitable
diameter for the shaft. Design and draw a cast iron flange coupling of
protected type for this shaft. The safe shear stress in the coupling bolts
is limited to 280 kg/sq cm.
The diameter of the shaft is calculated from the maximum torque transmitted
Nev, other dimensions are found from proportions and checked for the stresses
The proportions are as follows, the material being cast iron for the flange:
Diameter of the shaft = d
Outside diameter of the hub = 2d
Pitch circle diameter of bolts = 3d
Length of the hub = 1.3d
Thickness of the flange =

Thickness of the circumferential flange =

Art. 7-25] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 381

Number of bolts = 3, for shaft diameter upto 4 cm

= 4, for shaft diameter upto 10 cm
= 6, for shaft diameter upto 18 cm.
The coupling may fail to transmit the full magnitude of the shaft torque due
to the following reasons:
(a) Bolts may fail by shearing
(b) Bolts may fail by crushing.
(c) The flange may twist off at the hub.
(d) The flange may be broken by repeated bending.
(e) The key may fail due to crushing or shearing.
If d1 be the diameter of the bolt and fs the shearing stress intensity induced
in the material of the bolt, then shear resistance of n bolts will be n T
ic diys If
Tmax is the torque to be transmitted, then
n
Tmax
M47 =nx d x pitch circle radius
- laf5
Crushing load on each bolt = ti x d1 x fc where ti is the thickness of the
flange and fc the crushing stress.
The bending of the flange due to deflection of the shaft may cause a failure
by progressive fracture. By locating the hearing very near to coupling, this
tendency may be decreased.
Shearing load on the key , Is x width of the key x length of the key.
x thickness of the key x length of the key
Crushing load on the key ----- fc
2
If we design the coupling by proportions, then ii will be strong for the shear
of the flange and the hub.
71620 x h p. 71620 x po
Torque transmitted = -- --
T.p.m. 200
= 35,810 kg cm.
Assuming the maximum torque to be 25% greater than the
mean,
Tmax = 1.25Tmean = 1.25 x 35810 = 45,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
i1r
-6- d3 x 400 = 45000

r5000 16
or d= X — = 8.3 cm; we adopt 9 cm.
400 TC

According to rigidity view point, Tmax ff _ GO .

J _
--= d72 — 1
0.84 x 103
fs = =-- 370 kg/sq cm,
20d x 180 x d-f
382 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

which is less than 400 kg/sq cm. Therefore, the diameter of the
shaft is to be designed from the rigidity view point.

Tmax = il X C18 X 370 = 45,000

V45000 16
or = --g7-
0— x = 8.56 cm; we adopt 9 cm.
7
With usual proportions the dimensions of the key will be as
under: width of the key 25 mm; thickness of the key 18 mm and
length of the key 140 mm. The material of the key is the same as
that of the shaft so fs ,,--- 400 kg/sq cm and fe = 850 kg/sq cm.
45000 x 2
Shearing force on the key = = 10,000 kg.
9
10000_
Shear stress induced in the key = 14 x 2.5 _ 286 kg/sq cm
which is less than the permissible value hence it is safe.

Crushing stress induced in the key = 10000= 795 kg/sq cm

14 x 0.9
which is less than the permissible value
The outside diameter of the hub is taken as 2 x 9 = 18 cm
Treating the hub as a hollow shaft, we determine the induced
torsional shear stress in the hub
r184 ___ 941
45000 =
16 L 18 If'
45000 x 16 x 18
fs = =-- 42 kg/sq cm, which is well
-re [184 — 94]
within limits.
Hub length is taken as the length of the key which is 14 cm.
We adopt 4 bolts on pitch circle diameter of 3 x 9 = 27 cm
45000
Force on each bolt = 27 = 835 kg.
yx 4
If d1 cm be the diameter of the bolt, which is in single shear,
we get
.7r
4- - di° x 280 = 835
1/835 x 4
Or we adopt 2 cm.
11 = 280 x iv = 1•95 cm;
Art. 7-25] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 383

d 9
We take thickness of the flange as = 2 = 4.5 cm.
2
835
Crushing stress intensity on bolt = 2 4.5 = 93 kg/sq cm,
x
which is well within limits.
The thickness of the protecting circumferential flange=2.3 cm,
6. Design a bushed pin type of flexible coupling for connecting the
motor and centrifugal pump shafts for the following duty:
H.P. to be transmitted 20
Speed in r.p.m. 1,000
The diameters of the motor and pump shafts are 5 cm and 4 cm
respectively. Bearing pressure on rubber bush is 3 kg/sq cm; allowable
shear stress in pins 200 kg/sq cm.
Proportions of the rigid type of flanged coupling ate more or less standardised
by manufacturers and by usage. For flexible coupling, the above proportions
will be modified chiefly to reduce the bearing pressure on the rubber bushes
which are the main features of the design.
The outer diameters of the hubs are each twice the shaft diameter and the
length corresponds to that for the standard rigid type. The overall diameter
and width of flanges are fixed by the dimensions of the bushes and the pitch
circle diameter of pins.

For rigid coupling for this duty we shall require 4 bolts. Here
we adopt 6 bolts. The diameter of the pin, in terms of the diameter
of the shaft and the number of pins, is given by the relation
0.5d 0.5 x 5 yr
pin diameter = -- ___ = 'V6_ = 1.3 cm; we adopt 1.4 cm.
Vn
From fig. 7-17 we see that the portion of the pin of least diameter
(1.4 cm) is threaded and secured in the right hand half coupling
(at the pump end) by the standard nut and washer and the should-
er of the enlarged portion of the diameter is 22 mm. On the
enlarged portion of the rod, a thin brass sleeve of 2 mm thick is
slid. Let us assume that the thickness of the 'rubber bush is 6 mm.
The overall diameter of the rubber bush will be
22 ± 2 x 2 ± 2 x 6 = 38 mm.
Let I be the necessary length of the bush; then its projected
area or bearing area is 3.8 x 1 sq cm. If F be the force to be
applied at each pin to produce the torque to transmit the given
power, we have n x P x R=T
384 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

where n is the number of pins on pitch circle radius R and T

is the torque transmitted.
71620 x 20
Torque transmitted by coupling = = 1,432 kg cm.
1000
Let us assume the pitch circle radius to be 8 cm. The num-
ber of pins is 6.
. 8 x 6 xF= 1432.
1432
. • . F -,--- = 30 kg. Bearing pressure intensity is limited to
8x6
3 kg/sq cm. Therefore, minimum projected area will be
30
j- = 10 sq cm.
10
.. 3.8 x l= 10 or 1= = 2.64 cm.
3.8
We adopt the length of the rubber sleeve as 4 cm. Clearance
of 5 mm is left between the faces of the two halves of the coupling.
There is no rigid connection between two halves of the couplings.
The drive takes place through the medium of the compressible
rubber bushes.
14 mm diameter portion of the pin should be a tapping fit
in the coupling disc to avoid bending stresses. The threaded
portion should be as short as possible so that the shear can be taken
up by the unthreaded neck.
30
Direct shear stress = = 19.6 kg/sq cm.
rc.
— x 1.42
4
Since the pin is not rigidly held in the left hand face and the
rubber is compressible the force of 30 kg at the enlarged portion
will exert a bending action on the pin. Assuming a uniform
distribution of load along a bush, the arm of the bending moment
at the reduced section (at 14 mm diameter) will be 2 + 0.5 = 2.5
cm. Bending moment on the section will be 30 x 2.5 = 75
75
kg cm. The bending stress on the section will be .---- =280
7t
kg/sq cm. 32 x 142

Maximum shear stress on pin = f V2802 + 4 x 19.62=144

kg/sq cm which is less than the permissible value of the shear
stress which is 200 kg/sq cm.
Art. 7-25] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 385

7. A coupling of the Faulk type (Bibby type) is keyed to two 25 mm

transmission shafts. The shafts rotate at 950 r.p.m. If the connecting
strip is 4 cm from the axis of the shaft, how many folds of 0.25 x 3 mm
steel are required? Permissible shear stress for the shaft material is
400 kg/sq cm. Permissible shear stress for the steel fold may be taken
as 2,000 kg/sq cm. Under what conditions could you rate this coupling
,
at 12.5 h.p.?
Torque that can be transmitted by shaft = —
n d8
16 fs
16 x 2.53 x 400 = 1,220 kg cm.
=
We assume that the folds are subjected to shear only. Let
us consider the torque transmitting capacity of one fold.
0.25 x 3 x 2000
Shear load that can be resisted by each fold —
100
=15 kg.
Torque that can be resisted by each fold = 15 x4=60 kg cm.
1220
.. Number of folds = = 204; we adopt 21 folds.
60
Torque capacity of the coupling = 1,220 kg cm.
1220 x 950
H.P. = = 16.2.
71620
Hence we could rate the coupling at 12.5 h.p. with
16.2 ft
— 1 x 100 = 30% possibility of overload.
125
8. In a Hooke's joint, a driving shaft transmits a mean twisting
moment of 55,000 kg cm to the driven shaft. Suggest the suitable diameter
for the shafts and the pins, assuming the safe shearing stresses to be 560
kg/sq cm and 280 kg/sq cm for the shafts and pins respectively. The
shafts are assumed to be subjected to torsion only.
If d cm be the diameter of the shaft, then

d3 x 560 = 55000
16
-V55000 x 16
= = 7.93 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
560 X Tr
The pin is in double shear. The planes across which shear
takes place are at a distance of twice the diameter of the shaft.
386 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Let dp be the diameter of the pin, then resisting moment of the

pin is equal to the torque transmitted. The resisting moment of
the pin = 2 x : dp2 x 280 x 8 kg cm and the torque transmitted
is 55,000 kg cm.
By equating two, we get
-1/ 55000 x 4
dp cm; we adopt 4 cm as
= nx7rx 280 x 8 = 3.96
diameter of the pin.
Exercises:
1. The split muff coupling transmits 90 h.p. at 70 r.p.m. The
diameter of the shaft is 20 cm. Assuming that the two halves of the coupling
are connected by 8 bolts, determine the diameter of each bolt if the permissible
tensile stress intensity in the bolt material is limited to 800 kg/sq cm. The
coefficient of friction between the shaft and the muff may be taken as 0.15.
Ans. M42.
2. Design and draw a neat sketch of a muff coupling to transmit
50 h.p. at 120 r.p.m. Choose your own material and suitable values for
the stresses.
3. Fig. 7-22 shows the muff coupling for 30 mm diameter shafts
transmitting 4 h.p. at 240 r.p.m. Determine the diameter of the taper
pins if the permissible shear stress in the pin material is not to exceed
300 kgIsq cm. Ans. 13 mm diameter pins.

Sleeve Shaft

FIG. 7-22

4. A flange coupling transmits 35 h.p. at 1,400 r.p.m. The

pitch circle diameter of the coupling bolts is 13 cm. Calculate the size of
the bolts if the permissible shear stress intensity is 250 kg/sq cm. Assume
4 bolts. Ans. M14.
Art. 7.25] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 381
5. The shaft of a steamship transmits 18,000 h.p. at 80 r.p.m.
Assuming that the shaft is subjected to pure torsion, determine the diameter
of the shaft if the permissible shear stress in the shaft material is limited to
350 kg/sq cm. Assuming the pitch circle diameter to be 1.5 times the
diameter of the solid shaft, determine the diameter of the coupling bolt if
the permissible value of the shear stress in the bolt is limited to 280 kg/sq
cm. Assume 12 bolts.
Ans. 380 mm; 15 mm.
6. A propeller shaft is made up by joining together number of solid
shafts. The joint is made by forging the ends of the shaft in the form of
a flange and bolting the flanges together by means of 8 bolts. If the shaft
transmits 90 h.p. at 100 r.p.m., determine the size of the shaft, the dia-
meter and the thickness of the flange and the diameter and pitch circle dia-
meter of bolts. Permissible stresses are fs = 630 kg/sq cm; fc -,-- 350
kg/sq cm. Ans. Shaft diameter 80 mm.
7. Each half of a rigid flange coupling with fitted bolts for a shaft
of diameter D is to be installed on the shaft with a square key 1.25D long.
Five bolts are to be used on a bolt circle of diameter 5D. Assume coupling
bolts, shaft and key to be of the same material.
(a) What should be the diameter d of the bolts in terms of D to
make the coupling as strong as the shaft in torsion?
(b) What should be the dimension of the key in terms of D if the
key is to transmit the full capacity of the shaft in torsion?
Ans. (a) Based on shear being uniform, d = 0.122D.
Based on maximum shear = 4:/.3 average,
d = 0.101D.
(b) Width = thickness = 0-236D.
8. Design a shaft coupling to transmit 10 horse power at 1,000
r.p.m. The permissible stresses for the coupling and key are 650, 350 and
1,000 kg/sq cm in tension, shear and compression respectively.
Draw the freehand sketch showing important . dimensions.
9. Design and draw a protected type of C.I. flange coupling for a
steel shaft transmitting 20 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. and having an allowable
shear stress of 400 kg/sq cm. The working stress in bolts should not
exceed 300 kesq cm. Assume that the same material is used for shaft
and key and that the crushing stress is twice the value of its shear stress
and the maximum torque is 25% greater than the full-load torque.
Take shear stress of cast iron as 40 kgisq cm.
388 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

10. A mild steel shaft has to transmit 10 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. The
allowable stress in the shaft is limited to 420 kg/sq cm and the angle of twist
is not to exceed 1° in a length of 20 diameters. Calculate the suitable
diameter for the shaft and design a cast iron flange coupling of protected type
for this shaft. The safe stress in the coupling bolts is limited to 280 kg/sq cm.
Take maximum torque to be 1.25 times the mean torque.
G = 8.4 x 105 kg/sq cm.
11. A simple flange coupling of C.I. is used for connecting two
shafts of 50 mm diameter. The flanges are fitted with 6 bolts on a pitch
circle diameter of 15 cm. The shafts transmit a torque which has an
average value of 9,225 kg cm; maximum value being 30% more than the
average value. The running speed of the shaft is 400 r.p.m. Assume
suitable stresses, and design the coupling along with the key. Make a neat
sketch of the coupling.
12. A propeller shaft is assembled together by joining a number of
shafts, which have flanges fitted with keys at both ends. The flanges at
the end of two shafts are bolted together by 8 bolts at each joint. The
shaft transmits 100 h.p. at 120 r.p.m. Design and make a fully
dimensioned sketch of the flanged joint connecting the two shafts together.
Show clearly how the shafts are aligned properly.
13. Two shafts inclined at an angle of 30° are connected by Hooke's
joint. 4,000 kg cm torque is to be transmitted by the coupling. The
distance between the journal bearings on each fork is 10 cm. The over-
hungs of the driving and the driven shafts are 20 and 50 cm respectively.
Calculate the bearing reactions for each shaft.
Ans. 115 kg; 40 kg.
14. The split muff coupling transmits 20 h.p. at 100 r.p.m. The
shaft diameter is 6.25 cm. Assuming that the two halves of the coupling
are connected by 8 bolts, determine the diameter of each bolt if the permis-
sible tensile stress for the bolt is 700 kg/sq cm. The coefficient of friction
between the shaft and the muff may be taken as 0.2.
(Sardar Patel University, 1967)
15. A mild steel shaft has to transmit 200 h.p. at 400 r.p.m.
The allowable stress is limited to 400 kg/sq cm and angle of twist is not
to exceed 1° in a length of 20 diameters. Calculate the suitable diameter
for the shaft. Draw a cast iron flange coupling for the shaft after designing
the coupling bolts, keys and flange width.
(University of Bombay, 1969)
Ex. VII j SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 389
16. The flange coupling transmits 25 h.p. at 500 r.p.m. Find:
(1) shaft diameter taking fs = 560 kg/sq cm, (ii) dimensions of the key
(iii) shear stress in the bolts taking bolt circle diameter = 3 x shaft dia-
meter and (iv) shear stress in the hub.
(Gujarat University, 1970)
17. Design a bushed type of flexible coupling for transmitting
5 h.p. at 960 r.p.m. Assume suitable materials and stresses for the parts
of the coupling.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
18. (a) What are the different types of coupling used to connect
two shafts?
(b) Outline the design procedure of a protected type of flange
coupling. (University of Bombay, 1975)

EXAMPLES VII

1. During the design of a certain steam-ship, the propeller shaft is required

to transmit 2,500 h.p. at 125 r.p.m. The designer has the choice of three steels
A, B and C having the prices and permissible values of the shear stresses shown
in the table. The prices are given for the completed solid shaft. The prices for
the hollow shaft are to be increased 43 paise per kg.

Permissible shear stress

Steel Price per kg kg/sq cm

A Rs. 2.75 350

B I Rs. 4.00 450
C i Rs. 4.65 650

The angular twist is limited to 1° in a length of 20 diameters. (a) If the

weight is the primary consideration what material and what shaft diameter would
you use for a solid shaft and a hollow shaft whose inside diameter is 0.6 of the
outside diameter?
•
(b) If the prices were to be the primary consideration, what diameter
shaft would you suggest for a solid shaft and a hollow shaft whose inside diameter
is 0.6 of the outside diameter?
2. A• machine which runs at 200 r.p.m. requires a maximum of 10 h.p.
It is to be driven from an overhead line shaft by a belt drive inclined at 55° to
the horizontal.
The pulley on the machine is of 90 cm diameter, weighs 100 kg and has its
centre 120 cm above ground level. The lineshaft is 240 cm above ground level
and runs at 300 r.p.m.
390 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VII

Determine a suitable width of flat belt for the drive, making provision for
a starting torque 20 per cent greater than the maximum running torque. The
belting to be used is 6 mm thick and has a working tensile stress 25 kg/sq cm.
The coefficient of friction between belt and pulleys is 0.3. Centrifugal tension
may be neglected. (The ratio of the belt tensions is given by - - = eh.)
`
Ti

The machine pulley is mounted on a solid steel shaft of 65 mm diameter

and overhangs the bearing by 23 cm. Check that the shaft is not overstressed
where it enters the bearing. Assume a working shear stress of 6 kg/sq mm.
Ans. 10 cm.
3. The traction sheave of a goods hoist is to be of 95 cm diameter and
may be assumed to weigh 250 kg with a radius of gyration of 45 cm. It is
mounted centrally on a solid shaft supported in two bearings 70 cm apart.
The cage weighs 1,000 kg (including an allowance for Traction sheave
the ropes) and the greatest load to be carried weighs 800 kg.
The counterbalance weighs 1,150 kg. The arrangement
is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7-23. The maximum lifting
velocity is to be 3.6 metre/second and is to be attained after a
rise of 8 metre from rest with uniform acceleration.
Determine the required number of hoisting ropes of 15
mm diameter each having a permissible working load of
350 kg.
Estimate the maximum horse power iequired and
determine a suitable shaft size, using a working shear
stress of 5 kg/sq mm.
Give a dimensioned sketch of a suitable sheave. Specify
the size of the key to secure it to the shaft, assuming working stresses of 6 kg/sq
mm in shear and 15 kg/sq mm in crushing.
Ans. 6 ropes; 45 h.p.; 100 mm.
4. A shaft is to transmit 150 h.p. at 500 r.p.m. with provision for a 20%
overload. The angle of twist must not exceed 1° in a length of fifteen diameters.
For practical reasons the external diameter must not be more than 85 mm or
less than 50 mm. Keyway about 5 mm deep are to be cut iii places.
Design the shaft in each of the following alternative materials:
(a) Solid circular section mild steel with a working shear stress of 600
kg/sq cm
(b) Hollow circular section alloy steel with a working shear stress of 1,800
kg/sq cm ,.

Both steels have a shear modulus of 8 x 105 kg/sq cm.

Comment on the relative merits of each design and state with reasons which
you would choose to adopt.
Ans. (a) 70 mm
(b) 75 mm (outside); dia. ratio 0.6 suitable.
5. A gear wheel is keyed to a shaft which is supported .by bearings at 75 cm
centres. The bearings are equally spaced on each side of the wheel. The wheel,
Ex. VII] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 391

which weighs 225 kg is driven by a pinion and transmits 120 h.p. when the speed
of the revolution is 80 r.p.m. The teeth are machine cut of pressure angle 20'.
The pitch circle diameter of the gear is 120 cm. If the allowable shear stress in
the shaft is 350 kg/sq cm, determine the diameter of the wheel shaft.
Ans. 125 mm,
6. A 150 cm diameter pulley transmits 200 h.p. at a speed of 500 r.p.m. to
a 60 cm diameter pulley fitted on a shaft to which a flange coupling is to be
attached.
(i) Assuming suitable number of bolts and the bolt circle diameter, deter-
mine the required size of the bolts, using a design shear stress for bolts of 200
kg/sq cm. N..
(ii) Determine the hub length of each part of the coupling, if a 5 mm X
10 nun flat key is to be used. Assume design stress values of 560 kg/sq cm in
shear and 1,400 kg/sq cm in crushing. The shaft is 50 mm in diameter.
Make a neat dimensioned sketch of the coupling showing clearly the provi-
sion made for the correct alignment of the two halves of the coupling.
7. The speed of an engine shaft is 300 r.p.m. The flywheel on the shaft
is 150 cm external diameter; the rim is rectangular in section and measures 15 cm
wide and 10 cm deep. Determine the kinetic energy which the flywheel will
have at this speed. The running conditions are such that the flywheel varies
in speed four times during each revolution setting up harmonic oscillation and
twisting the shaft through an angle of 0.2° for each oscillation. Determine the
torque involved in this action.

50 kg 50 kg
FIG. 7-24
8. A steel shaft has two pulleys, A and D, fixed to the ends as shown in
fig. 7-24 and it is supported by two bearings at B and C. Vertically downward
loads of 50 kg are transmitted to the shaft by each pulley. If the shaft transmits
80 h.p. at 900 r.p.m., calculate the suitable uniform shaft diameter using the
maximum shear stress theory and satisfying the following conditions: Maximum
allowable shear stress in shaft, 950 kg/sq cm; maximum allowable twist between
pulleys 0.20, degree
Discuss reasons for and against using a stepped shaft in this case.
Take the modulus of rigidity for the shaft, G = 84 x 105 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 75 mm.
 392 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. VII
9. A locomotive brake system operates through a solid steel shaft supported
in bearings 100 cm apart. A horizontal crank arm 35 cm long and placed
centrally between the bearings is linked to the piston of a vacuum cylinder of
75 cm diameter. Two vertical cranks each 20 cm long are spaced at a distance
of 35 cm on either side of the central crank and are connected to horizontal pull
rods. If the maximum vacuum in the cylinder is 1 kg/sq cm and the maximum
allowable shear stress in the shaft is 420 kg/sq cm, calculate a suitable shaft diameter.
Ans. 150 mm.

10. Design a hollow steel shaft to transmit 350 h.p. at 400 r.p.m. with
Brovision for 25% overload. For adequate stiffness the angle of twist must not
4xceed 1° in a length of 20 diameters. Also, design a rigid flanged coupling for
two lengths of this shaft. Assume the steel for all parts to have a woking shear
stress of 580 kg/sq cm and a working crushing stress of 1,400 kg/sq cm with
G = 0.84 x 10° kg/sq cm.

The diameter of the shaft and the coupling bolts, and the key sizes are to be
computed. Other dimensions may be decided by judgement. Make the out-
side diameter of the shaft twice its inside diameter. Give a fully dimensioned
sketch of the coupling.
Describe briefly with the aid of an outline sketch a form of coupling which
would be suitable if the two lengths of shaft were slightly misaligned.
Ans. 12 cm outside diameter, 6 bolts on 16 mm
diameter on 28 cm diameter pitch circle.

11. A shaft is to transmit 270 h.p. at 120 r.p.m. Determine suitable cross
sectional dimensions for a hollow steel shaft. Assume a reasonable diameter
ratio and adopt a working shear stress of 6 kg/sq mm. Estimate the saving in
weight per metre length compared with a solid shaft. The density of the steel
is 7.8 gm/cu cm. Design a coupling to connect two lengths of this shaft which
are in line. Compute as many parts as practicable using reasonable working
stresses. Other parts are to be decided by judgement.
Give a fully dimensioned working sketch of the coupling.
Ans. 12 cm outside and 6.5 cm inside diameter would suit.

12. In fig. 7-25 is shown a flexible coupling. The 4 Bolts

shaft A has to transmit 8 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The steel
on 62
plate is connected to the flange of the shaft A by
means of 4 bolts. The flange is connected to the P.C.D.
shaft A by means of a key. Calculate the diameter
of the bolts and the thickness of the steel plate. The
bolts are placed on a pitch circle diameter of 62 mm.
The following values of allowable stresses may be used:
key
Shear stress in bolts and plate 280 kg/sq cm
shaft and key 560 kg/sq cm Steel
SP 11

140 kg/sq cm. plats

ft 7P PP flange

Give neat dimensioned sketches of the coupling. FIG. 7-25

 Ex. V17] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 393

13. Design and draw an Oldham's coupling to transmit 100 h.p. at 250
r.p.m. Take fs for shaft and key 8,000 psi (560 kg/sq cm), fc for shaft and key
10,000 psi (700 kg/sq cm). Diameter of coupling = 3d where d = diameter
of the shaft. Width of tongue = 045d. Assume any data and stresses which
are not given. (Gujarat University, 1959)
14. A shaft 150 cm long is supported at the ends by journal bearings and
rotates at 150 r.p.m. A vertical load of 800 kg is applied 30 cm from the left
hand bearing, a load of 1,200 kg acting downward and forward at an angle of
45° with the horizontal is applied midway between bearings and a load of 1,000 kg
acting downward and forward is applied at an angle of 60° with the horizontal
and 25 cm to the left of right hand bearing. Power of 20 metric h.p. is taken
off at the second load and the remainder at the third load. Determine the suit-
able diameter for the shaft if the permissible shear stress is limited to 490 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1965)

15. A 150 cm diameter pulley transmits 150 metric h.p. at a speed of 500
r.p.m. to a 50 cm diameter pulley fitted on a shaft to which a flange coupling is
to be attached.
Assuming suitable number of bolts and the pitch circle diameter, determine
the required size of the bolts, using a design stress of 200 kg/sq cm.
Determine the hub length of each part of the coupling if 13 mm /4 10 mm
sunk key is to be used. Assume design stress values of 560 kg/sq cm in shear and
1,400 kg/sq cm in crushing. The diameter of the shaft is 5 cm.
Make a neat dimensioned sketch of the coupling showing clearly the provi-
sion made for the correct alignment of the two halves of the coupling.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1965)

16. A cast iron split muff coupling transmits 30 h.p. at 300 r.p.m.
Design the muffs, shafts, key and bolts. Shafts, key and bolts are made
from mild steel.
Assume suitable safe stresses fot the materials used.
Draw a neat dimensioned sketch for the coupling you have designed. (Give
two views.)
(Gujarat University, 1966)

17. A lineshaft is to transmit 50 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The shaft pieces arc
connected by muff coupling. The length of muff is %times that of shaft diameter
and permissible shear stress for the shaft material and key is 420 kg/sq cm.
Estimate the diameter of the shaft and the width of the key.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
18. A mild steel shaft is to transmit 100 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The allowable
stress in the shaft is limited to 420 kg/sq cm and the angle of twist is not to exceed
I degree in a leng‘h of 20 diameter. Calculate the suitable diameter for the
shaft. Find, also, the size of the bolts to be used for a suitable flange coupling.
4 bolts on a pitch circle diameter equal to 3 times that of shaft are to be used.
The safe shear stress in the coupling bolts is limited to 350 [Link]. cm_L_
394 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VII
19. Design and draw a bushed pin type of flexible coupling for connecting
the motor and centrifugal pump shafts for the following duty:
Motor h.p. 20
Speed in r.p.m. 1,460.
The diameters of the motor and pump shafts are 4 cm and 2.8 cm respectively.
Bearing pressure on rubber bush is 3.5 kg/sq cm.; allowable shear stress in pins
200 kg/sq cm. Use six pins.
(Sardar Patel University, 1967)
20. A flange coupling is used to connect driving electric motor to a reduc-
tion gear box of a machine. The motor has rated output of 15 h.p. at 960 r.p.m.
Allowing for 20% extra load, work out the motor-shaft diameter if angle of twist
is to be limited to 0.0175 radian in a length equal to 20 times the diameter.
Design a suitable flange coupling to connect the shafts. State size of the key,
number and diameter of bolts, size of hub etc. on a freehand sketch. Shear stress
for mild steel should be limited to 630 kg/sq cm and G = 7,70,000 kg/sq cm.
(Bombay University, 1968)
21. Design a rigid type of flange coupling to transmit 20 h.p. at 580 r.p.m.
Working stresses in various materials are:
C.I.: Compression: 800 kg/sq cm; shear 170 kg/sq cm.
M. S. Shafts; shear: 475 kg/sq cm.
M. S. bolts and keys: shear: 580 kg/sq cm; compression: 1,000 kg/sq cm.
These values take into account the service factor and weakening effect of the
keyway. Draw, to scale, a sectional elevation of the assembly.
Show all the dimensions in a free hand sketch of a sectional view of a flange.
Additional data for the selection of the keys:
Shaft Key size
Diameter Width x height
mm rnm MIT1
12 — 17 5x5
18 — 22 6x6
23- 30 8x7
31 — 38 10 x 8
39— 44 12 x 8
(University of Bombay, 1969)
22. Which types of connections are used while transmitting the power from
one shaft to the other, in the following cases:
Give one application of each (Any two).
(i) Load is sudden and both the shafts having common axes.
(ii) Axes of both shafts are intersecting.
(iii) Axes of both the shafts are parallel.
(Gujarat University, 1971)
23. A muff coupling is to be designed for a shaft which transmits 60 h.p.
at 150 r.p.m. Safe shear stress for the shaft is to be 600 kg/sq cm, and that for the
muff 100 kg/sq cm. The safe shear stress for the key is 400 kg/sq cm. The crush-
ing pressure on the key is to be 1,000 kg/sq cm. Make a neat dimensioned sketch
of the coupling.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
Ex. VII ] SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 395

24. Design and draw a neat sketch of a flexible type shaft coupling to
transmit 20 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The body of the coupling is to be made of cast
iron, the coupling bolts, shafts and key are to be made of steel. The ultimate
strengths in kg/sq cm of cast iron and steel to be used are given below:
Tension Compression Shear
C.I. 1,500 5,800 2,300
Steel 6,000 — 4,000
Take a factor of safety of 3.
Allowable bearing pressure between the pin and rubber bush is 6 kgisq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1973)
25. Design and draw a neat dimensioned sketch of a protected type of a cast
iron flange coupling (either rigid or flexible) to transmit 8 h.p. at 400 r.p.m.
Choose your own values of stresses for the materials adopted.
(University of Bombay, 1974)
26. (a) What is the significance of using shock and fatigue factors in shaft
design?
(b) A 300 mm diameter pulley is keyed to a steel shaft, mid way between the
two bearings mounted one metre apart on the shaft which transmits 25 h.p. at
500 r.p.m. The power is transmitted downwards at an angle of 45° to the vertical
by means of a flat belt. Design the shaft and the key.
For shafting material take working shear stress = 500 kg/sq cm. For key
material take working shear stress = 600 kg/sq cm and working stress in crushing
= 1,350 kg/sq cm. Draw a neat sketch of the arrangement.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
27. A shaft used in a gear box received 2 h.p. at 500 r.p.m. through a V
grooved pulley located 30 mm to the left of left hand bearing. The V belt drive
to the shaft is vertical through a pulley of diameter 200 mm ann V groove angle
of 34°. It transmits the power through a spur gear with 18 teeth of module 4 mm.
The gear is located 28 mm to the left of right hand bearing and meshes with another
gear horizontally (line of centres horizontal). The distance between the bearings
is 300 mm. Determine the shaft size if the allowable shear stress for the shaft
material = 500 kg/sq cm. Draw a free hand sketch of the shaft.
(University of Bombay, 1976)
28. Design a protected type of cast iron flange coupling to transmit 20 h.p.
at 400 r.p.m. The coupling is to connect two mild steel shafts of equal diameter
having permissible shear stress of 500 kg/sq cm. The maximum torque is 30%
higher than the mean torque. There are 6 bolts having permissible shear stress
of 400 kgIsq cm. A rectangular sunk taper key is provided. Check the flange
and key for induced shear stresses.
Draw a neat dimensioned sketch of the coupling showing two views.
' (Sardar Pat el University, 1977)
CHAPTER a

SPRINGS

8-1. Introduction:
A spring may be defined as an elastic body or resilent mem-
ber whose primary function is to deflect or distort under load;
it recovers its original shape when load is released.
The important types of springs are:
(i) Helical compression or extension springs, in which the
major stress is torsional shear stress due to twisting.
They are made of wire coiled into a helical form, the
load being applied along the axis of the helix.
(ii) Helical torsion springs in which the major stresses are
tensile and compressive due to bending. They are
similar in form to helical compression springs, the
torque being applied about the axis of the helix.
(iii) Spiral springs in which the major stresses are tensile
and compressive due to bending. They consist of flat
strip wound in the form of a spiral and loaded in torsion.
(iv) Leaf springs in which the major stresses are tensile and
compressive. They are composed of flat bars of varying
lengths clamped together so as to obtain greater effi-
ciency and resilience. Leaf springs may be full elliptic,
semi-elliptic or cantilever.
(v) Belliville springs, in which the major stresses are tensile
and compressive, are composed of coned discs which
may be stacked up to give a variety of spring load-
deflection characteristics.
The important functions of springs are:
(i) To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes
and clutches
(ii) To measure forces as in a spring balance
i(iii) To store energy as in clock springs
(iv) To cushion or reduce the effect of shock or impact
loading as in carriage springs
Art. 8-2 ] SPRINGS 397
(v) To change the vibrating characteristics of a member
as in flexible mounting of motors.
8-2. Close coiled helical spring subjected to axial loading
circular wire:
A helical compression and extension springs are so designated
because the spring coil as a whole is compressed or extended in
length along its central axis. The spring wire in compression and
extension springs is loaded principally in torsion.
P P
Opening

Ta

p (b) Loading on
(a)Compression spring helical spring (c) Tension spring

Forces acting on springs

FIG. 8-1
A helical spring is considered close coiled if the plane con-
taining each coil is nearly perpendicular to the axis of the helix.
This will be the case when the helix angle is small and generally
a spring is taken as close coiled if the helix angle be less than 10°.
398 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. VIII

The effect of an axial load on close coiled spring may be inves-

tigated by cuting the wire and considering the equilibrium of the
upper part as in fig. 8-1(b).
Let P . axial load
D . mean diameter of coils
d = diameter of the spring wire
6 = deflection of the spring
n = number of active coils
D
C = spring index = for circular wires
d
G = modulus of rigidity
Is =----- torsional shear stress induced in the wire of the spring
1 = length of the spring wire.
It will be observed that for equilibrium the material of the
PD
wire must provide the resisting torsional moment T = as
2-
shown in fig. 8-1 (b).
The torsional shear stresses are set up within the material
of the wire and the maximum value of the shear stress induced in
the material may be obtained by the equation
D 22 1.
T . - --=- — ci j s (i)
2 16
It should be remembered that there will be direct shear
P
stress equal to -- -, but this will be small in comparison with
7t (12
4
the torsional shear stress and may be ignored. Likewise bending
stresses due to the change in curvature of coils are neglected.
In order to account for the effects of direct shear and change
in coil curvature a stress factor as defined by A. M. Ward has
been introduced. The maximum resisting torque is given by
the equation
T -, PD --- fs • n da (ii)
2 K 16
4C— 1 , 0.615
where K where C is a spring index.
== 4c -=-4 -T- C
Fig. 8-1 (d) shows the stress distribution across the wire of the
spring coil due to various effects namely torsional shear stress, direct
Art. 862 ] SPRINGS 399

shear stress, torsional and direct shear stress, and resultant stress
with change in curvature. It is observed that the maximum
shear stress occurs at the inner radius of the spring.
By defining K = Kc x Ks
where Ks =---- shear stress multiplication factor, and
lie =--- effect of curvature alone
K
we get Ke -,- K (iii)
s
0•
Ks = 1 + --
5 (iv)
C
Investigations reveal that curvature shear stress is highly
localised on the inside of the spring. Thus for static loads the
curvature stress can be neglected.
Allowable stresses for helical springs subjected to static loading
may be based on the elastic limit in torsion. For static loading a
factor of safety of 1.5 has been recommended to be applied to the torsional
yield strength of the material.
The size of the wire should be selected from IS : 1137-1959.
Appendix gives the sizes of wire to be used for the design
of springs.
D
For circular wires C = — while for square wire and rect-
d'
angular wire springs, the spring index has the value D divided
by the radial thickness of the wire.
The Wahl stress factor has been adoped generally for the
design of helical springs in this book.
It can be shown that the deflection of a helical spring may
be calculated with sufficient accuracy from the formula
8 PDsn
8 --7-- (v)
Gd4
In the above formula, the value of n is the active turns. The
ends of the coil which are in contact with the seat are inactive.
For tension springs ending in hooks, the deflection of the hooks
may be added to the deflection derived from the actual number
of turns. In order to make allowance for this deflection, the
number of active turns can be taken slightly greater than the
actual turns.
400 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. VIII

The load required to produce unit deflection is known as the

stiffness of the spring or the spring rate.
P P Ge Gd
.•. — --- k ---7- (vi)
a 8PD3n = 8D3ii=8C3n
Gd4
where C is the spring index as defined earlier. The stiffness of the
spring is the function of the geometrical dimensions of the springs, and the
material of the spring.
While choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points
should be noted.
(i) The pitch of the coils should be such that if the spring is
accidently or carelessly compressed, the stress will not
exceed the yield point in torsion.
(ii) The spring should not close up before the maximum
service load is reached.
The design of a helical compression spring is frequently com-
pleted by specifying the compressed length of the spring. The
solid length of a spring =--- d x n' where n' is the number of coils
and d is the diameter of wire of the spring.
Free length -,-- 1p + 4 (vii)
where
1p -= length of spring compressed under a load P
8p = deflection under a load P.
The pitch p of the coils is given by
free length — solid length
p— + d. (viii)
n'

8-3. Helical springs of non-circular wire:

In order to provide greater resilience in a given space and
to provide for pre-determined altering of the stiffness of the spring,
helical springs with square or rectangular wires are used. Such
springs are costly to manufacture.
The maximum torsional shear stress in a helical tension or
compression spring made of rectangular wire is equal to
KPD (3b + 1.80 .
fs = 2b2 t2 (i)
where t = short dimension of rectangular cross section of the wire
b ----= long dimension of rectangular cross section of the wire,
and this dimension is parallel to the axis of the spring.
Art. 8-41 SPRINGS 401

For square wire, b = t = a the side of the square, then the

equation for stress will be
w. 2.4PD
s (ii)
ff =-: It a
The deflection of a coil spring with rectangular wire is
8 = 2.45 PD3n
(iii)
Gt3(b — 0.56t)
By putting b = t = a in equation (iii), we get the expression
for the deflection of a helical coil spring of square wire as
5.58PD3n 5.58PC3n
8 (iv)
Ga4 Ga
The expression for the stiffness of the spring of square and
rectangular wires can be obtained.
Note: The use of square or rectangular wire is not recommended for springs
unless space limitations make it necessary. When space is severely limited, the
use of nested round wire springs should always be considered. They may have
an economical advantage over the special section springs, as well as a strength
advantage.

8-4. Concentric helical springs:

A method of achieving a greater capacity when outside
diameter is limited, is to use concentric-springs. Suitable design
equations for a nest of two springs can be derived on the basis of
the following assumptions: de

(1) The free heights and the solid heights for the springs are
equal.
(ii) The maximum torsional shear stresses are equal.
(iii) The outer diameter of the inner spring is equal to the
inner diameter of the outer spring.
(iv) Spring indices for the two springs are equal.
Adjacent springs should be wound with opposite hand helices
to prevent the locking of coils. Some typical uses of concentric
springs are the valve springs in air craft and heavy duty Diesel
engines and in rail road car suspension systems, and in many
automobile clutch installations.
By employing concentric springs, the effect of spring surge
can be dampened.
402 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. VIII

8-5. General considerations in design of compression and extension

springs:
Springs are usually made from high carbon steels (0.7 to 1.0%) or from
medium carbon alloy steels. 18/8 stainless steel, spring brass, phosphor bronze,
monel and other metal alloys are used for corrosion resistant springs. Small
size springs are usually wound cold and are given heat treatment for desired
properties. The large diameter wires are wound hot and heat treated after
winding. Brass and bronze cannot be hardened by heat treatment and these
springs are not treated after winding.
The allowable strength of a spring wire decreases with the increase in dia-
meter of the wire. Therefore, higher working stresses are allowable for small
wires than large wires. The stress factor depends on the spring index which is
assumed for the design of the spring. For general industrial uses the spring
index should be 8 to 10; for clutch and valve springs 5 is common. If no data
are available, spring index of 8 should be adopted.
Steel wire sizes are available in fractional dimensions and should be selected
from either SWG or W and M gauge numbers. The non-ferrous wire sizes
are usually given by B and S gauge numbers. Diameters of wires are recommen-
ded by IS: 1137-1959.

(a)Plain (b)Ground (c) Squared (d) Squared

and ground
End connections for compression springs
FIG. 8-2

Fig. 8-2 shows the end connections for compression springs. The plain
ends are the most economical to manufacture. The closest approach to the
axial loading is given by squared and ground ends. In all springs there is
eccentricity of loading introduced by the end connections. This eccentricity
can be neglected in compression springs having squared and ground ends,
having large spring indices, and having six or more active coils. It should be
remembered that whatever portion of the spring is in contact with the scat,
is inactive.
Art. 8-5 ] SPRINGS 403
The following gives the value of inactive turns:
Plain ends i turn Squared ends 1
Plain and ground ends 1 SP Squared and ground ends 2.
The design of extension spring differs, in the main, from the design of com-
pression springs because of:
(i) Type of spring ends
(ii) Bending stress in extension springs
(iii) Initial tension in extension springs
(iv) Lack of inherent restraint in case of spring rupture.
Fig. 8-3 shows the types of spring ends for extensional loading. Some of these
designs may result in a considerably greater stress in the spring than that calculated
on the basis of an axial load.
Often extension springs are made with plain ends and spring ends are attached
to this, as shown in fig. 8-4.
Fig. 8-5 shows the arrangement where compression spring is used to carry an
extensional load.
To provide for local stress concentration in extension springs, the design stress
for extension springs should not exceed 70% of that used with compression springs.
The majority of extension springs that are manufactured are wound with
sufficient initial tension (or pre-load) to keep the springs closed up when the spring
is unloaded. The amount of initial tension put into spring when it is wound
varies in general as an inverse function with the spring index. Extension springs
coiled with initial tension can be wound with greater precision particularly with
respect to free length requirements of the spring. There is no deflection until the
initial tension is exceeded.
Thus the spring load in extension springs is given by ,
P = Pi 4- k x deflection (i)
•:.
where Pi = initial spring load
k = stiffness of the spring.
Springs are often grouped into classes according to service conditions. Light
service consists of operation under static conditions. Examples of such service
are safety valves, spring couplings, etc.
Average service includes springs in which the load is not static but the load
changes are not frequent. Examples are governor springs, automobile suspension
springs, etc.
In severe service conditions, the load changes are cyclic as in I.C. engine
valve springs.
For the same size of the wire, the allowable stresses are maximum for light
service springs and minimum for severe service springs.
Compression springs are likely to buckle if it is too long compared to its
mean diameter. As far as possible this condition should be avoided.
When helical springs are subject to rapid alteration of load, surging of the
coil may occur due to dynamical effects. The spring failure may occur due to
surging. According to W.M. Griffith the critical frequency of a spring should
404 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

Full loop Small eye Plain square cut ends

Long round end hook V hook

Spring ends for tension loading
FIG. 8-3

0000
/0 0 0

(a) (14 'R.

(c)
Separate spring ends
FIG. 8-4
2750 kg

2750119
Compression spring carrying axial tensile load
Fio. 8-5
 Art. 8-5] SPRINGS 405

be at least twenty times the frequency of application of a periodic load in order

to avoid resonance with all harmonic frequencies upto the twentieth order.
Generally, it is customary to state the free length of the spring which means
the free height of the spring under no load.
Due to the following reasons the extension springs are used sparingly.
(i) They are costlier.
(ii) They require more elaborate arrangements for end connections.
(iii) They are likely to be stressed beyond elastic limit.
(iv) If the spring breaks, the control is lost.
943 jExamples :
1. A close coiled helical spring is required to have a sliding fit over
a rod of 25 mm in diameter. The spring is to carry a maximum axial
load of 12 kg and deflection at this load is to be 2 cm. The torsional shear
stress must not exceed 3,000 kg/sq cm. Suggest the suitable dimensions
for the spring. Take G = 840,000 kesq cm.
As the spring is to slide over a 25 mm diameter rod, we assume
30 mm as the mean diameter of the coil. The maximum load on
the spring is 12 kg. Maximum torque on the section of the wire
12 x 3
- —- - - = 18 kg cm. If 4 be the diameter of the wire, we have
2
dw3 X 3000 = 18
16
d V' 18 x 16
or = 0.313 cm.
3000 X 7C

We assume a 10 SWG wire whose diameter, is 0.3251 cm.

(According to IS: 1137 — 1959, the size will be 0.335 cm.) The
12
Stiffness of the spring 2-- = 6 kg/cm.

Spring index = 0.3251 = 9.23.

Gdw
Stiffness =
8C3n
6 = 840000 X 0.3251
8 x 9.233 x n
840000 x 03251
Or n = 7.2 active turns.
6 x 8 x 9.233
Assuming squared and ground ends, we have 9.2 actual turns.
2. Derive a formula for the strain energy stored in a circular cross
section rod loaded by a pure torque. Hence, calculate the weight of the
helical spring made of circular section wire which is required to bring to
406 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

rest a mass of 20 kg moving with a velocity of 3 metre/sec. The maximum

allowable stress in the spring is to be 5,600 kg/sq cm and the modulus of
rigidity is 0.84 x 106 kgfsq cm.
If the spring is made from 2 SWG wire of diameter 7.010 mm with
a mean coil diameter of 6 cm, calculate the stiffness of the spring and the
number of coils required.

.... 'III 41. IRMA. •••••• •1=1.

A

.
AIw„
o de I4-- J
Strain energy diagram for a spring
FIG. 8-6
The strain energy of a circular bar loaded in torsion may be calculated from
a diagram of torsion (fig. 8-6) in which torque is represented by the ordinates and
the angle of twist by the abscissas. Within elastic limit the angle of twist is pro-
portional to twisting moment. The small area shaded in figure represents the
work done by the torque during an increment dO in the angle of twist 0.
TO
The area OAB == represents the total energy stored in a bar during twist.
2
TI T21
Remembering 0 = - we get strain energy
Gii' --:-. 2G.7
n Tr
On substitution of values T = -1-6 d3 fs and J ---:: d', we get
32
fr2 n 11,2
strain energy = :it x -4- d 21 = "4G x volume of the spring.

W
Kinetic energy to be stored in the spring = / — v2
g
20
x 32 = 9.17 kg metre = 917 kg cm.
= 1 x 9.8 1
56002
••• 917 = x volume of the spring.
2 x 2 x 0.84 x 104
.. Volume = 97.6 cu, cm.
If n be the number of active coils in the spring, then
TC
97.6 =-- nx6xnx - x0.7019
4
Art. 8-5 ] SPRINGS 407

97.6 x 4
Or n r13.5.
nx 6x 7c x0 .7012
D 6
Spring index = -
a- 0. O1 = 8'57-
Gdw 0.84 x 106 x 0.701
Stiffness of thespring
ps . =
8C3-n = 8 x 8.57$ x 13.5
= 8.65 kg/cm.
Weight of the spring = 7.25 x 97.6 = 710 gm or 0.71 kg.
3. A loaded narrow gauge car weighing 1,500 kg and moving at
a velocity of 1.30 metre/second is brought to rest by a bumper consisting of
two helical steel springs of square section in which the mean diameter of
the coil is six times the side of the square section. In bringing the car to rest
the springs are to be compressed 20 cm. The value of the shear stress is
not to exceed 3,600 kgIsq cm. Determine the following: (a) maximum load
on each spring; (b) side of the square section of wire; (c) mean diameter
of coils; (d) number of active coils. Assume G = 840,000 kg/sq cm.
Helical springs are made of square or rectangular section wound flatwise or
edgewise in order to provide greater resilience in a given space and to provide
pre-determined altering of spring rate by grinding off the outside of the coils.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is to be stored in the
spring when it is compressed 20 cm. There are two springs.
The kinetic energy of the moving car = x v2
g
1500
x x (1.3)2 = 129.2 kg metre = 12,920 kg cm.
9.81
If P le the maximum force on each spring, then
P
x 2 x 20 = 12920
2
1 2920
or P = 646 kg.
20--
646
The spring rate or spring stiffness = = 32.3 kg/cm.
2-0-
The spring index is 6. The stress concentration factor, as defined by
4C --1 _L 0.615 4 x 6 — 1 0.615
A.M. Wahl, is IC = 1.252.
4C -- 4 I =4x6—4 6--- —
If a be the side of the square, the mean coil diameter will be
6a. With usual notations, the maximum torsional shear stress in a
helical compression or extension spring made of square wire is given by
2.4 PD
fs = K - .
a
408 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

2.4 x 646 x 6a
.. 3600 = 1.252 X
a3
1/1.252 x 2.4 x 646 x 6
•• a= — 1.8 cm.
3600
We adopt 1.8 cm as the side of a square section.
The mean diameter of the coil will be 6 x 1.8 = 10.8 cm.
The spring rate or spring stiffness of a close coiled helical
Gael
spring of square section is given by k =
-5.58 ribi.

... k.3 -- 840000 x 1.84

5.58 x n x 10.88
840000 x HO
or n = 5.58 x 32.3 x 10.83 = 38.8 turns (active).

4. A motor vehicle single plate clutch is to have both sides of the

plate Iffective. It is to transmit 30 horse power at a speed of 2,800 r.p.m.
and a 20 per cent overload is to be allowed for. The pressure intensity on
the friction surface is not to exceed 0.85 kg/sq cm and the surface speed at
the mean radius must not be greater than 2,100 metre/minute. The co-
efficient of friction for the surfaces is 0.3. The outside diameter of the
surfaces is to be 1.3 times the inside diameter.
The axial thrust is to be provided by six springs of about 2.5 cm mean
coil diameter. Their safe shear stress is limited to 4,200 kg/sq cm and
the modulus of rigidity G is 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Design these springs selecting wire from the following gauges:

SWG 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Dia. (mm) 5.893 5.385 4.877 4.470 4.064 3.658 3.251 2.946 2.642

, The clutch is to transmit 30 horse power at a speed of

2,800 r.p.m.
, = 71620 x h.p.= 71620 x 30
Torque to be transmitted
r.p.m. 2800
= 770 kg cm.
As 20 per cent over load is allowed, the clutch is to be designed
to transmit 1.2 X 770 = 925 kg cm torque.
Let r be the inner radius of the friction lining; then 1.3r will
be the outer radius of the friction lining. The pressure intensity
Art. 8-5] SPRINGS 409

is not to exceed 0.85 kg/sq cm. We assume that wear is uniform.

The maximum intensity will occur at the inner radius and we
have, from the mechanics of machine, for the assumption of
uniform wear, the relation 0.85 X r = constant = C.
The torque transmitted in kg cm = ny,C [(1.302 — r2)]
= IT X TI-0. X 0.85r x 0.69r2 = 0.55r3.
As both the friction surfaces are effective, torque transmitted
by each friction surface = 925 = 462.5 kg cm.
• 462.5 = 0.55r3
•

13/462-5
or r= = 942 cm; we adopt 10 cm.
0.55
Outer radius = 1.3 x 10 =. 13 cm.
10 + 13
The mean radius -, = 11.5 cm.
2
Surface speed at mean radius = n x 2 x 0.115 x 2800
= 2,020 metre/minute which is less than the allowed value.
The constant C = 0.85 x 10 = 8.5 kg/cm.
The axial load to be applied = 2,t C (R — r)
=2n x8.5 (13 — 10) = 160 kg.
The axial thrust is to be provided by 6 springs.
160
Maximum load on each spring ,----- — = 26.7 kg.
6
Let us assume the mean diameter of the coil as 2.5 cm.
26.7 2x 2 - 5
Maximum torque = = 334 kg cm:
If dw be the diameter of the spring wire, then
d x 4200 = 33.4
16 2
f 334 x 16
or dw = = 0.342 cm.
4200 x n
From the table, we use 9 SWG wire whose diameter is
0.3658 cm. ,
If we assume eight free coils then the total length of wire will
correspond to ten coils allowing for the ends.
Length of the wire required will be 7C X 2.5 x 10 = 78.5 cm.
To give the axial thrust of 26.8 kg required per spring the
initial compression will be given by the formula
8PlYtz
with usual notations.
410 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

On substitutiori of values, we have

8 x 26.8 x 2.56 x 8
= .7
0.84 X 106 x 0.36583 = 1 7 cm.
• The minimum free length of the spring = 8 x 0.3658 + 1.77
= 4.7 cm.
But due to wear, slipping, etc. the compression may have to
be increased when the clutch is in service. If, therefore, the total
free length be made 5 cm, sufficient margin is provided. The
total thrust available by complete compression of the spring will be
(5 — 8 x 0.3658)
x 26.8 = 31.4 kg.
177
Note: When the engine is running on the test bed, the springs would be
adjusted by trial until the designed horse power is obtained at the rated speed.
5. The table below gives particulars, of concentric helical springs.
If the spring is subjected to an axial load of 40 kg, determine for each
spring (a) the change in length, (b) the amount of load carried and (c) the
torsional shear stress induced in the wire. G = 0.84 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Mean coil Size of Diameter of No. of Free
diameter wire wire mm turns length
Inner spring 3 cm 8 SWG 4.064 8 7.5 cm
Outer spring 4 cm 6 SWG 4.877 10 9 cm
The outer spring takes the whole load until its compression is
1.5 cm, after which both springs are compressed together.
The load required to deflect the outer spring 1.5 cm is
given by the equation
3n
8 = 8PD
-- -
Gdiv4
•

8P x 43 x 10
••• 1.5 =
0.84 x 106 x 0748774
or P = 13.9 kg.
After this load each spring will take a proportional of the
additional load of 40 — 13.9 = 26.1 kg.
Let x be the further compression of the outer spring and total
deflection of the inner spring.
13 .9 x x
Additional load taken by outer spring = - = 9.26x.
1 -5
Load taken by inner spring = stiffness of inner spring x x
0.40646 x 0.84 x 106
x x -.-- 13.2x.
' if5F'P5. 8- -
Art. 8-5] SPRINGS 411

0 .• 13.2x + 9.26x = 26.1

26.1
or x = 22 46 = 1.16 cm.
.
..• Change in length of outer spring 4, -- 1.5 + 1.16 = 2.66 cm.
Change in length of inner spring = 1.16 cm.
Load shared by inner spring = 13.2 x 1.16 = 15.3 kg.
Load shared by outer spring = 40 - 15.3 = 24.7 kg.
16 x 24.7 x 2
Stress induced in outer spring - = 2,170 kgisq cm.
rc x 0.48773
16 x15.3 x1.5
Stress induced in inner spring = 1,750 kg/3g cm.
x 0.4064x =
The maximum shear stress is induced in the outer spring.
6. Design a spring, having a stzffness of 40 kgfcm, to sustain a
maximum load of 100 kg. The maximum shear stress is not to exceed
4,200 kgIsq cm. Take modulus of rigidity as 840,000 kesq cm.
Let R be the mean radius of the coil. Maximum torque
will be 100R kg cm. If d cm be the diameter of the wire, then
3 x 4200 = 100R
16 d
or R .-= 8.25 d3.
Gd GP
Stiffness =
1164n - 64R3n
840000 x d4 0.585
40 -,--- or n = -d&-- •
64 (8.25d3) 3 n
Now we calculate the value of R and n for different values
of d until spring with a suitable number of coils is found such that
it is not too long nor the coils so few that the deflection of each
coil is excessive.

d R -- 8 25da 0.585
n=
cm cm 7/1

0.5 1.029 184

0.53 1.227 13.75
0.56 1450 10.40
0 60 1.778 7.35
0.63 2.058 5.80
0.67 2.478 3.90
0.71 2.947 3.17
0.75 3.474 243
0.80 4.216 1.75
 412 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

From the above table, we adopt 0.63 cm as the diameter of

wire having 5.80 as active turns.
a 7. The spring loaded safety valve for a boiler is required to blow of
at a pressure of 10 kg/sq cm. • The diameter of the valve is 6 cm, and the
maximum lift of the valve is 1.5 cm.
Design the suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming
the spring index to be 6 and providing initial compression of 3 cm.
The maximum shear stress in the material of the wire is limited to
4,500 kg/sq cm. G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Load on the valve when it just begins to lift = : x 62 x 10
= 282 kg.
The valve is kept tight on its seat against steam load of 282
kg by providing initial compression of 3 cm. Therefore, the
stiffness of the spring = 232 = 94 kg/cm.

The lift of the valve is 1.5 cm. Therefore, the maximum

compression of the spring is 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 cm.
Maximum load on the spring when the valve is in full open
position = 4.5 x 94 = 423 kg.
The assumed spring index is 6. The stress concentration factor,
as defined by A.M. Wahl, is
4C— 1 0.615 4 x 6— 1 0.615
K— -1-- + -
4C — 4 C 4x6—4 6
= 1.252.
Torque = 423 x 3 dui where dw is the diameter of the spring
wire.
TC 4500
423 x 3dre = du,' x
16 1.252
V423 x 3 x 16 x 1.252
or dw = = 1.34 cm.
4500 X TC
From IS: 1137 — 1959, we adopt 14 mm; i.e. 1.4 cm.
Mean diameter of the coil = 1.4 x 6 = 8.4 cm. If n be the
number of active turns in the spring, then
94 = 0.84 x 106 x 1.46
8 x 8.43 x n
0.84 x 106 x 1.44
or n= = 7.4 turns.
8 x 848 x 94
Art. 8-. SPRINGS 413

Assuming squared and ground ends we have 9 actual turns.

Free length of the spring = solid length + maximum compression
+ clearance between adjacent coils (1 mm between adjacent coils)
=9 x 1.4 + 4.5 + 0.1 x 8= 17.9 cm, say 18 cm.
8. A helical spring whose mean diameter of coils is 8 times that of
the wire is to absorb 4,000 kg cm of energy. The initial compression of
the spring is 5 cm and compresses by additional 7 cm while absorbing the
shock. The maximum allowable stress is 4,000 kg/sq cm and
G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm. Determine the diameter of the wire and the
number of active turns. Neglect the effect of stress concentration.
Let k be the stiffness of the spring in kg/cm. The initial
load on the spring is 5 k kg. As the spring further compresses by
7 cm, the maximum load on the spring is (5 + 7)k = 12k kg.
12k + 5k
Mean spring force during compression .= = 8.5k kg.
2
The energy absorbed during shock = 8.5k x 7 = 59.5k kg cm.
• 4000 = 59.5 k
4000
or k = 59.5 = 67.3 kg/cm.

Maximum spring force --... 67.3 x 12 = 807 kg.

Spring index is 8. If du, be the diameter of the spring wire,
8 d u,
then 807 X 2 _ 7v6 43 x 4000
— 1-
1/807 x 4 x 16 = r
Or 2.02 cm.
dw = V 4000 x T
From IS: 1137-1959, we adopt 21.2 mm wire. Mean
diameter of the coil = 8 x 21.2 = 169.6 mm.
We adopt 17 cm.
If n be the number of active turns in the spring, then
0.84 x 108 x 2.124
67.3= —
8 x 173 x n
0.84x 104 x 2.124
or n= = 6.5 turns.
8 x 173 x 67.3
9. A spring subjected to a load varying from 40 kg to 100 kg
is to be made of oil tempered, cold wound wire. Determine the diameter
of the wire and the mean diameter of the coil for a design factor of 1.25
based on Wahl's line. The spring index is to be at least 5. The free
length of the spring should lie between 10 to 15 cm.
414 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

Design note:
Many springs are subjected to repeated loading hence they
should be designed according to principles as explained in art. 2-27.
Since springs are rarely subjected to reversing stresses, Wahl pro-
posed another method instead of Soderberg method. The line
similar to Soderberg line (fig. 5-6) has been proposed by Wahl,
known as Wahl's line. The equation can be written as
1 _fms — fas 2fas
N fys fis (i)

In the above design equation the suffix s suggests the shear

stress. In the above equation N is the design factor or factor of
safety.
8K PaDm
fas and
ndw3
8K PmDm 8Ks PmDm
fms =Kezdw3 Tcduis
where K — Wahl's stress concentration factor
Pa = Variable load component of an axial force
Pm = Mean load component of an axial force
Dm mean diameter of the coil
du, = diameter of the spring wire.
The reason for dividing Kc, the correction factor for curvature,
'n the expression for mean stress is that the Wahl factor K includes
a curvature correction factor Kc. Experience suggests that
curvature correction factor is not needed for mean stress. As
K = Ks Kc where Ks is the correction factor for direct shear, we
. K 4C 0-615
can write fcc - Ks. Wahal factor K i c— where
4C +
C is the spring index.
We assume spring index as 5.5, Wahl factor as 1.27 and curvature
correction factor 1.17.
Pmax 100 kg and Pmia , 40 kg. Therefore
100 -I- 40
&tan == - — = 70 kg.
2
— 40
Variable load component = 100 2 = 30 kg.
8x 1.27 x 30 x 5.5 533
ncli;2 402 kgiscl cm.
Art. 8-5] SPRINGS 415

8 x 1.27 70 x 5.5 1050

kg/sq cm.
fms = 1.17 X 7tc1;2
We take fp = 7,700 kg/sq cm and fes 3,500 kg/sq cm.
According to Wahl we get
1 fins — fas 2fas
.1%1 fys fes
On substitution of values we get
1 ___ (1050 — 533) 2 x 533
1.25 d 2 x 7700 - da,2 •
3500
.•. dw = 0.56 cm
Mean diameter of the coil = 0.56 x 5.5 = 3.1 CM.
Let us take the stiffness of the spring as 36 kgfcm.
k Gdw
8C3n
0.84 x 10° x 0.56
36 =
8 x 5-Ss x n
84 x 5600
or n = 11.7 coils.
36 x 8 x 5.53
Solid height = 0.56 (11.7 + 2) = 7.65 cm,
10
Compression under maximum load -,-- 60 = 2.78 cm.
3
Minimum free length should be greater than 7.65 + 2.78 = 1043
cm. We adopt free length as 12 cm.

Exercises : •
1. The maximum load on the compression spring for inlet valve
gear of a gas engine is 105 kg and the maximum compression of the spring
is 10.5 cm. Design a suitable spring if the permissible shear stress in the
wire material is limited to 2,800 kg1sq cm. The mean diameter of the spring
coil as decided from the consideration of the external size of the spindle guide
is 9 cm. Minimum working clearance between adjacent coils is 3 mm.
Ans. 0.95 cm; 11.6 active turns.
2. A safety valve of 7 cm diameter is to blow off at a pressure of
11 kgIsq cm. It is held on its seat by a close coiled helical spring of
circular steel wire. The mean diameter of the coil is 15 cm and the initial
compression of the spring is 2.5 cm. Find the diameter of the spring bar
and number of active turns required if the shear stress allowed is 1,300
kgIsq cm and the modulus of rigidity is 840,000 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 2.5 cm diameter; 6-1 active turns.
416 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

3. A body weighing 725 kg and moving horizontally at 70 metre

per minute is to be brought to rest by a close coiled helical spring of spring
index 8 with a maximum compression of 20 cm. Determine the diameter
of the wire and number of active turns required, if the maximum shear
stress is not to exceed 4,200 kg/sq cm. Take the modulus of rigidity
as 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm. Ans. 16 mm; 13 active turns.
4. The spring for a spring balance is to elongate 14 cm when subjected
to a load of 35 kg. Determine the diameter of the wire, the diameter of
the coil and the number of active turns required. Assume that the spring
index is 7 and that the maximum stress to be induced is 5,500 kg/sq cm.
Take G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 8 SWG; 1.85 cm; 50 active turns.
5. A valve for a hydraulic pump is to have a lift of 2 cm and is to be
closed by a helical compression spring having a load range of 30 to 60 kg
from valve closed to valve open conditions. Assuming the spring index
of 7, determine the wire diameter, outer diameter of coils, and a number of
active turns to be recommended. Choose your own value of permissible stress.
6. A helical spring made of square steel wire is to absorb 3,600
kg cm of energy while being compressed 15 cm. The coils shall have a
mean diameter of seven times the side of the square and the maximum in-
duced stress is to be not more than 4,200 kg/sq cm. Take G as 0.84 x 106
kg/sq cm and determine the size for the wire, the mean diameter of the
coil and the number of active turns required. Consider the effect of stress
concentration. Ans. 2.24 cm; 15.4 cm; 11.1 active turns.
7. A spring controlled governor of the Hartnell type has two balls,
each weighing 1.1 kg and each attached to the arms of a bell crank lever which
pivots about a fixed fulcrum. The outer arms of the bell crank levers carry
rollers which lift the sleeve against the pressure exerted by a spring
surrounding the governor spindle. The two arms of the bell crank lever
arc of equal length and the minimum and maximum radii of rotation of
the governor balls are 7.5 cm and 9 cm. If the sleeve is to begin to lift at
240 r.p.m. and the increase of speed allowed is 7%, find the initial load
on the sleeve and the required stiffness of the spring. Design the suitable
spring based on the following data:
Circular wire section, maximum working stress not to exceed 2,400
kg/sq cm, spring index 8, modulus of rigidity 0-84x 106 kg/sq cm, mini-
mum working clearance between turns = i x wire diameter.
Ans. 21.6 kg 5-4 kg/cm; 6 SWG; 13.9 active turns.
Aft. 8-51 SPRINGS 417

8. Fig. 8-7 shows the spring controlled governor in which the

maximum radius of rotation of the ball path is 125 mm at a speed of 750
r.p.m. The value of the force F is 200 kg in the configuration shown.
The spring stifnesses of Si and S2 are 18 and 40 kg/cm respectively.
Assuming your own values of stresses, design the springs Si and S2. The
weight of the lever acts at G, which is 112 mm to the left of the fulcrum of
the lever .

5 kg

112 125 —v.!

FIG. 8-7

9. A solenoid brake is to be actuated by a helical compression spring

of free length 35 cm and is to exert a maximum force of 1,000 kg when
compressed by 8 cm. The outside diameter of the spring should not exceed
18 cm. What is the wire diameter, coil diameter and number of coils?
The value of the shear stress induced is not to exceed 2,400 kg/sq cm.
Take G = 0.84 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 2.65 mm; 15 cm; 11.4 active turns.
10. Two helical springs of the same axial length but of different coil
diameters are placed co-axially, one inside the other, so as to share a com-
pressive load. If they are made from the same diameter of wire, show
that the maximum shear stress will be the same in each, provided the num-
ber of coils is made inversely proportional to the .square of coil diameters.
11. Two helical springs of the same axial length but different dia-
meters of coils are placed co-axially, one inside the other, so as to share an
axial load of 320 kg with a deflection of 2.5 cm under load. The maximum
shear stress permissible in the material is not to exceed 1,500 kg/sq cm.
Neglect the effect cf stress concentration factor. The values of the spring
index may be taken as 5 and 9. The diameter of the wire may be taken to
be the same. Modulus of rigidity = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Ratio of turns = 3-24.
418 MACHII'E DESIGN [ Ch. VIII

12. A car engine rated at 12 h.p. gives a maximum torque of

800 kg cm which is being transmitted by a clutch of single plate type whose
both sides are effective. The maximum value of the axial thrust which is
provided by 8 close coiled helical springs of spring index 8 is 200 kg.
Determine the diameter of the spring wire if the permissible stress is limited
to 5,800 kg/sq cm. If the compression of each spring be 2.5 cm, determine
the number of active turns if the modulus of rigidity be 0.84 x 10°
kg/sq cm. Ans. 10 SWG ; 6.7 active turns.
13. Four springs are used in a centrifugal clutch coupling transmitting
36 h.p. at 1,000 r.p.m. The maximum centrifugal force when the spring
extends by 0.6 cm is 90 kg. The available space does not permit the outside
diameter of the coil to exceed 3.5 cm. Design the suitable spring dimensions
if the permissible shear stress is limited to 6,000 kg/sq cm. Modulus of
rigidity = 0.84 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Ans. 6 SWG wire; mean diameter of coil 2.5 cm; 1.63 active turns.
14. The valve opens against a spring load provided by two concentric
helical springs which are close coiled. Both springs are of the same material.
The free length of outer spring is 13 mm smaller than that of the inner spring.
The outer spring has 12 coils of mean diameter 25 mm, the wire diameter
being 3 mm and an initial compression of 5 mm when the valve is closed.
The greatest force required to open the valve 10 mm is 15 kg. Determine
the stiffness of the inner spring. If the radial clearance between the springs
is 0.1 mm, determine the diameter of the wire of the inner spring if
it has 10 coils. G = 8.4 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Ans. 2.9 kg/cm; 2.3 mm.
15. Two close coiled helical springs are arranged concentrically
one inside the other. Both springs have the same number of effective coils
and same overall length, but the mean coil diameter of the outer spring is
twice that of the inner spring which is made of bronze. The outer spring
is made of steel. The springs are designed to act together when a force is
applied, so that both suffer the same change in length and each carries ha Or
the force. Determine the ratio of the wire diameters and the ratio of
stresses produced in wires, if the modulus of rigidity of steel is twice that
of bronze.
diameter of bronze _ 1 . stress in bronze _ V'2
Ans.
diameter of steel — N / 2 ' stress in steel
16. At the bottom of an elevator shaft a group of 8 identical springs
are set in parallel to absorb the shock of the elevator in case of a failure.
Art. 8-61 SP/UNGS 419

The elevator weighs 2,500 kg. Assuming that the elevator has a free fall
of 120 cm from rest, determine the maximum stress in each spring if each
spring is made from 25 mm diameter rod. For each spring assume spring
index of 6 and number of active turns 15. G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Neglect any ejects of counterweights in the system.
17. A carbon steel spring is to be subjected to a load that varies
from 200 kg to 500 kg. The outside diameter should be between 9 cm
to 10 cm, the spring index between 5 and 10, approximate stiffness 90 kg /cm.
Choose a steel, and for a design factor of 1.4 by the Wahl line, find the wire
diameter. Also determine the number of active coils and the free length for
squared and ground ends.
18. Design a helical spring for a tension spring balance from the
following particulars :
Length of scale 5 cm; spring index 5, maximum load to be weighed
100 kg, permissible shear stress for wire 5,000 kg/sq cm and modulus of
rigidity 8 x 105 kg/sq cm.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
19. Design a helical compression spring for an engine valve from the
following data :
Maximum load 350 kg
Minimum load 300 kg
Lift of the valve 5 mm
Spring index 5
(Gujarat University, 1973)
20. Design a close coiled compression helical spring to absorb a blow
of 20 kg weight which falls from a distance of 50 cm. The deflection of
the spring is 10 cm. The mean diameter of the coil is to be six times the
wire diameter. The allowable stress is 4,200 kg/sq cm and G = 8 x 105
kg/sq cm. The spring has squared and ground ends.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1973)
II

8-6. Torsion helical springs :

These springs are similar to helical compression springs in
form and are loaded by a torque about the axis of the helix. The
primary stress in helical torsion springs (fig. 8-8) is flexural in
contrast to the helical compression or extension springs where the
stresses are torsional shear stresses. Torsion springs are used for
transmission of small torques and are used as cushions on flexible
420 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. till

drives transmitting rotary motions or torque. Further examples

in torsion spring applications include door hinge springs, spring
for starters in automobiles and springs for brush holders in electric
motors. They are made primarily for the purposes of transmit-
ting external torque to the spring.

Torsion spring
FIG. 8-8

When a helical spring is subjected to a twisting moment,

the wire is under bending action due to change in curvature of
the coils and flexural stresses are induced. The total angle 0 of
the twist in radians is given by
T1 64 T Dn
0=,-__ (i)
El Edo
where T is the twisting moment, 1 the length of the spring wire,
E the modulus of elasticity, I the rectangular second moment of
area of wire, d the diameter of wire, D the mean diameter of coil
and n the number of active coils.
For bending stress in the wire, we have
32 T
fb ---.. (ii)
nd3
For a spring made of square wire of side a
0 =_. 12-rc T Dn (iii)
Ea4
6T
and (iv)
fb = T ia
Art. 8-71 SPRINGS 421

The energy stored in torsion spring of round wire equals

Az
v . X volume of the spring. Similar expression for the torsion
8E
spring of square wire will be AI x volume of the spring.
6E
Note: A torsional spring is subjected to the action of a bending moment.
The residual stresses built in during winding are in the same direction as the
working stresses which occur during use. These residual stresses are useful in
making the spring stronger by opposing the working stress provided that the load is
always applied so as to cause the spring to wind up. Because the residual stress
opposes the working stress torsional springs can be designed to operate at stress
levels which equal or exceed the yield strength of the wire.
All torsion springs should be installed such that the application of load
winds up the wire as a result the diameter will be reduced. So clearance should
be provided if the spring wire is to be wound around a mandrel. Similarly in
order to prevent sliding friction between the adjacent coils, there must be certain
clearance between adjacent coils.

8-7. Spiral springs:

This spring consists of a flat strip of rectangular section to
form a spiral shape as in fig. 8-9. Usually the inner end is clamped
to an arbor while the outer end may be pinned or clamped. The
stresses induced in the spring material are flexural. Common
applications of such springs are springs for clocks and motor brush
holder springs.

Spiral spring
FIG. 8-9
Let P = force acting at a radius r
/ = length of the wire forming the spring
0 = angular deflection in radians
422 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. VIII

w = width of the wire

t = thickness of the wire
f = flexural stress in the wire
E = modulus of elasticity of the material of the spring.
Due to application of external force at a radius r, twisting
moment T . Pr is set up, which is balanced by the resisting
moment of the spring. For this condition it can be shown that the
maximum flexural stress occurs diametrically opposite the pinned
outer end.
2T 12Pr
(i)
f z — "2
0 = Prl TI
El = EI
Pr 2l flr
8 = er = =
--E1 Et
Strain energy of the spring 2 X volume of the spring. (iv)
= 24 E
Examples :
1. A flexible shaft transmits 25 kg cm torque. It consists of a
torsion spring in which the permissible stress is limited to 4,500 kg/sq cm.
What must be the diameter of the ware?
In case of helical springs in torsion, the maximum flexural
stress in the wire is given by
32 T
rcd2
32 x 25
••. 4500 =
nd3
32 x 25
or d= = 0.385 cm.
yn x 4500
We adopt 8 SWG wire or 0.385 cm diameter wire.
2. A flat spiral steel spring is to give a maximum torque of 14 kg
cm for a maximum stress of 7,000 kg/sq cm. What thickness and length
are necessary to give three complete turns of motion when stress decreases
from 7,000 to zero? Space considerations limit the width of wire to 15 mm.
2T
Maximum stress = 1 •
wt2
7000 . 12 x 14
.-.
1.512
Art. 8-7] SPRINGS 423

or t
y12 x 14
= 0.127 cm
7000 x 1.5
From IS: 1137. — 1959, we adopt 1.32 mm thickness.
Three complete turns are equal to 3 X 2.n = 67r radians.
71
We have 0 = Tr radian.

0E1 6n x 2.1 x 106 x

-J1 x 1.5 x 0.1323
• • — 812 cm.
• 14

3. A pivoted roller follower is held in contact with the cam by a

torsion spring. The moment exerted by the spring varies from 20 kg cm
to 50 kg cm as the follower oscillates through 30°. Design the suitable
spring with a . factor of safety 2 based on the Soderberg line.
Ultimate tensile strength of steel 13,000 kg/sq cm and yield strength
11,000 kg/sq cm. Assume the stress concentration factor to be 1.08.

Mean torque = 20 ± 50 = 35 kg cm.

2
50 — 20
Variable torque component = = 15 kg cm.

Endurance limit = 13000 x 0.5 = 6,500 kg/sq cm.

Let dw be the diameter of the spring wire. Then according
to Soderberg criterion, we get
1 35 x 16 1.08 x 15 x 16
2 — 11000 x ndw3 6500 x

35 x 5.1 1•08x 15 x 5.11

or dw = 2 - --- — 0.386 cm.
11000 + 6500
We adopt 8SWG wire having 0.4064 cm as the diameter of
the wire. We adopt 5 cm as the mean' diameter of the coil.
The angular deflection 0 of a torsion spring subjected to
opposing moments M at the ends is given by

0Ml 64M Dn
El Edw4
where n is number of active coils, D is the mean diameter of the
coil, du, is the diameter of the wire and E is the modulus of elasticity".
424 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. VIII

. 7r 64 x 30 x 5 x n
• •

6 = 2.1 x 104 x (0.4064)4

7C 2.1 x 106 x (0.4064)4 . 3.56.
or n =--- x
6 64 x 30 x 5
Exercises:
1. A flexible coupling transmits 10 h. p. at 500 r.p.m. through a
torsional helical spring made of 16 mm square steel wire. Find the pitch
diameter of the coil taking the permissible stress as 4,200 kg/sq cm. Also
determine the number of active coils if the torsional deflection should not
exceed 0.1 radian. Ans. 7-5 cm; 3-2.
2. A flat spiral spring for holding an electric motor brush against the
commutator is to be made of brass ribbon of 13 mm width. It is to exert
a pressure of 0.5 kg against the brush. The line of action of the thrust
against the brush passes 6 cm from the axis of the spring. The length
of the ribbon used is 50 cm. Assume the maximum allowable stress to be
1,000 kg/sq cm and the modulus of elasticity of the brass to be 910,000
kg/sq cm. Determine the thicknes of the ribbon and the number of degrees
through which the axis must be turned to produce the force required.
Ans. 0.170 cm; 18.7°.
3. Derive an equation for the energy absorbed by a round wire
torsion spring. Express the answer in terms of the volume of metal in coils.
2
Ans. .1 x volume of the metal.
8E

8-8. Leaf spring:

It is a modification of the beam of constant depth and constant
strength, shown in fig. 8-10. Fig. 8-11 shows the leaf spring that
will result from a plate spring of fig. 8-10.
In order to secure compactness flat spring is cut into strips, the strips are
piled one above the other and we get a familiar cantilever spring. The ends of
individual leaves are usually modified by being made wider and thinner in order
to make a neater appearance. The beam that is composed of by piling separate
leaves, is just as strong as the beam with the leaves beside each other. In the
former case the load is transmitted from one leaf to the other by bearing while
in the latter by shear.
The free end of the spring is modified for the attachment of
the load. Leaf springs are initially curved and straighten under
load. Such an arrangement decreases the stresses as an assembled
Art. 8-8] SPRINGS 425

leaf spring is subjected to a preliminary deformation opposite to

that caused by the forces acting upon it during operation in a
machine. The semi-elliptical spring may be considered as two
cantilevers and the elliptical spring as four cantilevers.

(a) h (c)

hNt I4, <<<

/A ( d)
(b)
Plate spring Leaf spring
FIG. 8-10 FIG. 8-11
Let
h = thickness of each leaf
b = width of each leaf
n = number of graduated leaves
f = maximum stress
P = maximum load
1 = length of a cantilever spring.
The length of leaves is so selected that the spring assembled
from them forms a beam of uniform strength.
6P1
f bnh2 (i)
Deflection 8 is given by
6/13
8 =-_ (ii)
b nE h3
The strain energy of a cantilever leaf• spring is given by
fl
U= x volume of the spring (iii)
6E
The volume of the spring is given by
nblh (iv)
V = -
2
Springs in the form of cantilevers are often used as electrical
contacts.
426 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

The curvature of the leaf spring is neglected in practical calcu-

lations.
Laminated springs permit saving in material and greater
deflection than a spring of constant depth; that is they have greater
resilience and shock absorbing capacity.
The bundle of leaves is held together either by passing a bolt
through the centre as shown in fig. 8-12 or by a shrunk band
around them. The diameter of the bolt hole must be subtracted
from the width when making calculations for strength. When
band is used, it exerts a stiffening effect and the width of the band
should be subtracted from the overall length of the spring to obtain
the effective length. Shrunk bands are superior construction but
are used only on heavy springs.

U Clips
Two full length leaues
Rebound clip
Leaues

Centre bolt

/
Spring eye Extra full length leaf

Ordinary round end

Squared end Egg shaped end

Carriage spring
FIG. 8-12
The practical design of leaf springs is reduced to determining the number of
leaves n and their proportions b and ii by the given values of the load and deflection.
In existing designs the deflection of leaf springs reaches 300 mm.
As the load is applied to the spring, the curvature and the effective length
change as a result the deflection rate is altered. By properly choosing the cam-
ber the spring may be made to soften or stiffen as the load is increased.
If all the leaves were to be given the same curvature before assembly, the
leaves will separate during the rebound and dirt and grit may enter between them.
This condition may be prevented by rebound clips as shown in fig. 8-12. The
other way is to nip the spring. The nipping of a spring means the shorter leaves
Art. h-8 j SPRINGS 427

are given a slightly greater initial curvature as a result contact is maintained at

all times.
On leaf springs, for use on vehicles where there is a possibility of rebound,
as on automobiles or carriages driven over a rough ground, clips are used to fasten
together two or more of the leaves to strengthen them against the rebound. The
long leaf fastened to the supports is called the main leaf or the master leaf, whose
ends are bent to form an eye. The spring is supported by means of hinges. This
arrangment produces longitudinal loads and additional stresses. To these may
be added stresses resulting from twisting and transverse forces. Therefore, the
master leaf is made sometimes of stronger material than the rest of the leaves.
In some leaf springs the master leaf is made thicker than the others. The only
advantage in having the thicker leaf is that, on rebound, the single leaf to the
first restraining clip is stronger.
Laminated springs for heavy loads have under the master leaf additional
full length leaves. With such an arrangement, the spring is no longer a spring of
uniform strength, but the arrangement may be looked upon as two springs in
parallel one spring being the beam of uniform strength, while the other spring a
beam of constant width.
The following formulas pertaining to semi-elliptic springs
for extra full length leaves were developed by E. R. Morrison.
p = 2n bh2f (v)
3L
Without eitra full length leaves :
3PL3 L2 f
(vi)
8En bh3 4 Eh
With extra full length leaves :
3 PL3 _ L2 f
8 - (vii)
4 (2 + r) En bh3 2 (2 --I- r) Eh
where ..
L = total length of the semi-elliptic spring
n'
r = --
n
n1 = number of extra full length leaves
n = total number of leaves.
If there are three full length leaves, n' = 2.
Also refer the theory developed in ijlustrative example 5 of
this section.
The suitable material for the manufacture of such (leaf) springs will be
highly hardened plain carbon steels, silico manganese steels and vanadium steels.
The ultimate tensile strength of the spring material may be upto 130 kg/sq mm.
To increase the fatigue strength the leaf blanks are sometimes subjected to shot
peening. Silico manganese steels are used in automobile industry while carbon
steels are used mainly by railways.
Spring plates are made in accordance with Birmingham wire gauge.
Suitable thicknesses can also be selected from IS: 1137-1959.
428 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

Examples:
1. A cantilever spring 60 cm long is composed of twelve leaves each
6 cm wide. If the allowable flexural stress is 10,000 kg/sq cm, determine
the thickness of each leaf if the maximum load at free end is 1,000 kg.
The maximum flexural stress is given by the formula
6Pl
f = b n h2 .
On substitution of values, we get
6 x 1000 x 60
10000 =
6 x 12 x h2
or
-V 6 x 1000 x 60
h. — 0.707 cm.
6 x 12 x 10000
From IS: 1137-1959, we adopt 0.71 cm.
2. A flat spring 140 cm long is to be made of ten leaves 6 cm wide
two of which extends the full length of the spring. It is to have a deflection
of 10 cm when subjected to a load of 350 kg. The leaves are held together
at the centre by a band 10 cm wide. Determine the thickness for the leaves
and the maximum stress induced. E = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Due to the stiffening effect of the band, the equivalent length
will be 140 — 10 ,------ 130 cm.
Extra full length leaf is 1.
•• • r = -,1, ----- 0.1.
3PL3
Deflection =
4(2 + r) Enbh3
On substitution of values, we get
3 x 350 x 1303
10 =
4(2 + 0.1)2.1 x 106 x 10 x 6 x h3
or h --=-- 1.3 cm.
• From IS: 1137-1959 we adopt 1.32 cm thickness.
3LP 3 x 130 x 350
Maximum stress
= 2nbhi = 2 x 10 x 6 x 1.322
= 655 kg/sq cm.
3. Design a cantilever leaf spring to absorb 8,000 kg cm of energy
without exceeding a deflection of 15 cm and the permissible stress 8,750
kg/sq cm. The length of the spring is 60 cm and the modulus of elasticity
is 24 x 108 kgIsq cm.
Art. 8-8] SPRINGS 429

Let P be the maximum load on the spring when the deflection

is 15 cm. By principle of work we get
15
P X -y = 8000

or p = 8000 x 2 = 1,070 kg.

15
The maximum stress is given by the equation, with usual
notations,
6P1
J = bnh2
6P1
or bnh2 =
f
— 6 x 1070 x 60 = 44.2 cms (i)
8750
bnhl
p
Volume of the sring =--- 2 •
2
As the energy of a cantilever spring is equal to X volume
of the spring, the volume of the spring is given by
bnhl 8000 x 6 x 2.1 x 10°
1,330 cu cm. (ii)
2 8.752 x 10°
Dividing equation (i) by (ii) we get
2h 44.2
7 - 1330
44.2 x 60
Or CM.
h = 2 x 1330 — 1
••• bn =-- 44.2
We adopt 8 leaves of 6 cm width.
4. The rear spring of an automobile has 9 leaves, each with an
average thickness of 6 mm and a width of 50 mm. The length of the
spring is 140 cm and the total weight on the spring is 600 kg. The spring
is semi-elliptical one.
Determine the rate of the spring, and the maximum stress caused by
the dead weight. What approximate repeated maximum force (0 to Fmar)
would cause impending fatigue in 105 cycles, the number of applications of
the maximum bad expected during the ordinary life of a car?
Ultimate tensile strength = 14,000 kg/sq cm.
Yield strength = 12,000 kg/sq cm.
430 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. VIII

8Enbh3
Stiffness of the spring = jT
8

8 x 2.1 x 106 x 9 x 5 x 0.63

=
3 x 1403
= 19.8 kg/cm.
3P1
Maximum stress .
2nbh2
3 x 600 x 140
= 7,800 kg/sq cm.
2 x 9 x 5 x 0.36
When the load varies from zero to maximum, the mean load
is equal to the variable load component and is equal to 0.5Fmax.
3P1 3 X 0.5Fmax X 140
6 — 6.5Fmax kg/sq cm.
.. . fa = fm = 2nbh2 2 x 9 x 5 x 0.3-
Endurance limit = 0.5 x 14000 = 7,000 kg/sq cm.
As we are designing for finite life of 105 cycles, endurance
107 0 9
strength will be 7000 [T_, =8,600 kg/sq cm

For impending fatigue, the design factor N will be equal to 1.

We take stress concentration factor as 1.4
6-5Fmax 6.5 Fmav X 1-4 6 5Fmavr 1 d_ 1
1—
12000
+ 8600 1000 L12 ' 6.12
From the above equation we get
Fmax = 625 kg

iS( 5. A 100 cm long cantilever spring is composed of 8 graduated leaves

and one extra full length leaf The leaves are 5 cm wide. A load of 250
kg at the end of a spring causes a deflection of 8 cm. Determine the thickness
of the leaves and the maximum bending stress in the full length leaves assum-
ing first that the extra full length leaf has been prestressed to give the same
stress zn all the leaves, and then determine the stress in the extra full length
leaf assuming no pre-stress, E — 2.1 x 102 kg/sq cm.
Let us develop the theory of leaf spring having extra full length
leaves. Let us consider cantilever spring.
The addition of one or more extra full length leaves ne of cons-
tant width and constant thickness on the top of graduated leaves is
approximately equal to having beam of constant width loaded in
parallel with beam of constant strength.
Art. 8-1)] SPRINGS 431

The deflection of a beam of constant width

84, == (i)
3E/max(t)
where Pe represents the portion of the total load P absorbed by
beam of constant width.
The deflection of a beam of graduated leaves, which is a beam
of constant strength,
8.
Pg/3
2E/max(g)
where Pg represents the portion of the total load P absorbed by
beam of constant strength.
Since the springs are in parallel, we have
P = Pe Pg
and 8e =
From equation (iv), we get
Pe13 Pg/3
(v)
3E/rnax(e, 2Elmax(g)
Let ne and ng equal the number of extra full length leaves and
number of graduated leaves respectively.
nebh3 ngbh3
Then Imax(e) and Imax(g) =
= 12 12 •
Substituting these values in the equation (v) we get

Pe Pg
3ne 2ng
n 3 fie
Or „- • -- • rg (vi)
ng
Further Pe Pg = P (vii)
From equations (vi) and (vii), we get
3rte
Pe = P
3ne 2ng
6Pel 18P1
je = nebh2— bh2(3ne 2ng )
c_ 6Pg1 12P1
jg 12g bh2 (3ne 2ng )
432 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

Thus we see that the stress in extra full length leaves is 50%
more than that in graduated leaves. It can be easily proved that
12P13
the deflection of the composite spring is
Ebh3 (3ne + 2ng)
12 x 250 x 108
8=
2.1 x 108 x 5 x (16 + 3) x h8
-17 12 x 250 x 108
or h = 1.22 cm.
2.1 x 5 x 8 x 19 x 108 =
With extra full length leaf prestressed, f — 6;
n
_ 6 x 250 x 100_ = 2,205 kg/sq cm.
— (8 + 1) 5 x Fi22
18P1
With no prestressing f =
bh2 (2ng ± 3ne)
18 x 250 x 100
2,920 kg/sq cm.
= 5 x 1.222 (2 x 8 ± 3) =
6. The free end of a horizontal cantilever spring of uniform strength
is directly over and in contact with a vertical close coiled helical compression
spring. The width of the cantilever spring at its fixed end is 60 cm, its
length is 80 cm, and its thickness is 1 cm. The coil spring has 10 active
coils of 1 cm diameter wire and has a mean diameter of 10 cm. Take
G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
(a) What force if gradually applied to the end of a cantilever spring
is required to cause a deflection of 4 cm?
(b) What is the bending stress in the beam at a distance of 60 cm
from the fixed end?
(c) How much energy is absorbed by the coil spring?
Both the springs have the same deflection, i.e. 4 cm. The
stiffness of the close coiled helical spring is equal to
Gdw4 ___ 0.84 x 108 x 14
= 10.5 kg/cm.
81)3—
n — 8 x 103 x 10
As the deflection is 4 cm, the load shared by close coiled helical
compression spring is 10.5 x 4 = 42 kg. If P is the portion of
the total load shared by cantilever spring, then
6 x p x 803
4=
60 x 2.1 x 108 x 13
60 x 2.1 x 108 x 4
or P_ = 164 kg.
6 x 803
Art. 8-8] SPRINGS 433

Total force to be applied will be equal to 164 + 42 = 206 kg.

Energy absorbed by the coil spring = i x 42 x 4 = 84 kg cm.
Width of the cantilever spring at a distance of 60 cm from the
60 x (80 — 60)
fixed end = = 15 cm.
0
B.M. = 20 x 164 = 3,280 kg cm.
Modulus of section = it x 15 x P = 2.5 cma.
3280
Flexural stress =--- --n— = 1,312 , kg/sq cm.

This will be the value of flexural stress at any section of the

cantilever spring of uniform strength.

Exercises :
1. Design a semi elliptical carriage spring of 120 cm long to carry
a dynamic load of 5,500 kg with a maximum deflection of 9 cm.
E = 2 x 106 kg/sq cm and f = 6,500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 10 leaves of 9 cm width and 1.32 cm thick.
2. Design the cantilever leaf spring to absorb 6,200 kg cm energy
without exceeding a deflection of 15 cm and the permissible stress 8,750
kg/sq cm. The length of the spring is 60 cm. The modulus of elasticity
is 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 6 leaves 6 cm wide and thickness of each leaf 1 cm.
3. Design a cantilever plate spring to absorb 375 kg cm without
exceeding a deflection of 2.5 cm and the permissible stress 10,000 kg/sq cm.
The length of the spring is 16.5 cm. The modulus of elasticity is
2 x 106 kg/sq cm. Ans. Width 9.5 cm, thickness 0.56 cm.
4. A semi-elliptic automobile spring 145 cm long carries a total
load of 900 kg. The spring is composed of 10 leaves two of which are
full length, each 6 cm wide. Determine the necessary thickness and the
resultant stress to give a deflection of 6.3 cm. E = 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 1.18 cm; 2,230 kg/sq cm.
5. A car weighing 1,450 kg is supported by four semi-elliptic
springs with the load equally distributed on the front and rear axles.
Considering the available space and the proportions as commonly used in
automobile practice, it is decided to make the spring 137 cm long and 5 cm
wide. Determine the leaf thickness and the number of leaves, if the deflec-
tion at rest is assumed to be 10 cm and the allowable stress 4,200 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 0.95 mm; 5.
434 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. VIII

6. A semi-elliptic spring with a total effective length of 80 cm has

ten leaves, two of which are full length, which are 6.7 mm thick and 50 mm
wide. It is desired to replace this spring by a helical spring of 100 mm
mean diameter and of such proportions that for any load it will have the
same value of the induced stress and the same deflection as the leaf spring.
Suggest the suitable diameter of the wire and the number of turns.
Ans. 17 mm; 6.6.
7. Derive an equation for the energy absorbed by a cantilever spring
of uniform strength. Express the answer in terms of metal volume and
compare it with the energy absorbed by a beam of constant width and hence
show that laminated springs permit saving in material.
(2 f2
Ans. .!—, x volume; ' - x volume.
6E 18E
8. Design a cantilever plate spring to absorb 375 kg cm without
exceeding a deflection of 2.5 cm and the permissible stress 10,000 41 sq cm.
The length of the spring is 16.5 cm. E = 2 x 108 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Thickness 5.4 mm; width 10 cm.

8-9. Belleville springs:

P Load

(a) Belleville spring

(b) Belleville springs stacked in parallel

Belleville springs
FIG. 8-13(a) and (b)

These springs have high capacity and a relatively small space

requirement in direction of load application but this is obtained
at the expense of relatively non-uniform stress distribution across
the section.
Art. 8-10] SPRINGS 435

These springs may be used singly, stacked in parallel or in

series as shown in fig. 8-13. By stacking in parallel, load capa-
city is increased in proportion to number of discs and by stacking
in series the deflection is increased in proportion to number of
discs.

WBelienille springs stacked in series

Belleville springs
FIG . 8-13 (c)

8-10. Energy-Storage capacity:

In many cases, in the selection and design of springs, the
capacity of a spring to store energy is a prime consideration.
Sometimes the designer is interested in absorbing shock and
impact loads; at other times he is simply interested in storing the
maximum energy in the smallest space.
For choosing a particular form of spring the fbllowing two
equations are useful to the designer:
/2
u -,-= - (i)
2E
U = m
fs2 (ii)
where u is the strain energy per unit volume and f and fs are
respectively the direct and shear stresses induced in the springs
under consideration. E is the Young's modulus and G is the
modulus of rigidity of the spring material.
Depending upon which of the above two formulas are appli-
cable, the springs may be divided into two classes, either E springs
or G springs. Springs subjected to tensile or compressive stresses
are known as E springs while those subjected to shear stresses are
known as G springs. Since the stress is usually not uniform, a
form coefficient C is defined as follows.
 436 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

11 = c f2—E (iii)
and
u = -fs-- (iv)
C 2G
The value of the form coefficient C is a measure of the spring's
capacity to store energy. The maximum value of C is unity if the
stress is uniformly distributed. When the stress is uniformly
distributed, the material of the spring is used most efficiently.
For most of the springs, the stress is not uniformly distributed,
and the value of the form coefficient will be less than unity.
Table 8-10.1 contains a list of form coefficients as calculated
by Karl W. Maier.
Table 8-10.1
Form Coefficients

Name of spring Type C

Tension bar E 1.0

Clock spring E 0.33
Torsion spring E 0.25
Cantilever beam E 0.11
Torsion tube G About 0.90
Torsion bar G 0.50
Compression spring G I About 0.35
Belleville E 1 0.05 to 0.20

Note: Illustrative example 2 on page 406 shows the method of calculating

form coefficient for a torsion bar.

Exercise:
1. Determine the form coefficient for the triangular cantilever spring
of constant thickness. Ans. if .

EXAMPLES VIII

1. A Hartnell type spring loaded governor has two balls each weighing
1.8 kg. They are carried on bell crank levers mounted on pivots which are 9.5 cm
from the spindle centre. The ball arms are 12.5 cm long and the sleeve arms
7.5 cm long. The maximum and minimum radii of rotation of the balls are
12 and 8 cm respectively. The sleeve is to begin lifting at 250 r.p.m. and the
speed range is to be 20 r.p.m. Consider stress concentration.
Ex. ViIll SPRINGS 437

Design the central compression spring for the governor, assuming a working
shear stress of 3,200 kg/sq cm. Make the mean coil diameter eight times the wire
diameter. Take the sliear modulus 84 x 106 kg/sq cm. Specify the free
length of the spring.
Am. 18 coils of 4 SWG wire and mean coil diameter 4.8 cm would be suitable.
2. A vertical spring loaded safety valve is
required for a compressed air vessel. The valve is
to start to open at a pressure of 10 kg/sq cm and must
be fully open with a lift of 8 mm at a pressure of 11
kg/sq cm. The valve itself is shown diagrammatically
in fig. 8-14.
Design a suitable spring for the valve, adopting
a working shear stress of 5,000 kg/sq cm and taking
the modulus of rigidity as 8 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Select the wire size from SWG table.
Specify the free length of the spring and the
necessary initial compression. FIG. 8-14
Give a careful proportioned working sketch of a suitable fully assembled
safety valve, assuming it to be attached to a boss on the air vessel. Include a
means of adjusting the spring compression.
Ans. 8 coils, 5.4 cm mean diameter of 5 SWG wire would
suit; free length 14 cm; initial compression 8 cm.
3. A clutch for an automobile is required to transmit 28 horse power at
2,000 r.p.m. It is to be of the single plate type with both sides of the plate effec-
tive. The outside diameter of the plate is to be made about 1 i times the inside
diameter, and the intensity of pressure on the plate must not exceed 0.7 kg/sq cm.
The coefficient of friction is 0.26.
Determine the dimensions of the plate estimating the frictipn torque from
the formula for uniform wear which gives for one pair of contacting surfaces:
T . ig,P(r2 -I- r2).
The axial pressure is to be provided by several helical springs. Choose a
suitable diameter of springs and design them, using steel with a working shear
stress of 3,500 kg/sq cm and a shear modulus of 8 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Specify the free lengths of the springs.
Show the arrangement of the clutch by an outline sketch of its cross section.
Ans. 254 cm outside diameter, 16.5 cm inside,diameter suitable. Using
6 springs, 6 coils, 25 mm mean diameter of 7 SWG wire would suit.
4. The movement of a slow moving plunger is to be controlled by a compo-
site compression spring consisting of one helical spring concentric with and inside
another. The two springs are to have a common anchorage at the top.
The plunger is to start moving upwards against an initial spring load of
19.1 kg provided by the outer spring only. After a lift of 95 mm the spring load is
to be 38.7 kg and the plunger is then to make contact with the inner spring. After
a further lift of 1.1 cm, the combined spring load is to be 82 kg and this completes
the upward travel.
438 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

Design each spring, making the outer spring about 5 cm external diameter.
Use a working shear stress of 3,500 kg/sq cm and take the shear modulus G as
8 x 105 kg/sq cm. Specify the free length of each sing. The spring wire
sizes should be selected from SWG table.
Ans. Outer 7 coils, 45 mm mean diameter 4 SWG wire.
Inner 6 coils, 25 mm mean diameter 9 SWG wire.
5. The driving element of a centrifugal clutch contains four friction shoes
each weighing 1.5 kg. Each shoe can slide radially, subject to the constraint
of a radial helical tension spring. When in operation, the shoes press radially
against the inside surface of a drum of 28 cm internal diameter, which forms the
driven element. The coefficient of friction between shoe and drum is 0.32.
When stationary, the centre of gravity of each shoe is at 10 cm radius from the
axis of rotation, and there is a radial clearance of 4.75 mm between shoe and
drum. The clutch is required to transmit 40 h.p. at 1,150 r.p.m. and the shoes
are to start moving outwards at 600 r.p.m.
(a) Determine the minimum contact area per shoe if the pressure is
limited to 2 kg/sq cm.
(b) Design a suitable tension spring and specify its necessary initial extension.
Both the free length and the diameter of the spring must not exceed 3.3 cm.
Assume the springs to be of steel having a working shear stress of 5,600 kg/sq cm
with G = 8.4 x 105 kg/sq cm.
Calculate the speed at which the clutch will begin to engage. Suggest a
suitable material for the friction linings and describe a method of fixing them to
the shoes. Ans. 71 sq cm; 41, coil 25 mm mean diameter
0.53 mm diameter wire would suit.

- 50dia 14—

FIG. 8-15

6. Fig. 8-15 shows a safety device operated by a lever and tension spring.
During the normal closed position of the valve B the pressure on the valve is
42 kg/sq cm. The maximum lift of the valve is 8 mm under a pressure of 5.6
kg/sq cm. The diameter of the valve is 5 cm. Design the spring making
allowance for direct shear, bending, etc. Take allowable shear stress 4,200 kg/sq
Ex. VIII] SPRINGS 439

cm and G = 8 x 105 kg/fig cm and spring index 7. Draw the spring which you
have designed showing the end connections for adjusting the initial tension.
Ans. 0.53 cm; 18 turns.
7. Fig. 8-5 shows a compression spring for tension rods. Calculate the
values of d, d1, d2 and I when the spring is free. Also, calculate the pitch and total
number of coils of the spring. Assume:
Maximum tension in the rod 2,750 kg
Allowable stress in the rod 700 kg/sq cm
Deflection of the spring when the load changes from 2,500 kg to 2,750 kg is
1.5 cm
Spring index 6
Allowable stress in spring wire 5,600 kg/sq cm
Modulus of rigidity 8.5 x 105 kg/sq cm.
Draw a fully dimensioned sketch of the spring in its free state.
8. In fig. 8-16, S and S' are two portions of a shaft. Arms A and A' are
rigidly attached to the adjacent ends of the shaft as shown. The ends of the
arms are furnished with hooks which are connected by two like coil springs as
shown. Thus, it is possible to transmit energy from one shaft to another. Length
of each arm CB = C'B' = 60 cm, the natural length of each spring is = 20 cm.
When the shaft is rotating at 200 r.p.m., the angle between the arms is 60° and
the h.V: transmitted is 15.

A A'

FIG. 8-16

Calculate the diameter of the spring wire, mean diameter of the coil and
the number of coils assuming G = 84 x 105 kg/sq ,cm, fs = 4,200 kg/sq cm
and spring index 8.
9. A helical spring is wound from a commercial wire which is found to be
X% larger than the specified diameter `d'. To what mean radius in terms of the
specified radius 'IV must its coils be wound so that its deflection under the design
load may remain unaltered? How will the shear stress in this spring then compare
with that in the specified spring?
10. A car weighing 900 kg when loaded has a wheel base of 270 cm and its
centre of gravity is 145 cm behind the front axle centre. The car is to be sprung
on four similar longitudinal semi-elliptic carriage springs, each 84 cm between
440 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII

the shackle points. Design a suitable spring using a factor of safety of 1.5 on
the proof stress of 8,400 kg/sq cm. The static loads are to be multiplied by a load
factor of 2.5 to allow for impact loads. Young's modulus is 2.1 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Give a well proportioned and fully dimensioned sketch of the spring and show
the method of securing a rear spring to the back axle.
Ans. 10 leaves 40 mm by 6.3 mm, radius 92 cm would be suitable.
11. A semi-elliptical laminated spring 100 cm long between the supports
carries a central load of 450 kg and is made of spring steel having a safe maxi-
mum stress limit of 4,200 kg/sq cm. The spring whose maximum deflection
under the load is to be 13 cm becomes straight under this load. Calculate the
various dimensions of the spring.
Draw a neat sketch of the longest leaf showing the various dimensions and
the arrangement provided for attaching the spring to the shackles. Give also
the lengths of the other plates.
12. Design the following springs:
(a) A semi-elliptic carriage spring 100 cm long to absorb 1,650 kg cm of
energy, under the proof load of 450 kg (the proof load being the load to straighten
the spring). Assume a working stress of 3,500 kg/sq cm and take the modulus of
elasticity to be 2.1 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Specify the initial radius of curvature of the plates.
(b) A helical valve spring of circular section steel wire to fulfil the follow-
ing requirements:
Spring force holding valve closed — 22.5 kg.
Maximum spring force, occuring when valve opens 6.3 mm — 54.5 kg.
Spring to fit snugly into a recess of 7 cm diameter.
Assume a working shear stress of 2,100 kg/sq cm and take the modulus of
rigidity to be 8 x 106 kg/sq cm. Make a dimensioned sketch of each spring.
Ans. (a) 8 leaves, 6.5 cm wide by 6.3 mm thick would suit. Radius
of curvature 180 cm.
(b) 4 free coils of 8 mm diameter wire, mean coil diameter 60 mm
would suit.
13. A spring is required to support a maximum load of 270 kg and to have
a stiffness of about 72 kg/cm. Two alternative types are to be considered as
follows:
(a) A semi-elliptic leaf spring of 70 cm span, using leaves 5 cm by 0.475 cm
section to be loaded centrally.
(b) A helical compression spring of outside diameter not exceeding 125 mm.
Compute suitable sizes for each type of spring, give a dimensioned working
sketch of each and compare their weights assuming the density of the steel used
7.8 gm/cu cm. Other particulars of the steels are:
Leaf spring: working stress 3,150 kg/sq cm
E = 2.11 x 10° kg/sq cm
Helical spring: working shear stress 2,360 kg/sq cm
G = 8.35 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Ans. (a) 8 leaves; weight about 5.9 kg.
(b) 6 coils of 15 mm diameter wire; weight about 1.4 kg.
Ex. MI] SPRINGS 441

14. A car weighing 1,450 kg is supported by four semi-elliptic springs with load
equally distributed on the front and rear axles. Considering the available space
and the proportions as commonly used in automobile practice, it is decided to
make the spring 140 cm long and 5 cm wide. Determine the leaf thickness and the
number of leaves if the deflection at rest is assumed to be 10 cm and the allowable
stress 4,200 kg/sq cm. E = 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1968)
15. A solenoid brake is to be actuated by a helical compression spring of
free length 35 cm and is to exert a maximum force of 1,000 kg when compressed
by 8 cm. The outside diameter of the spring should not exceed 18 cm. What
is the wire diameter, coil diameter and number of coils? The value of the shear
stress induced is not to exceed, 2,400 kg/sq cm. Take G --.-- 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1969)
16. A semi-elliptic automobile spring 1,250 mm long carries a load of 675 kg.
The spring has two full length leaves and graduated leaves, all 50 mm wide.
Determine the necessary thickness of the leaves and the deflection. The spring
is made of steel with an allowable stress of 3,500 kg/sq cm. Draw a free hand
sketch of the spring.
(University of Bombay, 1971)
17. A truck weighing 2,000 kg and moving at 5 km/hour has to be brought
to rest by a buffer. The buffer consists of 4 similar springs arranged in parallel.
The compression of each spring is 15 cm. Assuming a spring index of 8, per-
missible shear stress for spring wire 4,000 kg/sq cm and modulus of rigidity
8 x 105 kg/sq cm, calculate the diameter of the wire, number of effective turns
and free height of the springs. The springs have squared and ground ends.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
18. If a helical compression spring of stiffness k and active turns 10 is cut
into two springs having 4 and 6 turns, determine the stiffnesses of individual springs.
(Sardar Patel 1.1,piversity, 1973)
19. The following particulars refer to the valve spring of an I.C. engine:
Length of the spring when the valve is open 40 mm
Length of the spring when the valve is closed 50 mm
Spring load when the valve is open 40 kg
Spring load when the valve is closed 25 kg
Maximum inside diameter of the spring 25 mm
Evaluate: (i) Size of wire required for maximum operating stress of 4,000
kg/sq cm and modulus of rigidity 8.3 x 105 kg/sq cm. ,(ii) number of active coils
required and (iii) pitch of the spring.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1973)
20. A single plate clutch is to have maximum capacity to transmit 80 h.p.
at 2,000 r.p.m. The faces of the clutch plate are lined to have coefficient of friction
0.3 and permissible bearing pressure of 2 kg/sq cm. The clutch is engaged by 12
springs of 3 cm mean diameter, arranged symmetrically. The springs compress
by 2 mm for disengagement with an increase of pressure of 10%.
Design the springs for the clutch having mean diameter equal to 0.6 times
the outer diameter.
442 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. VIII
Take fs for spring wire as 3,000 kg/sq cm and N = 8 x 105 kg/sq cm.
Assume uniform pressure. (M. S. University of Baroda, 1974)
21. Compare different designs of helical compression springs for a maximum
load of 100 kg for a deflection of 2.5 cm using values of 5, 6, and 7 for ratio of
mean coil diameter to wire diameter. Maximum permissible shear stress for spring
wire may be taken as 4,200 kg/sq cm.
Modulus of rigidity = 0.84 x 105 kg/sq cm.
0.615
Wahl factor = 4C— 1 + -
4C- 4 C
--
coil diameter
where C= •
wire diameter
Discuss these designs with reference to number of coils, height of the spring,
wire diameter, space required and maximum stresses.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
22. (a) A cluster spring is used in a valve gear mechanism of an air craft
engine. The total load on the springs = 300 kg, the total deflection = 40 mm and
the solid length of the compressed springs --- 60 mm. Assuming the allowable
stress in the spring wire = 6,000 kg/sq cm, design the springs.
(b) A leaf spring is used for supporting the axle of a trailer. The axle reaction
at each spring support = 1,000 kg and the distance between the supports of the
spring = 915 mm. If 50 x 8 mm spring steel strips are available, determine the
number of leaves required. The allowable stress in the leaf = 5,500 kg/sq cm.
Sketch the arrangement. (University of Bombay, 1975)
23. Discuss the stresses produced in a helical compression spring subjected
to cyclic loading.
A compression spring 24 mm diameter is made from 4 mm diameter wire
with 20 effective turns pitched at 8 mm. It is preloaded to 20 kg and then
subjected to a cyclic load of 10 sin 300 t. What is the maximum shear stress
produced in the spring?
G = 8,000 kg/sq mm. Density of material of wire 7.85 gm/cu cm.
(University of Bombay, 1976)
24. A close coiled helical compression spring is fitted in the cam mechanism
of a machine. The minimum spring force is 25 kg. The compressive force of
the spring during the latter half of the follower lift should be enough to maintain
the contact of the follower with the cam so that the follower motion is kept under
the command of the cam. The effective accelerated mass of the follower is 0.981
1
kg. The lift of the follower is 5 cm and the motion is completed in - th second
60
each in forward and return strokes with uniform and equal acceleration, and
retardation. Design the spring having spring index of 8 and permissible shear
stress intensity of 6,000 kg/sq cm.
G = 0.84 x 105 kg/sq cm
Consider the effect of curvature also,
Comment on the design procedure adopted by you. Sketch the force diagram
against the lift of the follower for upward stroke.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER. 9
BEARINGS

9-1. Introduction :
When there is relative motion between two machine parts,
one of which supports the other, the supporting member is called
a bearing. In general bearing may be divided into two groups
(i) Bearings in which the surfaces either make sliding.
contact or are separated by a film of lubricant
(ii) Bearings which have rolling contact between surfaces.
The term sliding bearing is really not general enough, but
for convenience, we shall use it to describe all bearings that do
not use balls or rollers as load supporting elements.
Bearing
1
4, 4,
Sliding Rolling
4, 1
4, 4, 4,
Right line journal Thrust
or 4,
Guide
4, 4,
Pivot Collar
or
Step
4, 74,
Ball Roller

4,
4, 4,
/ Radial 'thrust

The right line bearing is one in which the relative motion is

parallel to the elements of the sliding surfaces, which may be flat
as the guides on engine crossheads, the ways of milling machines
and small planers or they may be circular as in case of spindles
of boring and drilling machines.
If the relative motion between two machine parts is of rota-
tion and the pressure on the bearing is perpendicular to the axis
of the shaft (along the radius of the shaft), the bearing is known
as a journal bearing. The part which is enclosed by and rubs
against the other is called the journal and the part which encloses
444 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

the journal is called the box or bearing. Mostly the journal

rotates in the fixed bearing but in a few cases both the journal
and bearing are in motion, for example, a crank pin and its
bearing in the connecting rod. ' In some cases the journal is fixed
and the bearing rotates as in a hoisting drum or a loose pulley.
If the pressure is parallel to the axis of the shaft, the bearing
is called a thrust bearing. In a thrust bearing if the shaft terminates
at the bearing surface the bearing is a pivot bearing. If the shaft
extends through and beyond the bearing, the bearing is known
as a collar bearing. The common examples of collar thrust bear-
ing are bearings of propeller shafts, shafts carrying worm and
bevel gears and spindles of drill presses.
In rolling bearing, the surfaces are in rolling contact in con-
trast to sliding contacts as in sliding bearings. If the supported
member runs on cylindrical or conical rollers, the bearing is known
as roller bearing. If hardened steel balls are used in place of
rollers, the bearing is termed as ball bearing.
Sliding bearings are also classified as
(i) Thick film bearings in which the surfaces are completely
separated from each other by the lubricant.
(ii) Thin film or boundary lubricated bearings in which
although lubricant is present, surfaces partially contact each
other at least part of the time.
(iii) Zero-film bearings which operate without any lubricant
present.
Lubrication by a pressurized fluid film may be divided into
two types:
(i) Hydrostatic lubrication, in which the fluid film pressure
is obtained by supplying the lubricant at high pressure through a
set of holes in the bearing shell positioned so that the force exerted
by the pressurized lubricant supports the loaded journal at all times.
(ii) Hydrodynamic lubrication, in which the fluid film pre-
ssure is generated only by the rotation of the journal, the journal
taking up a position in the bearing so that its rotation is able to
produce a continuous film of lubricant in which there is sufficient
change of pressure to produce a force which will support the
journal load.
The advantage of hydrostatic over hydrodynamic lubrication
is in starting and stopping. This is no problem in hydrostatic
Art. 9-2] BEARINGS 445

lubrication since the journal is supported out of contact with the

bearing even when the journal is not rotating. With hydrodynamic
lubrication, however, the pressures which support the journal are
only developed when the journal is rotating faster than some
minimum speed. When at rest, the journal lies on the bottom of
the bearing and on starting tends to roll round and slips on the
bearing until sufficient pressure is generated in the lubricant to force
it away from the side of the bearing. The advantage of hydro-
dynamic over hydrostatic lubrication is that we are not required to
buy and to run external equipment necessary to supply high presure
lubricant to hydrostatic bearing. In the hydrodynamic bearing,
theoretically no continuous lubricant supply is necessary although
in practice a continuous supply at low pressure is required.
These two types of method of lubrication can be combined so that a
bearing can operate hydrostatically when starting and stopping and can act
hydrodynamically when running at speed.
Hydrodynamic lubrication principles may be applied to full
and partial journal bearings and thrust bearings, the basic requirement
for this type of lubrication being a converging space between the stationary
and moving parts of the bearing into which oil is drawn by the moving part
of the bearing.

9-2. Bearing area:

The area of a surface of a bearing perpendicular to the
direction of the pressure is called the projected area.
For a cylindrical journal bearing of diameter d and length 1
the projected area is d x 1.
Tr
For a pivot bearing of diameter d the projected area is — d2.
4
For a collar bearing having n collars of inside diameter d and
4- ri.(d — d 2). In all cal-
outside diameter d1, the projected area is Tr
12
culations on the area of the surface of a bearing, only the
projected area is considered.
If P is the total load on any bearing and p the mean intensity
of pressure, then
P = p x projected area of the bearing (i)
The permissible value of p varies greatly in different cases
in practice.
446 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX

It depends on the relative velocity of rubbing, on material

combination and on the method of lubrication.

9-3. Sliding bearings: Solid journal bearings:

The simplest form of bearing consists of a cylindrical piece
of metal with a hole to receive a pin or shaft which makes a run-
ning fit. Such a bearing, known as a solid journal bearing is used
when the load is small and the wear is immaterial. Solid journal
bearing can be made integral with a frame of the machine as
shown in fig. 9-1. When this bearing is manufactured as a separate
piece, it is provided with extensions to receive bolts for fastening
it to the frame as shown in fig. 9-2. To give the necessary length
of a bearing when it is made integral with the frame, the frame
is increased in thickness by casting bosses on it.

(a) 0.4d (d) d (k) 1.5d+0.75 4

Solid journal bearing integral with the frame of the machine
FIG. 9-1

The main drawback of this form of bearing is the absence of

prdvision for adjustment in case of wear. The first refinement
of this bearing is to bore the hole larger than the shaft and to
fit a solid bush of softer metal which takes up the wear. The
bush may be a tight driving fit in the outer support or it may be
kept in place by a screw as shown in fig. 9-3. To re-new the
bearing it is only necessary to re-new the bush.
The solid bearing can only be used when there are no enlarge-
ments on the shaft which would prevent it passing into the bearing.
Art. 94] BEARINGS 447

0) Bolt di
-• (I) 4
- _
-1-41--

(a) 0.4d (d) d

-L--(t)
1
(0) 0.5d+0.25"
-.1-
2.5d+I.25" (e) 1.50+0.75" (I) 0.25d+0.125"
(c) 3.5di-1.75" (f) 125d+0.625" (i) 0.4d
Solid journal bearing
FIG. 9-2

Screw
Limy

Bush

Arrangement for keeping the bush in position

FIG. 9-3

9-4. Divided journal bearing: Plummer Block:

When it is not desirable to place a shaft in its bearing by
introducing it endwise, the bearing is divided and the parts are
held together by bolts or other fastenings. This arrangement
also provides for wear. The bearing is usually split into two parts by
a plane, passing through the axis of the shaft, normal to the direction of
the load. The top part of the divided bearing is called the cap,
448 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. AK

which is fastened to the lower part called base, frame or pedestal

by bolts and nuts as shown in fig. 9-4. Separable bearings are made
for shafts with d = 50 to'500 mm and their caps are secured either with
two bolts (light bearing) d < 80 mm or with four bolts (heavy bearings,
d > 80 mm). The wear is taken up by:removing some of the metal
on the dividing surface or by thinning the shims. To insure proper
alignment of the two parts, an off-set is made on the line of division.

1 65
1
m
1 ,
Units() + y

0-- — —
3.3

Fr

1
OM •m• 41. •mm,
dmErl•=,•11•

Plummer block
FIG. 9-4

The plummer block (fig. 9-4) is an independent shaft bearing

adopted for bolting to a support on a masonry wall, a steel girder
or on a large machine base. The usual design of the plummer
block provides for ample rigidity, for replaceable and adjustable
brasses and for definite lubrication.
The halves of a split bush are known as brasses or steps.
Art. 9-ij BEARINGS 449

They are made of special material known as bearing material.

A good bearing material is softer than the journal, has a low
coefficient, of friction, has sufficient compressive strength, good
conductivity for heat, small amount of wear and low cost. The
commonly adopted bearing materials are brass, bronze, white
metal and special antifriction alloys.

1.2

Stop pin ' f". 3

Stop lug

(c) L r— r

Brasses
FIG. 9-5
The unit for proportion is usually t, the thickness of that
part of the brass which supports the load and this may be taken
as t cm = 0.08d + 0.3 cm.
Brasses must be of such form that they cannot move axially
or rotate in the housing. The axial movement of the brasses is
450 MACHINE pESION [Ch. IX

prevented by means of the flanges on the ends and the rotation is

prevented by various means, some of which are shown in fig. 9-5.
In all forms of brasses the amount of machining should be reduced
to a minimum and for this reason portions preventing rotation
usually extend only a short portion of the length of the brass.
Exercise:
1. A sheet rotating at 125 r.p.m. transmits 25 h.p. and is supported
in a plummer block. The total load on bearing is 2,000 kg. Design and
draw the plummer block. (Gujarat University, 1972)

9-5. Hydrodynamic theory of lubrication:

The action of lubricant in a plain journal bearing according to
hydrodynamic theory is briefly described as under:
When the journal is at rest, it makes contact with the bearing
at its lowest point P leaving a crescent-shaped space above,
which is filled with lubricant, shown to an exaggerated scale in
fig. 9-6. When the shaft rotates in counter clockwise direction

P P
At rest In motion
Wedge action of a film in a bearing
FIG. 9-6

as shown, it tends to climb slightly until slipping occurs when

contact is made at Ps slightly to one side of P. As the speed
of the shaft increases, it carries the oil with it from the wide space
A towards C and the fluid pressure in the oil rises. When the speed
is higher, the pressure is sufficient to carry the weight of the journal;
there is then no metal to metal contact, but the shaft is supported
by the oil, being nearest to the bearing surface at a point Ps on
the off side; this will be the point of maximum fluid pressure and
Art. 9.51 BEAtugai 4M
the position of the shaft will be as shown in fig. 9-7. Under
such conditions the fluid friction in the lubricant is substituted
for sliding friction between the journal and the bearing. Fig. 9-7
shows the ideal variation of pressure in the converging film in
radial and axial directions.

I_ )
(a) Radial (b) Axial
Variation of pressure in a converging film
FIG. 9-7
The coefficient of friction for a complete film lubrication
can be expressed as
11 =4, ZN _d_ , l
, c ii (i)
p
where IA 7-=-- coefficient of friction
4 = a functional relationship
Z = absolute viscosity of a lubricant in centipoises
N = speed of journal in r.p.m. r
p = permissible bearing pressure in kg/sq cm on projected
area
d = diameter of journal
c = difference between diameter of bushing and diameter
of the journal
I = length of the bearing.
The quantity ZN is a dimensionless number and is known
P
as the bearing characteristic number. Fig. 9-8 shows the varia-
tion of the coeffi cient of friction with operating values of ZN .
P
Bearing factorZ—
N helps to predict the performance of a bear-
P
ing. It can be seen from the curve that there is a minimum
value of the coefficient of friction for a particular value of the
bearing characteristic number, which we denote by the letter a.
452 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

Values of Z
—Ar greater than a indicate that the bearing may
operate with complete film lubrication. At values less than a
the rapid rise in the coefficient of friction indicates that the oil
film has ruptured and there is metal to metal contact. The value
of ZN
— when the oil film ruptures is known as the bearing modulus.
When a bearing operates near this value, slight increase in
pressure or decrease in speed may be accompanied by increase in
friction, wear and heating. To prevent such conditions the
bearing should operate at values of - at least three times the
minimum value cc and if the bearing is subjected to large fluctua-
tions of load and heavy impacts, values as high as 15a may be
used.

kl Boundary hibrication

Semi-fluid lubrication
IA 1
k— Full-fluid lubrication
Coefficient o f friction

p
Variation of coefficient of friction with bearing characteristic number
FIG. 9-8
Experimental data on small journal bearings by McKee
established the following approximate equation for the coefficient
of friction, which is the equation of the straight line portion of
the curve shown in fig. 9-8.
Art. 9-5 ] BEARINGS 453

33 ZN
(ii)
11 = 1010 ( --
r ) (d
-
6.) +k
where k depends on the ratio of the bearing length to the dia-
meter. When ratio is less than 2.8 and more than 0.75, the
el
value of the correction factor k may be taken as 0.002.
The following are the values of coefficient of friction:
(i) Boundary lubrication p. > 0.3
(ii) Semi-fluid lubrication v. = 0.005 to 0.1
(iii) Full fluid lubrication It = 0.001 to 0.005.
The absolute viscosity Z of a lubricant in centipoise is
given by
1 80
Z = p (0.22 S — --- —) (iii)
S
where p = specific gravity of liquid
S = Saybolt reading in seconds.
The absolute viscosity of any oil varies with its specific gravity
which also changes with temperature.
The specific gravity of the liquid is given by
p . P15 - 0.000657 (1— 15) (iv)
where pis is the specific gravity at 15°C and t the temperature
of the oil film in °C.
The specific gravity of ordinary lubricating oil* at running
temperatures may vary from about 0.8 to somewhat over 0.9
with 0.9 as an average satisfactory for approximate computations.
Small clearance means more heat, but greater load capacity; large
clearance means less heat but is mechanically undesirable. Hence the
designer must select the best compromise.
c
The ratio is known as the clearance ratio.
d
The most bearings are designed with a diametral clearance
ratio of 0.001 to 0.002 cm/cm of diameter.
The practical criterion for determining whether a bearing will
operate satisfactorily or not is the value of minimum film thickness.
The limiting thickness is dependent upon the surface finish of the
parts, deflections of parts and cleanliness of the lubricant. Care-
fully made bearings have given satisfactory service with oil films
as thin as 0.0007 mm. However in practical design it is recommended
454 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch, IX

that the minimum film thickness be at least 0.00015 cm/cm of

bearing diameter.
From the stand point of side leakage, a bearing with a large
/
d-- ratio is preferable. However space requirements, manufactur-
ing tolerances and shaft deflections are better met by a bearing of
short length. The usual value of d ratio for general industrial
machinery lies between 1 and 2. It is less than 1 for highly
loaded engine bearings.
The pressure at which the oil film breaks down so that metal
to metal contact begins is known as the critical pressure, which
depends on the materials of the bearing and on the degree of
smoothness of the contact surfaces. The maximum permissible
unit pressure is given by
p_ ZN _ (d V 1
(v)
475 x 106 kc) d+ 1
For design purposes, the bearing characteristic number and
the clearance ratio are related by the equation
[Link](d y
-
p c
= 1.43 x 109 (vi)

This equation is used in design to determine the permissible

bearing pressure intensity.
Copious splash, forced feed lubrication, submersion or flood-
ing of the sliding surfaces a-e methods which give perfect lubrica-
tion. Ring oiling, collar oiling or chain oiling in journal bearings
furnish the conditions for semi-perfett lubrication while grease cup,
wick oiler, drop oiler and capillary oiler give imperfect lubrication.
Table 9-5.1 on page 455 gives the values commonly adopted
for the journal bearing design practices:

In case of comparatively long journals -I.- > 1.5, load is

d
distributed non-uniformly along the length of the stationary shell
which brings about heavy wear of the ends of the shell as the bear-
ing shell can not follow the angular deviations of the journal axis
caged by the deformations of the shaft under load. Thus for
such type of bearings use should be made of bearings with self aligning
shells, Such shells have spherical lugs in the middle resting on
 Art. 9-6] BEARINGS 455

spherical supporting surfaces in the housin g and can turn on these

surfaces to suit the inclination of the shaft. Such types of bearings
are provided with ring lubrication.
Table 9-5.1
Operating
I Maximum
Machinery Bearing ratio
centi- ZN
kg/sq cm poise p
Stationary slow Main 1.0-2.0 28 60 280
speed steam Crank pin 0.9-1.3 105 80 85
engines Wrist pin 1.2-1.5 125 60 70
Stationary high Main 1.5-3.0 30 15 65
speed steam Crank pin 0.9-1.5 42 30 85
engines Wrist pin 1.3-1.7 125 25 70
Gas and oil Main 0.6-2.0 50-85 20 280
engines Crank pin 0.6-1.5 100-125 to 140
four stroke Wrist pin 1.5-2.0 125-135 65 70
Gas and oil Main 0.6-2.0 35-125 20 350
engines Crank pin 0.6-1.5 70-105 to 170
two stroke Wrist pin 1.5-2.0 85-125 65 140
Aircraft engines Main 0.8-1.8 55-120 210
and automobile Crank pin 0.7-1.4 105-225 8 140
engines Wrist pin 1-5-2.2 160-350 115
Reciprocating Main 1.0-2.2 30 30
07 420
compressors and Crank pin 0.9-1.7 45 to 280
pumps Wrist pin 1.5-2.0 70 80 140
Machine tools Main 1 0-4.0 20 40 15
---- -
Steam turbines Main 1.0-2.0 7-18 2-16 1,400
Railway cars Axle 1.9 35 100 700
Centrifugal
pumps, motors Rotor 1.0 to 2.0 7-114 25 2,800
and generators

9-6. Oil Grooving:

The purpose of the oil groove is to assist in the distribution of the oil between
the rubbing surfaces. The maximum intensity of pressure in the oil film of bear-
ings with ordinary clearances varies from two and one-half to four times the bearing
pressure in kg/sq cm of projected area. At the groove the pressure of the oil is
supply pressure which is considerably less than the hydrodynamic pressure required
to support the bearing load. Thus, a bearing with a central circumferential oil
groove will in effect be equivalent to two narrow bearings and the presence of a
456 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

groove in the region of positive pressure causes the reduction in load carrying
capacity of the bearing. The best place to put the groove is at right angles to the
line of action of the load. Under no circumstances should the grooves run from
regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure, for they would then act as
drains running the oil from the bearing. The diagonal grooving should be
avoided. Grooves should be cut shallow, with the bevelled edges to permit free
entrance of oil between the journal and bearing.

9-7. Heating of bearings:

Power lost in friction in the bearing is converted to heat
and must be radiated from the housing without producing exce-
ssive temperatures. If the temperature of the bearing increases,
the viscosity of the oil decreases as a result the oil squeezes out
and the bearing may seize.
Heat generated at the bearing per minute is given by
H1 = tod1V kg metre (i)
where V is rubbing velocity in metre/minute.
Heat radiated by the bearing depends on the form of the
radiating surface, on the temperature difference, on mass of
the bearing and on the amount of air flowing. However, for the
convenience in bearing design, heat radiating capacity of the
bearing is expressed in terms of the projected area of the journal.
Thus the equation for the radiated heat becomes
H2 = Cld (ta — tb) kg metre/minute (ii)
where to = temperature of bearing surface, degree C
tb = temperature of surrounding air, degree C
C = heat-dissipation coefficient in kg metre/minute/sq
cm of projected bearing area per degree C.
The values of C have been determined experimentally by
0. Lasche. The values depend on temperature difference, venti-
lation of the bearing and the type of the bearing.
If the bearing conditions are such that the work of friction
is high, artificial cooling should be provided. The two common
ways of artificial cooling of the bearings are, first, by circulating
an excess of lubricating oil to the bearing and second by water
cooling of the bearing shell.
The maximum temperature allowable for a bearing depends
on the lubricant used but should never be allowed to exceed 60°C.
Art. 9-9] BEARINGS 457

9-8. Design procedure for journal bearing:

The mechanical design of the bearing includes

(i) Determination of the diameter, length and clearance
of a bearing
(ii) Selection of a suitable bearing material
(iii) Provision for sufficient lubrication and prevention of
excessive oil leakage
(iv) Dissipation of heat generated by friction
(v) Sufficient strength and rigidity of shells, caps and bolts
(vi) Small wear and provision for taking it up in large
bearings
(vii) Preservation of proper shaft alignment.
The following procedure is adopted for the design of journal
bearing:
(i) The diameter of the journal is determined either from
considerations of strength or stiffness.
(ii) The bearing length is determined by choosing a ratio
from table 9-5.1.
(iii) The bearing pressure is checked for the probable satis-
factory value.
(iv) By equating heat generated at the be wing to heat
dissipated from it, it is determined whether artificial cooling is
necessary or not.
Sometimes the dimensions of the bearing are determined
/
directly from the load, allowable bearing pressure and ratio.
d
The strength and stiffness of the bearing, bearing cap and
housing should also be considered. It is ,important that deflec-
tions should be within permissible limits. (Refer art. 9-10.) This
is very important in cases where the shafts carry gears whose
teeth Must be kept accurately in mesh. This is especially true
for the mountings of bevel gear trains.

9-9. Bearing materials:

Table 9-9.1 gives a quick round up of materials and. their
characteristics, limitations and applications:
458 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX
Table 9-9.1

Materials Characteristics Limits Applications

Wood (maple Self lubricating, Light loads at Conveyors

lignum vital) low cost, long life high speed,
under 65°C

Cast iron Low friction, low Not over 35 kg/sq Cam shafts,
cost develops high cm and 40 light transmission
glaze metre/minute

Steel Low cost Light loads, 45 Guides

metre/minute

Bronze bushing Low cost, simple Loads upto 200 All equipments
construction kg/sq cm, shaft
speeds upto 270
metre/minute

Heavy babbit Long life, low Steady loads Motor, and turbine
liner on steel or friction, must have under 70 kg/sq cm shafting
cast iron good lubricat ion

Light liner on Heavy duty, general About 350 kg/sq Gas and Diesel
steel or bronze purpose, good for cm, and 1,200 engines,
backing dynamic loads metre/minute compressors

Rubber Low friction, About 6 kg/sq Marine propellers,

resists abrasion, cm; needs water pumps, turbines
shock absorbent, lubrication
long life

Carbon graphite No lubrication Under 450°C Electric motors,

needed, light duty 42 kg/sq cm, at metres, conveyors
applications low speeds

Moulded plastic Low friction, About 120 metre Pumps, propellers

laminate stronger than per minute and 175
babbit when water I kg/sq cm; must be
lubricated 1 well cooled
1
Moulded plastic Low friction, clean 1 Low loads if Dairy, textile
used at high and food
1 speeds machinery
I

Sliding bearings have a number of disadvantages including

comparatively high friction losses, great length of the bearing shell,
excessive consumption of lubricants; employment in a number
of cases of scarce materials such as bronze and babbit and necessity
for constant supervision. These disadvantages are nonexistent in the
Art. 9-9] BEARINGS 459

rolling contact bearings where sliding friction (friction of the first

order) is replaced by rolling friction (friction of the second order).
Examples:
1. A bearing 7.5 cm diameter has a shaft speed of 300 r.p.m. and
a lubricating oil of absolute viscosity, Z, of 60 is used. With a bearing
clearance of 0.02 cm and a bearing pressure of 14 kg/sq cm, this oil is
satisfactory in operation. If it is necessary to change the speed to 400
r.p.m., determine the pressure at which the bearing should operate.
If, when designed for a speed of 300 r.p.m. and pressure of 14 kg/sq
cm, the clearance had been made 0.015 cm, what change should be made
in the oil?
For a given clearance ratio, for the satisfactory operation of
the bearing, the bearing characteristic number Z.N. should remain
P
the same for any change in the operating variables.
ZiNi Z2N2
Pi P2
N N
As the same oil is used, Z is equal to Za. Hence - = -!.
p1. Pa
On substitution of values, we have 300
- = 400.
14 p2
p2 = 14 x -zV-
)0
0 = 18.7 kg/sq cm.
When the clearance ratio changes, for the satisfactory opera-
tion of the bearing, ZNI-12 should remain constant.
p Lc
•• ZrNi [AT Z2N2[d212
pi 6., P2 C2
As the speed and the bearing pressure remain the same,
y d1 ]2
1 [6 = K.72[fic12 •
2
On substitution of values, we have
60
r 7.5 12 -
1_0•02j = Z2 [0'015
7.5 2
ro•o15 -12
or Z2 =33.75 centipoise.
= 60 L 0•020.1
2. A journal bearing for a steam turbine is required to support a
radial force of 270 kg. The shaft diameter at the bearing based on other
requirements is 60 mm and the estimated bearing length is 90 mm. The
460 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. IX

speed of rotation is 1,800 r.p.m. Make the necessary decisions and calcu-
lations required to assess the bearing performance if it is to operate in an
ambient temperature of 15°C with a maximum operating temperature of not
more than 80°C. Only the procedure should be outlined to select the
lubricating oil.
We assume an average value for the radial clearance of
0.00075 mm per mm of shaft diameter.
c = 0.00075 x 60 = 0.045 mm.
The minimum oil film thickness required to maintain
hydrodynamic lubrication is a function of the surface finish and
assuming the recommended minimum value of 0.00015 mm per
mm of shaft diameter we have ho = 0.00015 x 60 = 0.009 mm.
The actual value of minimum thickness of oil film will depend
upon a number of factors, such as the magnitude of the external
force, the surface velocity of the rotating shaft, the clearance be-
tween the shaft and the bearing, the length of the bearing, the
properties of the lubricant and temperature of operation.

The eccentricity ratio = 1 — ho

c
= i 0.009
= 0.8.
0.045
Ocvirk has obtained the equation known as load equation in
terms of eccentricity ratio e. The equation as derived by Ocvirk
is as under
(sop \ ( c V (2r y — n2 e(1 + 0.62c2)'/2
k ziv) k r ) k 1 ) (1— e2)2
where r = journal radius
c = radial clearance
p = bearing pressure intensity
1 = bearing length
N --= speed of rotation in r.p.m.
Z ---- absolute viscosity of the lubricant
c = eccentricity ratio.
The left hand side of Ocvirk's equation is known as

Load number which is equal to

(sopy (c )2(2r )2 .
VT r /
For ease of numerical calculations the graph is drawn to read
load number from the eccentricity ratio. For an eccentricity
Art. 9-9] BEARINGS 461

ratio of 0.8, the value of load number will be 28. This represents
the maximum permissible value to give the oil film thickness of
0.009 mm.
( 60p )2( c )2(2r )2
... 28 =
ZN r 1
From the above equation the value of Z can be determined,
and thus the oil to be used is specified.
2 70
p = - - = 5 kg/sq cm, which is well within the accepted
6x9
range of 7 to 18 kg/sq cm. (Refer table 9-5.1.) When the viscosity
of oil is known, the coefficient of friction II can be obtained, by
using McKee equation of art. 9-5.
33 I 2N\ i d \
IL = idij 7)kci + k
where k depends on the ratio of the bearing length to the
/
diameter of the journal. For this problem as = 1.5, the value
d
of k will be 0-002.
The heat generated in the bearing can be calculated by the
equation
H1 = [.[Link] where
1.1. = coefficient of friction
P = load on the bearing
V = rubbing velocity at the bearing.
The heat dissipated in a self contained journal bearing may
be estimated by the application of Lasche equation
14 = Cld (ta — tb)
where to = temperature of bearing surface
tb = temperature of surrounding air
C = heat dissipation coefficient as determined by 0. Lasche
experimentally.
(Refer art. 9-7.)
Now we should select the oil at this stage and carry out a
methodical procedure of solution. When the oil is selected, the
viscosity of oil is known. From the dimensions of the bearing, the
actual value of the load number should be calculated and it
should be less than 28.
462 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. IX

When viscosity is known, the coefficient of friction can be

determined from McKee equation. When coefficient of friction is
known, the heat generated at the bearings can be determined. and
necessity of cooling the bearing can be ascertained.
3. A full journal bearing has the following specifications :
Journal diameter 60 mm
Bearing length 75 mm
Radial load on the bearing 2,500 kg
Radial clearance 0.006 cm.
Speed of rotation 1,450 r.p.m.
Determine the mean viscosity of the lubricating oil in the film if the
minimum film thickness under the operating condition is 0.00125 cm.
0.00125
Eccentricity ratio =, c --,- 1 — = 0.8
0.006
The load carrying capacity of the bearing is given by
p = _____ 12nZV/r2c
__—
c2 V(1 — c2) (2 i_. E2)

where
P = load acting on the bearing in kg
kg sec
z= viscocity of the lubricant in -
cm 2
V = velocity of rubbing in cm/sec
1 --=-, length of the bearing in cm
r = radius of the journal in cm
c — radial clearance in cm.
E _.---_- eccentricity ratio.
Tr X 6
Velocity of rubbing , 60 1450 ---
= 455.6 cm/sec.

On substitution of numerical values we get

12x --ic x Zx455.6x 7.5x32 x0.8
2500 ---- -
(0.006)2 x V1 — 0.82 x (2 + 0.82)
On simplification we get
6 kg sec =
Z = 0.1537 x 10- 0.1537 x 10-2 kg sec
cm2 m2 •
kg sec
1 m2 = 98.1 x 102 centipoise
Z = 0.1537 x 10-2 x 98.1 x 102
= 15.08 centipoise.
Art. 9o9) BEARINGS 463

4. A steam turbine shaft 200 mm diameter turns at 1,800 r.p.m.

and is supported in a journal bearing on which the total load is 9,000 kg.
The room .temperature is 30°C. If the bearing temperature is 60°C, and
allowable bearing pressure 15 kg/sq cm, determine the length of the bearing
and the amount of heat to be removed by the lubricant per minute. Viscosity
of the oil at 60°C is 21 centipoise.
000
Minimum projected area of the bearing necessary = 90 --f-5—
= 600 sq cm.
00
Length of the bearing = 6- = 30 cm.
20
Temperature of the bearing = 60°C.
3 1u---- (Pr
The coefficient of friction = 10
p ) (d + 0.002.
c
We assume d ratio as 0-001.
33 r21 x 1800]
••• x 103 + 0.002 = 0.003
L
P" --= 10i° 15
V = [Link] =- rr x 0.2 x 1800 = 1,130 metre/minute.
Heat generated = H1 = t1,P V = 0.0103 x 9000 x 1130
= 105,000 kg metre/minute.
5. A shaft 20 cm diameter has a speed of 2,600 r.p.m. and runs
in a bearing which has a length 1.2 times the diameter. The bearing
pressure is 8 kg/sq cm and the coefficient of friction at the bearing surface
is 0.006. Calculate the frictional loss in horse power units..: The tempera-
ture of the bearing is controlled by the flow of oil through the bearing. If
the difference between the outlet temperature and that at inlet is 20°C, obtain
the quantity of oil required if the specific heat is 0.46.
Length of the bearing = 1.2 x 20 = 24 cm.
Load on the bearing = 24 x 20 x 8 = 3,840 kg.
V = n x 0.20 x 2600 = 1,633 metre/minute.
Heat generated due to friction in horse power units will be
[Link] 0.006 x 3840 x 1633
equal to .5--O-O = ---.- 84 h.p.
4500
84 x 4500
Heat equivalent of f.h.p. at the bearing =
427
= 88.5 kcal/minute.
Heat generated at the bearing is taken away by the lubricating
oil.
464 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX
If m be the mass of the lubricating oil flowing through the
bearing per minute, then
m x 0.46 x 20 = 88.5
or m = 88.5= 9.65 kg/minute.
0.46 x 20
Exercises:
I. A journal bearing 80 mm long and 60 mm in diameter runs at
450 r.p.m. For hydrodynamic lubrication 60 centipoise oil is used in the
bearing having total clearance of 0.01 cm. Determine the safe load that
it can carry. Ans. 345 kg.
2. Specify the correct oil for a hydrodynamic journal bearing with
the following data:
Diameter of journal 60 mm; length of the journal 80 mm; load on
the journal 480 kg; speed of the journal 600 r.p.m. and bearing charac-
teristic number 500.
Ans. 8.4 centipoise.
3. A bearing for a centrifugal pump has a diameter of 75 mm and
a length of 120 mm. The journal is machined so as to give a radial clear-
ance of 0.0015 cm per cm radius. The journal rotates at 1,440 r.p.m.
and carries a total load of 1,000 kg. Oil is supplied with a viscosity of
30 centipoise at the operating temperature. Determine the coef ficient of
friction, the actual value of the bearing characteristic number and the heat
generated in kcal per minute. Ans. 0.0031; 3,900; 4.9 kcal/minute.
4. A steam turbine rotor is to run at 4,000 r.p.m. and is supported
by bearings having a diameter of 20 cm and a length of 50 cm. The
bearing pressure is limited to 5 kg/sq cm of projected area. Assume the
coefficient of friction as 0.008. Determine the amount of the bearing cool-
ing water required per minute if the rise in temperature of circulating water
is limited to 22°C. Ans. 215 kg.
5. The flow of oil through a bearing is used to control the rise in
temperature. The flow is regulated so that the difference in temperature
between inlet and outlet is 20°C. The bearing diameter is 125 mm and
ratio of length of bearing to diameter is 1.25. The shaft runs at a speed
of 2,500 r.p.m. and bearing pressure is 15 kg/sq cm. Coefficient of
friction between the rubbing surfaces is 0.006. If the specific gravity
ofthe oil is 0.88, obtain the quantity of oil required.
Art. 9-10 ] BEARINGS 465

9-10. Design of bearing caps and bolts:

The cap of bearings should not be subjected to heavy loads;
however, there are cases in which the circumstances are such that
a considerable pressure comes on the top. The cap is generally
regarded as a beam supported by the holding down bolts or screws
and loaded at the centre (fig. 9-9)

h---- i -- 1
i l
Forces acting on a bearing cap
FIG. 9-9
a
Maximum bending moment at the centre = — .
4
Moment of resistance = it b2 f
By equating the bending moment to the moment of resistance,
we get
i /3 Pa
b= (i)
V2 x .7i
When oil holes are provided in the cap, the length will be
the bearing cap length less the diameter of the oil hole.
The cap should also be investigated for the stiffness. For
the cap of a common end journal, good engineering practice limits
the deflection to 0.025 mm. The expression for the thickness of
a cap based upon the formula for the deflection 8 of a simply
suppored beam loaded at the centre is given by
is/ p
b = 0.63 a — (ii)
l8E
The bolts, screws or studs, used for hplding down the cap,
are generally assumed to be subjected to a simple tension and
as a rule each bolt is designed for 33% overload, i.e. for a load
4P
equivalent to — where n equals the number of bolts used for
3n
holding down the cap.
Examples :
1. Each of the main bearings of a triplex pump is 5 cm in diameter
and 10 cm long and sustains a load of 900 kg. The load is directed against
466 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX

the cap. The distance between the centre lines of the bolts on either side
of the cap is 10 cm. The cap is to be made of cast iron having an ultimate
strength of 1,400 kg/sq cm in tension and 7;000 kg/sq cm in compression.
Taking the factor of safety to be 5, determine the thickness of the cap.
The cap is subjected to bending stresses which are' tensile
as well as compressive. As the ultimate strength in tension is less
than that in compression, the tensile strength will be the design
criterion.
Allowable stress = 1 400 = 280 kg/sq cm.
5
With usual notations, the thickness of the cap is given by

b 1 3- -1'-a- .
= 12 fl
On substitution of values, we have
b ..,. 1/3 900 x
10 2.19 cm; we adopt 2.2 cm.
-i x 280 10
X-X
of 4-Bolts B

25 --•• +--162 —4-

.----- R S J.
Mo. 9-10
2. A journal bearing for a 75 mm diameter shaft is shown in
fig. 9-10. The horizontal and vertical reactions at the bearings are
H = 1,000 kg and V = 800 kg. The cap C is fixed by two studs A to the
main body. The bearing is fixed to the vertical R.S.J. by four bolts B.
Art. 9-161 i3gA1kt1siOS 46'7

Calculate the thickness of the cap C and sizes of the studs A and bolts
B. Also, give the inclination of the dividing plane of the journal bearing.
We adopt the following materials for the various parts:
cap — malleable cast iron; stud — mild steel; bolt — mild steel.
The permissible tensile stresses for cap, stud and bolt materials,
will be taken as 350 kg/sq cm.
The dividing plane of the journal bearing is such that the
plane is normal to the direction of the load. The resultant load
is V10002 + 8002 = 1,280 kg and is inclined at an angle of
800
tan—' 1000 =. 38°-48' to the direction of the horizontal component
of the load which is 1,000 kg.
Let us assume the bearing pressure as 15 kg/sq cm.
1280
Minimum bearing area required = 15 = 85.5 sq cm.
85.5
.•. Length of the bearing --,-- ---,--- 11.35 cm; we adopt 12 cm.
7 -5
We design the cap as a beam simply supported at the stud
centre lines and loaded at the centre by a concentrated load of
1,280 kg Another assumption regarding the design of the bearing cap is
that the load is taken as uniformly distributed over the length of the beam,
equal to shaft diameter at the middle portion of the beam. The former
consideration gives a stronger cap and hence we adopt it.
The diameter
diameter of the shaft is 7.5 cm. We adopt the distance
between two studs as 14 cm. Maximum bending moment on the
14
cap = 12$04x = 4,470 kg cm.

The axial length of the cap = 12 cm.

If t be the thickness of the cap, then
4470 = it x 120 x 350
-1/4470 x 6
or 2•52 cm; we adopt 2.7 cm.
t = r if x 350 .--
The studs are usually designed for 33% overload. There are
80
2 studs. Design load on each stud = 4 X 122--- = 855 kg. We
have assumed low value of the working stress to account for the
initial stresses induced in them due to tightening.
468 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. IX
The minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread
855
will be equal to 350 = 245 sq cm.

From table, we adopt M22 stud whose area at the bottom

of the thread is 3.03 sq cm.
Design of bolts B :
Due to the horizontal component of 1,000 kg all the bolts
1000
are subjected to the direct tensile load of —4— = 250 kg. Due
to the vertical component of 800 kg, the bearing will tend to turn
about the line XX where it is connected to R.S. J. and due to this
the bolts will be subjected to tensile loading. The maximum
load will be in bolts situated away from the tilting edge. Let us
assume that a bolt at a unit distance from the edge XX shares the
load W. Equating the tilting moment of the load due to vertical
component to the resisting moment of the bolt, we get
800 x 16.2 = 2 [5W x 5+ 45 W x 45]

or W =800 --x 16.2

=3.16 kg.
2 [25 + 2025]
Maximum load due to tilting on a bolt = 45 x 3.16 = 142 kg.
.•. Maximum total tensile load on a bolt = 250 + 142
= 392 kg.
Bolts are also subjected to vertical shear load of 800 kg which
is shared equally by each bolt.
800
Shear load on each bolt = = 200 kg.
4
2 --I- 4 x 2002
Principal load on the lower bolt = 392 + 1392
2
= 476 kg.
The parallel part of the bolt is subjected to the principal
load, while the threaded part is subjected to the tensile load only.
Minimum area at the bottom of the thread necessary will be
392
equal to = 350 = 1.12 sq cm. We adopt M 16 bolt whose area,
at the bottom of the thread, is 1.57 sq cm.
The area of cross section at the shank of the bolt will be
7C
equal to x 1.62 = 2 sq cm.
4
Art. 9-11] BEARINGS 469

Stress induced at the section where there is a shear load of

476
200 kg, in addition to tensile load of 392 kg = —2— = 238 kg/sq
cm which is less than 350 kg/sq cm. Therefore, the design is safe.
We adopt 4 — M 16 diameter bolts for connecting the bearing
to R.S. J.
Exercises :
I. The crank pin of an automobile crank shaft is 5 cm in diameter
and 5 cm long. The connecting rod cap is to be made of a steel drop forging
having an ultimate tensile strength of 5,250 kg/sq cm. The distance
between the centre lines of the holding down bolts is 7.5 cm. Taking the
factor of safety 4, determine the thickness for the cap necessary to carry a
load of 400 kg. Ans. 1 cm.
2. A bearing cap is subjected to a maximum load of 3,500 kg.
Calculate (a) bearing cap thickness if cap is simply supported between two
bolts at a distance of 20 cm and (b) bolt diameter.
(Gujarat University, 1972)

9-11. Foot step or pivot bearings:

Pivot bearings are used to support the lower ends of vertical
shafts. The simple type of foot step bearing suitable for a slow
running lightly loaded shaft is shown in fig. 9-11. The greatest
wear onIstep bearing occurs at the outer radius where the velocity
of rubbing is maximum. This trouble is partially eliminated by
providing the thrust disc with a hole in the centre. 'Occasionally
wear is distributed by several discs and each disc rotates at a frac-
tion of the speed of the shaft.
If the shaft is not of steel, its end must be fitted with a steel
face. This end is rounded and is supported on a cup shaped disc
fitting in the foot step and prevented from rotating by a steel pin.
The shaft is guided in a gunmetal bush and pressed into a ped-
estal. The bush is prevented from rotating by another pin. The
allowable bearing pressures for the step bearings may be from
3.5 to 17.5 kg/sq cm for rubbing speeds upto 60 metre/minute,
the higher pressures being allowed for lower speeds. For speeds
over 60 metre/minute the pressure should not exceed 7 kg/sq cm.
For slow speeds and intermittent service the bearing pressures
may be taken upto 100 kg/sq cm. The coefficient of friction may
be taken as 0.015.
470 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

The diameter d of the shaft is obtained from bearing pressure

considerations by the equation

d 141)- (i)
=1 7rp
The horse power lost in friction at the bearing can be calcula-
ted. The work of friction appears as heat at the bearing. While
calculating the power lost in friction we assume that there is an uniform
pressure intensity between the bearing surfaces.
18d
4

Foot step bearing

FIG. 9-11

T= _ Pr (ii)
where r is the radius of the shaft.
For annular pivot bearing
T=2 r 8 r8
_ (iii)
S a2 — 2
'2 T
where r2 is the outside radius of the annular and r1 is the inner
radius of the annular.
Art. 9-12] BEARINGS 471

The, heat generated at the bearing is given by

H1 = Ircgd.N. kg metre/minute (iv)
The above equations are modified when a shaft is bored with
a shallow hole at the end.
The step bearing is difficult to lubricate as the oil is being
thrown outward from the centre by a centrifugal force.

9-12. Collar bearings :

Such a bearing is used when it is not practicable to use the
step bearing. The collars are placed, if possible, very close to the
source of the axial thrust in order to relieve the shaft of any
buckling action.
The bearing pressures for multi-collar thrust bearing are lower
than that for pivot bearings. Usually the values of permissible
bearing pressure for pivot bearings are double than that for thrust
bearings that are not water cooled. Kingsbury pivoted thrust
bearings operate satisfactorily with pressures from 20 to 70 kg/sq cm.
The outer diameter of the collar may be made from 1.4 to 1.8
times the diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the collar should
be checked for the shearing action. The collars are either integral
parts of the shaft or rigidly fastened to it.
The number of collars are obtained from the equation
4P
n= (1)
pn(d22 — d12)
where d2 = outside diameter of the collars
d1 = diameter of the shaft.
It is assumed that load is evenly distributed over all collars.
The heat generated at the bearing is given by the equation
d23— 3
H1 = n IIPN( d 2 (11 dt2 ) kg metre/minute.
2
The coefficient of friction of collar bearings may be taken
as 0.04, while due to the presence of a perfect oil film for Kingsbury
bearings, it is fly the friction coefficient in a collar thrust bearing.

Examples:
I. A 10 cm shaft running at 200 r.p.m. is supported on a step
bearing. The bearing area is annular with a 10 cm outside diameter and
472 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX

4 cm inside diameter. The allowable average bearing pressure is to be

taken as 10 kg/sq cm.
(a) What axial load may be supported?
.
(b) Determine the heat generated at the bearing.
P = 7 (102 - 42) 10 = 660 kg.
4
43 — disi
Heat generated at the bearing = I7rp,PAT
42— 42
kg metre/minnute.
We assume 1.). = 0.015. On substitution of values, we get
rc x 0.015 x 660 x 200 F103 — 43
Hi = f x
100 Lico— 42.1
= 462 kg metre/minute.
462
= - = 1.08 kcal/minute.
427
2. A 8 cm shaft has on it an axial load of 3,500 kg which is taken
by collar thrust bearing made up of 7 collars, each with an outside diameter
of 13 cm. The shaft runs at 150 r.p.m. (a) What is the average bearing
pressure? (b) What is the approximate work of friction?
3500
Load per collar = - — -= 500 kg.
7
4 0 32_ 82)) = 82.50 sq cm.
Area per collar = 7'
500
Bearing pressure = 82 = 6.05 kg/sq cm.
.5
We assume the coefficient of friction to be 0-04.
Torque required to overcome friction at the collar bearing
[r23 ri3
= 3 [LP r22 _ ri2 - 3 x 100 x 3500 [66•53— 42 1 = 745 kg cm.
.52 _ 4
745 x 150
H.P. = 1.56.
71620— =
Exercises:
1. A rotary pump has a shaft of 6 cm and is required to sustain a
load, of 500 kg. Taking outside diameter of the collar as 1.5 times the
diameter of the shaft, determine the number of collars required if the
permissible bearing pressure is 3 kg/sq cm. If the maximum speed of the
pump is 1,000 r.p.m., determine the horse power lost in friction. Take
IL = 0.03. How will you determine the thickness of the collar?
Ans. 5 collars; 0.745 h.p.; shear consideration.
Art. 9-13] BEARINGS 473
2. A twin screw ship driven by the turbine has a combined shaft
horse power of 10,000 h.p. Each of the bearing has 12 shoes in contact
with an equal number of collars on the shaft. Calculate the collar
dimensions assuming that 35% of the bearing surface is lost due to opening
in the shoe. Speed of the ship may be taken as 35 km/hour. The propell-
ing efficiency is 80%. Outside diameter of the collar may be taken as 1.5
times inside diameter. The bearing pressure is not to exceed 3 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 66 cm; 44 cm.
3. Discuss the choice of lubricants and lubrication system for journal
bearings.
A foot step collar bearing 15 cm outside diameter and 10 cm inside
diameter carries a load of 910 kg. If the shaft runs at 150 r.p.m., cal-
culate the power lost in friction assuming uniform pressure. 11 = 0.04.
Sketch a suitable bearing. Sketch an alternative arrangement using
ball bearings. Ans. 0.97 h.p.
4. The propeller shaft of a steamer rotating at 100 r.p.m. is subjected
to a torque of 230,000 kg cm and a thrust of 7,000 kg. Design and
prepare a working sketch of a suitable collar thrust bearing. Take the
outside diameter of the thrust collars 1.5 times the diameter of the shaft,
allowable bearing pressure, 3.5 kg/sq cm, allowable stress for the material
of the shaft and collars 400 kg/sq cm tensile, compressive and shear.
Taking the coefficient of friction as 0.01, calculate the h.p. lost in bearing
friction.
5. Make a dimensioned sketch of a footstep bearing of a simple
design proportioning the bearing surface so that the vertical shaft in the
foot step may carry a load of 820 kg while running at a speed of 100
r.p.m. Allow a maximum bearing pressure of 17.5 kg/sq cm. If the
codfcient of friction be 0.05, calculate the power lost in friction at the
bearing. Indicate clearly on your sketch the provisions made for lubrication
and state what lubricants may be used for the purpose.

9-13. Anti-friction bearings:

Ball and roller bearings are known as [Link] bearings
and possess certain advantages over journal bearings. The actual
bearing friction is less than that in sliding bearings, and, since it is
principally rolling friction, results in little danger of abrasion to
machines that are frequently started and stopped under load.
Rolling bearings will maintain accurate alignment of parts for a
474 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. IX

long period, can carry heavy overload for a short time without
failure and requires no attendance. Ball bearings occupy very
little axial space The disadvantages of these bearings are relati-
vely high initial cost, large diameter and extreme care in manu-
facture.

9-14. Radial ball bearings:

Fig. 9-12 shows a single-row radial ball bearing. The main
constituents of a ball bearing are :
(a) the outer race which fits in the frame of the machine
(b) the inner race which fits on the shaft
(c) balls
(d) the cage or retainer which keeps the balls properly spaced
about the periphery.
The contour of the raceway is grooved as shown in figure 9-12 A flat contour
is also possible but the grooved raceway has the following ad% antages
(a) The balls aie retained in the belring and the race is not likely to be
distorted by the applied load
(b) Higher loads can be sustained
(c) Considerable end tin us t can be cat rit d
Though the single row beating of fig. 9-12 is primarily intended for radial
loads, it has a thrust capacity equivalent to 75% of its rated radial loads The
hrust capacity can be increased by employing bearings with deeper and closely
fitting grooves.

Width 4-
/
I
ci
is.
...
43, CC

o
0
i

Single row radial Self aligning, spherical

ball bearing seated ball thrust bearing
he. 9-12 FIG. 9-13
Art. 92151 BEARINGS 475

Double row ball bearings have two independent rows of balls in single inner
and outer rows and have approximately twice the load capacity of the single row
ball bearing. It can also sustain two directional thrust loads.
To compensate for a small degree of misalignment in erection and in installa-
tion and to permit some degree of deflection of the inner race, self aligning ball
bearings are used. In such bearings the inner surface of the outer race is spherical.
In order to maintain accurate alignment of the shaft, pre-loaded ball bearings
are used, which are placed under an initial load that is independent of the working
load. Pre-loading tends to reduce the axial deflection under working loads.
Pre-loaded ball bearings are used in precision equipments and for machine tool
spindles.
Radial ball bearings are made in three series—light, medium and heavy.
Light series ball bearings permit the smallest bearing width and outer diameter
for a given bore size and they are used for moderate loads. Medium series bear-
ings have load carrying capacity upto 40% greater than light series bearings of
the same bore, but occupy more axial and radial space on the shaft and in the
frame. Heavy series bearings have a load carrying capacity of from 20 to 30%
greater than medium series bearings. Wherever possible single row ball bearings
are preferred as it is difficult to secure an even distribution of load.
Rolling bearings should be protected from rust and dust. Rust may be
prevented by packing the bearing in grease or submerging it in oil. Dust may
be kept out by placing felt washers where the shaft passes through the housing.
Most manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two
digits are multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimetres. (This is
valid for the digits from 04 onwards). The digit in the third place from the right
indicates the series number. Thus bearing 308 signifies a medium series bearing
of 40 mm bore. Additional digits, which may be present in the catalogue number
of a bearing refer to manufacturer's details. The 200 series is called light, the
300 medium and the 400 heavy. 07

9-15. Roller bearings:

These bearings develop more friction but have a greater load capacity. The
cylindrical roller bearings are also manufactured in three series. Generally
the diameters and lengths of the rollers are equal. Needle bearings operate
without a cage and their diameter is very small in comparison with their length.
They arc used for piston pin bearings in large I.G. engines and for gear mounting
in transmission units. Bearings with tapered roller& are used for machine tool
and automotive applications. Such bearings permit the carrying of large uni-
directional end thrust, which cannot be taken with bearings having cylindrical
rollers. The apex angle of the roller must be less than the angle of repose for
lubricated steel on steel in order to prevent severe end thrust being set up by the
radial load. The usual angle of apex is 6° to 7°.
Ball and straight roller bearings may be used singly if desired. Due to the
end thrust developed by the radial load acting on them, tapered roller bearings
arc used in pairs. These bearings are so arranged that the cones point in opposite
directions.
476 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

Ball and roller bearings for thrust load only are used to some extent in machine
tools in combination with radial sliding bearings. Fig. 9-13 shows a self aligning,
spherical seated ball thrust bearing which is used for usual thrust applications
the most common being the crane hook swivels.

9-16. Selection of Ball and Roller bearings:

The factors influencing the selection of bearings are so numer-
ous that it is scarcely possible to lay down general rules. Never-
theless, the following main points may be of value.
For small bearing applications ball bearings are generally
used. The carrying capacity of small ball bearings is not much
less than that of small roller bearings of the same size, and they
require less maintenance than roller bearings.
For large heavily, loaded bearing positions, only roller bearings
should be used. Roller bearings are also preferable in the case of
small bearing arrangements, if the load is relatively heavy and
bearings are liable to be shock-loaded.
For bearing arrangements in which relatively heavy thrust
loads have to be carried by a radial bearing, deep groove ball
bearings frequently offer the best solution, especially in the case
of high speeds. Other types of radial bearings are also suitable
for carrying fairly heavy thrust loads. These types include
angular contact ball bearings, spherical roller bearings and taper
roller bearings.
If the shaft and bearing housing are not truly in line, self-
aligning ball bearings or spherical roller bearings are to be preferred,
because of their capacity for self-alignment.
Cylindrical roller bearings of the most common design, with
one flangeless separable ring, cannot carry thrust loads. They
permit displacement of the shaft within certain limits, which is
often necessary.
Thrust ball bearings are intended only for carrying thrust
loads. They cannot carry radial loads.
Spherical roller thrust bearings can carry not only considerable
thrust loads, but considerable radial loads.
Special requirements, for example that the elastic deformation
of a bearing assembly in a machine tool should be within certain
fixed limits under a fluctuating load, or that the bearings in a
Art. 9-17 ] BEARINGS .. 477

machine should not prevent other components from being dis-

mounted quickly and easily, can be satisfied by selecting suitable
bearings and designing the assembly carefully.
The size of a bearing required is determined by the magnitude
and nature of the applied loads, and the requirements as regards
life and reliability.

9-17. Bearing load :

Only in exceptional cases can the loads acting on a bearing be
determined by a simple calculations. As a rule the bearing load is
composed of the weights involved, forces derived from the power transmitted,
and additional forces, dynamic and otherwise, whose magnitude depends on
certain factors such as the method of operation of the machine. When
determining the magnitude of these additional forces it is necessary,
as a rule to draw on past experience.

(a) Calculations of a bearing load in gear drives:

The theoretical tooth load in a gear can be calculated on the
basis of the power transmitted. When calculating the bearing
loads, however, it is necessary also to take into account the addi-
tional forces that emanate partly in the gearing itself and partly
in the mechanisms between which the gearing functions. Of
these additional forces, those in the gearing originate from errors
in the tooth pitch and form, eccentricity, unequal distribution of the
tooth load, etc. The other forces referred to depend upon the
type and mode of operation of the mechanisms coupled to the
gearing.
The tooth load, which forms the basis of the bearing calcula-
tion, is obtained from the following equation:
Kali = fk. fd. K (i)
where
K = the theoretical tooth load
fk = a factor for the additional forces created in the gearing
itself
fd = a factor for the additional forces emanating from the
mechanisms coupled to the gearing.
For the coefficient fk, the following values can be used:
Precision gears fk = 1.05 1.1
Commercial gears fk = 1.1 1.3
478 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX

It is more difficult to determine the factor fd; it depends not

only on the prime mover, but also on the driven machine. It can
be assumed, however, that for shock-free rotary machines, e.g.
electric machines and turbo-compressors,fd = 1-1.2; for recipro-
cating engines, according to the degree of balance, fd = 1.2-1-5,
and for machinery subjected to heavy shock loading, such as
rolling mills, fd = 1.5-3.
(b) Calculations of a bearing load in belt drives:
To obtain the shaft load due to a belt drive, the effective belt
pull must be multiplied by a factor 1, the value of which depends
upon the kind of belt used and its initial tension. Suitable values
of the factor f are given in table 9-17.1. When the distance
between the shafts is short or the peripheral speed low, or the
working conditions exacting, the higher values are used.
Table 9-17.1
-_ -
I ype of Belt f
— — _
Vee-belts 2—25
Single leather belts with jockey pulleys 25—3
Single leather belts; balata belts, rubber belts 14—5
•
9-18. Equivalent Bearing Load:
The basic dynamic capacity C which is dealt with on sub-
sequent pages applies to certain definite working conditions.
It is assumed that the load has a constant value during the life of the bearing.
In the case of radial bearings zt zs also assumed that the load is purely radial.
In the case of thrust bearzngr the basic dynamic capacity refers to a purely
axial, centrally-acting load.
It is, therefore, necessary to convert the actual forces acting on
the bearing to a hypothetical load fulfilling the conditions applying
to the basic dynamic capacity, and having the same influence
on the life of the bearing as the loads actually imposed. This
hypothetical load is called the equivalent bearing load.
(a) Combined Bearing Load:
The load on a radial bearing is often composed of axial as
well as radial forces. In such cases the equivalent bearing load
is obtained from the following equation:
Art. 9-18] HEARINGS 479

P = XFr + .27a (i)

where P = the equivalent bearing load
Fr = the actual constant radial load
Fa = the actual constant thrust load
X = radial factor of bearing
I = thrust factor of bearing.
The factors X and I are given in Tables 9-18.2 and 9-18.3.
These tables refer to Ball bearing and Roller bearings respectively.
From a close inspection of these tables the following points can
be observed :
(i) In case of a pure radial load, Fa -= 0 and hence P = Fr.
(ii) A thrust load does not influence the equivalent load in
Fa
the case of single row bearings until the ratio exceeds
Fr
a certain value. In the case of double row bearings,
however, even small thrust forces have an influence
on the equivalent load.
(iii) The load distribution in single row angular contact ball
bearings needs special attention, since a radial load
imposed on such a bearing gives rise to an axial load
which must often be included in the calculation. These
types of bearings are usually fitted in pairs, and the
magnitude of the thrust load is, therefore, dependent
upon the adjustment of the bearings. ..The average
value of this thrust load is n.,.. This thrust load will be
in addition to the actual thrust load acting on it.
(iv) Thrust ball bearings can not carry radial loads.
(v) Spherical roller thrust bearings differ from thrust ball
bearings in that they can carry radial loads which must,
however, never exceed 55% of the simultaneously acting
thrust load.
If a spherical roller thrust bearing is required to carry a com-
bined load, the equivalent thrust load is obtained from
,
P= Fa + 1 .2Fr (ii)
The equation (i) can be modified to take into account the
effects of race rotation and service factor, which cares for any
shock and impact conditions to which the bearing may be subjected.
480 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. IX

P = C1 (V X Fr + YFa) (111)
where V -,--- race rotation factor, equal to unity for inner ring
rotation and 1.2 for outer ring rotation
Values to be used for C1 depend on the judgement and
experience of the designer, but the table 9-18.1 may serve as a
guide.
Table 9-18.1
Shock and Impact factors

Type of load C1

Constant or steady 10
Light shocks 15
Moderate shocks 20
Heavy shocks 25
Extreme shocks 30

Table 9-18.2
Ball Bearings
In the case of a radial and a thrust load acting simultaneously on a radial
bearing, the equivalent bearing load P is obtained from the equation
P = XFr + TFa
where Fr = the actual constant radial load
Fa = the actual constant thrust load
X and T = factors as shown in the table below
Single row ball bearings

Fa 1)
t> e
Fr
Bearing type e
x 1 r
Fa 0 35 2 0 32
= 0 04
Deep groove ball Co
bearings, series
EL, R 60, 62,
63, 64, RLS, = 0 08 0 35 18 0.36
RMS, EE --= 0 12 0 34 16 041
= 0 25 0 33 14 0 48
= 04 0 31 12 0.57

Angular contact Series 72 B, 73 B 0 23 0 57 1 35

ball bearings Series ALS, AMS 0 27 0 76 096

(1) lf F
—a e, P = Fr
Fr
Art. 9-18 j ligARINGg 481

Double row ball bearings

Fa e Fa
Bearing type Fr FT > e
--
x r X r
... _. ..._
135, 126, 127 1 143 0.65 2.8 0.34
108, 129 1.8 2.8 0.34
1200-1203 2 3.1 0.31
04- 05 2•3 3.6 0.27
6- 07 2.7 4.2 0.23
08- 09 1 2.9 0.65 4.5 0.21
10- 12 3.4 5.2 0.19
13- 22 3.6 5.6 0.17
24- 30 3.3 5 0.2
2200-2204 1.3 2 0.5
05- 07 1.7 2.6 0.37
08- 09 1 2 0.65 3.1 0.31
10- 13 2.3 3.5 0.28
14- 20 2.4 3.8 0.26
21- 22 2.3 3.5 0.28
1300-1303 1.8 2.8 0.34
04- 05 1 2.2 0.65 3.4 0.29
Self-aligning 06- 09 2.5 3.9 0.25
ball bearings 10- 22 2.8 4.3 0.23
2301 1 1.6 0.63
2302-2304 1 1.2 0.65 1.9 0.52
05- 10 1.5 2.3 0.43
11- 18 1.6 2.5 0.39
RL 4-RL 6 2.1 3.3 0.29
7- 8 2.3 3.6 0.27
9- 11 2.7 4.2 0.23
12- 14 1 2.9 0.65 4.5 0.21
15- 18 3.4 5.2 0.19
20- 36 3.6 5.6 0.17
38- 52 4.2 6.5 0.15
RM 3-RM 6 1.8 2.8 0.34
7- 10 2.1 • 3.3 0.29
11- 14 1 2.4 0.65 3.8 0.26
15- 18 2.7 4.2 0.23
20- 48 2.9 4.5 0.21

Angular contact ball bearings. 1 0.6 0.42 1.16 1

• series 32, 33

These values refer to the bearings manufactured by S.K.F. Ball bearing

company.
 482 MACHINE DEMON f Ch. IX

Table 9-18.3
Roller Bearings
In the case of a radial and a thrust load acting simultaneously on a radial
bearing, the equivalent bearing load P is obtained from the equation
P = XFr + rFa
where Fr = the actual constant radial load
Fa = the actual constant thrust load
X and r= factors as shown in the table below.
Taper roller bearings
Fa 1)
Fr )e
Bearing No. e
--di -- r
30203-30204 1.75 0.34
05- 08 0.4 1.6 0.37
09- 22 1.45 041
24- 30 1.35 0.44
32206-32208 1.6 0.37
09- 22 0.4 1.45 041
24 1.35 0.44
30302-30303 2.1 0.28
04- 07 0.4 1.95 0.31
08- 24 1.75 0.34
31305-31318 04 0.73 0.32
32304-32307 1.95 0.31
08- 24 04 1.75 0.34

1) If fa 5.e, P = Fr
Fr
Spherical roller bearings
i Fa „ Fa
Bearing No. Fr -- - e P77 e e
X T x r
23024 -23088 2.7 4 0.25
92 -230/500 1 2.9 0.67 4.4 0.23
23120C -23128C 2.4 3.6 0.28
30C - 84CA 1 2.3 0.67 3.5 0.29
22205 -22207 2.5 3.7 0.27
08 - 09 2.9 4.4 0.23
10 - 15 1 3.4 0.67 5 0.2
16 - 20 2.6 3.9 0.26
22 - 64 24 3.6 0.28

These values refer to the bearings manufactured by S.K.F. Ball bearing

company.
Art. 9-18] BEARINGS 483

(b) Design for variable loading:

Ball bearings frequently operate under conditions of variable
load and speed. Design calculations should take into account all
portions of the work cycle and should not be based solely on the
most severe operating conditions.
The work cycle should be divided into a number of portions
in each of which the operating conditions can be taken as constant.
An approximate value of the constant mean load having the
same influence on the life of the bearing as the fluctuating load,
is obtained from
F23.1V2 -rF33.1%/3
Fm = (iv)
where F1 = the constant load during N1 revolutions
F2 = the constant load during N2 revolutions
F3 = the constant load during N3 revolutions
N = N1 + N2 + N3 . . . -= the total number of revolutions
during which the loads F1, F2, F3, . . act.
Instead of revolutions, the time can also be taken.
If the bearing speed and direction of loading are constant,
and the load fluctuates more or less linearly over a certain period,
the mean load for this period is obtained from the formula
Fmin 2Ftriax
Fm - --- - - (v)
3

where Fmin is the minimum and Fmax the maximum value

between which the load fluctuates.
If the loads are variable,

11/ f F3dN
Fm (vi)
Ln
where F = the load at any arbitrary number of revolutions
N = variable number of revolutions
Ln = life in revolutions, for the mean cubic load Fm.
If the speed of rotation is constant, the load varying with time,
1T
F3 dt
-1/ Fist
Fp, = - = o (vii)
where F = the force at any instant of time t
T = time for one cycle of the load variation.
484 MACH/NE toESION [ Ch. IX

Generally, a loading diagram can be resolved into a stepped

line, and the mean load for each sector can be determined with
the aid of equation (v). The desired mean load for the whole
load period can then be obtained from equation (iv).
If the fluctuating load acts in the direction to which the basic
dynamic capacity of the bearing applies—i.e radially on a radial
bearing, and axially on a thrust bearing—the equivalent bearing
load P is equal to the mean load Fm. If the bearing load acts in a
different direction, the equivalent load is calculated from equations
(ii) and (iii) where Fr is the radial and Fa is the axial component of
the mean load Fm.
When the load fluctuates in a more complicated manner
as, for instance, when shock loads occur, the calculation should
be referred to manufacturers unless the designer himself has had
practical experience of similar cases.

9-19. Carrying Capacity and Life:

The term "life" as applied to a particular bearing means the
number of revolutions (or number of working hours at a given,
constant speed) which the bearing can complete before fatigue is
evident on one of its rings or rolling elements. Material fatigue is
the only cause of bearing failure that cannot be avoided. In-
correct mounting, carelessness, inadequate or unsuitable lubrica-
tion, unsatisfactory sealing, incorrect fits, etc., may render the
bearing unserviceable after a working life that cannot be calculated
beforehand, but these causes of bearing failure can generally be
avoided by taking suitable precautionary measures.
Experience has shown that individual bearings of the same
design and material have different lives, even when working under
identical conditions. For calculation of bearing size, however, the
term "life" must be clearly defined.
In order that the requirements as regards reliability and low
initial cost may be suitably balanced, information on carrying
capacity appearing in catalogues is based on the life attained or
exceeded by 90% of all bearings. This is called "the nominal
life". For the majority of bearings the actual life is therefore
considerably longer than the nominal; for half of the bearings it
is more than five times as long.
Art. 9-20] BEARINGS 485

The definition of rating life is based upon a 10% failure rate

or a 90% survival rate. Manufacturers' catalogues list the bearing
capacities to be compatible with this definition. There are many
applications in which the likelihood of failure or catalogue survival
rate can not be tolerated. Such applications are manned space
vehicles, medical and hospital equipment, nuclear power plant
control, and so on. Therefore the manufacturers have recognised
the need for providing reliability adjustment factors and such
factors have been published for both ball and roller bearings.
Such factors are restricted to reliabilities no greater than 99%.
The basic dynamic capacity ratings are predicted on the use
of steel with a specific procedure of manufacture with a minimum
through hardness of 58 Rockwell C. Use of better steels, higher
quality forming methods, improved control of heat treatment
and overall manufacturing techniques have resulted in life in-
creases of 3 to 8 times.
The bearing life can be significantly affected by application
conditions such as lubrication, load distribution (including the
effects of clearance, misalignment, housing and shaft stiffness,
type of loading, and thermal gradients), and temperature. The
bearing manufacturers supply the life factors to consider the effect
of load and temperature.
For all bearings listed in manufacturers' catalogue the basic
dynamic capacity C is given. This is the constant load under the
influence of which the bearing will attain a calculated life«-of one million
revolutions. In the case of radial bearings the basic capacity refers to pure
radial load and in the case of thrust bearings to a centrally—acting, pure
thrust load.
9-20. Relationship between Load and Life:
The relationship between the basic dynamic capacity of a
bearing, the bearing load and life is expressed by
L = ( C l or C
— = Li/P (i)
i' P
In this equation of the life formula,
L = the nominal life in millions of revolutions
C = basic dynamic capacity,
P = the equivalent bearing load,
C
= loading ratio.
P
486 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

A large number of life tests and a great deal of theoretical

research have been necessary to determine the value of exponent p
in the life formula. The most suitable values for practical use are
p = 3 for ball bearings and P = --s°- for roller bearings.

For bearings operating at a constant speed, as is usually the

case, it is however, simpler to work with a life expressed in
working hours.

9-21. Requisite Bearing Life for Different Types of Machines:

When the size of bearing necessary for a particular machine
is to be ascertained, difficulty is often experienced in deciding the
bearing life to be aimed at. In such cases experience must be
used as a guide. Values that can be regarded as normal are given
in table 9-21.1.

Table 9-21.1

Life in
Class of machine working hours
Lh

Instruments and apparatus that are used only seldom:

Demonstration apparatus; mechanisms for
operating sliding doors 500
Aircraft engine; 1000 —2000
Machines used for short periods or intermittently and whose
breakdown would not have serious consequences:
Hand tools; lifting tackle in workshops; hand-operated
machines such as agricultural machines; cranes in
erection shops, domestic machines 4000 —8000
Machines working intermittently and whose breakdown would
have serious consequences:
Auxiliary machinery in power stations; conveyor
plant for flow production; lifts; cranes for
piece good; machine tools used infrequently 8000— 12000
Machines for use 8 hours per day and not always fully utilized:
Stationary electric motors; general-purpose gear units 12000 —20000
Machines for use 8 hours per day and fully utilized.
Machines for the engineering industry such as cranes
for bulk goods; ventilating fans; countershafts 20000 —30000
Art. 9-22] BEARINGS 487
Machines for continuous use 24 hours per day
Separators; compressors; pumps; mine hoists;
stationary electric machines; machines in continuous
operation on board naval vessels 40000 —60000
Machines required to work with a high degree of
reliability 24 hours per day:
Pulp and paper making machinery; public power plants;
mine pumps; waterworks; machines in continuous
operation on board merchant ships 100000 — 200000

9-22. Life of Timken Bearings:

In case of Timken bearing the scheme is to find the load for
a speed of 500 r.p.m. and a life of 3,000 hours which will be equi-
valent to the actual load at the given speed and desired hours
of life. In addition to speed factor and life factor we apply a third
factor called the application factor to allow for the special condi-
tions met with in the service to which the bearing under considera-
tions is to be applied.
Required rating at 500 r.p.m. will be equal to
calculated load x life factor X application factor
speed factor (i)
3
Life factor for Timken bearing = (hours
-- of lifer-
11.05
6.46
Speed factor for Timken bearing = — - .
(speedy" ill•
Calculated load = 0.66 x actual radial load + KT X thrust
load (ii)
radial rating = ,
where KT = — L •J for standard Timken bearing
tnrust rating
and 0.75 for steep angle bearings where thrust load exceeds
radial load.
If the calculated load comes out to be less than the actual
radial load, we take the actual radial load in using equation (i).
Since Timken bearings must be used in pairs, any difference
in the load on the two bearings of the pair causes an unbalanced
thrust to act on the lightly loaded Timken bearing of the pair.
When we calculate the radial load capacity of the bearing, this
unbalanced thrust should be taken into consideration. As the
rollers are conical in form, a certain portion of the radial load
on Timken bearings is converted into thrust which is taken by the
488 MACHINE DESIGN E Ch. IX

other members of the pair; as a result additional radial load must

be added to the radial load due to external forces.
If a bearing A carries a radial load P, the magnitude of thrust
0.34 x P
on bearing B due to radial load P = - p.. — - . Calculated
IL TA
radial load on bearing B = 0.66 x radial load on bearing
B + KTB (thrust on bearing B due to radial load P ± external
thrust).

9-23. Influence of High temperatures on load carrying

capacity:
If the hardness of the material is reduced as a result of high
temperature, the load carrying capacity of the bearings is affected
since this depends on the properties of the material. It must be
remembered that once the load carrying capacity has been decreased,
the decrease is permanent since the material does not gain its original
hardness when the temperature returns to normal.

9-24. Friction in rolling bearings:

The resistance to motion of these bearings is a combination
of rolling resistance and sliding resistance. Tests are generally
designed to measure the total frictional torque Tf and a coefficient
of friction is calculated from the equivalent frictional force at the
Tf
bore diameter (Ff = ) divided by the total bearing load
(radially loaded). This plan makes these coefficients of friction
comparable with those for sleeve or journal bearing.
For the rolling bearings the coefficient of friction is greater at
start up than at operating speed, it decreases sharply with increasing
load to a point and soon tends to become constant—except tht deep
groove ball bearing, which seems to have a minimum value at some
load.
It should be observed that rolling bearings do not necessarily have
a lower coefficient of friction than full film sleeve bearings.

9-25. Comparison of sleeve and rolling bearings:

For sleeve bearings with full film lubrication, the speed is
limited by the temperature rise (which in turn is a function of the
lubricant), the starting friction is high, the damping is relatively
Art. 9-25] BEARINGS 489

good, the large amounts of lubricant are needed, noise is no pro-

blem, their life is unlimited. For rolling bearings, the speed is
limited largely by dynamic consideration, the starting friction is
low, the damping effect is poor, very small amount of lubricant
is needed except where lubricant carries away heat, noise may be
objectionable, and their life is limited.
Sleeve bearings tolerate more misalignment than rolling bear-
ings, they occupy less radial but more axial space than rolling
bearings and are likely to be cheaper in quantity.
Some of the advantages of plain bearings are as under:
First cost is usually lower.
Less radial space is required.
Better suited to overload and shock conditions
Quieter operation even after wear has taken place.
Less difficulty with fatigue
Less easily injured by foreign matter.

Some of the advantages of ball bearings are as under:

Starting friction is low.
Loads can be inclined at any angle in the transverse plane.
Thrust components can be carried.
Maintenance costs are low.
Easily replaceable when worn out
Less axial space is required than for journal bearings.

Examples :
1. A 306 radial ball bearing with inner ring rotation has a 10 seconds
work cycle as follows :
For 2 seconds For 8 seconds
Fr = 400 kg Fr = 300 kg
Fa = 200 kg Fa = 0 .
Speed = 900 r.p.m. Speed = 1,200 r.p.m.
Light shock Steady load
If the basic dynamic capacity of the bearing is 2,425 kg, determine the
expected average life of this bearing.
Take X = 0.56 and T = 1.43.
As the bearing belongs to a group of 300 series, it is a medium
bearing hiving bore equal to 5 x 6 = 30 mm.
490 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch IX

The equivalent radial load on the bearing is given by

Pe = C1 [XVFr + rFa ]
where C1 = service factor
X = radial factor
Fr =--- radial component of load
r = axial factor or thrust factor
Fa = axial compor,ient of load
V = race rotation factor.
Race rotation factor applies to radial component of load and
its value is equal to unity for inner ring rotation.
For a rotating shaft, relative rotation between shaft and
bearing is usually prevented by mounting the inner ring with a
press fit and securing it with a nut threaded on the shaft.
For 2 seconds :
As the load is applied with a light shock, the service factor is
1.5. As the inner ring rotates, race rotation factor is unity.
Pe = 1.5 [0.56 x 1 x 400 + 143 x 200] = 765 kg.
2 x 900_30.
Number of revolutions
60
For 8 seconds :
As the load is steady, service factor is 1. Race rotation factor
is also unity.
Pa = 300 kg.
8 x 1 200
Number of revolutions = — -- = 160
60
-)--< 30 ± 3003 x 160
Mean constant load = -
Is 190
-- 455 kg.
19
Average r.p.m. of the cycle = 100 x 60
= 1,140 r.p.m.
5
Rating life = 24452-63 3 x 106 revolutions
= 152.6 x 106 revolutions.
As the average life of the bearing is 5 times the rated life,
expected average life is 5 x 152.6 x 106 = 763 x 106 revolutions.
763 x 106
Life in hours = — 11,200 hours
1140 x 60 =
Art. 9-25) BEARINGS 491

2. Select the type of bearing suitable for 50 mm diameter shaft that

rotates uniformly and steadily at 1,500 r.p.m. Due to a bevel gear mounted
on the shaft, the bearing will have to withstand a 450 kg radial load and a
160 kg thrust load. Without any restriction as to type of bearing select
one that is satisfactory for a rating life of at least 22,500 hours.
As the thrust load is greater than 20% of the radial load,
we can eliminate the possibility of using a straight roller bearing.
We can also eliminate from consideration the tapered roller
bearing as this type of bearing is primarily used for applications
where there is high thrust load and a moderately high radial load.
We will, therefore, consider using one of the following types of
bearings:
(i) Single row deep groove bearing
(ii) Single row spherical roller bearing
(iii) Double row spherical roller bearing.
After selecting the type of bearing, we compare the bearing
of each type, having a bore of 50 mm, by calculating, the equi-
valent radial load with the help of the tables of manufacturers in
a manner similar to one explained in the previous illustrative
example.
From the detailed calculations it will be observed that the
single row deep groove ball bearing and the double row spherical
roller bearing of the dimension series 22 will not 1,atisfy the life
requirement of 22,500 hours. Therefore they are eliminated from
consideration. However the double row spherical roller bearing
of the dimension series 23 will satisfy the life requirement. In
addition single row spherical roller bearing will satisfy the life
requirement.
Double row spherical bearing is more expensive than the
single row spherical roller bearing. The,refore our choice will
be the single row spherical bearing.
3. What change in the loading of a ball bearing will cause the
expected life to be doubled?
As the life is to be doubled, the load will be reduced and as the
life is found to be inversely proportional to the cube of the load,
we have
NIP? = N2PI3
492 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

where N1 = old life,

N2 = new life,
P1 = old load,
P2 = new load.
As the life is doubled, we have N2 = 2N1
•.• NIP? = 2.M.P23
Pi
Or P2 = — = 0.794P1.
42
Hence a reduction of the load to 79.4% of its former value will
cause a doubling of the expected life.
4. What specific dynamic capacity is necessary for a desired life of
10,000 hours (for 90% of the bearing) for a speed of 500 r.p.m. and a
radial load of 300 kg?
Desired life in revolutions = 10000 x 60 x 500
= 3 x 107 revolutions.
Hence the nominal life in millions of revolutions will be
=.-3 —
x 107 30.
=
10°
Loading ratio -= 301 = 3.1072.
Dynamic capacity = 300 x 3.1072 = 932 kg.
5. Determine the basic static load rating of a single row deep groove
ball bearing series 208 with 9 balls having a diameter of 12 mm.
Permanent deformations appear in balls and raceways under
static load of moderate magnitude and increase gradually with
increasing load. The permissible static load is, therefore, depen-
dent upon the permissible magnitude of permanent deformation.
Experience shows that a total permanent deformation of 0.0001
of the ball diameter, occuring at the most heavily loaded ball and
race contact, can be tolerated in most bearing applications without
impairment of bearing operation. Hence the basic static load rating,
is defined as that static load which corresponds to a total permanent deformation
of ball and race at the most heavily stressed contact of 0.0001 of the ball
diameter.
The magnitude of the basic static load rating Co is given by
Co -= fo i Z D2 cosa kg
where i = number of rows in any one bearing,
Z = number of balls per row,
D = ball diameter in mm,
Art. 9-251 BEARINGS 493

a = nominal angle of contact (the nominal angle between

the line of action of the ball load and a plane perpendi-
cular to the bearing axis), and
fo = constant and its value is 0.34 for self aligning ball
bearings and 1.25 for radial and angular contact groove
ball bearings.
On substitution of numerical values in the above equation
we get
Co ---= 1.25 x 1 x 9 x 122 x cos 0° = 1,620 kg.
It is of interest to note that if the bearing is not to operate at
high speed after static loading, the loading may be increased to
perhaps 4 times as much as calculated above (4 x 1620 = 6,480
kg) and the load to fracture is about 8 times as calculated above
(8 x 1620 = 12,960 kg).
6. A Timken bearing supporting one end of a wormshafl of a speed
reducer turning at 1,800 r.p.m. is to carry a radial load of 80 kg and
a thrust load of 200 kg. The desired life of the bearing is 12,000 hours.
Determine the rated capacity of the bearing to be selected. Application
factor may be taken as unity.
6.46
Speed factor = — = 0-681.
(1800)04
Life factor = (12000)". 1 .51.
11.05 •-
Since thrust load pre-dominates, steep angle bearing will be
used for which KT equals 0.75.
Calculated load = 0.66 x 80 + 0.75 x 200 = 203 kg.
203 x 1.51 x 1
Rated load = = 450 kg.
0.681
7. Two bearings, A and B, constituting a pair, carry loads of 200 kg
and 80 kg respectively, owing to external forces. Determine the calculated
radial load for bearing B at the operating speed and desired life.
0.34 x 200
Thrust on B due to radial load on A =
1.5
= 45.3 kg.
We assume KTB = 1.5.
Calculated radial load on bearing B at operating speed and
desired life = 0.66 x 80 + 1.5 x 45.3 = 120.5 kg.
494 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. IX

Exercises:
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Basic dynamic capacity
(b) Basic static capacity
‘ (c) Loading ratio.
2. (a) What is the nominal life in working hours of a deep groove
ball bearing 6308, which is` carrying a constant radial load of 282 kg at a
speed of 800 r.p.m.?
The basic dynamic capacity of the bearing is 3,230 kg. What is the
bore of the bearing?
(b) If in addition to the radial load of 282 kg, a thrust load of 173
kg acts on the bearing what life can be expected?
Ans. (a) 32,000 hours, 40 mm (b) 10,000 hours.
3. A deep groove ball bearing is required to carry a radial load of 520
kg at 1,000 r.p.m. The nominal life should be 20,000 working hours.
Determine the loading ratio and the minimum basic dynamic capacity of the
bearing. Ans. 10.6; 5,550 kg.
4. A deep groove ball bearing from series 63 ea required to carry a
radial load of 410 kg and a thrust load of 226 kg at 1,000 r.p.m. The
life should be at least 10,000 working hours. Verify whether the bearing
6310 is satisfactory or not.
5. What change in the loading of a ball bearing will cause the
expected life to be halved? Ans. 26% increase in load.
6. A certain bearing is to operate on the following work cycle :
Radial load of 700 kg at 200 r.p.m. for 25% of the time; radial
load of 1,000 kg at 500 r.p.m. for 20% of the time and radial load of 400
kg at 400 r.p.m. for 55% of the tame.
The inner ring rotates and the loads are acting with moderate shocks.
Determine the equivalent constant radial load.
Ans. 1,420 kg.
7. A 310 bearing has a work cycle with 1,000 r.p.m. for one third
of the time, 2,000 r.p.m. for the next one third of the time and 4,000
r.p.m. for the last one third of the time. The outer ring rotates. Assume
light shock conditions. The radial load is 362 kg and axial load is 136 kg.
Determine the expected average life in hours if the basic dynamic
capacity of the bearing is 4,850 kg. Ans. 9,490 hours.
Ex. In BEARINGS 495

8. A load varies continuously in magnitude in a sinusoidal manner.

The direction remains fixed. Determine the mean cubic load if the maximum
load is 1,000 kg. Ans. 679 kg.
9. Determine the basic static capacity of SKF 6406 which has 7
balls of 16 mm. Ans. 2,240 kg.
10. The shaft of an electric motor which rotates at 1,440 r.p.m.
is to be supplied by a pair of Timkin roller bearings. Each bearing is to
sustain a pure radial load of 400 kg and is to have a desired life of 12,000
hours. Determine the rated capacity of the bearing.
Ans. 830 kg.
11. A shaft, mounted on two Timken roller bearings 35 cm apart,
carries at its middle the gear, which causes a radial load of 1,000 kg and a
thrust load of 320 kg on the shaft when running at 920 r.p.m. Deter-
mine the rated capacity of the bearing .for a desired life of 10,000 hours.
The application factor may be taken as 1-33.
Ans. 1,800 kg.
12. A herringbone gear used in a paper machine is mounted on a
pairs of Timken bearings. Bearing A carries a radial load of 1,000 kg
and an axial thrust of 400 kg. Bearing B carries a radial load of 360 kg.
The speed of the shaft is 150 r.p.m. The desired life is 16,000 hours.
Specify the rated capacities of bearings A and B. Timken application
factor may be taken as 1.33.
Ans. 2,100 kg; 880 kg.

EXAMPLES IX

1. A 100 cm diameter overhung pulley, weighing 50 kg transmits a torque

of 5,000 kg cm. The belt pull is vertically downwards and the tension on the
tight side is double the tension on the slack side. The distance between the centre
of the pulley and the bearing is 150 mm. Determine the diameter and length of
the pedestal bearing assuming a maximum shear stress of 600 kg/sq cm in the
journal and length of bearing is double its diameter.
If the two holding down bolts are 10 cm apart, calculate the diameter of
the bolts and the thickness of the cap assuming permissible stress in the bolts
350 kg/sq cm and that in the cap 150 kg/sq cm. Give a neat dimensioned sketch
of the cap.
2. A single linder single acting horizontal steam engine with a 30 cm
stroke is to run at 120 r.p.m. The crankshaft arrangement is shown in fig. 9-14.
The flywheel weighs 2,000 kg and this weight may be assumed to be entirely
supported by bearing A.
496 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX

The greatest thrust developed in the connecting rod is 4,800 kg and this may
be assumed to be maintained during the first half of the working stroke. The
connecting rod is to be 50 cm long between centres.
Determine suitable diameters fur:
(a) the main bearings
(b) the crank pin.
The maximum safe shear stress for the shaft and the crank pin is 550 kg/sq
cm. The maximum safe bearing pressures are 30 kg/sq cm for the main bearings
and 70 kg/sq cm for the connecting rod big end beating.
Ans. (a) 10 cm diameter; (b) 9 cm diameter.

75-..

Bearing A Bearing B
11 le
N .1.
N

Z7 - l25-•. 4- -- 00*
/ 4--200-- *fo---150
/
/
/
/
/
/
r+ IrN Flywheel
weight 2000 kg

FIG. 9-14
3. A journal bearing for 75 mm diameter shaft is shown in fig. 9-10. The
vertical and horizontal reactions at the bearing are V = 1,300 kg and H = 1,850 kg.
The cap C is fixed by two studs A to the main bearing. The bearing is fixed to the
vertical R.S. J. by four bolts B.
Design and prepare dimensioned sketches of the following: (a) cap C (b) stud
A (c) bolt B.
Materials: Cap—cast iron; stud and bolts—mild steel.
Bearing pressure-15 kg/sq cm. Choose suitable stresses.
4. Fig. 9-15 shows a shaft mounted in two self-aligning bearings at B and
C. Power is supplied to pulley A by a horizontal belt; this pulley is 90 cm in
diameter and weighs 75 kg. Work is taken off at pulley D by a vertical belt;
this pulley is 60 cm in diameter and weighs 50 kg.
Bx. IX j lagARINGS 497

For each belt, the tension ratio -1

1.-.Iis 2.75. The input belt at A runs at
1,050 metre/minute and its greater tension, which is on the underside, is 90 kg.
Calculate the force on each bearing and draw to scale the diagram of result-
ant bending moment for the shaft. Assume simple point support at each bearing.
Determine suitable diameter for the solid shaft assuming it to be of steel
having a working shear stress of 280 kg/sq cm.
Calculate a suitable width for the bearings assuming that the pressure must
not exceed 17 kg/sq cm. Ans. 5 cm; 6.5 cm.

FIG. 9-15

18 [Link]

FIG. 9-16
5. Fig. 9-16 shows some particulars of the big end of the connecting rod of
a steam engine. The maximum load on the connecting rod is 30,000 kg. Allow-
able bearing pressure on the crank pin is 70 kg/sq cm. Length of the crank-
pin is lit times its diameter. Maximum stress in the bolt is 400 kg/sq cm. Permi-
ssible stresses in the strap are 280 kg/sq cm in shear and 400 kg/sq cm in tension
498 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. IX
Design and draw dimensioned neat sketches giving sectional elevation and plan,
In each of these views show the bolts complete with nuts, the lubricator and
any other parts and details that are omitted in the sketch.
6. The connecting rod cap of an engine sustains a maximum load of 13,000
kg and is made of cast steel having an ultimate strength in tension of 5,600 kg/sq
cm. The diameter of the crank pin is 14 cm and its axial length is 15 cm.
Assuming a factor of safety of 5 for the cap, the safe working stress for the
bolt of 700 kg/sq cm and a suitable thickness for the brasses, design and prepare
a working drawing of the cap.
7. The torque transmitted by an engine crank shaft is 15,000 kg cm, when
the speed is 240 r.p.m. The flywheel overhangs at a distance of 30 cm centre from
line of bearing to centre line of wheel and the maximum load on the bearing is
2,500 kg. Determine suitable dimensions for the bearing if the allowable bear-
ing pressure is 25 kg/sq cm and maximum shear stress in the shaft is 350 kg/sq cm.
Oil cooling is used and the maximum temperature of the bearing is not to exceed
40°C. Calculate the quantity of oil required in litres per hour if the inlet tempera-
ture of the oil is 20°C. Specific gravity of oil is 0.8 and specific heat is 0-4.
Weight of flywheel is 1,000 kg. Coefficient of friction between shaft and bearing
is 0.01. Ans. 8 cm diameter; 12.5 cm length.
8. A ship travelling at 30 km/hour requires 3,200 h.p. at the propeller.
The diameter of the propeller shaft is 30 cm. Determine the number of collars
required if the bearing pressure is not to exceed 3 kg/sq cm. The outside dia-
meter of the thrust collar may be taken as 1.6 times the diameter of the propeller
shaft. How will you determine the thickness of the collar? Calculate the amount
of heat developed at the bearing.
Ans. 9 collars; shear consideration.
9. In a screw clamp, the clamping pad which may be of cast iron is pro-
vided with a conical bearing surface to take up the screw thrust of 5,000 kg. The
pad is prevented from leaving the pivot by means of a set screw 8 mm diameter
cleared through and counterbored in the face of the pad and tapped into the
conical end of the spindle. Determine the outside diameter of the conical
pivot if the bearing pressure is limited to 1,200 kg/sq cm. Also, determine
the torque required to overcome friction at the conical pivot of the pad if the
semi-angle of the pivot cone is 60°. .& = 0-15.
Ans 2.8 cm; 1,160 kg cm.
10. Describe how the friction between the journal and bearing varies from
the instant at which rotation of the journal begins until high speed is attained.
You may assume that a plentiful supply of oil is available and the journal has
been at rest for some time.
Also sketc h the curve showing how the coefficient of friction varies with bearing
characteristic number ZN—•

An oil with an absolute viscosity Z of 50 centipoise is used for a bearing

5 cm diameter. This oil is satisfactory when the bearing pressure is 11 kg/sq cm,
shaft speed 200 r.p.m. and bearing clearance 0.0187 cm. If the shaft speed is
increased to 320 r.p.m., at what pressure should the bearing now operate?
Ex. IX] BEARINGS 499
When the bearing was re-conditioned, i clearance of 0.0225 cm had to be
given. The pressure had to be 11 kg/sq cm, but the speed 320 r.p.m. What
change must be made in the oil?
11. A rotary pump has a shaft of 5 cm diameter and is required to sustain
a load of 400 kg. If the maximum speed of the pump is 1,000 r.p.m., calculate
the collar bearing dimensions and the horse power lost in friction. Take µ = 0.04.
The bearing pressure is limited to 3.5 kg/sq cm.
(Gujarat University, 1966)
12. The bearing cap is to withstand a load of 750 kg. The journal is
6.75 cm in diameter and 11.25 cm long. There are two fixing bolts one on each
side of the shaft axis placed on 15 cm centres. Suggest the suitable size of the cap
bolts and thickness of the cap if there is 2.5 cm diameter hole in the cap.
Permissible tensile stress intensity for the material of the bolt and cap is
limited to 420 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1967)
13. The propeller shaft of a steamer at 100 r.p.m. is subjected to a torque
of 250,000 kg cm and a thrust of 7,000 kg. Suggest the suitable number of collars
for the bearing. Also suggest the probable thickness for each collar.
Take outside diameter of the collar as 1.5 times the diameter of the shaft.
Permissible bearing pressure for the collar 4 kg/sq cm and fs for collar and shaft
350 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1968)
14. (a) What procedure will you follow while designing a journal bearing?
(b) Each bearing of an electrical motor sustains a radial load of 400 kg.
1
Assuming d ratio of 1.1, determine the length of the bearing if the permissible bear-
ing pressure is limited to 10 kg/sq cm.
(c) A bearing cap is to withstand a load of 1,000 kg. The journal is 10 cm
diameter and 24 cm long. There are four fixing bolts two on each side of the shaft
axis placed on 20 cm centres. Suggest the suitable size of the cap bolts and thick-
ness of the cap if there is 1 cm diameter hole at the bearing cap centre and it is
provided for lubrication purpose.
Permissible tensile stress intensity for the material of the bolt and cap is
limited to 400 kg/sq cm (Sardar Patel University, 1969)
15. Explain the terms; bearing characteristic number, Sommerfeld number
and absolute viscosity.
Draw the curve of coefficient of friction v/s. bearing characteristic number.
Show on it the regions of boundary lubrication, semifluid lubrication and full
fluid lubrication.
The following data refer to a bearing:
lid = 1.5; Maximum load on the bearing = 1,340 kg; allowable bearing
pressure = 14 kg/sq cm. SAE— 40 oil is used; maximum temperature of oil
film = 70°C, value of Z at 70°C = 30 centipoise; r.p.m. of journal = 280;
diametral clearance = 0.01 cm.
500 mAcHtn bEsiGN [ Ch. a
(a) Find the diameter and length of the bearing.
(b) Determine the probable coefficient of friction and the horse power lost in
bearing.
(c) Determine the pressure at which this bearing should operate if the speed is
changed to 400 r.p.m.
(d) If the clearance is made 0.006 cm., what change should be made in oil?
(e) The specific gravity of a lubricating oil was found to be 0.875 at 35°C.
What is the probable specific gravity at 70°C? What will be the viscosity
of the oil at 70°C in Saybolt universal seconds?
(f) Design the cap with 1 cm oil hole and bolts for this bearing. Use your
own materials and stresses.
(g) Check your bearing for heat dissipation assuming ambient air temperature
of 20°C.
(Gujarat University, 1970)
16. (i) Discuss comparatively the relative merits of sliding and rolling
contact bearings.
(ii) What are the main properties required of a bearing materials for sliding
contact bearings ?
(iii) Name three popular bearing materials and briefly describe their
approximate composition and important properties.
(iv) Explain briefly the terms 'Static capacity' and 'Dynamic capacity' as
applied to a rolling contact bearing.
(University of Bombay, 1970)

17. (a) Discuss comparatively the advantages and disadvantages of sliding

contact and rolling contact bearings.
(b) Explain briefly the significance of the bearing characteristic number
or Sommerfeld number in the design of plain journal bearings.
(c) A certain sleeve bearing has been designed to operate at a particular
speed and loading. If the speed of operation is to be increased to a higher value
what design changes will be necessary if
(i) the load remains unchanged
(ii) the load increases to a higher value?
(University of Bombay, 1971)

18. A rotary pump has a shaft of 6 cm and is required to sustain a load of

600 kg. Taking the outside diameter of the collar as 1.5 times the diameter of the
solid shaft, determine the number of collars required if the permissible bearing
pressure intensity is limited to 3 kg/sq cm. If the maximum speed of the pump is
1,000 r.p.m., determine the horse power lost in friction. Take the coefficient
of friction as 0.3. How will you determine the thickness of the collar?
(Sardar Patel University, 1972)

19. Mention the relative advantages of rolling bearings over sliding bear-
rings. What do we understand by the "Static capacity" and "Dynamic capa-
city" of the rolling bearing? Explain briefly how you will determine the equivalent
radial load on the bearing when actual radial and thrust loads are known.
Ex. IX] BEARINGS 501

An S.K.F self aligning ball bearing No. 1310 has a specific dynamic capacity
of 3,500 kg. If the equivalent radial load actually applied to the bearing is 4,500
kg. Determine
(i) the life in millions of revolutions expected,
(ii) the life in hours that can be expected, the speed of rotation being 1,450
r.p.m.
(iii) the average life in hours that can be expected, and
(iv) the bore of the bearing.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
/
20. (a) Discuss briefly the effect of clearance ratio and d -- ratio in case of
a journal bearing.
(b) Describe briefly the general procedure for the design of sliding bearings
based on your design criteria.
(c) Discuss briefly 'the failure of rolling contact bearings.
(University of Bombay, 1974)
21. (a) Explain, the procedure for determining the static— and dynamic
load capacity of a ball bearing. What are the factors that decide the life of a
ball bearing? Given the forces acting and life requirement, explain how you will
select a ball bearing for the application.
(b) A shaft mounted on two Timken roller bearings 35 cm apart carries
at its middle the gear which causes a radial load of 1,000 kg and a thrust load of
320 kg on the shaft when running at 920 r.p.m. Determine the rated capacity
of the bearing for a desired life of 10,000 hours. The application factor is 1.33.
Thrust factor 0.66 and radial factor 0.74.
(c) Describe briefly the procedure you will follow to design a thrust ball
bearing. Mention at least five applications of such type of bearing.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
22. In what respect ball and roller bearings are preferred to journal bear-
ings?
A section of a commercial shafting 150 cm long between bearings carries
a 100 kg pulley at its mid point. The pulley receives 20 h.p. at 150 r.p.m.
which is transmitted through a flexible coupling just outside the right bearing.
The belt drive is horizontal and the sum of the belt tensions is 750 kg. Assume
combined shock and fatigue factor applied to bending moment 1.5 and combined
shock and fatigue factor applied to twisting moment 1.5. Find shaft diameter
and suitable ball bearings for 30,000 hours life. Take fs for shaft as 425 kg/sq cm.
Ball bearing design data:

Basic capacity
Bearing No. d D B r kg
(SKF) mm mm mm mm Static Dynami c
Co C
6013 F5 100 18 2 —2,120 — 2,400
6014 70 110 20 2 2,550 3,000
6015 75 115 20 2 2,800 3,100
6016 80 125 22 2 3,350 3,750
502 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. IX
23. A journal bearing operating under a steady load has the following
specifications:
Journal diameter 100 mm
Radial clearance 0.0625 mm
Load on the bearing 4,000 kg
Journal speed 1,200 r.p.m.
Maximum operating temperature not to exceed 90°C
Length to diameter ratio between 0.8 to 1.0
Minimum oil film thickness 0.0125 to 0.015 mm
Ambient temperature 30°C.
Determine:
(i) Length of the bearing
(ii) Quantity and kind of oil to be used
(iii) Material of the bearing
(iv) Power loss in the bearing.
(Gujarat University, 1977)
24. (a) A radial ball bearing of a deep groove type 25 BCO2 has 9 steel
balls of 8 mm diameter. Calculate the static and dynamic capacities. Take
static load stress factor 35 kg/sq cm and dynamic load stress factor 450 kg/sq cm.
What would be its capacity at 1,000 r.p.m. for 10,000 hours operation?
(b) Specify a suitable ball bearing for a radial load of 200 kg and a thrust
load of 70 kg at an operating speed of 3,000 r.p.m. Assume steady load without
shock. Life of bearing 15,000 hours at reliability of 95%. Nominal shaft
diameter is to be not less than 50 mm.
(Gujarat University, 1977)
 1
CHAPTER 10

STRUTS AND COLUMNS

10-1. Introduction:
Machine parts which are long and are subjected to com-
pressive forces are termed as columns or struts. In general, a column
or a pillar is fixed at both ends and is vertical; struts may be
inclined, one or both ends fixed rigidly, or one or both ends
hinged or pin-jointed. The failure of such members may occur
by pure compression, or by buckling or by combination of pure
compression and buckling, depending upon a slenderness ratio of
the column. The slenderness ratio is defined as a ratio of the length of
the column, to the least radius of gyration of the section about centroidal axis.
Piston rods, connecting rods, valve push rods, side links in forging
machines, etc. are few examples of struts, found in machines.

10-2. Euler's Formula:

Euler's theory is the foundation of all strut theories. The
critical load for a column or strut is given by
7E 2E/ .
Pc — (i)
/2
where Pe = critical load
E = modulus of elasticity
1 = least second moment of area
1 = length of the strut.
The above formula is valid only for very slender columns
with rounded ends or pin-jointed ends, which are free to turn at
the supports, and do not take into account the effect of direct
Compression.
P.
Safe working load on a strut = (ii)
fa r of safety
The value of factor of safety is usually 4 for a steady load
or dead load and 8 to 10 when the machine part is alternately
in tension and in compression as in piston rods or connecting rods.
It is observed from Euler's formula that the buckling load depends on the
flexural qualities, El, of the material, This is because the buckling lohd for long
slender columns is obtained long before the direct compressive stress reaches
limits of proportionality.
504 MACHINE DESIGN tCh. X
The experiments have shown that Euler's formula gives reasonably accurate
results for higher slenderness ratios. We notice that the crippling load is depend-
dent on the dimensions of the strut, end connections and the modulus of elasticity.
Since there is little variation in the moduli of elasticity among different grades
of steel, there is no advantage in using high strength alloy steel instead of structural
steel. The strut can be made stronger by increasing the second moment of
area and the least radius of gyration, which can very often be accomplished
without any increase in cross sectional area by placing the material of the strut
as far as possible from neutral axis. Thus, tubular sections are more economical
as struts than solid sections.

10-3. End fixity coefficients:

Fig. 10-1 illustrates theoretical end connections which may
be present in machine columns. The contact ends of round end
columns are laterally guided so that they remain in vertical align-
ments, (fig. 10-1(a)), but the ends are not perfectly frictionless and free
turning cannot be realised. Fig. 10-1 (b) shows a fixed end column in

C=4 C=2

(a) (c) (d)

End connections for columns
FIG. 10-1
which the effective length le is equal to half the actual length of the
column 1. Such a column will resist four times the buckling load
that can be carried by a round end column having the same length
and same cross section. Fig. 10-1(c) shows a column in which a
lower end is fixed and upper end is guided so that the vertical align-
ment of the column is maintained. It can be proved that the
/
effective length of such a column is --=. Fig. 10-1(d) shows a
V2
column with lower end fixed and upper end free. Such a column
Art. 10-4] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 505

is weakest of all the above-mentioned columns. The effective

length of such a column is twice the actual length of the column.
The load carrying capacity of such a column is one-fourth of that
having guided ends.
In order to consider the effect of end connections, Euler's
formula is written as
n rc2E I
Pe = - - where n is known as end fixity coefficient
—12—
whose theoretical values are given below:
Value of end fixity coefficient
End connections n or C
Both ends fixed 4
One end fixed, other end guided 2
Both ends guided or hinged 1
One end fixed, other end free 0.25

Sometimes the end fixity coefficient is denoted by the letter C.

In practice the values of the above coefficients are modified.
In arriving at the design values of end-fixity coefficient, it is necess-
ary to consider the degree to which the actual support approaches
the ideal one. Because of the flexibility of the supporting mem-
bers it is doubtful whether a column in a machine has ideally fixed
ends, even when welded in place. So the design value of end
fixity coefficient for a fixed end column should at the most be
limited to 3.5 instead of ideal value 4. Generally the value 3 is
preferred.
10-4. Radius of gyration and plane of buckling:
The end connections for machine colurhns such as connect-
ing rods will vary with the plane of buckling. For example, the
column may be pin-connected in one plane of buckling but may
be considered to have fixed ends in plane perpendicular to this
plane. In such cases the plane of failure will be that plane for which
the combination of end fixity and bending resistance is least, i.e. the plane
for which the product nl is the least.
When a column is cylindrical or square there is little
difficulty in selecting the critical plane because it depends upon
only the end connections. However, in machines, the majority
of columns are such that they have different radii of gyration as
well as different degrees of end fixity in perpendicular planes,
the commonest example being the connecting rod of an engine
having I section or rectangular section. Thus, when we design
 506 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X
such a column, we should aim at equal buckling strength in both
the possible planes of buckling.

r
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Buckling of links in two perpendicular planes

FIG. 10-2
Let us consider the buckling of a connecting rod. The gudgeon
pin and crank pin give it freedom to buckle in a plane perpendicular
Y Y

X X

(a) (b)

Y Y
X-X = Neutral axis, free ends column
r-r = Neutral axis, fixed ends column
FIG. 10-3
to their axes as shown in fig. 10-2(a), while at the same time tend
to stiffen it in the plane of their axes as shown in fig. 10-2(b).
Thus, we see that the connecting rod behaves as a fixed-ended
column for buckling in the plane of the axes of the pins while in
the plane perpendicular to their axes, it behaves as a column
hinged at its end. Figs. 10-2(c) and 10-2(d) show the behaviour
Art. 10-5] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 507

of the forging link, having a rectangular section, in two planes at

right angles. If the rod and link were to be equally resistant to
buckling in both the planes for the sections shown in fig. 10-3,
the relation /xx = 4/yy should be satisfied.
The above relation will be satisfied for a rectangular section
if breadth of a section is one-half the depth. The proper propor-
tions for the I section are derived as follows. Fig. 10-4(a) shows
the various proportions of I section in terms of 1, the thickness
of a web as well as flanges.

4t 4t
—)11
Mr A

1 1.4
5t

(a) Y (b) y
Ideal I section for a column
FIG. 10-4
518
/xx = 112 [4 x 5.353 — 3 x 3.353] t4 = 12 t4
1 1.35
lyy = - [2 x 43 ± 3.35 x 1 31 i4 = -
12 1 2 14'
••
Lex 518 = 3.95.
Iyy = 131.35
Thus, the above proportions will be most satisfactory for the
I section of a connecting rod theoretically. In actual practice for
fix ended columns, the end fixity coefficient is taken between 3 and
3.5. I section with proportions shown in fig. 10-4(b) will be found
/vx
satisfactory as it gives the value of the ratio as 3.2.
139'

10-5. Rankine's formula:

Euler's formula is only applicable for long struts and many
struts encountered in machines are of such proportions that Euler's
formula may not be applicable so that other formulas have to be
used for comparatively short struts. Many empirical formulas
508 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. X

have been suggested to represent the experimental results. One

of the most important of these formulas is Rankine's formula.
This formula was originally devised to fit experimental results but
some attethpt has been made to rationalise it. It is assumed that
the actual buckling load P of a strut is connected with the maxi-
mum direct compressive load Pe of the material, and the buckling
load Pe obtained by Euler's formula, by the equation
1 1 1
P = P; + -P;*
2 El
For a strut with rounded ends, Pe = — 7c 72
-)
1 /2
so that — -
-r-
P = Pc -- TOE/
_ Tr 2EI + Pc12
— n2E/Pc
n2E/Pc
or P=
vr 2EI + Pc12
Direct compressive load Pc =fc A where /6. is the yield stress in
compression.
Afc Afc Afc
P= / 1\2
_i_ Afc12 = fc f 1 12 =
1 m 7r2E7 1 ± 7r 2-
Ekk- ) 1+a 1 k-,
where k is the least radius of gyration and a, the constant
depending upon the material and the end fixity coefficient.
actual buckling load .
Safe working load on the column =
factor of safety
The values of fc and a for different materials and different end fixity
coefficients are given below:
TABLE 10-5.1

fc Values of a for various end fixity

yield stress coefficients
Material in
compression
kg/sq cm I 4 2 n

1 1 1 1
C.I. 5,600
1600 6400 3200 n x1600
M.S. 3,300 1 1 1 ... _ 1
7500 30000 15000 n x7500
Dry timber 500 1 1 1 I
750 3000 1500 n x5
Art. 10-6] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 509

When Rankine's formula is expressed in the form

P = f4A where d is the diameter or least width of the
/
1 -I- a. (- )2 section and a, another constant, the formula is
d
known as Gordon's formula.
For the struts having different values of slenderness ratios, IS
gives the values of allowable values of stresses in axial compression.

10-6. Tetmajer's formula:

As a result of numerous experiments on columns of different
materials, Tetmajer suggested the following general expression
for the buckling load P on hinged columns.
P = Afc (1— aX + bX2) kg
where A is the area of cross section in sq cm, fc is stress intensity
at yield point in compression kg/sq cm, A is the slenderness ratio
and a and b are constants.
The above relation is a parabolic one. The value of the
constant b vanishes for all materials except for cast iron and hence,
the relation between the buckling load and the slenderness ratio
betomes linear one.
Table 10-6.1 gives the useful information for application of Tetmajer's
formula:

TABLE 10-6.1 •-

X Tetmajer's expression
Material fc E maximum fc (1 — aX -I- b Xa)
kg/sq cm kg/sq cm value kg/sq cm
Cast iron 7,760 10 x 105 80 7760 — 120X + 0.53XI
Mild steel 3,100 21 x 105 105 3100 — 11.4X
Medium steel 3,350 22 x 105 89 3350 — 6.2X
Nickel steel 4,700 21 x 105 86 4700 — 23.0X
Timber 293 1 x 105 100 293 — 1.94X
Wrought iron 3,030 20 x 10' 112 3030 — 12.9X

If the value of the slenderness ratio exceeds that given in

above table, Elder's formula is to be used. Mostly Tetmajer's
formula is used for checking the stresses. The use of Tetmajer's
formula is more prevalent in European countries, where metric
system is used. According to ten Bosch the factor of safety
3.5 to 5 is sufficient for Tetmajer's formula.
510 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X

10-7. Johnson formula:

Mr. J. B. Johnson has suggested the following formula for the
critical load for columns made of ductile materials.
fe I 1 2
Pc = A X fc [l (i)
4n7c2E kk-
where A is the area of the cross section, fc is the stress intensity at
yield point, n is the end fixity coefficient, E is the modulus of elasticity
/
and — is the slenderness ratio of the column. The above formula
k
is to be applied where Euler's formula is not applicable. This
formula is used in U.S.A. instead of Rankine's formula.
The least value of slenderness ratio, for which Euler's formula
can be used, is obtained by equating the critical loads obtained by
Euler's formula and Johnson's formula
nr2E/
•▪ —12 = Afc [1 — (ii)
442E(k1 )21
On simplifying the above equation we will get
l = -C2nr2E
(iii)
k V fc
Examples :
1. The eccentric rod to drive the valve mechanism of a steam engine
carries a maximum compressive load of 1,150 kg, the length of the rod
being 150 cm. Assuming the eccentric rod to be hinged at both ends,
determine the diameter of the rod at the middle. If the section of the rod
were to be rectangular, what would be the dimensions of the crosssection
if the depth of the section is 1.75 times the thickness?
Take the factor of safety tb be 40. Modulus of elasticity is
2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
The eccentric rod carries a maximum compressive load of
1,150 kg. The factor of safety is 40. Therefore, the strut is to be
designed for a buckling load of 1150 x 40 = 46,000 kg. From
the data, Euler's formula is suggested.
7C 2E1
Buckling load = /2
7r2 x 2.1 x 106.x I
46000 =
1502
or I = 50 cm4.
Art. 10-7 ] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 511

If d cm be the diameter of the solid rod, then

4 = 50
64 d
d = 4 _5_0 x 64
or = 5.65 cm; we adopt 6 cm.
TC

If h be the depth of the rectangular section, then

h =1.75w, where w is the width of the section.
•• / = 2 whs.
1
• • 50 = 1-2- x w x (1.75w)3
Or w = 3.24 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
Depth of the section will be 4 x 1.75 = 7 cm.
2. In a certain water works installation the water is pumped against
a head of 165 metre. The bore of the reciprocating pump is 45 cm. The
unsupported length of the piston rod is 140 cm. Determine the diameter
of the piston rod by using Rankine's formula, taking the factor of safety
1
to be 10. Take fe = 3,300 kgIsq cm and Rankine constant a ----
17500.
Water is pumped against a head of 165 metre. This head
65 00_
of water is equivalent to 1--- >_ -1- = 16.5 kg/sq cm.
1 000
TC
Maximum compressive load on piston rod = 4 X 452 X 16.5
= 26,260 kg.
As the factor of safety is 10, the buckling load on the column
will be 26260 x 10 = 262,600 kg.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid rod, by using Rankine's
formula, we get
7rd 2
3300 x 4
262600 —
1 r 1 40 x 4]2
1 + 17566 L. d
The above equation after simplification gives us an equation
d4 — 101-5d2 — 1850 = 0, which is a quadratic in d 2.
After solving, we get d = 10.9 cm; we adopt d = 12 cm.
3. The rectangular steel link of a toggle type screw jack (See fig.
11-10.) of 1 tonne capacity is subjected to a maximum compressive load of
512 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X

360 kg. Determine the cross sectional dimensions of the link, which is
45 cm long, from the following data :
Width three times the thickness; factor of safety 5;.1'6 = 3,300 kg/sq cm.
Rankine constant a — 1
7500
The maximum compressive load on the link = 360 kg. As
the factor of safety is 5, the link should be designed for a buckling
load of 360 x 5 = 1,800 kg.
, Let I be the thickness of the link, then width of the link will
be 3t. Area of the cross section of the link will be 3t 2.
Assuming that the buckling of the link takes place in the
plane of the link, the second moment of area of the link will be
equal to
lig x t x (303 = 2•25t4.

250
k2 = 2.31
•▪ . = 0.7512.
2
fcA
Buckling load =

1 + a (11c)2
3300 x 312
•.• 1800 = - —
1 2025
1+ -x
7500 0.7512
On solving the above equation, we get t = 0.61 cm; we
adopt 7 mm. Width of the link -,-- 3 x 7 = 21 mm.
When the buckling of the link takes place in the plane per-
pendicular to the plane of the link, the second moment of area
will be = 1'2 x 2.1 x 0.73 = 0.06 cm4.
Area of the section = 2.1 x 0.7 = 147 sq cm.
/ 0.06
k2 = — = = 0.0408 cm2.
A 1•47
For buckling in the plane at right angles to the plane of the
link, the link behaves as a fixed ended strut, the Rankine constant
will be •
30000
1•47 x 3300
Buckling load — = 1,830 kg.
1 452
1 + x
30000 0.0408
As the calculated load is more than 1,800 kg, the link is safe
for buckling in plane at right angles to the plane of the link.
Art. .(19-7 STRUTS AND COLUMNS 513

Note: The economical section for equal strength in buckling in both the
planes could be obtained by adopting proportions w : t : :2 : 1.
4. Determine the dimensions of I section connecting rod for a petrol
engine from the following data :
Diameter of the piston = 10 cm
Weight of reciprocating parts 0.028 kg/sq cm of piston area
Length of the connecting rod = 30 cm
R.P.M. of engine = 1,500
Maximum explosion pressure = 25 kg/sq cm
Stroke length = 12.5 cm.
The proportions for the I section may be taken 5 mm x 4 mm with
1 mm web and 1 mm flange. Take the factor of safety as 7.
The maximum value of inertia pressure will be at the begin-
1
ning of the stroke and is equal to w rca2 I + kg/sq cm,
length of the connecting rod
where n
length of the crank
r = length of the crank
w = weight of reciprocating parts per sq cm of the
piston area
= angular velocity of the crank in radian/second
w = 0.028 kg/sq cm of the piston area.
0.30 0.125
= = 4.8 ; r = — — = 0.0625 metre.
0.0625 2
1500 x 27c
— -- — = 157 radian/second.
60
Inertia pressure intensity at the beginning of the stroke
0.028 1
9.81 x 0.0625 x 1572 — 5.3 kg/sq cm.
+ 4 1i
At beginning of the power stroke, resulting load on the
piston will be obtained by subtracting inertia load from the
explosion load.
Load on piston = x 102(25 — 5.3) = 1,545 kg. As factor
of safety is 7, the connecting rod will be designed for buckling
load of 7 x 1545 = 10,800 kg.
Let t be the thickness of the flange as well as of web,
width of flange will be 4t and height of the section will be 5t. Area
of the section, will be = 11t2.
514 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X

Second moment of area for buckling in plane of the rod =350.

35/ 4
••• k2 = = 3.1812.
11 0
By Rankine's formula
3300 x 11/2
10800 =
1 (30)2 •
1 x
7500 3.1812
By solving, we get t = 0.58 cm; we adopt 6 mm.
Width of the flange = 4t = 4 x 6 = 24 mm.
Height of the section = 51 = 5 x 6 = 30 mm.
5. Determine the diameter of the connecting rod, of 150 cm length,
subjected to an axial compressive load of 18,000 kg, taking to be freely
hinged at the ends. Take the factor of safety to be 7. E = 2.15 x 108
kg/sq cm.
Let us use Euler's formula. Let d cm be the diameter of the
connecting rod.
TC
d
7C2 X - 4 X 2.15 x 106
64
18000 x 7 =
1502
••• d= 7.3 cm.
150 x 4
Slenderness ratio A = 7.3 82. As the slenderness ratio
is 82, Euler's formula cannot be used. Therefore, we check the
diameter of the rod by Tetmajer's formula.
Yield stress fc = 3100 — 11.4A 3100 — 114 x 82 = 2,165
kg/sq cm. Factor of safety = 7.
2165
•• Working stress =
• = 309 kg/sq cm.

Stress induced = 18000= 430 kg/sq cm.

Tc
4- 7.32
x
As induced stress is more than the working stress, the design
is not safb. We increase the diameter of the connecting rod to
9 cm.
New slenderness ratio = 150 x 4 = 66.7.
9
New value of the permissible stress = 3 [3100 — 114 x 66.7]
= 334 kg/sq cm.
Art. 10-7 STRUTS AND COLUMNS 515

New value of the stress induced — 18000 = 282 kg/sq cm.

— X 92
4
As induced stress is less than the working stress, the design is
safe. We adopt 9 cm as the diameter of the connecting rod.
Note: This illustrative example explains the use of Tetmajer's formula.
6. The link which is 50 cm in length is to be designed for a design
factor of 2.5 and is to support an axial compressive load that varies from
zero to 7,000 kg. Determine the diameter of the link considering buckling
only. Determine the diameter considering varying stresses and using the
Soderberg line.
The link is made of AISI 1030 for which the ultimate strength is
5,600 kgisq cm and yield stress is 3,600 kgIsq cm. Take end fixity
coefficient as 1. Take stress concentration factor as 1.9.
We apply Rankine's formula.
3600
Allowable stress — 1,440 kg/sq cm.
2.5
Let d cm be the diameter of the rod. According to Rankine's
formula we get
1440 x d2
4
7000 = 2
1 200)
(
I + X
7500
From the above equation we get d as 3.12 cm; we adopt 3.2 cm.
x 4 = 62.6, the use df Rankine's
As the slenderness ratio is5 0 -2
3
formula is justified.
Let us consider the effect of variable loading. As the ultimate
strength is 5600 kg/sq cm, the endurance limit for reversed bending
is 0.5 x 5600 = 2,800 kg/sq cm.
The equivalent normal stress due to variable loading, with a
maximum stress of 1,440 kg/sq cm (in fact it .will be little less),
mean stress will be 1 44 0 = 720 kg/sq cm and a variable stress of
2
720 kg/sq cm, will be
Y fin K
fen = fa + f fi x ABC
where A = 0.7 for axial loading
B = 0.85 for size effect
C = 1 since actual stress concentration factor is used
516 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. X

± 3600 720 x 1.9 .

fea 720 x
2800 0.7 x 0.85 x 1
Equivalent normal stress = 3,490 kg/sq cm.
Thus the actual design factor according to Soderberg will be
3600
1.03 if the diameter were to be 3.2 cm. This design
3490
factor is inadequate hence we should increase the diameter.
Let us find out the diameter according to Soderberg criterion,
keeping in mind the effect of buckling. As the design factor is
2.5, we design for a design factor of 4 to account for buckling.
Let d cm be the diameter of the column. As the load varies
from zero to 7,000 kg, the mean stress as well as the variable stress
7000 8900
will be — d2 kg/sq cm
d2
4
According to Soderberg equation we get
1 8900 ( 1 _L 1.9
4 — (12 k 3600 -I- 2800 x 0.7 x 0.85 u 1
3600
— _8900 1.9 x 3600
-4 d2 2800 x 0.595
d V8_900 x 5.12
or --,--- 7.15 cm
900
We adopt 7.2 cm
0 x 4
Now we see that the slenderness ratio is 5 = 27.8 and
7.2
we can reduce the diameter to 6.5 cm and we shall see that the
design factor of 2.5 will be maintained.
7. What is meant by slenderness ratio? Explain in brief how you
will design a column.
A press has a maximum capacity of 30 tonnes. It is used to pierce
holes in plates having ultimate shearing strength of 4,000 ken cm. The
compressive stress in the punch is not to exceed 10,000 kgIsq cm. E = 2 x 108
kg/sq cm. Assuming that the plate is pierced when the stress in the punch
reaches its maximum allowable limit of compressive stress, find the diameter
of the punch, plate thickness and maximum length of the punch to avoid
failure by buckling.
Art. 10-7] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 517

Let d cm be the diameter of the punch.

Then .1-' d2 x 10000 = 30 x 1000
4
-1/30 x 1000 x 4
or d = .... = 1.95 cm; we adopt 2 cm as the
TC X 10000
diameter of the punch.
If t cm be the maximum thickness of the plate, in which 2 cm
diameter hole can be punched, then
Tcx 2 xtx 4000=30 x 1000
30 x 1000
or t = = 1.2 cm.
n x 2 x 4000
Assuming that the punch is a column with one end fixed and
the other end guided and that Euler's formula is applicable,
we get
2 x Tc2 x 2 x 106 x rc x 124
30 x 1000 =
64 x /2
-V2 x 7c2 x 2 x 106 x TC X 6
or l= 1 = 32 cm.
64 x 30 x 1000
Exercises :
1. Determine the diameter of a compressive link of a valve mechanism
which may be considered a column 50 cm long. The estimated axial load
is 366 kg.
Assume the following:
Factor of safety 2.5; end fixity coefficient 3.0 and modulu.7 of elasticity
2.1 x 10° kg/sq cm. Am'. 1 cm diameter.
2. Determine the diameter of the piston rod of the hydraulic cylinder
of 10 cm bore when the maximum hydraulic pressure in the cylinder is
limited to 140 kg/sq cm. The length of the piston rod is 122 cm. The
end fixity coefficient may be taken as 2. Factor of safety should be taken
as 5. Ans. 4.8 cm. diameter.
3. A part of a nail heading machine is to be circular in cross section
and is to carry a load of 2,730 kg. The length of the part is 20 cm.
Assuming the permissible stress to be 1,470 kg/sq cm, determine the
diameter of the column, taking to be freely hinged at the ends, by using
Rankine's formula. Ans. 2 cm.
4. The piston rod of a steam engine may be considered a column
having the end restraint coef ficient as 3.5. Determine the diameter of the
piston rod from the following data:
518 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X
Diameter of the cylinder 45 cm
Maximum net pressure of steam on piston 5.6 kg/sq cm
Distance from piston to crosshead 150 cm
Factor of safety 4
Elastic limit stress 2,800 kg/sq cm. Ans. 6 cm diameter.
5. The dump cylinder piston rod of an excavator carries a negligible
load when lifting and dumping but carries a maximum tensile load and
compressive load of 27,000 kg during bull — and back dozing respectively.
The unsupported length of the piston rod is 75 cm. Determine the minimum
diameter of the piston rod when permissible stress intensity is limited to
1,050 kg/sq cm. The end-fixity coefficient may be taken as 2.
Ans. 6 cm.
6. Design a connecting rod dimensions at mid length for a petrol
engine from the following data:
Diameter of the piston 9 cm
Length of the connecting rod 30 cm
The maximum explosion pressure 20 kg/sq cm,,
The rod is of I section, of width 4t and depth equal to 51 where t is
the thickness of the web as well as of flanges.
Take fc = 3,300 kg/sq cm, factor of safety 5 and constant a in
1
Rankine's formula = •
7500
Ans. t --,-- 5 mm; w = 20 mm; h ::--- 25 mm.
7. The connecting rod of a Diesel engine has to withstand a maxi-
mum load of 96,200 kg. The length of the rod may be taken as 400 cm.
Using Tetmajer's relation suggest the suitable dimension for (a) circular
section and (b) rectangular section having ratio of sides as 1.8. Factor
of safety 12. E = 2.2 x 106 kg/sq cm. Assume that it is freely hinged
at the ends. Ans. 22 cm; 27 x 15 cm.
8. Determine the dimensions of the cross section of a rectangular
connecting rod for a double acting steam engine 50 cm diameter and 75 cm
stroke. The steam pressure is 17.5 kg/sq cm. Length of the connecting
rod is 150 cm. Assume the material of the connecting rod to be mild steel.
Take the factor of safety to be 12. Ans. t = 8.5 cm; w = 17 cm.
9. The piston rod of a reciprocating pump is subjected to a maxi-
mum axial compressive load of 29,000 kg. The length of the piston rod
is 140 cm. Assuming the material of the piston rod to be mild steel, deter-
mine the diameter of the piston rod, taking it to be freely hinged at the
ends. Take the factor of safety to be 10. Ans. 12 cm.
Art. 10-7 . ] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 519

10. The eccentric rod of a horizontal steam engine is subjected to

an axial compressive load of 1,500 kg. The length of the eccentric rod
is 140 cm. Assuming the factor of safety to be 25, determine the cross-
section of the eccentric rod at the middle. Take E = 2.1 x 10 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 0.8 cm x 1.5 cm.
11. A water tank of 12 cu metre capacity is supported on four
columns of I section. The weight of the tank when empty is 3,600 kg.
The height of the column is 350 cm. Suggest the minimum value of the
second moment of area of the section. Assume factor of safety to be 5.
E = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm. Ans. 114 cm4.
12. The maximum thrust in a connecting rod is 10,000 kg. The length
of the rod is 90 cm between centres. Yield point stress is 3,200 kg/sq cm.
Taking a factor of safety of four based on the yield stress and the
Rankine constant for hinged ends as determine the diameter of the rod.
7500'
Why is an I section usually preferred to a round section in the case of
connecting rods? Ans. 5.5 cm.
13. A mechanical clutch is remotely operated by a steel rod of
rectangular section, which is equally strong in both the planes of buckling and
is 120 cm long between the knuckle jointed ends. The rod axis and the
knuckle pin are horizontal and the rod is unsupported except at the ends.
Find out the dimensions of the cross section of the rod for carrying an axial
compressive load of 220 kg. The allowable stress for the material of the
rod is 800 kg/sq cm. Ans. 2.4 cui x 1.2 cm.
14. What value of the slenderness ratio would result in the same
safe load from the Euler's equation as well as that from Rankine's
equation for a design factor of 3?
15. A link of rectangular cross section is likely to buckle in two
mutual?), perpendicular planes, the effective length for buckling in one plane
being 1.4 times the length in the other plane. What should be the relation
between the width and the thickness of the link for the same resistance to
buckling in each plane? Ans. Width = 1.4 times the thickness.
16. The connecting rod of an engine is a strut with the ends free
to turn on the crank pin and the gudgeon pin. In the direction of the axis
of these pins, however, the strut may be considered to approach fixed-end
conditions, the end fixity coefficient being 3. Determine the ratio of the
depth to the thickness of a rectangular connecting rod if the rod were to be
equally strong in both the planes of buckling. Ans. 1.732.
520 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X

17. A round steel rod made of structural steel AISI C1020 as

rolled is to be used as a column centrally loaded with 4,500 kg. Determine
the diameter for (a) 64 cm long column and (b) 128 cm column. Assume
the design factor of 3.
Is there any advantage in using AISI 8640 steel rather than structural
steel? Ans. 30 mm; 40 mm; No advantage.
18. Compare the buckling strengths of two long slender pin jointed
columns, one of solid circular cross section 50 mm in diameter, the other of
solid square cross section and having the same cross sectional area as the
circular one. Both the columns are of the same length and are made of the
same material.
19. A steam engine piston rod is to be made of steel. The rod is
140 cm long and the maximum piston effort is 2,000 kg. Assuming
fc -,- 4,500 kg/sq cm, Rankine constant and factor of safety 6,
7500
calculate the diameter of the rod.
(Gujarat University, 19711
20. The connecting rod of a Diesel engine has to withstand a maxi-
mum load of 96,000 kg. Assuming that it is freely hinged at both ends,
suggest the suitable dimensions for (a) circular and (b) rectangular section
having ratio of sides 1.8. The length of the rod may be taken as 400 cm.
Rankine's constant = 7500' Permissible stress intensity 700 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
10-8. Design of push rods:
The push rods are used with overhead valve and side valve
engines. They are to be designed as columns. The slenderness
ratio of push rods is such that they fall into the classification of
long columns. Hence, Euler's formula is to be used for analysing
them. The push rods use spherical seated bearings, therefore,
they may be classed as pin ended columns.
Let P be the load acting on the push rod and m the factor of
safety for the columns.
The buckling load on the column is given by
F = mP , (i)
According to Euler's formula,
n2EI
F=
12
Art. 10-8] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 521

where F = load at which the push rod buckles

E = modulus of elasticity
I = second moment of area of the push rod section
1 = length of the push rod.
For tubular sections,
1= 2---
r (D4 — d4 ) (iii)
64
where D = diameter of the push rod
d = diameter of the hole through the push rod.
Generally d = 0.8D.
n2EI _ ns.E (D4— (0.8D)6 ) 15.79 ED'
We have F = - /2 -T2 x
64 64 /2
/2 N i
. D = 1.419 (iv)
Ej
From equation (iv), the diameter of the push rod can be
obtained when the material of the push rod, load acting on the
push rod, the length of the push rod and the factor of safety are
known.
The value of the modulus of elasticity for steel is 2.1 ,< 106
kg/sq cm and that for aluminium alloys 0.7 X 106 kg/sq cm.
Exercises :
1. Determine the diameter of the push rod 40 cm long, if the maxi-
mum load acting on the column is 136 kg. Assume the factor of safety to
be 2.5. The material of the push rod may be taken as (a) steel and (b)
aluminium alloy. Ans. 1P mm; 15 mm.
2. An overhead exhaust valve of an I.C. engine opens at 30'
before bottom dead centre and closes 10° after top dead centre. The
maximum net force exerted by the push rod is 120 kg. The length of
the push rod is 450 mm. Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimen-
sions for the tubular push rod assuming that the end fixity coefficient
is 2. Take the factor of safety as 3.
Ans.. 9 mm outside diameter.
3. A push rod 40 cm long is to be made of mild steel tube. One end is
connected to the valve lever by a pin joint with the forked end on the lever.
The other end carries a roller of 3 cm diameter and 15 mm width. The
maximum valve load is 400 kg. Assume a factor of safety 4 and ratio of
inner diameter to outer diameter = 0.8 for mild steel tube. Design the
push rod. Show its end connections clearly.
(Gujarat University, 1972)
 522 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. X

10-9. Eccentrically Loaded Columns:

The column formulas given in the preceding articles are
all developed on the assumption that the compressive load is
applied at the neutral axis of the cross section and that the column
is initially straight. Since eccentricities, crookedness and initial
stresses are to be expected in the construction or fabrication of

P
4'
-\ [4 e
A.

Eccentrically loaded column

FIG. 10-5

columns, we have to consider its effects. The effect of eccen-

tricity can be considered by employing formula given below:
p._ fcA
(i)
I ± " sec I V-P
-r i r 4AE
where P = buckling load on the column
fc = yield strength of the material
A = area of cross section of the column
e = initial eccentricity of the load
c = distance from the neutral plane of bending to the
outermost fibre
r = radius of gyration of the section
1 = length of the column
E = modulus of elasticity.
The above formula is known as the secant formula. Problems
exist in machine design in which there is deliberate eccentricity.
This formula has the advantage that it applies to all column lengths.
In design, however, it is difficult to employ because one must know
all the diniensions of the column before the formula can be applied.

EXAMPLES X

1. A piston rod for an air cylinder is to be designed for an axial load of

2,700 kg. The rod When extended has a length of 50 cm. Although one end
of the rod is fastened more or less rigidly to the piston and the other end of the rod
is pinned to a member which is constrained in a guide, the value of end fixity
Ex. X ] STRUTS AND COLUMNS 523

coefficient may be taken as 1. Determine the size of the rod to be used for a
factor of safety of 2.5 with a material having a yield point of 2,800 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 24 mm.
2. A steam engine has a cylinder diameter of 27.5 cm and the maximum
net steam pressure of 8.7 kg/sq cm. The actual distance from the piston to the
crosshead centre is 65 cm. Determine the diameter of the piston rod assuming
that the yield point stress is 3,600 kg/sq cm. Rankine constant = — and
30000
factor of safety 4.5. State the assumptions made in design.
Ans. 33 mm
3. The following data refer to an internal combustion engine:
Diameter of the piston 88 mm
Weight of reciprocating parts 1.6 kg
Length of the connecting rod 30 cm
Stroke 125 mm
Maximum explosion pressure 35 kg/sq cm.
Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for I section connecting Arod
at its middle length if the factor of safety is taken as 5.
Take fc = 3,300 kg/sq cm. Ans. 6 mm x 24 mm x 30 mm
4. The connecting rod of an internal combustion engine is 100 cm long
and is subjected to an axial load of 2,000 kg. It can be considered as a strut
with the ends free to turn on the crank pin and the gudgeon pin. However, it
may be considered as a fixed strut in the direction of the axis of these pins.
Calculate the dimensions of the rectangular sectioned connecting rod, for
equal strength of buckling in both the planes. Factor of safety may be taken
as 4. Also determine the I section for the rod having proportions as shown in
fig. 10-6.
Ans. Thickness 2 9m; width 4 cm.
5. Determine the diameter for the piston rod of the hydraulic cylinder
shown in fig. 3-7. The rod is to be a round steel forging. The cylinder is 8 cm
in diameter and the maximum hydraulic pressure is 200 kg/sq cm.
The following assumptions should be made:
(i) The rod will not fail by any method other than column action. The
length of the rod is 105 cm.
(ii) The connecting rod is fixed in one plane and pin ended in the plane
at right angles to the plane of the figure:
(iii) The piston end of the rod is fixed in all planes.
(iv) To account for eccentricities and load variations, design the rod for
a maximum load of three times the actual hydraulic load.
The permissible stress may be taken as 1,500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 6 cm.
6. A steel strut, 1,500 mm long as shown in fig. 10-7 is rectangular in cross
section. The compressive load to be carried is 20 tonne. Determine the follow-
ing:
324 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X

(a) the relation between b and W required for equal strengths of the strut
in failure by buckling in either planes,
(b) the required dimensions b and W, assuming a factor of safety 4,
E = 2.1 x 10° kg/sq cm and elastic limit of steel as 2,500 kg/sq cm
Ans. 5 cm; 10 cm

FIG. 10-6 FIG. 10-7

7. The force analysis of a 7 tonne air operated arbor press shows that the
piston rod for the operating cylinder must exert a maximum force of 2,000 kg
The air pressure in the cylinder is 7 kg/sq cm.
(a) Determine the diameter of cylinder bore requited, assuming that
overall friction due to sufhng box and piston packing is equivalent
to 10% of maximum force.
(b) Determine the thickness of a cylinder, assuming that it is seamless steel
tubing. The allowable tensile stress is 200 kg/sq cm.
c) Determine the diameter of the piston rod of mild steel having length
of 75 cm. Its upper end is pin connected to the operating lever and
the piston end of the rod is fixed ended. The factor of safety may he
taken as 2.5. Ans. (a) 21 cm; (b) 0.8 cm; (c) 2.2 cm
8. A locomotive coupling rod is of 1 cross section. The maximum thrust
in the rod is 10 tonnes. The rod is 250 cm long between centres. Neglecting friction
at the pins, if the maximum intensity of stress in the rod equals 10 kg/sq mm.
determine the thickness of the web and flanges, assuming depth as 10 cm
Take E = 2.1 x 108 kg/sq cm.
9. A push rod 45 cm long is made of mild steel tube. One end is con-
nected to the valve lever by a pin joint with the forked end on the lever. The
other end carries a roller of 3 cm diameter and 15 mm wide. The maximum
valve load is 450 kg. Assume a factor of safety 4.
Design and prepare a dimensioned drawing of the push rod with the end
connections.
Permissible bearing pressure on pins: 100 kg/sq cm
Permissible tensile stress in pins: 850 kg/sq cm
Permissible compressive stress in tube: 300 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 17 mm outside diameter; 13 mm inside diameter.
Ex. X I STRUTS AND COLUMNS 525

10. Fig. 10-8 shows a valve spindle of a spring loaded safety valve. The
diameter of the valve is 62 mm and the valve is adjusted to lift at 17 kg/sq cm
The maximum lift of the valve is 13 mm. A handle (not shown in the figuie)
applies the force through the cotter for the purposes of lifting the valve by hand
The spring scale of the spring is 80 kgicrn.
If the spindle is made of phosphor bronze, design and prepare a dimensioned
drawing of the spindle.

Value 62 dia. Value body Adjusting nut

Spring seats-..4._

f
Max lift II Cotter
0 0 0 0
13mtm 1
1

.,. ._,,
i---' " pang 80 kg/cm
1,_ 175 -4 225 )4 i n ___.4.1

FIG 10-8

Set screw for

adjusting
clearance

Push rod
Spring 275 mm long

FIG, 10-9
11. Fig. 10-9 shows the valve gear arrangement of a Diseal engine. Pin
at F for the follower and the pin G for the roller are supported only on one side
Pin at E for the tappet lever is supported on both the sides. The maximum force
exerted by the spring is 30 kg. Design and draw the following
(a) tappet lever and the push rod
or
(a) oscillating follower and the push rod
Assume the materials and the stresses (Gujarat University, 1956)
526 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X
12. Vibration is used as a means of transporting material, such as sand,
in a conveyor system. The frame of the converyor is vibrated by means of a
connecting rod and crankshaft. The speed of the crank is 200 r.p.m. and crank
length is 5 cm. The connecting rod is 60 cm long and the frame when completely
loaded weighs 3,800 kg. The stress allowed in the connecting rod is 560 kgiaq cm.
Determine the forces at inner — and outer dead, centres and the diameter of the
rod. Ans. 9,000 kg; 8,170 kg; 5.5 cm.
13. A three-throw single-acting reciprocating pump is to deliver 25,000
litres per hour against a suction head of 3 metre and delivery head of 60 metre.
The mean plunger velocity is to be about 30 metre per minute and the stroke is to
be 1.25 times the bore. Assuming delivery volume to be 80 per cent of swept
volume, calculate bore and stroke dimensions and r.p.m.
Assuming pressures are constant during the stroke, deduce the maximum
force in each connecting rod, each rod being four times the crank length.
Calculate a minimum cross-section for the connecting rod (assuming
uniform) its proportions being taken as those of an I section 10t x 6t with I web
and t flanges, assuming a maximum compressive stress of 430 kg/sq cm.
Calculate, also, a suitable diameter for the connecting rod cap bolts at the crank
pin allowing 300 kg/sq cm as permissible tensile stress.

14. The following particulars relate to a two cylinder locomotive, in whose

cylinders expansion is simple:
Cylinder bore — 45.72 cm
Stroke — 66.04 cm
Working pressure— 14.04 kg per sq cm, by gauge
Length of the connecting rod between centres — 1.651 m.
Find (a) size of gudgeon pin and crank pin bearings, if length of pins is 1.25
times the diameter and if permissible bearing pressures for these are
respectively 210.6 and 105.3 kg per sq cm;
(b) breadth and depth of rectangular cross-section connecting rod for
equal strength in the plane of operation and in a plane transverse to it.
Yield stress for material of rod is 4,212 kg per sq cm and assume
factor of safety as 6. Neglect inertia forces and assume 'a' for hinged
ends as 7--
506 •

Maximum thrust in connecting rod takes place when crank is 300

from inner dead centre.
(Gujarat University, 1965)

15. Determine the dimensions of the cross section of a rectangular connect-

ing rod for a double acting steam engine 50 cm diameter and 75 cm stroke. The
steam pressure is 17.5 kg/sq cm and the length of the connecting rod 150 cm.
Assume the material of the connecting rod to be mild steel. Take the factor of
safety to be 12.
(Gujarat University, 1971)
Ex. X ) STRUTS AND COLUMNS 527

16. Fig. 10-10 shows pistons with piston-rod of a direct driven pumping
engine. Maximum push and pull on the rod is 30,000 kg. The piston rod is in
two parts connected by sleeve and cotter joint. Design the rod and cotter joint for
the following working stresses and sketch the arrangement.
fc =ft = 650 kg/sq cm; Is = 480 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1972)

FIG. 10-10

17. A petrol engine has a bore of 160 mm and stroke of 200 mm. The
pressure inside the cylinder is 28 kg/sq cm and the engine speed is 1,000 r.p.m.
Find the dimensions of an I cross section of the connecting rod. The length of
the connecting rod is 5 times the crank radius. Assume a factor of safety 8 and
yield point stress as 3,000 kg/sq cm. Take flange width B,-41 and height H = 6t
1
where t is the thickness of web and flange. Rankine constant a = 75 — 00 for
both ends hinged. (Refer fig. 10-6.)
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1973)
18. The eccentric rod of a horizontal steam engine is subjected to an axial
compressive load of 1,200 kg. The length of the eccentric rod is 110 cm. Assum-
ing a factor of safety to be 25, determine the dimensions for the rectangular
cross section. E --- 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER 11

POWER SCREWS

11-1. Introduction :
A power screw is a device used in machinery to change rotary
motion into linear motion. This type of screw is much used in
presses, clamps, air craft control surface actuators, jacks, valves,
vices, testing machines, lathes, broaching machines and many
other machine tools to move machine parts against resisting forces.
The essential elements are (i) a screw and (ii) a nut threaded to
engage the screw. A torque is applied to one of these elements,
causing it to rotate and move either itself or the other element in
an axial direction. In most power screws, the screw rotates in
bearings while the nut has axial motion against the resisting axial
forces. In some screws the nut is stationary while the screw rotates
and moves axially against the resisting forces. In some cases,
the nut rotates while the screw moves axially with no rotation.
The materials commonly used are steel for the screw and
bronze or brass for the nut. To reduce the amount of bronze
bimetallic nuts are used in the form of a steel or a cast iron shell
lined with bronze by the centrifugal method.

11-2. Form of threads :

Fig. 11-1 illustrates three thread forms (square threads, Acme
threads and Buttress threads) used for transmitting power.
The square thread will transmit power without any side thrust but is difficult
to cut when the lead is long, on account of the difficulty in clearing tool from the
groove. They can not be used conveniently with split or half nuts on account
of the difficulty of disengagement.
The Acme thread, though not as efficient as the square thread, is easier to
cut or mill, is stronger than square thread and permits the use of a split nut which
can be used to take up wear. In a trapezoidal thread the angle is 30° instead
of 29°, which is the case for Acme threads.
The Buttress thread form combines the higher efficiency of the square thread
and the ease of cutting and adaptability to a split nut of the Acme thread;
furthermore it is stronger than other forms because of greater thickness at the
base of the thread. It is employed in jack screws where power is transmitted
in one direction only. Sometimes 10° modified square threads are used.
Art. 11-31 POWER SCREWS 52
Multiple-threaded screws are employed when a comparatively large axial
movement is required without much reduction of area at the root of the threads.
Multiple threads will increase the efficiency and the travelling speed of the sliding
element but the mechanical advantage may be reduced and the self locking pro-
perty may be lost.
The pitch of a screw thread is the distance between adjacent
crests, while the lead is the distance the nut will advance axially
for one turn of the screw. The pitch and lead are alike in single
threaded screws; the lead is twice the pitch in double threaded and three
times the pitch in triple threaded screws.

t4- P -ti A if k

Square threads Acme threads

Buttress threads
IF
Various forms of power threads
FIG. 11-1

Power screws with multiple threads are employed when it is

desired to secure a large lead with fine threads or high efficiency.

11-3. Force analysis:

•
(a) Square threads:
Fig. 11-2 shows a simplified square threaded power screw
with single thread having a mean diameter dm, a pitch p, a helix
angle a and loaded by the axial compressive force P. It can be
proved from first principles that the torque T required to raise the
load against the thread friction is given by
Pdm
T . - - tan (cc + (1)) (i)
2
530 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. X./

where 4 is the friction angle which is equal to tan-1 p, where p, is

the coefficient of friction between the threads in contact.
The helix angle a is given by
lead
a = tan-1 (ii)
Tam
The efficiency of square threads is given by the expression
tan a
(iii)
1 — tan (a -I- 4)

Square threaded screw Collar friction

FIG. 11-2 FIG. 11-3
When efficiency of the screw is less than 50%, it is said to
be self locking. The self locking screw requires a positive torque
to lower the screw or to loosen the screw if it has been turned
tight against the resistance. It can be proved from principles of
mechanics that for a square thread to be self locking the friction
angle should be greater than the helix angle. In design of screw
jacks and many other power screws applications, the self locking
property is intentionally introduced to prevent reverse motion
when an effort is removed.
However, the use of multithread screw is preferred in presses.
Here the self locking property is not required; on the contrary
having pressed the part or material, appreciable turning moment is
to be applied to the screw in order to reverse it. Hence if non
self-locking screw is used the screw under the action of the reaction
of the body pressed rotates itself in the direction opposite to that
of the pressing force.
In the preceding equations, only the friction in the thread is
taken into account. Some additional torque must be applied in
order to overcome the thrust or collar bearing friction. Fig. 11-3
Art. 11-31 POWER SCREWS 531

shows a typical thrust collar having R and r as the outer and inner
radii of the collar. If 1.1.1 be the coefficient of the collar friction
then torque required to overcome friction at the collar surface is
given by
2 n [R3 — /4
T = p., I- (iv)
3 R2 — r2
The above equation is, sometimes, written as
l_tiP d f
Ti. ----= (v)
2
where d/ is called the mean friction diameter of the collar.
The total torque is obtained by adding the results of eq. (i),
and (iv) or (v). The efficiency will be given by (when we consider
the collar friction)
tam: (1 — l.c tam()
(vi)
d/
tan: + [I + [11 — ( 1 — IL tans)
dm
The coefficient of friction for the threads of translation screw
is found to be independent of the load and speed within the
ranges used in common practice. It shows little variation for
different combinations of commercial materials. It is found to
depend on quality of material, workmanship in cutting threads
and lubrication.
The coefficient of thread friction varies from 0.10 to 0.15
depending upon the workmanship and condition of. lubrication.
The coefficient of collar friction may be taken as the same as for
thread friction. The coefficient of friction for the starting condi-
tions may be taken as 33% more than the value for running condi-
tions. C. W. Ham and D. G. Ryan give the following values
of coefficient of friction for the thrust collars of power screws:
Material Running friction Starting faction
Soft steel on cast iron 0.121 0.170
Hardened steel on cast iron 0.092 0.147
Soft steel on bronze 0.084 0.101
Hardened steel on bronze 0.063 0.081

(b) Acme threads and Trapezoidal threads:

Torque required to overcome friction and raise the load,
when pivot friction is neglected, is given by
n dm [cos f3 tan o c-1- ill
T .. 1--- —
2 cos p- 1.t, tan cc
532 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XI

where p is taken as one-half the thread angle, which is 144° in

case of Acme threads and 15° in case of trapezoidal threads.
Strictly speaking (3 should be the pressure angle in a plane normal
to the thread, rather than the pressure angle in the diametral plane,
the relation being
tan 1 = tan 14.5° cosy or tan 15° cosa (viii)
Since a be small for power screws, cos a may be taken to be
unity and (3 is taken to be 14.5° for Acme threads and 15° for
trapezoidal threads.
If there is some friction at the pivot, the total torque to turn
the screw will be the sum of that from equation (vii) and that at
the pivot.
The efficiency of the Acme thread or trapezoidal thread
is given by,
tan a (1 — [1, sec 13 tan a)
— (ix)
tan a + i..t. sec pi

11-4. Design of a screw:

The screw is subjected to a heavy compressive or tensile
stresses depending upon the method of mounting the screw and the
manner of transmitting the desired power. It is also subjected to
the torsional shear stresses induced by the external turning
moment applied, though a part of this turning moment may be
used in overcoming the friction of the bearings, depending upon
the arrangement of the nut and the screw. In addition the threads
of both, screw and nut, are subjected to shear.
If the normal (direct and compressive) and shear stresses on
the section of the screw were to be the functions of the same
dimension, it would have been possible to write the equation in
such a form that direct solution for the core diameter of the screw
was possible. Unfortunately this is not the case for power screws.
The section of the screw is a function of core diameter, mean dia-
meter, helix angle,-the coefficient of friction and the pivot bearing
friction diameter. The helix angle cannot be calculated until
the mean diameter and pitch or lead are known. For this reason
the screw diameter must be selected by a trial and error solution.
The following procedure for the design of a screw is
suggested:
Art. 11-4] POWER SCREWS 533

The axial load on the screw is generally known; by using a

reasonable factor of safety the core diameter or the root diameter
of the screw is obtained. If the screw is under compression and
if the unsupported length of the screw between the load and the nut
is more than ten times the calculated core diameter, the factor of
safety must be increased to 20 per cent to allow for the column
action of the screw and the core diameter should be re-calculated.
Then by referring to table of power threads, an outside diameter
can be selected for square or Acme or trapezoidal threads with
the required root area and the pitch or lead. We decide whether
to use single — or multiple threaded screw. The angle of helix is
obtained by the formula
lead
a = tan-1 - (i)
ndm
The mean diameter of the screw, dm, is taken as the outside
diameter less the depth of the thread for square threads. The
suitable value of the coefficient of friction is assumed. The torque
required to overcome friction at the thread is calculated by the
equation
dm
T P - tan(a 4)).
2
The shear stress, fs, induced in the core diameter, do is
calculated by the equation
16 T
(ii)
= ndc3
or
dc = 1.72 3/ T- (iii)
fs
The trapezoidal threads are commonly adopted for power
screws. The angle of thread is 30°. Tr 60 x 9 means the
outside diameter or nominal diameter of the screw is 60 mm and
pitch of the thread is 9 mm. Tr means trapezoidal threads.
Core diameter = Nominal diameter — pitch — clearance.

Mean diameter = Nominal diameter pitch

2 •
Clearance is 0.5 mm for nominal diameters upto 110 mm and
1 mm for nominal diameters more than 110 mm.
The table of trapezoidal threads is given on page 534:
534 MACHINE DESIGN I. Ch. X/
Trapezoidal threads
Nominal diameter Core diameter Mean diameter Core area Pitch
d dc dm ac p
mm mm mm sq cm nun
10 6.5 8.5 0.33 3
12 8.5 10.5 0.57 3
14 9.5 12 0.71 4
16 11.5 14 1.04 4
18 13.5 16 143 4
20 15.5 18 1.89 4
22 16.5 19.5 2.14 5
185 21.5 2.69 5
24
26 20.5 23.9 3.30 5
28 22.5 25.5 3.89 5
30 23.5 27 4.34 6
32 25.5 29 5.11 6
34 27.5 31 5.94 6
36 29.5 33 6 83 6
38 30.5 34.5 7.31 7
40 32.5 36.5 8.30 7
42 34.5 38.5 9.35 7
44 36.5 40.5 1046 7
46 37.5 42.0 11.04 8
48 39.5 44 12.25 8
50 41.5 46 13.53 8
52 43.5 48 14.86 8
55 45.5 50.5 16.26 9
58 48.5 53 5 18.47 9
60 50.5 55.5 20 03 9
62 52.5 57.5 21.65 9
65 54.5 60 23.33 10
68 57.5 63 25.97 10
70 59.5 65 27.81 10
72 61.5 67 29.71 10
75 64.5 70 32.67 10
78 67.5 73 39.78 10
80 69 5 75 37 94 10
82 71.5 77 40.15 10
85 72.5 79 41.28 12
88 75.5 82 44.77 12
90 77.5 84 47.17 12
92 79.5 86 49 64 12
95 82.5 89 5346 12
98 85.5 92 5741 12
100 87.5 94 60.13 12
105 92.5 99 67.20 12
110 97.5 104 74.66 12
115 100 108 78.54 14
120 105 113 86.59 14
125 110 118 95.03 14
130 115 123 103.87 14
135 120 128 113.1 14
140 125 133 122.72 14
145 130 138 132.73 14
150 133 142 138.93 16
155 138 147 149.57 16
160 143 152 160.61 16
165 148 157 172.03 16
170 153 162 183.85 16
175 158 167 196.07 16
Art. 11-5] POWER SCREWS 535
If the same section of the screw is subjected to both torsion
and compression and if the calculated value of the torsional shear
stress is greater than one-third of the tensile or compressive stress
in the screw, it is advisable to re-calculate the diameter of the
screw using 10 per cent greater factor of safety or we calculate
the principal stress due to combined effect of direct and shear
stresses, and the values of the principal stress or maximum shear
stress should be within safe limits. Finally the screw should be
checked as a column by taking suitable end connections. The
end fixity coefficient of a column will depend on the method
of mounting the screw in a mechanism. Screw supports with
h
ratio — --1.5 to 2, should be classed as hinged columns.
dc
11-5. Design of a nut:
The most important dimension in the design of a nut is the
height of the nut, which depends upon the amount of bearing
surface required between the thread surfaces. The permissible
bearing pressure depends on the speed of sliding. The projected
bearing surface of one thread is nearly equal to the arca of
the annular surface, the larger diameter of which is the outside
diameter of the screw and the smaller diameter will be the core
diameter. The required height h of the nut is
4pP
h --- n (d2 ___ dcz) pb (i)
where p. pitch of the thread
P = axial load
d ---,-- outer diameter of the screw
dc = core diameter
Pb = allowable bearing pressure intensity.
Material Permissible bearing
pressure intensity
Service
Screw Nut kg/sq cm

Hand press Steel Bronze 175— 225

Jack screw PI C.I. 126 — 175
,, PP Bronze 112 — l75
Hoisting screw II C.I. 42 — 70
PI ,, Bronze 56— 98
Lead screw 11 P1 10— 16
536 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XI

The values of allowable bearing pressure intensity for several

combinations of materials and speeds are given on page 535.
The bearing pressure intensity is restricted due to wear consi-
deration. It is customary to restrict the work lost in friction to
100 kg cm per second.

The ratio of — is selected from 1.2 to 2.5 for unsplit nuts and
dc
from 2.5 to 3.5 for split nuts. Nuts on the screws of screw cutting
lathe are split so that the nut can be separated from the driving
screw when plain turning or boring is carried out.
As a rule the threads will be safe in shear but the check should
be made in order to be sure. As the threads of the nut shear at
the major diameter while the threads of the screw shear at the
minor diameter, the shear area will be less for the thread on the
screw than that for the thread in the nut. Since the screw and nut
are made of different materials, it becomes necessary to calculate
separately the length of engagement required for the screw and
the nut.

/screw = -
pP
--,---
Tcac tcfs screw
pP
lnut r --
7"Cutis nut
where dc = core diameter of the screw
t = thread thickness at core diameter
d = outer diameter of the screw
t = thread thickness at outer diameter.
The outer diameter of the nut is usually made twicc the
diameter of the screw. However, it can be checked for direct
axial load (tensile & compressive) combined with torsion. The
nut can be treated as a hollow shaft. The permissible stress for
phosphor bronze nut may be taken from 600 to 700 kg/sq cm in
tension and compression and 250 to 350 kg/sq cm in shear.
Generally the nut, which is made of bronze is not integral
with the frame. It may be fixed in the body by interference fit.
If it is fitted in the body without interference fit, care must be
taken to see that it does not rotate with the thread of the screw.
There must be sufficient friction grip, between the nut and the
Art. 11-5] POWER SCREWS 537

frame. Generally, such type of nuts may be provided with a

flange, which acts as a collar. The friction torque of the collar is
given by
R8 — 0]
Ti = II.L IP [ --- (iv)
R2 — r2
where P = axial load on the screw
Ili = coefficient of the collar friction
R = outer radius of the Collar
r = inner radius of the collar.
With usual notations, the thread friction torque of the screw is
given by

T= P -2 tan ( cc + ci)) (v)

Let T kg cm be the thread friction torque and N the operating

speed in r.p.m. of the nut.
Energy lost in friction --= T x 27rN kg cm/minute If n be
the number of threads in a nut then work lost in friction per thread
T x 2rc N
per minute wiil he kg cm/thread/minute. Bearing
n
—7' [d2 ----- 42] where d and dc are respectively
area per thread = 4
nominal and core diameter of the screw in cm.
4.. T x 2nN
Energy lost in friction/sq cm of bearing surface = 60_ x n
!_r [d2 — d62]
4
= __TN kg cm/second/sq cm of bearing surface.
7.5n [d2 — dc2]
The energy given by the above equation should not exceed
100 kg cm. Thus from wear considerations the operating speed
of the nut can be determined if the height of the nut has been
decided earlier. If the operating speed is known, the minimum
height of the nut can be determined.

If the friction torque between the flange of the nut and the
contact surface of the body is greater than thread friction torque,
the nut will be prevened from turning with the screw. If the
thread friction torque is more than the collar friction torque,
538 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

set screw should be provided to fix the nut in the body of the frame.
The torque to be resisted by the set screw will be equal to the
thread friction torque less collar friction torque.

11-6. Compound screw:

It consists of a right hand and a left hand thread wound on
either the same or different cylinders as shown in fig. 11-4. When

(b)
Compound screw
FIG. 11-4

wound on the same cylinder two nuts are employed as shown in

fig. 11-4(a). When wound on different cylinders one nut is employed.
Usually both threads have the same pitch. Each revolution of
the screw causes two nuts to move towards one another a distance
equal to the sum of the two pitches. The torque required to
overcome friction at the thread surfaces is given by
d21
T , PL = Fr Pi ± (-Lind' Y di. + P2 — VI 7rd2 X (i)
L ndi — v., p, 2 Trd2 + 42 P2 2j
where
Pi, P2 - pitch of the threads
ti,I, 1.1.2 = coefficient of friction of threads
di , d2 =-- mean diameter of screw threads.
If the coefficient of friction is zero, the ideal torque w ill be
F (Pi + Pz) (ii)
Ti-
2Tc
The efficiency of the compound screw will be given by
T,
(iii)
11 — T
Art. 11-8] POWER SCREWS 539

11-7. Differential Screw:

It is used to obtain very small movements in precision equip-
ment. It consists of two threads of the same hand but of different
pitches wound on the same or different cylinders as shown in
fig. 11-5. One revolution of the nut causes the nuts to move

(a)
Differential screw
Fm. 11-5
towards each other a distance equal to the difference of two pitches.
The torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces is
given by
1 [127" d]
X dl -r
T = .131. ---=-- F FPI ±--11 1 ndi -- —12 — P2
X (i)
1...ndi Eith. 2 Trd2 + Na ps 22
The ideal torque T1 is given by
.s.
Ti = F_(P2
— 27c— PO (ii)
The efficiency of the differential screw is given by
Ti
—
71 T
The efficiency for differential screws may be less than 5%.

11-8. Ball screws:

The effort to reduce friction in a power screw, which is of special importance in
hand operated drives has resulted in the development of designs in which the
sliding friction has been substituted by the rolling friction.
A typical ball screw assembly consists of two components: a screw with circular
form threads, and a nut assembly with an internal helical ball groove to permit
the flow of a continuous row of steel balls. Rotation of either the screw or nut
causes the rolling balls to move along the helical path. The balls travel at appro-
ximately half the speed of the races and exit at the trailing end of the nut. To
keep the balls rolling continuously in the system, a return tube deflects and recircu-
540 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

lates the balls to the leading end of the nut (Fig. 11.6). The function of ball
screws is similar to that of trapezoidal screw and nut but with the following impor-
tant advantages:

(i) High efficiency

(ii) Low starting friction

(iii) Accurate positioning.

Because of low coefficient of friction, both rotary to linear functions are reversible;
that is a linear motion of either the screw or the nut can cause other member to
rotate.

Threads on most types are machined or rolled. When machined, they are
rough cut, hardened and then ground to obtain highest position accuracy,
efficiency, load capacity and life.

"%sir
Circular
Screw form thread

Nut
Balls
• • ••
ei

Ball Screw
til
Return tube

FIG. 11-6

Rolled threads, on the other hand, are cheaper to produce and offer considera-
ble cost savings if quantities are sufficiently high.

Load life characteristics of ball screws are similar to those of ball bearings.
Because most of the loading is in thrust, ball screws operate similarly to a series of
angular contact ball beatings. The sides of the ball grooves extend almost to the
mid point of the ball.

The ball screw can be rated for static loading as well as dynamic loading.
The dynamic load carrying capacity is usually of greater importance than the
static load capacity, since fatigue is the primary cause of failure, the load-life rating
of a ball screw is based on the number of times a ball rolls over a particular point
in the race way and the load on that point as each ball passes over it. Lffe varies
:aversely as the cube of the load. Doubling the rated load cuts life to one eighth, reduc-
ing the load in half increases life eight times. This rated value is only about one-
fifth the actual average life.
Art. 11-81 POWER SCREWS 541

Examples:
1. The compressive load on the nut and Handle'
screw clamp shown in fig. 11-7 is 3,000 kg.
Calculate the diameter of the screw, height of the
nut and the dimensions of the handle if a force Screw" 12
of 30 kg is required to be applied at the end of a
handle to operate the screw. Assume the following:
Safe compressive stress for screw lirri Nut
= 1,200 kg/sq cm.
Bearing pressure for screw and nut
3000 IN
= 175 kg/sq cm.
Coef ficient of screw thread friction = 0.14. FIG. 1 1-7
Frictional torque of pad B = 350 kg cm.
Bending stress in the handle = 1,000 kg/sq cm.
The screw is subjected to a direct compressive stress and
torsional shear stress. In order to find the diameter of the screw,
we must consider the principal stress. Let us find the diameter
of the screw and assuming that it is subjected to direct compressive
load and taking the lower value of the stress, say 850 kg/sq cm.
If d be the diameter of the screw at the bottom of the thread,
4 d2 x 850 --, 3000
3000 4
Or d -,- I --
x = 2.12 cm; we adopt 2.5 cm.
-1 850

We adopt single start square threads having 5 mm pitch.

••• Mean diameter of the screw ----: 25 -I- 2.5 = 27.5 mm.
Outside diameter of the screw = 25 + 5 = 30 mm.
TC
Bearing area of each thread --, [32 — 2.52] ---= 2.16 sq cm.
4
If n be the number of threads, then
n x 2.16 x 175 = 3000
3000=
or n= 8 threads.
2.16 x 175
From stability point of view, we adopt 10 threads. The height
of the nut will be 10 x 5 = 50 mm. The outside diameter of
the nut is generally twice the outside diameter of the screw. In
the present case it will be 2 x 3 = 6 cm.
542 MACHINE DES/014 f Ch. XI

0.5 = 3. 30 .
a -=helix angle = tan'' d= tan-1
Ic dm
m n X 2.75
41 ---- friction angle = tan-' .L ----- tan-' 0.14 -.---. 8.1°.
Torque required to overcome friction at the nut will be equal
dm .75
to P- tan (a ± 4)) = 3000 x - tan 11.4° ----- 820 kg cm.
2 2
Torque required to overcome friction at the pad =350 kg cm.
Total torque to be applied at the handle = 820 + 350
=--- 1,170 kg cm.
170
. • . Effective length of the handle = 1 - = 39 cm; we adopt 40 cm.
30
If d cm be the diameter of the handle, then

n d3 x 1000 .-,-- 1170

32

or d= 171170 32- - ,-- 2.28 cm; we adopt 2.3 cm.

V 1000 x .7i
Iffs be the torsional shear stress induced in the screw, then
7T
X 2•53 X fs - 1170
16
or fs . 1170 x 16 ---- 383 kg/sq cm.
IT Y 2.53
3000
Direct compressive stress -,--- — 610 kg/sq cm.
n
4 x 2.52

610 ± V6102 + 4 x 3832

Principal stress -_-
2
= 794 kg/sq cm and — 184 kg/sq cm.
The value of the induced stress is within safe limits.
Dimensions of the screw: Nominal diameter 3 cm, single start square thread of
5 mm pitch; nut of 5 cm height having 6 cm outside diameter Lever 40 cm of
effective length having 23 mm diameter

2. A vertical two start square threaded screw of 10 cm mean dia-

meter of 2 cm pitch supports a vertical load of 1,800 kg. The nut for
the screw is fitted in the hub of a gear wheel having 80 teeth which meshes
with a pinion of 60 teeth. The mechanical efficiency of the wheel and
pinion is 90%. The axial thrust of the vertical screw is taken on a collar
bearing 10 cm inside diameter and 25 cm outside diameter for which a
uniform pressure condition may be assumed. If the coefficient of friction
Art. 11-8] POWER SCREWS 543

for the vertical screw is 0.15 and for the collar is 0.2, determine the mini-
num diameter of the pinion shaft and the length of the nut. The permissible
value of the shear stress in the shaft material is limited to 550 kg/sq cm.
Allow the bearing pressure as 15 kg/sq cm for threads.
As the square thread is two start, the lead of the thread is twice
the pitch.
2x2
helix angle = tan-' 2p
—— tan-1
an-1 7° — 15'.
tdm rr x 10
friction angle -= tan-' = tan-1 0.15 ---,-- 8° — 32'.
As the friction angle is greater than the helix angle, the arrange-
ment is self locking
Torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces
dm 10
P -2-- tan (a + 4)) = 1800 x tan (15° 47')
2
— 2,542 kg cm.
Torque required to overcome friction at the collar
rR2 — r3] [112.53— 53
P-P R2 - r2— v 0.2 y 1800 12'52— 52
3,340 kg can.
Total torque required at the gear wheel = 2542 + 3340
— 5,882 kg cm.
The mean radius of the pinion is less than that of the gear
wheel and since torque is proportional to the radius, the: torque on
the pinion will be less than 5,882 kg cm. As the radius of the gear
wheel is proportional to the number of teeth, the torque will be
proportional to the number of teeth in the gear. As the mechanical
efficiency is 90%, the torque on the pinion shaft will he
60 100
5882 x x -- 4,900 kg cm.
80 90
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
TC
d3 x 550 4900.
16
d a 4900 16
X 3.56 cm; we adopt 3.6 cm.
y550 It
Bearing area per thread =-- it x 10 x 1 = 314 sq cm.
Bearing load that can be supported by each thread will be
314 x 15 = 473 kg.
544 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

1800
Number of threads required in nut = 70-§. = 3-8.
For stability purpose, we adopt 6 threads.
The height of the, nut will be 6 x 2 = 12 cm.
3. It is required to determine the
pressure P that the screw of the bracket clamp Egi
shown in fig. 11-8 can exert so that the Pi
compressive stress in the screw shall not 20011
exceed 1,000 kg/sq cm. Assume square
threads of 6 mm pitch. Determine the
bearing pressure coming upon the threads, also
the efficiency of the screw assuming the
cogficient of friction 0.12. Determine the
maximum stress produced in the section AB
when the load upon the screw has the magni-
tude determined earlier. Determine the size FIG. 11-8
of the two bolts used to fasten the bracket
clamp to the platen, assuming that the permissible tensile stress is
1,400 kg/sq cm.
The screw is subjected to direct compressive stress and tor-
sional shear stress. In order to find the load, we should consider
the principal stress. As torsional shear stress is not known, we
calculate the load by considering the lower value of the stress, say
700 kg/sq cm.
The outside diameter of the screw is 75 mm. The pitch of
the threads is 6 mm.
Inner diameter of the screw =---- 75 — 6 ------- 69 mm.
The maximum pressure P = area at the core of the screw
x allowable stress intensity
Tc
= 4 x 6.92 x 700 = 26,000 kg.
Bearing pressure on threads :
0
Number of threads in the nut = —
20
6— = 33.

Bearing area per thread = ;7 (7.52 — 6.92) = 6.79 sq cm.

r 26000
• • Bearing pressure = = 1,160 kg/sq cm.
33 x 6.79
Art. 11.81 POWER SCREWS 545

Efficiency:
9 = friction angle = tan-1 12, = tan-1 0.12 = 6° — 54'.
a = helix angle = tan-1 I— = tan-1
6
72 = 1° — 36'.
Tam 7C X
As the friction angle is greater than the helix angle, the
arrangement is self locking. The efficiency of the screw is given by
tan a tan 1° — 36' 0.0278
= =0.186, i.e. 18.6%.
= tan (a + 4,) = tan 8° — 30' 0.14§5
Torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces
m 26000 x 7.2
= P d tan (a + cI)) = x 0.1495 = 13,600 kg cm.
2 2
Iffs be the torsional shear stress induced in the screw, then
7c
x 6.92 x fs = 13600
16
13600 x 16
or fs = 209 kg/sq cm.
7C X 6'93 =
The principal stress in the screw will be
700 + v'7002 + 4 x 2092
= 757 kg/sq cm. This value is
2
less than the permissible value of 1,000 kg/sq cm.
Size of the bolts:
Due to load of 26,000 kg, the bolts are subjected to tensile
loading. The tilting of the bracket is resisted by the extensional
load produced in the bolts. If F be the load produced in each
bolt, then
2 x F x 30 = 26000 x 55
26000 x 55
or F = — - — = 24,000 kg.
2-x 30
The permissible tensile stress intensity is 1,400 kg/sq cm.
24000
••• Minimum area required at the bottom of the thread =
1400
= 17.3 sq cm.
From the table of threads, we adopt M 60 bolts.
Stress in section AB:
Area of section AB = 20 x 3.8 + 3.8 x 36.2 = 213 sq cm.
If x be the c.g. of the section from the top of the flange,
then x x 213 = 20 x 3.8 X 1.9 + 3.8 x 36.2 x 21.9.
•• x = 14.8 cm.
546 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XI

The load of 26,000 kg is eccentric with respect to the section

and the eccentricity is 15 + 14.8 = 29.8 cm.
Second moment of area of section about neutral axis
11 14.8
= f 3.8x2 dx + j 20x2 dx = 34,200 cm4.
-25•2 11
34200=
Tensile modulus of section = 2,310 ems.
14.8
34200
Compressive modulus of section = -2 1,310 cm2.
5.2 =
26000 x 29.8
Maximum tensile stress due to bending =
2310
= 325 kg/sq cm.
26000 x 29.8
Maximum compressive stress due to bending —
1310
= 596 kg/sq cm.
6000
Direct tensile stress on the section = 22 = 120 kg/sq cm.
13-
Maximum tensile stress in the top of the flange = 335 + 120
= 455 kg/sq cm.
Maximum compressive stress in the bottom of the leg
= 596 — 120 = 476 kg/sq cm.
The distance of the fibre of the zero stress can be obtained.
If y be the distance of the fibre of zero stress from the c.g., we have
26000 x 29.8 x y
120 = --
34200
or y = 5.3 cm.
Thus, the fibre of zero stress is at a distance of 14.8 + 5.3
= 20.1 cm from the top of the flange of the section.
4. Design a screw jack for lifting a load of 5,500 kg through a
height of 25 cm. The screw is to be made of steel for which Rankine
1
constants are 3,300 kg/sq cm and -- - for column pin jointed at both
7500
ends. Use a factor of safety 4. The nut is made of gun metal for which
the allowable shear stress is 250 kg/sq cm and the allowable bearing pressure
far screw threads 100 kg/sq cm. The nut is fixed in the cast iron housing and
the screw is turned in the nut by means of a tommy bar inserted in suitable
holes in the head of the screws. Some form of swivelling device is to be
provided on the top to prevent the load from turning while being raised.
The coefficient of friction of the threads and collar may be taken as 0.14.
Art. 11-81 PoWEI ickEWII 547
The screw jack of bottle type, as shown in fig. 11-9, consists of a screw at the
top of which load to be lifted is placed. The load is prevented from rotation by
providing a swivel. The nut is press fixed in the main body which is usually made
of cast iron. The effort is applied by means of a tommy bar inserted in suitable
holes in the head of the screw. The screw is under direct compression due to
load and torsional shear stresses will be set up when it is being raised. When the
load is raised through the maximum lift it is subjected to buckling also. The
load may not be applied centrally due to carelessness of the worker, as a result,
the bending stresses are induced in the screw.
The friction between the screw head and cup over the circular supporting
surface can be reduced either by diminishing the radius of cup supporting surface
or by replacing sliding friction by rolling friction; for this purpose a thrust ball
bearing is introduced. The end of the screw is provided with a washer that prevents
it from being screwed out of the nut completely through negligence.

The screw will be made of mild steel for which the ultimate
strength is 4,500 kg/sq cm. As the screw is likely to get very rough
handling we should take higher factor of safety.
First of all, we determine the diameter of the screw from con-
sideration of the direct compressive load taking the lower value of
the stress and then we check for the principal stress.
We take fe = 550 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the core diameter of the screw, then

.1 d2 x 550 = 5500
4
E.-

or d = 115500
560 X 47r- = 3.68 cm; we adopt 3.8 cm.
We assume square threads having pitch of 8 mm.
Outside diameter of the screw = 38 + 8 = 46 mm.
+ 46
Mean diameter of the screw = 38 = 42 mm.
. 2
8
a = helix angle = tan-1 P = tan-1 = 3° — 36'.
ndm 3.14 x 42
p = friction angle = tan-1 1.1. = tan-1 0.14 = 7°-58'.
As the friction angle is greater than the helix angle, the arrange-
ment is self locking. The frictional torque, T, required to over-
come friction at the thread surfaces = P dm- tan (a + p).
548 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

5500 x 4.2
T tan (11°-34') 2,420 kg cm.
2

Types of bearing cup

(a) (b)

Bottle type screw jack

ha. 11.9
Art. 11-8] POWER SCREWS 549

Let us check the screw for the principal stress.

Direct compressive stress = 5500= 484 kg/sq cm.

ir
4 x 3.88

Maximum torsional shear stress = 2420= 225 kg/sq cm.

n
16 X 3.83

484 + V4842 + 4 x 2252

Maximum principal stress =
2
= 652 kg/sq cm.
Factor of safety = 4-1-00- 6.9 which is adequate.
652 = '
Before, we can check the screw for buckling, we decide upon
the dimensions of the head of the screw, which will be made integral
with the screw spindle. It is general practice to make the dia-
meter of the head of the screw 1.75 times the outside diameter of
the screw. The diameter of the head of the screw will be equal to
1.75 x 4.6 = 8 cm.
Two holes, at right angles to each other, will be bored for inserting the handle
to rotate the screw. One hole would have been sufficient for inserting the handle
but it is convenient to change the position of the handle after a quarter revolution.

The seat for the cup is made 8 cm in diameter. This cup is

provided at the top of the head to prevent the load from rotating.
The cup is fitted to the head by means of 1.5 cm pin whit' l remains
a loose fit in the cup. The thickness of the cup will be 1 cm,
height 5 cm and the outer diameter of the cup at the top will be
14 cm. Frictional torque, T, at the cup will be I µP (R3 — r3\ .
1P — r2 )
II = I x 0.14 x 5500 (43— 0.753
42- 0.752 ) = 2,04° kg cm.
The portion of the screw below the handle is subjected to a
torque of 2,420 kg cm, while the portion above the handle is
subjected to a torque of 2,040 kg cm. Total torque to be applied
by the handle = 2420 + 2040 = 4,460 kg cm. Let us assume
the permissible stress in the handle to be 1,250 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the handle, then
./t d3 x 1250 = 4460
32
550 MACHINE DESIGN Ch. XI

13/4460 32
or = 3.25 cm; we adopt 3.5 cm.
d 1250 X
Let us keep the height of the screw head = 2 X 3.5 = 7 cm.
Let us check the screw head for compressive stress as it has
been weakened by two holes of 3.5 cm diameter.
The area of the cross section of head through holes equals
7C
-4- X 82 -8 x 3.5 — 3.5 (8 — 3.5) =8.5 sq cm.
50
Compressive stress intensity = 5 0 = 646 kg/sq cm, which is
85
within safe limits.
Let us check the screw for buckling.
Lift of the jack = 25 cm. The height of the head = 7 cm.
The length of the screw, which is unsupported will be 25 + 7
= 32 cm. When the maximum lift is attained the screw can
be looked upon as a strut fixed at the lower end and free at the
top. The end fixity coefficient for this column will be 0.25.
Therefore,
1 1
Rankine constant will be
7500 x 0.25 1875
7C
3300 x x 3.82
fc . A 4
Rankine load for the screw
1 l \2 = 1 (32x4\ 2
a (k) 1875 3:8
= 23,200 kg.
The factor of safety is 4.
23200
••• Permissible buckling load —4 = 5,800 kg.
As the value of the buckling load is greater than the value of
the specified load, the screw is safe against buckling.
Design of a nut:
Bearing area per thread = [4.62 — 3.821 = 5.24 sq cm.

Minimum number of threads in the nut = 5500 10.5.

100 x 5.24
In order to provide stability, we adopt 12 threads giving a
height of the nut as 9.6 cm. The outer diameter of the nut is
taken as twice the outer diameter of the screw. We take 2 x 4.6
9.2 cm as the outer diameter of the nut.
Art. 114] POWER SCREWS 551

The collar of the nut, which is made of gun metal, rests on

the casting of the main body and it may be crushed under the
load being lifted. The outer diameter of the collar is taken as
12.5 cm. Crushing area between the collar of the nut and the
body will be —
Tr [12.52 — 9.22] = 56.2 sq cm.
4
5500
Crushing stress intensity 8-6.2 --= 98 kg/sq cm, which is
reasonably low.
Thickness of the collar will be adopted 15 mm.
Area that resists shearing of the collar = rc x 9.2 x 1.5
= 43.5 sq cm.
5500 = 126.5 kg/sq cm,
Shear stress induced in the collar = 4s.-6-
which is less than 250 kg/sq cm which is the permissible value.
Design of the body :
Length of the threaded portion of the screw = lift + height
of the nut = 25 + 9.6 = 34.6 cm.
.. Height of the body will be taken as 40 cm.
Thickness of the casting will be 15 mm.
Diameter of the body at the top will be 15 cm.
Inside diameter of the body at the base will be 18 cm.
Bottom flange diameter will be taken as 30 cm.
Thickness of the flange will be 25 mm.
Lever :
The diameter of the lever is calculated as 3.5 cm.
Let us assume that two persons apply load at the end of a
lever.
The operation is intermittent so 40 kg can be applied by a
person.
0
The effective length of the handle will be 44640 = 55.5 cm.
2x
Allowing some length for gripping, we adopt 70 cm as the
length of the handle.
When the load is at the topmost position and when the effort
is being applied at the end of the handle, the body is likely to
topple. The effort will be acting at a distance of 40 + 25 + 3.5
= 68.5 cm from the base of the body.
552 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

If x be the distance, from the centre of the base, at which the

resultant meets the case, we have
x x 5500 = 80 x 68.5
80 x 68.5 ,
or x .---- = 1 cm.
5500
Thus, we see that the body is stable against toppling.
5. A machine slide weighing 300 kg is elevated by a two start Acme
thread (29° thread angle) 4 cm diameter, 0.6 cm pitch, at the rate of 0.6
metrelminute. If the coefficient of friction be 0.12, calculate the horse power
of the motor to drive the slide. The end of the screw is carried on a thrust
collar 3 cm inside and 5.5 cm outside diameter.
The screw is two start with 0.6 cm pitch. During one rota-
tion of the screw, slide advances by 0.6 x 2 = 1.2 cm. In one
minute the slide is elevated by 0.6 x 100 = 60 cm.
The speed of rotation of the screw = 6 2 = 50 r.p.m.
Mean diameter of the thread = 4 — 0.3 = 3.7 cm.
, ad 1.2
a = helix angle = tan-- le -- = tan-,- x 3.7 ---= 5° — 55'.
ndm n
Since thread angle is 29°, the modified coefficient of friction
will be 0.12 sec 14i° = 0.124.
cl) .-- friction angle ----- tan-1 0.124 = 7°-4'.
Torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces
d 3.7
= Pin tan (a + 4.) = 300 X -2- tan (12°-59')
= 128 kg cm.
Torque required to overcome friction at the collar surface
D R3 - 741 [2.752— 1.5s
= ili./R2 _ r2 1 = i x 0.12 x 300 2,752 — 1.52
...
= 79 kg cm.
Total torque required to overcome friction at threads and
collar = 128 + 79 = 207 kg cm.
I-1.p. = _ TN = 207 x 50
0.144.
71620 71620 =
6. Following data apply to the machinists' clamp:
Outside diameter of the screw 1.4 cm; root diameter 0.95 cm; pitch
(single thread) = 0.4 cm; collar friction radius = 0.6 cm; collar friction
coef ficient = 0.15; screw friction coefficient = 0.15, thread angle 30°.
Art. 114] POWER SCREWS 5 53

Assume that the machinist can comfortably exert a maximum force of 12 kg

on the handle whose radius is 13 cm. Calculate the maximum clamping
force that can be developed between the jaws of the clamp and the efficiency
of the clamp.
The equivalent coefficient of friction ii.' = - 30. = 1.04 IL
cos
2
-,--- 1.04 x 0.15 = 0.156.
4) = friction angle = tan-' 0.156 = 8°-42'.
1.4 0.95
Mean diameter of the screw = - -- = 1.175 cm.
2
a = helix angle = tan-' x0-1.1-75 = 6°-10'.
Let P be the maximum value of the clamping force.
Torque required to overcome friction at the thread
d,n
--= P -T tan (a +y)
• 1.175
.- P x - tan (14°-52') = 0.1559P kg cm.
2
Torque required to ovecome friction at the collar
--.-- 0.6 x P x 0.15 = 0.09P kg cm.
Total torque required to overcome friction .,---: 0.2459P.
Torque supplied = 13 x 12 -,- 156 kg cm.
•• 156 ------ 0.2459/'
156
or P= = 634 kg.
0 .2459
useful work done 634 x 04
. -
.1 -= -energy supplied 156 x 2n
- 0.259, i.e. 25.9%.
7. Fig. 11-10 shows a toggle jack to lift a. load of 500 kg. The
jack is operated by a lever 38 cm long. The eight links are symmetrical
and 11.2 cm long. Determine (a) the lift of the jack, (b) the dimensions of
the square threaded screw if the permissible tensile stress intensity is limited to
900 kg/sq cm; assume pitch of the threads as 6 mm, (c) the maximum
torque to be applied to the screw shaft and (d) the length of the nut if the
bearing pressure is limited to 200 kesq cm. Assume the coefficient of
thread friction to be 0.15.
How will you design the pins and symmetrical links?
554 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

From the dimensions given in the figure, we can assume that

the distance between the nuts varies from 5 to 21.8 cm. When
the jack is in top position the distance between the centre lines
of the nuts will be 5 cm. The height of the line joining two pins
in the load platform from the line joining two pins in the base
when the jack is in top position will be 3.8 + 21/11.2 2 — 1 2 = 26
cm. The similar distance, when the jack is in bottom position
will be 3.8 + 2141.22 — 9.42 = 16 cm.

1 500kg
AAA AAATIP

Pin
Nut....„ Screw

R H Threads L H Threads

50 to 218mm

Link Link

Base

L i/
Toggle screw jack
Fm. 11-10

Lift of the jack will be 26 — 16 = 10 cm.

The maximum load in the screw will occur when the jack
is in bottom position. The load in the screw will be tensile one.
When the jack is in bottom position, the link will be inclined at
94
an angle cos-1 1 = 33° -- 24' to the horizontal. The component
11.2
500_
of force in the link along the screw will be -
2 x tan 33° — 24'
= 379 kg. As this pull acts at two pin joints at the nut, the
Art. 11.8] POWER SCREWS 555

total tensile pull in the screw will be 2 x 379 = 758 kg. The
screw is also subjected to torsional shear stress.
If 4 be the core diameter of the screw, then
42 x 900 = 758
4
758 4
Or 4= x- 11 cm.
// 900 TC

In order to account for the torsional shear stress, we adopt

the core diameter as 16 mm. As the pitch of the thread is 6 mm,
the outer diameter of the screw will 16 + 6 = 22 mm and the
mean diameter will be 16 -I- 3 = 19 mm.
6
cc = helix angle = tan-1 = tan-1 - — — 5° — 42'.
— X 1 .9
7C
friction angle = tan-1 µ = tan-1 0.15 = 8° — 32'.
Torque required to overcome frition at both the surfaces will
1.9
be 2xPx m tan (cc + 1)) = 2 x 758 x- tan (14° — 14')
2 2
365 kg cm.
Note: Toggle screw jacks are operated from one end only. However,
provision is made to operate the jack from either end as shown in fig. 11-10. If
the screw is operated from both the sides, the portion of the screw between the
nuts is subjected to tensile load only while the each end of the screw outside the
nut is subjected to torque due to friction at the threads. If the jack is to be opera-
ted from one end, then the screw portion within the nuts is subjected to a friction
torque at nut on the operating side in addition to tensile load.
Let us check the screw for principal stress.
758
Maximum value of direct tensile stress = —
7c
x 1.62
4
= 377 kg/sq cm.
Maximum torsional shear stress - 365 - —466 kg/sq cm.
6.x 1.63
1
The maximum value of the torsional shear stress on the por-
466
tion of the screw between the nuts = - = 233 kg/sq cm.
2 -I- 4 x 2332
Principal stress = 377 ± 1/377 = 488 kg/sq cm
2
tensile and 111 kg/sq cm compressive. Thus the design is safe.
Bearing area per thread = 4 (2.22 — 1.62) = 1.8 sq cm.
556 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XI

If n be the number of threads in the nut, then

n x 1.8 x 200 = 758
758
or n= — 2.1.
1.8 x 200
To have good stability and also to prevent rocking of the
screw in the nut, we adopt four threads in the nut.
The pins are designed on 374 kg load and they are in double
shear. Links are designed as struts which are hinged at both
ends for buckling in the vertical plane and they are fixed at both
ends for buckling in the plane at right angles to vertical plane.
(Please refer example 3 on page 511.)
8. A 26 mm trapezoidal screw is 40 cm long between the nut and
collar. The axial load is 2,400 kg and the torque in the screw between
the nut and collar is 1,000 kg cm. The load is applied repetitively from
zero to maximum. Assume the end fixity coef ficient as 1. Take the
actual stress concentration factor for threads in axial loading as 2.8 and
for the threads in torsion as 2. Determine the factor of safety if a steel
with a yield point of 3,500 kg/sq cm is used and the endurance limit for
the material for reversed bending is 2,200 kg/sq cm.
As the nominal diameter of a trapezoidal screw is 26 mm,
from the table, we find the core diameter as 20.5 mm. The slender-
4 x 40
ness ratio is = 78. Hence Rankine's formula is applicable.
2.05
For end fixity coefficient 1, Rankine's constant is 7x100 • Hence

the column effect is 1 + 2 . 1.815.

7500 x 78
The equivalent compressive stress due to an axial load of
2400 x 1.815
2,400 kg is - 1,220 kg/sq cm.
n
4 x 2.05 2
As the load varies from zero to maximum, the equivalent
normal stress due to the variable loading, with a maximum stress
1220
fen, of 1,220 kg/sq cm, a mean stress of 2 = 610 kg/sq cm and a
variable stress at 610 kg/sq cm. is (with usual notations)
1; IC fm
= fu + fiABC
3500 Y 2.8 x 610
,- 610 + 3,170 kg/sq cm.
2206-x 0.7 x 0.8-5- x 1 =
Art. 11-8 ] POWER SCREWS 557

where A = 0.7 for axial loading

B = 0.85 to take into account for the size
and C = 1 since actual stress concentration factor is used.
1000
Shearing stress due to torsion -,- --- - -,--- 600 kg/sq cm.
-ir
16 x 2.053

The equivalent torsional shear stress, fes, due to the variable

loading with a maximum of 600 kg/sq cm, a mean stress of 300
kg/sq cm and a variable stress of 300 kg/sq cm is
3500 x 0.6 x 2 x 300
fes = 300 ± — 1,430 kg/sq cm.
2200 x 0.6 x 0-85 x 1
(The factor 0.6 is used to reduce the data to torsional shear
loading.)
The equivalent shear stress due to the variable loading,
according to maximum shear stress theory is
V(5170)2
+ 14302 .-- 2,960 kg/sq cm.
k2
If N be the design factor or factor of safety, then
0.5 x 3500
-- 2960
.V
0.5 x 3500
or N --- — 0.595.
2960
Thus the proposed design is unsatisfactory. A suitable design
factor will be from 1.5 to 2.

Exerlises :
1. A square thread screw 5 cm diameter is used to exert a force of
9,000 kg in a shaft straightening press. The maximum unsupported
length of the screw is 45 cm. The pitch of the thread is 10 mm. (a) What
is the equivalent compressive stress in the screw considering column effect
only? (b) What torque is necessary to turn the screw against the load
for N. -.----- 0.15? (c) What is the efficiency of the screw?
Ans. (a) 1,510 kg/sq cm; (b) 4,700 kg cm; (c) 30.8%.
2. A square, single threaded screw jack has 12 mm pitch. It is
to lift 13 tonnes. The friction radius of the collar is 2.5 cm. The
coefficient of friction between the threads of the screw and base is 0.15 and
that between the screw and collar is 0.13.
558 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XI

(a) Determine the diameter of the root of the screw for an allowable
stress in compression of 425 kg/sq cm.
(b) Determine the size of the lever to raise the load, the permissible
stress in the material being 1,300 kg/sq cm.
(c) Determine the force required at the end of 150 cm long lever to
raise the load.
(d) Determine the twisting moment exerted at the root of the
thread.
(e) Determine the efficiency of the screw and collar.
Ans. (a) 6.5 cm; (b) 5 cm; (c) 91.5 kg; (d) 9,500 kg cm;
(e) 18.1%.
3. A 20 cm gate valve is subjected to a maximum unbalanced
pressure of 10 kg/sq cm. The stem of the valve is made of steel having square.
threads of 6 mm pitch. The coefficient of friction between wheel and its
seat is 0.2, between nut and stem 0.15 and between wheel and its seat 0.12.
The friction radius of the wheel is 4 cm.
Determine the diameter of the valve stem assuming the permissible
stress intensity of 550 kg/sq cm.
Calculate the pull that must be applied on the rim of 40 cm hand wheel
to open the valve Ans. 25 mm; 12 kg.
4. A screw for the transmission of power is to propel the engaging
nut at 20 metre /minute against a resistance of 2,800 kg. The quadruple
square threaded screw is to have 1 thread per 2.5 cm. The root diameter
is 4 cm. The collar lying between the screw and the source of power has an
inside diameter of 6.5 cm and an outside diameter of 12.5 cm. Assuming
the coefficient of friction to be 0.1, determine:
(i) the horse power required to drive the screw,
(ii) the ef ficiency of the screw and collar,
(iii) the resultant tensile, or compressive stress and shearing stress
in the ,root of the screw.
Ans. (i) 19.4 h.p.; (ii) 64.5%;
(iii) 571 kg/sq cm; 347 kg/sq cm; 459 kg/sq cm.
5. The screw of a toggle press is driven by a gear G and turns at
80 r.p.m. The crosshead C moves along the screw in opposite directions
against the axial force of 2 tonnes when the press is operated. Determine
the horse power required to drive the gear, assumink the coefficient of fric-
tion in the threads to be 0.11 and neglect the friction in,,the bearings. The
Art. 11-8] i, POWER SCREWS 559
screw is 6 cm diameter with single start square threads of 1 cm pitch.
Also, determine the maximum tensile stress and shear stress induced in the
screw. Ans. 2.07 h.p.; 15 kg/sq cm; 64 kg/sq cm.
6. A sluice gate weighing 50 tonnes is raised and lowered by means
of two standard double square thread screws. The mean diameter of the
threads in both the screws is 80 mm, their pitch is 12 mm and depth being
equal to half the pitch. The screws are operated by 750 r.p.m. electric
motor. A ball thrust bearing is used at the collar for reducing the coef ficient
of friction to 0.03 at a diameter of 120 mm. The coefficient of thread
friction may be assumed to be 0.15.
If the gate is to be raised at a rate of 1.2 metre /minute, determine
(a) the r.p.m. of the screws and the total transmission ratio,
(b) the efficiency of the screw and the collar,
(c) the H.P. of the motor required to raise the gate assuming a
mechanical ef ficiency of 87% for the speed reduction gears and
(d) the maximum resultant stress induced in the body of the screw
during lifting the gate.
7. An axial load of 80 tonnes acts on a square threaded screw of
inside diameter 9 cm. The depth of thread is 1.5 cm. Bearing
pressure between nut and screw of 150 kg/sq cm is allowed. Obtain the
length of the nut necessary. If the coefficient of friction between screw and
nut is 0.12, calculate the stress in the screw due to torsion and end load.
Ans. 39 cm; 630 kg/sq cm (in shear) ; 1,20 kg/sq cm.
8. The moving head of a 25 tonne hydraulic testing machine is
supported by two trapezoidal threaded screws. The screws are under the
action of tensile load. Suggest the suitable size of the screw if the
permissible stress is limited to 900 kg/sq cm. Take the coefficient of
friction as 0.1.
Determine the height of the nut if the bearing pressure is limited to
150 kg/sq cm. Ans.. 55 mm; 13 threads.
9. A screw spindle with trapezoidal threads is used for reciprocat-
ing motion of a forked connecting link subjected to a maximum load of
2,500 kg. Suggest the suitable size of the spindle if the principal stress
in the screw is not to exceed 500 kg/sq cm. The coefficient of friction is
0.15. Determine the height of the nut if the bearing pressure is limited
to 100 kg/sq cm. What will be the horse power lost in friction if the
spindle rotates at 100 r.p.m? Ans. 40 cm; 50 mm; 0.9.
560 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. XI

10. The lead screw of a lathe has trapezoidal threads. To drive

the tool carriage the screw has to exert an axial force of 1,500 kg. The
thrust is carried by the collar. The length ,of the lead screw is 150 cm.
The coefficient of friction at collar and nut are 0.1 and 0.15 respectively.
Assume the factor of safety to be 6.
Suggest the suitable .size of the screw and the minimum number of
threads in the nut if 40 kg/sq cm is the permissible bearing pressure intensity.
The permissible stress intensity is limited to 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Tr 55 x 9; 7 cm.
11. The trapezoidal screw of a small hand punch press is to exert
a maximum load of 2,500 kg. Suggest the suitable size of the screw,
the size of the body where the screw is located, the dimensions of the tommy
bar operating the screw and the collar dimensions.
The coefficient of friction for threads is 0.15 and for collar 0.1.
The unsupported length of the screw is 25 cm. Bearing pressure for the
nut and pad is 100 kg/sq cm. The permissible stress in the screw is
limited to 1,000 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Tr 36 x 6; height of the nut 54 mm; outside diameter of
the nut 72 mm; outside diameter of the collar 70 mm.
12. The compressive load on the nut and screw clamp shown in
fig. 11-7 is 2,500 kg. Calculate the diameter of the screw, height of the
nut and the dimensions of the handle if a force of 30 kg is required to be
applied at the end of a handle to operate the screw.
Safe compressive stress for screw --= 1,200 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure for screw and nut , 175 kg/sq cm
Coefficient of screw thread friction = 0.14
Friction torque of pad B = 350 kg cm
Flexural stress in the handle = 1,000 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Single start square thread of 5 mm pitch on outside diameter
*of 2.5 cm; height of the nut 5 cm; 22 mm diameter; effect-
ive length of handle 32 cm.
13. A 30 mm trapezoidal screw is 100 cm long between the nut and
collar. The axial load is 1,200 kg and the torque in the screw between
the nut and collar is 1,500 kg cm. Assuming that it is a hinged ended
column and neglecting the threads and stress concentration, determine the
factor of safety f a steel with a yield point in tension of 3,500 kg/sq cm is
used. Also determine the actual factor of safety if the load is applied
Ex. Xil POWER SCREWS 561

repetitively from zero to maximum if the actual stress concentration factor

for the threads in axial loading is 2.9 and the actual stress concentration
factor for the threads in torsion is 2. The endurance limit for the material
for reversed bending is 2,400 kesq cm.

EXAMPLES XI

1. The following data refer to a C type of clamp. Throat size 20 cm;

gap 30 cm, lead of double start square thread 12 mm; length of the hand lever
30 cm; size of T section for clamp body 6t x 4t where t is the thickness of a web
and flanges.
Determine the following dimensions and clearly show the arrangement of
attaching the pad to the screw:
(i) diameter of the handle
(ii) size of the screw
(iii) crosssection of the main body
(iv) height of the nut.
The maximum force of 27 kg can be exerted by the operator.
The following values of permissible stresses are to be adopted:
Handle 1,050 kg/sq cm
Main body 1,050 kg/sq cm
Screw 1,300 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure intensity for the nut 175 kg/sq cm.
Ans. (i) 20 mm (ii) 26 mm outside diameter, (iii) t=25 mm (iv) 70 mm.
2. The screw of a shaft straightener similar to one shown"in fig. 11-7 is
subjected to a maximum load of 3,000 kg. The screw has 75 mm outside dia-
meter and the pitch is 10 mm.
(i) Determine the force required at the rim of 40 cm diameter hand wheel
assuming that the coefficient of thread and collar friction is 0.13 and
that the mean diameter of the collar is 7 cm. Square threads are cut
on the screw.
( ii) If the height of the nut is 15 cm, determine the bearing pressure on
the threads and shear stress in the threads..
(iii) Determine the maximum compressive stress in the screw.
(iv) Determine the efficiency of the straightener.
Am. (i) 81kg (ii) 18.2kg/sq cm; 19.6kg/sq cm (iii) 102kg/sq cm (iv) 29.6%
3. The screw of a small hand punch press is shown in fig. 11-11. If the
maximum force required for punching is 2,750 kg, determine the size D, d, d1,
land 1 if the punch is operated by one man.
The following data apply:
Collar diameter 4 cm.
562 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XI

Coefficient of thread friction 0.14.

Coefficient of collar friction 0.1.
Bearing pressure for the threads 170 kg/sq cm.
Elastic limits for the material of the screw and handle:
2,380 kg/sq cm in tension and compression
1,540 kg/sq cm in shear.
Give sketches of working drawings of the screw and handle.
4. The tie bar coupling, the outlines of which are shown in fig. 11-12, has
to be designed for a maximum static load of 30 tonnes. The adjustment of the
length of the tie-bar is made by rotating the screw.

Pq---- r
ftl-
t
Sq. threads

2750kg
FIG. 11-11 FIG. 11-12

Making suitable assumptions, calculate the dimensions of the coupling.

Maximum adjustment for length required is 10 cm.
Safe stress in tension 1,050 kg/sq cm
Safe stress in steel in shear 700 kg/sq cm
Safe stress in crushing 1,050 kg/sq cm.
Coefficient of friction between steel and steel is 0-2. Make a neat dimen-
sioned sketch of the coupling you design.
Give a fully dimensioned sketch of the jack.
5. Design the handle, nut and section of a 'C' clamp with the following
data:
Load on the screw — 2,000 kg
For the screw,
nominal diameter 30 mm
pitch 3.5 mm
core diameter 25.7 mm
friction coefficient 0.15
pad diameter 51 mm
friction coefficient for pad 0.1
kb for nut 100 kg/sq cm
fs for nut 330 kg/sq cm
fs for screw 500 kg/sq cm.
Ex. XI] POWER SCREWS 563

Section of the clamp is rectangular with rL= 6. Material for the frame is
C. I. for which stresses ft, fs,ft are 170,170,1300 kgisq cm respectively. Also, check
the stresses in the clamp at the section making angle of 45° at the corner. The
distance of the centre line of the screw from the inner side of the clamp is 150 mm.
(Gujarat University, 1971)
6. The screw press similar to one shown in fig. 11-8 has a cast iron T
section frame with a steel screw having a square thread screwing into a bronze
bush. The following is a list of design requirements and permissible stresses:
Maximum load exerted by the screw-3 tonnes
Maximum torque applied to screw through the hand wheel 1,200 kg cm
Gap = 20 cm.
Cast iron frame:
Maximum tensile stress 150 kg/sq cm
Maximum compressive stress 700 kg/sq cm
Screw:
Maximum compressive stress 700 kgisq cm
Maximum shear stress 450 kgisq cm
Bush:
Maximum shear stress 200 kg/sq cm.
The bearing pressure between the screw and the bushing must not exceed
100 kg/sq cm. The screw must not unwind.
Coefficient of friction between the screw and the bush: p. = 0.12.
Calculate suitable dimensions for the screw and the bush. Also find the
efficiency of the screw and design a suitable section AB for the frame.

111111111‘111 Wild& 444-

I

450 150 5)
-P.
700

FIG. 11-13
7. Fig. 11-13 shows the spindle of 20 cm steam stop valve used for a
maximum pressure of 14 kg/sq cm.
Design: (i) The diameter of spindle, material mild steel, factor of safety 5,
using Rankine formula
(ii) The pitch of the screw. The outside diameter of the screw to be equal
to or slightly less than the spindle diameter. The coefficient of friction between
the screw and the nut = 0.08. The mean torque on hand wheel = 1,500 kg cm.
( iii) The number of threads in the gun metal nut for a bearing pressure
of 150 kg/sq cm
(iv) Size of arms in a 4 arm 40 cm diameter hand wheel.
 564 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

8. Fig. 11-14 shows a schematic diagram of a lead screw on a metal working

lathe. The screw is mounted in two thrust bearings A and B. The force F=250
kg represents the pressure of the cutting tool against the work. Design (i) the
screw with its nut, (ii) the thrust bearings. Take for screw fl = 700 kgJsq cm,
fc = 1,000 kg/sq cm and fs = 550 kg/sq cm. The allowable bearing pressure
for the nut and thrust bearings is 70 kg/sq cm and coefficient of friction for the
nut and thrust bearing 0.1. Give a neat dimensioned sketch of your design.

Carriage
F
Sq. threads

300 500
A

FIG. 11-14
9. Fig. 11-15 shows four different situations as regards location of load and
torque application. In each case the axial load P is 1,000 kg and the externally
applied torque is 300 kg cm and the collar friction torque is 100 kg cm.
P
Non-rat at ing
t

(a) (b) (e) (dl

FIG. 11-15

For each case state the value of the axial force and the torque to be used in
calculating stresses in the body of the screw for a section just (i) above the nut and
(ii) below the nut.
Ans. (i) (a) 1,000 kg, 200 kg cm
(b) 1,000 kg, 100 kg cm
(c) 0 kg, 300 kg cm
(d) 0kg, 0 kg cm
(ii) (a) 0 kg 0 kg cm
(b) 0kg 300 kg cm
(c) 1,000 kg 100 kg cm
(d) 1,000 kg 200 kg cm.
Ex. Xi] POWER SCREWS 565

10. A large gate valve used in high pressure water line weighs 500 kg and the
friction due to water pressure is equivalent to an additional load of 250 kg. The
valve is provided with a screwed valve stem having square threads and is raised
by a rotating wheel with internal threads to match those on the valve stem. The
wheel presses against a supporting collar. Assuming the coefficients of friction for
screw thread and collar to be 0.15 and 0.25 respectively, determine suitable
dimensions for the screw and collar. Make your own choice of materials and
allowable stresses justifying your choice. (University of Bombay, 1971)
11. The lead screw of a lathe has square threads of 10 mm pitch. This
screw has to exert an axial force of 2,000 kg to drive the tool carriage. The thrust
is carried by a collar. The length of the lead screw is 200 cm. Determine the
size of the lead screw, its nut and collar. Factor of safbty may be taken as 5.
The coefficient of friction for collar and nut may be taken to be the same and have
a value of 0.15. (Gujarat University, 1972)

Motor

Nut
—m..--dol...m.m.--.dir me.
Screw

FIG. 11-16
12. Fig. 11-16 shows the arrangement for a type of linear actuator for air
craft controls, for example, landing gear. The screw for such an actuator is to
be designed and the motor selected with the following data.
(i) Operating force on actuator 450 kg
(ii) Maximum static force 1,100 kg
(iii) Extension of actuator 150 mm
(iv) Time for extension 6 sec
(v) Motor speed 7,200 r.p.m.
(vi) Coefficient of friction between the screw and the nut 0.013
(vii) Collar friction negligible
(viii) Overall efficiency 0.94.
Design the threaded portion of the screw and the nut using the following
stresses:
Direct tension or compression 700 kg/sq cm
Shear 500 ,,
Safe bearing pressure 150 P p
The nut is made of good grade cast iron. Draw a neat sketch of the nut
and specify the H.P. of the driving motor. (University of Bombay, 1973)
566 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XI

13. Design and draw a screw jack for lifting a maximum load of 5,000 kg
without rotation. The jack is to be operated by a mean exerting force of 30 kg.
The maximum lift is 25 cm. Choose suitable material and stresses.
(University of Bombay, 1974)
14. (a) A vertical two start square threaded screw of 100 mm mean dia-
meter and of 20 mm pitch supports a vertical load of 2,000 kg. The nut for the
screw is fitted in the hub of gear wheel having 80 teeth which meshes with a
pinion of 20 teeth. The mechanical efficiency of the pinion and gear wheel drive
is 90%. The axial thrust on the screw is taken by a collar bearing 250 mm
outside diameter and 100 mm inside diameter. Determine the minimum dia-
meter of the pinion shaft and height of the nut, when coefficient of friction for the
vertical screw and nut is 0.15 and that for the collar bearing is 0.2. The permis-
sible shear stress in the shaft material is 500 kg/sq cm and bearing pressure for
threads is 15 kg/sq cm. Also determine the efficiency of the screw mechanism.
(b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various types of power
screws used in practice.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)

15. Design the screw, nut and handle of a 2.5 tonne punching press.
Sketch two proportional views of the press, dimensioning the designed parts.
What are the different types of stresses induced at different points on the
body of the press? What would be economical shape of the section? What
material would you advise and why?

Bearing safe stress (pressure intensity) between gun metal and mild steel
160 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay. 1975)

lb. (a) Design a differential screw press in which the hub of a handwheel
has a coarse pitch outside thread and a fine pitch inside thread and each revo-
lution of the handwheel moves the screw by an axial distance of 3 mm.
Take 1.1.1 = is2 = 0.1 and use acme threads. Given fl =fc = 1,000 kg/sq cm
and fs = 800 kg/sq cm, for screw and fb = 100 kg/sq cm for the screw and the nut.
Capacity of the press : 4 tonnes
Maximum size of the job to be handled 15 sq cm
Diameter of the handwheel 40 cm.
Standard pitches for acme threads:

Diameter of screw
30 32 36 40 44 48 52 55 60 65
mm

Pitch
6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10
mm

Draw a neat sketch of the press and calculate its efficiency.

(M. S. University of Baroda, 1976)
Ex. XI] POWER SCREWS 567

17. The lead screw of a lathe has a 5 cm trapezoidal thread of 8 mm pitch.

It drives the tool carriage by exerting an axial force of 500 kg. The thrust is
carried on a collar having a friction radius of 3 cm. The lead screw revolves at
50 r.p.m.
Determine:
(i) The efficiency of the screw and collar assuming a coefficient of friction
of 0.14 for the threads and 0.10 for the thrust collar
(ii) H.P. required to drive the carriage
(iii) Minimum width of the tool carriage if the bearing pressure intensity
on the threads is limited to 10 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
18. Design the mild steel screw, and bronze nut for a 2-tonne press if the
person operating the screw press is required to use a force not exceeding 15 kg
at the rim of the hand wheel by each hand. Design these components for 50%
overload.
The following values for permissible stresses may be adopted:
Permissible compressive stress for the screw 1,000 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure intensity for threads 100 kg/sq cm
Check the threads of the nut as well as of the screw for shear.
Assume single start square threads of 5 mm pitch, and the coefficient of thread
friction as 0.1, Comment on the design.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER 12
LEVERS

12-1. Introduction:
A rigid rod which is capable of turning about a fixed point
is called a lever. The lever may be straight or curved and the
forces exerted on or by the lever may be parallel or may be
inclined to one another.
The levers may be classified as one arm lever, two arm lever,
cranked lever or angular lever, cross lever and compound lever.
Fig. 12-1 shows various kinds of levers.

i ---44--- f

Various forms of levers

FIG. 12-1
The perpendicular distances of the forces from the fulcrum
arc called the arms of the lever. The ratio of the arm of the effort
to the arm of the resistance is called the leverage.
Art. 12-2] LEVERS 569

If a great leverage is required for any purpose, that is, if a

large resistance is to be overcome by a small effort, the arm of the
effort must be very much greater than the arm of the resistance.
To obtain a great leverage without the use of excessively long
levers, compound levers are used. The compound levers may
be made up of straight pieces, which may be attached with
one another by means of pin-joints. Instead of having a number
of jointed levers, bell cranked levers may be used.
The leverage of compound levers is the product of leverages
of individual levers. Levers are very much used in engineering.
In many applications in engineering levers are used to change the
direction of forces viz, rocker arms in I. C. engines and bell crank
levers in railway signals.

12-2. General procedure for Design of Levers:

The principle of a lever is practically the principle of
moments. A lever is acted upon by the reaction of the fulcrum
and by two other single forces or two sets of forces, one causing a
turning moment in one and the other a turning moment in the
opposite direction. Generally, one set of forces acting on one
arm of the lever is specified. The forces acting on the other arm of
the lever are obtained by taking moment about the fulcrum.
The lever arms may be equal; in that case the effort
applied and the resistance overcome are numerically equal if
we neglect the effect of friction at the journal bearing. When
the arms are unequal, the effort applied and the resistance
overcome are in the inverse proportion of the lengths of the
respective arms.
The reaction at the fulcrum will be the resultant of P and Q.
When P and Q are parallel and are in the same direction, then the
reaction at the fulcrum, will be the sum of 13 and Q. When P
and Q_ are parallel and in opposite directions, the reaction at
the fulcrum will be the difference of two forces P and Q. When
the lines of action of P and Q are inclined to one another, the
reaction at the fulcrum is determined by parallelogram of forces
and is equal to the resultant of P and Q. The line of action
of reaction passes through the intersection of the lines of action
of P and Q and also through the fulcrum. If the forces P and
Q act at right angles to two arms of the lever, which include an
570 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

angle 0, then the reaction 1? at the fulcrum is given by the

equation
R= V P 2 + Q2 — 2P0, cos 0 (i)
When lines of action of P and Q are at right angles to one
another as in a bell crank lever, R = VP2 + Q2 (ii)
When forces acting on levers are known, the arms of the
lever and the fulcrum pin can be designed. When the force is
applied at the end of a lever, it is subjected to a bending moment,
which will be maximum at the boss of the lever in case of two arm
lever and cranked lever. For any kind of lever the section, at
which maximum bending moment occurs, can be easily deter-
mined.
The section of the arm must be designed to withstand the
maximum bending moment. The section of the arms may be
rectangular, elliptical or of I form. The modulus of section for
a rectangular section will be i bh2, where b is the breadth or
thickness of the lever and h the depth or height of the lever. The
dimension b is usually taken as ih. The modulus of section of an
b 2
elliptical section is given by 32 where h and b are respectivly the
lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse; usually b = 04h
rCh3
SO . When I section is used for the
the modulus of section will be
80
arm of the lever, we can assume the proportion of the section in
terms of thickness of the web as well as of the flange and the
modulus of section can be obtained. Generally, it is assumed
that the bending moment is taken by flanges only. On this
assumption, the moment of resistance to bending is given by
moment of resistance = flange area x depth x stress . . .. (iii)
The dimensions of the lever at the ends depend largely on the manner
in which the load is applied. The definite rules cannot be given.
However, it can be stated that, if the load is applied by forked
connections, the dimensions of the lever at that end can be pro-
portioned as a knuckle joint.
The fulcrum pin will be under direct shear stress and it must
also be designed from bearing considerations as there is a relative
motion between the pin and the lever. The general practice is
to design the pin from bearing considerations and then to check
Art. 12-21 LEVERS 571

it for direct shear. The allowable bearing pressure depends upon the
amount of relative motion between the pin and the lever. Gene-
rally, the suitable value of the ratio of length to diameter is assumed
and the dimensions of the pin can be obtained. The value of
this ratio may vary from 1 to 2. The outside diameter of the
boss of the lever is generally taken to be twice the diameter
of the pin. The length of the boss will be from d to 2d. The
bosses of the lever should be bushed with 3 mm thick good phosphor
bronze and provided with a dust proof lubricating arrangement
in order to reduce wear to minimum. With these precautions,
the bush should only require renewal at widely distant intervals.
Many machine parts such as rocker arms, lever of a lever loaded
safety valve, scale-beams, arms of a pulley, etc. are designed accrod-
ing to the method explained in this article. When a machine
part is designed as a lever and if the forces do not der much, the same
pin dimensions at fulcrum, effort and load points may be adopted to reduce
the spares. In order to provide sufficient bearing length, instead of
choosing a thick lever, boss is provided, where the pin is to be
located. 100 kg
Examples :
1. A vertical lever ABC, 18 mm thick
is• attached by a fulcrum pin at A and to a 1,
7 50
horizontal tic rod at B as shown in jig. 12-2. I
An operating s force of 100 kg is applied hori-
zontally at C. Calculate (a) the reactions at
A and B, (b) the tensile stress in 13 mm 15
diameter tie rod at B, (c) shear stress in 13 mm
diameter pins at A, B and C and (d) the
bearing pressure intensity on lever at B. FIG. 12-2
The force in the horizontal tie rod B can be obtained by
taking moment about A. If Q be the force in the horizontal tie
rod, then
Q x 15 = 100 [75 + 15]
100 x 90
or Q= 15 = 600 kg.

As the operating force and the force in the tie rod are parallel
and they are opposite in direction, the reaction at the fulcrum
will be 600 — 100 = 500 kg.
572 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch . Xll

The area of cross section of the rod B = I-1-. x 1.32

4
= 1.327 sq cm.
600
Tensile stress in the tie rod will be 1.327 = 452 kg/sq cm.
The pins A, B and C are of 13 mm diameter. The pins A
and B are in double shear while that at C is in single shear.
1 00
Shear stress in pin at C = 1 = 75.2 kg/sq cm.
.32 7
600
Shear stress in pin at B = = 225.6 kg/sq cm.
2 x 1.327
500
Shear stress in fulcrum pin at A , 188.5 kg/sq cm.
2 x 1427 =
Bearing area of pin at B = diameter of pin x thickness of lever
= 1.3 x 1.8 = 2.34 sq cm.
60
0
Bearing pressure intensity = = 256 kg/sq cm.
2.34-
2. Fig. 12-3 shows a handle for turning the spindle of a large valve.
An effort of 35 kg is applied at each end of the handle. The handle is
attached to the valve spindle by a round tapered key. Calculate the dimen-
sions of the handle and the mean diameter of the tapered key. Allowable
tensile stress for handle and key = 1,100 kg/sq cm. Shear stress for the key
550 kg/sq cm.

f
150
—155 r---
1
1
110
.4 400 400 1r

FIG. 12-3
Torque on the shaft = 35 x 2 x 40 = 2,809 kg cm.
The tapered key is in double shear. If d1 be the mean dia-
meter of the tapered key, then
n 5.5
2 x 4d12 x 550x -1--- =2800
Art. 12-2] LEVERS e 573

2800 x 2 x 4
or — 1.1 cm.
d1— 12 x TC x 550 x 5.5
Assuming that the bending moment arm of the handle
extends upto the axis of the spindle, the maximum bending
moment on the arm will be 40 x 35 = 1,400 kg cm.
The arm is also subjected to a twisting . moment the
magnitude of which depends on the point of application of the
load of 35 kg. The value of twisting moment will not exceed
35 x 15 = 525 kg cm. We neglect the effect of twisting at present,
and design the lever on bending alone.
If d cm be the diameter of the handle, then
3
sTC
.- d x 1100 = 1400

V1400 32
or d= x -- = 246 cm; we adopt the
1100 n
diameter of the handle as 2.7 cm. The diameter has been
increased to allow for the effect of torsional shear.

Exercises :
I. A casting is being raised by a 90 cm crow-bar which is supported
at 5 cm from the end where it takes the weight. If the casting weighs 1
tonne and ha 0c this is taken by the crow-bar, what force must be applied at
the end of the bar in order to raise the casting? What will bx the minimum
diameter of the crow-bar if the permissible stress in the material is limited
to 850 kg/sq cm? Ans. 27.8 kg; 3.2 cm.
2. A 25 mm hand reamer is being operated by hand pressure at each
end of a lever 60 cm long. The hole is 25 mm long and each of the six
teeth is taking a cut of 0.005 cm. If the cutting pressure at the teeth is
7,000 kg/sq cm of cut, estimate the diameter of the lever if the permissible
stress is limited to 1,050 kg/sq cm. . Ans. 15 mm.
3. A symmetrical body weighing 600 kg is lifted from one end
by an arrangement shown in fig. 12-4. If a force P is applied to raise
the body, design the lever.
Given
allowable bearing pressure for pins 70 kg/sq cm
allowable tensile stress for pins and lever 700 kg/sq cm.
574 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XII

4. Fig. 12-5 shows a handle for turning the spindle of a large valve.
An effort of 30 kg is applied to each end of the handle. The handle is
attached to the valve spindle by a round tapered key. Calculate all
dimensions of the handle and the mean diameter of the tapered key.
Allowable tensile stress for the handle and the key 1,200 kg/sq cm.
Allowable shear stress for the handle and the key 650 kg/sq cm.

4-----75 750 ---).

-41 4--4. t
•

41•1=1111=••••
= 2t P
117/z//.
W :: 600 kg

'7,94/.,
/,,./., ,,,-.7-.../

FIG. 12-4

-41 65 r . Key
[ 1 i
J

130
-600 - -v11— -600-

FIG. 12-5

5. (a) A vertical lever ABC, 13 mm thick is attached by a fulcrum

pin at A and to a horzzontal rod at B as shown in fig. 12-6. An operating
force of 75 kg is applied horizontally at C. Design the lever ABC, the
pins and the tie rod at B using the following permissible stresses for all
the parts.
Tensile and compressive stress 550 kg/sq cm
Shear stress 350 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure on pins 250 kg/sq cm.
Give a neat dimensioned sketch of the assembly.
(b) Re-design the lever if the force of 75 kg is applied at 45° to the
axis of the lever instead of horizontally.
Art. 12-3] LEVERS 575

6. A hand lever with knurled handle (fig. 12-7) is used to overcome

the resistance of 50 kg as shown. Design and prepare a dimensioned
drawing of the lever if it is made of mild steel.

FIG. 12-6 no. 12-7

12-3. Hand lever :

Fig. 12-8 shows a hand lever commonly adopted in various
machineries.
Let P = maximum force exerted at the handle
I — effective length of the lever
t — thickness of the lever at the boss
h — height of the lever at the boss.
We assume that the moment arm of the lcvcr extends upto
the centre. This assumption gives stronger section of the lever
near the boss.
Maximum bending moment on the lever -,-- Pt.
Modulus of section ---.-- ith2.
By equating the applied bending moment to resisting moment
of the lever, we get ,
Pl ,----ith2 f (i)
where f is the permissible stress intensity for the lever material.
From the above equation, the dimensions of the lever at the
boss can be calculated. Generally t = ih and the thickness of the
lever is kept constant, while its depth varies. The least depth
near the grip of the handle should be half its greatest depth,
which is near the boss. The part grasped by hand may be 32 mm
576 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII
in greatest and 25 mm in smallest diameter and 125 mm long.
The force exerted by a man may be normally taken as 30 kg.
Let A be the diameter of the shaft in the eye of the lever.
This part of the shaft is subjected to twisting moment P1 only.
If the permissible stress for the shaft material is known, the dia-
meter A of the shaft is obtained by the usual torsion formula
(ii)
P1 --= 16 (43 fs

Hand lever Foot lever

FIG. 12-8 FIG. 12-9
If the shaft overhangs the bearing, then it is subjected to
a twisting moment P1 and a bending moment Px where x is over-
hung from the centre of lever to the centre of nearest bearing of the
shaft. Thee quivalent twisting moment, according to Guest formula,
will be P V1i+x2. If d be the diameter of the solid shaft in the
bearing, then
16 de fr . P1/12 + xi (iii)
Art. 12-51 LEVERS 577

If Rankine's theory of elastic failure were to be the design

criterion, then
d3f . P (1 + V12 + x2) (iv)
16
In the above equation f is the value of the permissible
principal stress.
The eye of the lever may have a thickness 0.3d and a length
of the eye may vary from d to 1.5d.
12-4. Foot lever:
Fig. 12-9 shows a foot lever. The foot-plate is about 20 cm
by 12 cm by 16 mm thick. In designing this lever the maxi-
mum force P is taken to be 80 kg. The design procedure for
calculating the various dimensions of the lever and shaft diameter
is exactly similar to one outlined for the design of a hand lever.
12-5. Cranked lever:
Fig. 12-10 shows a cranked lever or a winch handle. This
lever may be operated either by one person or by two persons.

'12
t
I

tr.

-0, +t

Cranked lever
FIG. 12-10
When it is operated by one person, the maximum force may be
taken as 40 kg and the length of the handle may be from 25 to
30 cm. When the cranked lever is worked by two persons, the
maximum force will be doubled and the length of the handle
may be 50 cm. The radius r is usually from 40 to 45 cm and the
height of the shaft from the ground may be from 90 cm to 100 cm.
578 MACHINE DESIGN ., [Ch. XII
The handle of the lever is generally of circular section and
is subjected to bending only. The pressure on the handle may be
taken to act at 1 of its length. The maximum bending moment
may be taken as 1 PI where P is the maximum applied force at
the effective length ft.
If d be the diameter of the handle of the lever, then
IP l = -!----` 3 f (i)
32 d
where f is the permissible bending stress for the lever material.
The arm portion of the lever is generally made of rectangular sec-
tion having constant thickness and more or less constant depth.
The arm is subjected to constant twisting moment of the magnitude
1 PI and the varying bending moment which is maximum near
the boss and it may be taken as Pr, if we assume that the moment
arm extends upto the axis of the shaft.
The torsional shear stress caused by 1 PI has a maximum
value at the middle of the long side and somewhat smaller maxi-
mum at the middle of the short side of the rectangular section.
The maximum torsional shear stress will be at the end of a smallest radius
vector of the section. The bending stress has a maximum value of
uniform amount along the whole short side. Evidently this
maximum bending stress combines itself with the shear stress at
the middle of the short side to form the principal stress or maxi-
mum shear stress, which must be computed to ascertain whether
the arm of the cranked lever is safe or not.
The following formulas shall be useful in checking the torsional
shear stresses in the section of the arm near the boss.
For a square section of side a,
T = 1 els (ii)
For a rectangular section of thickness t and depth h,
T . S ht 2 fs (iii)
For an elliptical section of major axis h and minor axis b,
T . -1 balifs (iv)
16
The journal of the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment
Pr and a bending moment P al + x). The equivalent twisting
moment will be P V r2 + (11 + x)2. When the value of per-
missible shear stress is known, the diameter of the journal can be
obtained.
Art. 12-5] LEVERS 579

The cranked lever is subjected to very rough usage and must

be made strong enough to stand it.
In practice the following proportions are adopted:
D = 3.2 cm to 3.8 cm for one person
D = 3.8 cm to 4.5 cm for two persons
d = 2.5 cm for one person
d = HI cm for two persons
Thickness of an eye ---. fD to go
Length of an eye = 5 cm to 6.5 cm
Section of an arm at the eye 2 cm x 5 cm.
The procedure outlined for the design of the arm of the
cranked lever may be adopted for the design of overhung cranks in
engines.
Examples :
I. A hand lever is mounted on a shaft. The maximum force of
15 kg is applied by the worker at the moment arm of 1 metre. Determine
the diameter of the solid shaft if the permissible shear stress is limited to
200 kg/sq cm. What is the twist of the shaft per metre length? What is
the distance moved by the point of application of the load due to elasticity
of the shaft? The modulus of rigidity is 8.4 X 10 kg/sq cm. The
length of the shaft is 3 metre. Determine the section of the lever near the boss
if the permissible stress is limited to 850 kg/sq cm.
Torque on the shaft = 15 x 100 = 1,500 kg can.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then

d3 x 200 = 1500
16
1500 16
8
Or d= x — = 3.4 cm; we adopt 3.5 cm.
200 7r
?Gl/
of shaft per metre length = —
d'
2 X 200 x 100
84 x 104 x 3.5
= 0.0136 radian.
Distance moved by the point of application of the load will
be equal to 0.0136 x 3 = 0.0408 metre i.e. 4.08 cm.
Let us assume that the section of the lever is rectangular having
the thickness t equal to fth.
580 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XII

Maximum bending moment = 15 x 100 = 1,500 kg cm.

1500 =*xfhxh2 x 850
-19/ 1 500 x 8 x 6
Or h =--- — 3.1 cm; we adopt 3.5 cm and
850 x 3
t as 1.5 cm.
The diameter of the eye of the lever may be taken as 7 cm
and length of the eye may be taken as 5.5 cm.
2. A foot lever is 60 cm from the centre of the shaft to the point
where the load acts. The load is 90 kg. Calculate the diameter of the
shaft, the dimensions of the sunk rectangular key and the depth of the lever
assuming it to be of rectangular section and the width of the lever being g
of the depth.
Let us assume the following stresses.
fs for shaft and key 560 kg/sq cm; ft for lever 1,050 kg/sq cm.
Torque on the shaft = 90 x 60 — 5,400 kg cm.
If d1 cm be the diameter of the shaft on which the lever is
keyed, then
16-
7C 143 x 560 = 5400

-175400 x 16
or d1 —
— 3.7 cm; we adopt 4 cm
560 x zr
According to the usual proportions for a key, we adopt the
following dimensions:
Length of the key = 7 cm; thickness of the key 1 cm and
width of the key 1.3 cm.
The outside diameter of the boss will be 8 cm.
If I be the thickness of the lever and h the depth, then modulus
h3
of section of the lever *th2 = I x jh3
16
h3
x 1050 = 5400
16
-13/ 5400 x 16
or h = 4.35 cm; we adopt 4.5 cm.
1050
Thickness of the lever = 2 cm.
3. The cranked lever as shown in fig. 12-10 is operated by a single
person exerting a maximum pressure of 40 kg at a distance of one-third
length of the handle from its free end. The length of the handle is 30 cm
Art. 12-5] LEVERS 581

and the length of the crank arm is 40 cm. Determine the necessary size
of the journals if the overhung is 10 cm. Also, determine the diameter of
the handle. The permissible value of the shear stress for the shaft material
is limited to 550 kg/sq cm and the permissible tensile stress for the lever
is 850 kg/sq cm.
The journal of the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment
of 40 x 40 = 1,600 kg cm and a bending . moment 'of
40 [# x 30 + 10] = 1,200 kg cm. The equivalent twisting
moment will be equal to 116002 + 12002 = 2,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the journal, then
71 3 x 550 = 2000
16 d
d = f2000 16 =
or
550
x 7C 3.9 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
Maximum bending moment on the handle = 40xix 30
= 800 kg cm.
if d1 cm be the diameter of the handle, then
d X- 850 = 800
32 1 3
- 3/ 800 x 32
or d1 = .-----2.12 cm; we adopt 2.2 cm.
1850 X 7C
Exercises: .
tij\,. I. Make a sketch design of a hand lever for a brake making the
length of the handle 90 cm, effective overhung from the nearest bearing
being 15 cm. Assuming that the greatest pull on the ends is 36 kg and
that the maximum stress in shear, tension and compression is 630 kg/sq
cm, determine the diameter of the spindle.
2. Make a sketch design of a foot brake lever, length of the lever
being 90 cm. Assume that the greatest load that can come on the foot
plate is 80 kg, elective overhung from the nearest bearing being 15 cm.
Determine the diameter of the shaft ff the value of the maximum shear
stress is limited to 500 kg/sq cm.
3. The distance between the centres of two bearings, which support
a pedal lever brake shaft, is 37 cm. The effective length of the pedal is
23 cm, and that of the lever, which is in the same plane but at the opposite
side of the shaft, is 10 cm. The latter is 20 cm from one bearing and the
582 MACHINE DESIGN

former is 15 cm from the other bearing. Determine the diameter of the

shaft if the permissible shear stress is not to exceed 560 kg/sq cm. Deter-
mine the dimensions of the pedal lever at the boss if the breadth is four
times the thickness. The value of the permissible stress in the material
of the lever is not to exceed 630 kg/sq cm.
4. Fig. 12-11 shows a cranking lever for a Diesel engine. P is
a pin, on which a force of 50 kg is applied at a point F, 162 mm away
from the outer face of the crank web C. Crank radius is 275 mm. S is
a boss, 30 mm long having a square hole to connect the lever with the square
end of the crank shaft. Design and prepare the drawing of the cranking lever.
Material used — mild steel.

FIG. 12-12
5. A `mild steel hook wrench (fig. 12-12) has a force of 25 kg►
applied at the handle. Design and prepare a dimensioned drawing.
6. Design a hand lever for a brake making the length of the lever
90 cm, effective overhung from the nearest bearing being 15 cm. Assume
that greatest pull on the end of the lever is 40 kg and that the maximum
stress in shear, tension and compression is 800 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1972)
12-6. Lever of a lever loaded safety valve:
A safety valve is attached to steam boilers and is opened by
the pressure of the steam when this pressure reaches a certain point
upto which it is safe to subject the boiler; when this safe pressure is
exceeded the valve is opened, allowing the steam to escape with a
consequent reduction of pressure. The valves are weighted either
indirectly by levers or directly by weights and springs. It is the
first method with which we are concerned. Fig. 12-13 shows a lever
of a lever loaded safety valve, pivoted at the end F. The valve is
Art. 12-6] LEVERS 583

attached to lever at point V close to the point F. The centre of

gravity of the lever is at a point G and the valve is held tight on
its seat against the upward steam pressure by the weight W hung
from a point on the lever. The weight W and its distance from
the fulcrum are so adjusted that when the steam pressure acting
upwards on the valve reaches a certain value, it overcomes the
downward force exerted on the valve by the weight W kept at the
end of the lever. As a result, the valve opens and steam escapes,
until its pressure falls to the working value and then the valve
closes again.

Lever of a lever loaded safety valve

FIG. 12-13

This lever is one arm lever and its design procedure is ex-
plained by an illustrative example.

Example :
1. A lever loaded safety valve is 7.5 cm in diameter. It is required
to blow at 13 kg/sq cm gauge. Design the mild steel lever `of rectangular
cross section for the following permissible stresses :
700 kg/sq cm in tension, 525 kg/sq cm in shear and 245 kg/sq cm
in bearing.
The pin is made of the same material as that of the of lever. Distance
from the fulcrum to the weight of the lever is 80 cm. Distance between
the fulcrum and pin connecting the valve spindle links to the lever is 8 cm.
The maximum steam load, at which the valve blows off is
7C
4-- X 7.52 x 13 = 550 kg.
80
As the leverage is T3- = 10, the magnitude of the dead load
5 50
to be kept at the end of the lever will be = — = 55 kg.
10
584 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

As the steam load and dead load are parallel and opposite
to each other, the reaction of the fulcrum on the lever must be
vertically downwards and is equal to 550 — 55 = 495 kg.
The pin at the valve spindle is first of all designed from bear-
ing considerations. Let us assume that the width of the lever is
equal to the diameter of the pin. If dp be the diameter of the
pin, then
dp x dp x 245 = 550

or -y2550
,5
dp . . -. -.
,1.5 cm.
The pin is in double shear. If fs be the shear stress induced
in the pin, then 2 x 47 x 1.52 x f f = 550.

550 x 4
156 kg/sq cm which is very much less
••• fs = 2 x rc x 1.52 ==
than the permissible value.
As the load at the fulcrum pin is not very much different from that
at the spindle pin, we take both the pins of the same diameter to facilitate
the interchangeability of parts.
We provide 2 mm thick gun metal bushes at both the pin
holes to take up the wear. The outside diameter of the boss is
kept twice the diameter of the hole. We adopt 3 cm.
Maximum bending moment = 55 x (80 — 8) = 3,960 kg cm.
Let h be the depth of the lever. The thickness of the lever is
1.5 cm.
... 3,960 = it x 1.5 x h2 x 700
h . -1/3960 xfi
Or
y 1.5 x 7N
= 4.8 cm.
As the lever is weakened at that section by the pin hole, we
take the depth as 6 cm to account for the presence of the hole.
The maximum bending stress induced at that section will be
3960 x 12 x 3
equal to (63 1.93) x 1.5 = 462 kg/sq cm, which is within safe
limits.
Art. 12-7] LEVERS 585
Exercises:
1. Fig. 12-14 shows the lever of a lever loaded safety valve. The
maximum load when the valve blows of freely is 575 kg. Design the
lever for the following permissible stresses: 400 kg/sq cm in tension;
300 kg/sq cm in shear, 500 kg/sq cm in crushing. The allowable
bearing pressure for the pins may be taken as 200 kg/sq cm. Give a
dimensioned sketch of the lever.

575 kg
FIG. 12-14
2. A lever loaded safety valve is to be designed for a boiler to blow
41 at a pressure of 10 atg. Design a suitable M.S. lever of rectangular
cross section using the following data: Diameter of the valve 5 cm, leverage
10 to 12, distance between the fulcrum and the pin connecting the valve
spindle links to the lever 5 cm and width of the lever equals the diameter of
the pin. ft = 700 kg/sq cm, fs --= 500 kg/sq cm and bearing pressure
intensity 250 kgIsq cm. Draw an elevation of the lever giving all dimensions..
(Sardar Patel University, 1971)
12-7. Rocker arm for Diesel engine (Straight arm) :
'I he rocker arms for Diesel engine of the over head valve type
are treated as two arm lever because the fulcrum is in the middle.
They are made generally of cast steel or malleable iron but good
cast iron may be used if the permissible stress is confined to 140
kg/sq cm. The commonly adopted section for the lever is I
section. Generally, the lever is made approximately of uniform
strength by tapering towards the ends ' both the width and
depth while the thickness of the web and flanges are kept constant.
If the end of the rocker arm is to be operated by the cam dire-
ctly, it is forked to receive the roller. The tappet end consists of a
plain boss screwed to receive a hardened tappet screw and lock
nut. The bosses of the lever should be bushed with good phosphor
bronze and provided with a dust proof oil cup in order to reduce
the wear to minimum. With these precautions, the bush would
586 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

only require renewal at widely distant intervals and means of

adjustments are unnecessary even in largest size of engines.
In four stroke cycle engines, the exhaust valve lever is the
most heavily loaded. Although the force required to operate the
suction valve is relatively small it is usual practice to make the
inlet valve lever of the same section as the exhaust valve lever for
the sake of uniformity of appearance and the same pattern may be
used for both.
The loads imposed on the tappet ends of the rocker arms in
four stroke cycle engine at the beginning of valve opening may be
calculated as under: •
Suction valve: inertia of the valve + spring load + load due to
0.35 kg/sq cm on suction valve area.
Exhaust valve: inertia of the valve + spring load + load due to
3.15 kg/sq cm on exhaust valve area.
When more than one rocker arms are mounted on the spindle
as in multi-cylinder Diesel engines, the diameter of the spindle is
obtained as a beam simply supported at ends and loaded by various
reactions of the rocker arm.
Generally, both the arms of the lever are equal.
Example:
1. A cast iron rocker arm has an I section. The maximum load at
the roller end is 182 kg. Suggest the suitable dimensions for the arm of
the lever near the boss, which is at a distance of 15 cm from the lane of
application of load. The permissible stress is limited to 140 kglsq cm.
Let us assume the following proportions for the I section.
t = thickness of the flange as well as of the web
3t = width of the flange
6t = height of the section.
Second moment of area of the section will be equal to
'm [3t x (61)3 — 2tx (408] = 43-30.
43-30
Modulus of section = — — = 14.43t3.
3t
Maximum bending moment on the section = 182 x 15
= 2,830 kg cm.
By equating bending moment to resisting moment, we get
2830 = 14.430 x 140
t .17 2830 —
or = 1.2 cm.
y 140 x 14.43
Width of the flange 3.6 cm; and height of the section 7.5 cm.
Art. 12-7 ] LEVERS 587

Exercises:
1. Design the I section for a rocker arm from the following data:
The diameter of the exhaust valve = 7.5 cm.
The pressure of the gas when the valve opens = 3.5 kg/sq cm.
The spring load and the inertia load may be taken as 20% of the gas
load at the instant of opening of the valve. The length of each arm of the
lever may be taken as 20 cm. The rocker arm is made of cast iron for
which the permissible stress may be taken as 140 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Thickness of the flange and web .1 cm;
height of the flange 7.5 cm; width of the flange 3 cm.
2. Fig. 12-15 shows the arrangement of a cam and rocker lever
which is to oscillate through 20° with uniform acceleration and retardation
. for each half of the rise and fall. The lever is in motion for 180° of cam
shaft rotation and at rest for the remaining 180°. The cam shaft is 40 mm
diameter, the minimum radius of the cam is 40 mm and the roller is 25
mm diameter. Plot the profile of the cam.

FIG. 12-15

If the maximum load applied to the lever by the tappet is 90 kg, deter-
mine the dimensions of the cross section of the lever at the boss, where the
section is rectangular, the width being equal to half the depth. Assume
a safe tensile stress of 700 kgIsq cm.
Sketch and dimension a suitable rocker lever.
Ans. 30 mm x 15 mm.
3. The sketch of a Diesel engine valve rocker arm is shown in fig.
12-16 in which C is the pin, B is the tappet end and A the valve end. The
total load at A is 120 kg and that at B is 180 kg. The safe bearing
588 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII
pressure at the pin may be taken 45 kg/sq cm. The rocker arm is to be
qf I section with an allowable stress of 450 kg/sq cm. The distance "a"
is 7 cm and the distance "b" is 6 cm. A 15 mm tapped hole at B to
receive the tappet is to be provided. Design the rocker arm and the pin
at the fulcrum C and give a neat sketch of the rocker arm designed.
B C
rk
b -4}4— - a ----*I
FIG. 12-16
12-8. Angular levers:
In engineering, we come across levers whose arms are inclined
at a certain angle. When the angle between two arms is a right
angle, the lever is known as a bell crank lever. They are used in
governors of Hartnell type, the drive for the air pump of a con-
denser, radial valve gears, etc. The angular levers known as
rocker arms are used for operating valve gears in internal com-
bustion engines. Generally, the angle between two arms is 135'.
The section of the arms of bell crank lever or rocker arm may be
rectangular, elliptical or I form. The principles outlined in sec-
tion 12-2 may be applied for the design of bell crank levers and
rocker arms. We consider the design of such
arms by illustrative examples. R
400
(A) Bell crank lever:
Examples :
1. A bell crank lever to drive the condenser
air pump is shown in fig. 12-17. A force of u-, o
900 kg acts at A as shown in the figure. to
Determine (a) the force at B and C,
(b) the diameter of pins at A, B 900 kg
and C, A
(c) the section of the lever near Bell crank lever
the fulcrum. FIG. 12-17
The lever consists of a steel forging, turning on a pin at the fulcrum.
The following data apply both to the pins and lever:
Safe stress in tension 850 kg/sq cm
Safe stress in shear 625 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure for the pin 85 kg/sq cm.
Art. 12-8] LEVERS 589

The force at B can be obtained by taking moment about the

fulcrum C. If P be the force at B, then
P X 40 = 900 x 65
900 x 65
or P - =
— 1,470 kg.
= 40
The reaction at the fulcrum will be R .---- 1'14702 + 9002
= 1,724 •kg.
The fulcrum pin is in double shear and it should also be
designed from bearing considerations. Let us design the pin
/
from bearing considerations and then check it for shear. Let
d
ratio for the pin be 1.25. If dp be the diameter of the pin, then
length of the pin will be 1.25 dp. The projected area will he 1-2542.
1.25dp2 x 85 -,-- 1724

or 1724 = 4.05 cm; we adopt 4.5 cm.

dp = 1/1.25 x 85
The length of the pin will be 5 cm.
1724
The shear stress induced in the pin will be
n
2 x -- x 4.52
4
------- 54.5 kg/sq cm, which is well below 625 kg/sq cm.
A brass bush 3 mm thick will be inserted in the boss of the
lever so that the renewal will be simple, when wear occurs. As
the bush is 3 mm thick the internal diameter of theithole in the
lever will be 4.5 + 2 x 0.3 = 5.1 cm. The outside diameter of
the boss will be twice the diameter of the hole. In our case it
will be 2 x 5.1 = 10.2 cm; we can adopt 10 cm.
/
By assuming — ratio of 1.25 for the pin B, we get the dia-
d
meter of the pin B from the equation
1.25d2 x 85 = 1470
1/ 1470
or d= = 3.7 cm; we adopt 3.8 cm.
1.25 x 85
The length of the pin = 5 cm.
We provide for 3 mm thick bush and the radial thickness of
the eye will be taken as half the diameter of the pin. The outer
diameter of the eye will be
3.8 -1- 2 X 0.3 + 2 x i x 3.8 = 8.2 cm; we adopt 8.5 cm.
4i 14,1 I, in >..
590 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. X11

900
The diameter of the pin at A will be = 3.8 — = 3 cm.
V1470
The length of the pin will be 3.8 cm. We provide 3 mm thick
bush for pin A. The outside diameter of the eye will be 6.5 cm.
As the forces at B and C do not differ much, the same sized pin
can be adopted at B and C to reduce the spares.
The section of the arm is obtained by considering the bending
moment. We assume that the arm of the bending moment on the
lever extends upto the centre of the fulcrum. This assumption
results in stronger section. The section of the arm is rectangular
having thickness as f of the depth.
h$
Modulus of section will be *the = i x h3 = •
16
Maximum bending moment = 900 x 65 = 58,500 kg cm.
3
• 58500 = 1 x 850
•
6
-r13500 x 16 — 10.2 cm; we adopt 11 cm.
or h=
850
3
The thickness of the lever will be x 10.2 = 3.82 cm.
8
We adopt 4 cm as the thick-
ness of the lever.
2. In a Hartnett governor the A
length of the ball arm is 19 cm, that c
of the sleeve arm is 14 cm and the c
weight of each ball is 2.5 kg. The
distance of the pivot of each bell
crank lever from the axis of rotation
is 17 cm and the speed when the ball
arm is vertical is 300 r.p.m. The
speed is to increase 3% for a lift of
1.5 cm of the sleeve. Determine the
stiffness of the spring. Design the
bell crank liver. Assume your own Spring loaded Hartnell governor
values for the permissible stresses. Fio. 12-18
Let P be the force exerted by the spring and F the centrifugal
force on one ball. Then, taking moment about the fulcrum of the
bell crank lever, we get
Art. 12-8] LEVERS 591

P
F x 19 = - x 14.
2
W r W r [7r.N12
The centrifugal force = ---- IX - x co2 = 6- x 2
e 100 100 X 60 j
where W is the weight of each ball in kg, r the radius of ball
path in cm and N the speed in r.p.m. On substitution of values,
we get
2.5 r 2nN-12 = P
X14
9.81 X 160 X 19E-60- 2
or P = 0.00007586.10r kg.
At 300 r.p.m. r = 17 cm.
•• P1 = 0.00007586 x '3002 x 17 = 116 kg.
For 3% increase in speed, N = 309 r.p.m.
19
and r = 17 + 1.5 x 14 = 19.04 cm.
. At 309 r.p.m., P2 = 000007586 x 3092 x 19.04 = 138 kg.
— 116
.• Spring stiffness = 138
- --F6--- = 14.7 kg/cm.
The maximum load on the roller arm of bell crank lever =
138
= 69 kg. By taking moment about the fulcrum of the bell
2
crank lever, we get the maximum value of the centrifugal force
on the ball arm.
69 x 14
Maximum centrifugal force = - - = 50.8 kg.
19
The reaction at the fulcrum = 1692 -1- 50.82 ----e. 86 kg.
We have neglected the gravity effects of the arms and balls.
The bell crank lever will be pivoted at the fulcrum pin and
the pin will be supported in the eye which is integral with the
casing for the spring. The fulcrum pin will be designed from
bearing considerations and checked for shear. Assuming - ratio
d
of 2 and the bearing pressure of 70 kg/sq cm, we get
2d x d x 70 = 86
-1/- -86
or d= — 0.8 cm; we adopt 1 cm.
70 x 2
The pin is in double shear. The shear stress induced in pin
86
will be = 54.9 kg/sq cm which is well within safe
rc
2x x 12
4
limits.
592 MACHINE DESIGN i { Ch. XII
The length of the pin in the fulcrum will be 2 cm.
The boss diameter will be twice the diameter of the pin i.e.
2 cm.
Maximum bending moment = 69 x 14 , 966 kg cm.
The material of the lever is assumed to be cast steel for which
the permissible flexural stress is 850 kg/sq cm.
Assuming a rectangular section, having thickness equal to f
of the depth, if h be the depth of the section and t the thickness,
h3
the modulus of section will be if x f /13 = •
16
1/3
.. 966 = — x 850
16
h ____ * 966
Dr x 16 = 2.7 cm.
850
'The thickness of the lever will be 1.2 cm.
The material of the ball is cast iron and it is screwed at the end
of the lever. The density of cast iron is 7.8 gm/cu cm. If r cm
be the radius of the ball, then
2.5 x 1000 = 4 x 7rr3 x 7.8
-172.5 ---
x 1000 x 3
Or r zr-r- r= 4.25 cm.
4 x rc x 7.8
The end of the lever will be screwed up to the centre of the
ball.
Maximum centrifugal force on the ball .,--- 50.8 kg.
Maximum bending moment on the screwed end of the lever
will be equal to 50.8 x 4.25 = 216 kg cm.
If dc cm be the diameter at the bottom of the thread, we get
L dc3x 850 = 216
3
2l6 x 32
or vi,c = = 1.38 cm.
n x 850
From table of metric thread, we adopt M 18.
The maximum load on the roller will be half the maximum
spring load. The pin will be fixed in the forked end of the bell
crank lever and the roller will be free to move on the pin. We
/
design the pin from bearing considerations. We assume - ratio
d
as 1.5 and bearing pressure as 70 kg/sq cm.
Art. 12-a) LEVERS 593

.•. 1.5d x d x 70 ...--- 69

or d -=, 11 69 — 0.83; we adopt the dia-

70 x 1.5
meter of the roller pin as 1 cm and the length as 1.5 cm. The
thickness of the eye of the fork will be 8 mm.
The outer diameter of the eye will be 2.6 cm.
The outer diameter of the roller will be 2.8 cm (slightly larger
than the outer diameter of the eye).
Exercises:
1. A spring loaded governor of the Hartnell type has arms of equal
length. The weights rotate in a circle of 30 cm diameter when the sleeve
is in mid position and the weight arms are vertical. The equilibrium
speed for this position is 400 r.p.m. The maximum sleeve movement is
to be 4 cm and the maximum variation of speed allowed is 4% from the
mean speed. The weight of the ball is 3.2 kg. Assuming your own values
of the stresses, design the spring and bell crank lever for the governor.
2. A right angled bell crank lever has arms 105 cm and 75 cm long
and the longer arm carries a load of 5,500 kg. The shaft transmits a
torque of 157,000 kg cm through one bearing neck, th® bearing being close
to the lever.
Adopt any suitable method vr making the
lever and comment on your design. Choose your
materials and working stresses. Draw two views
of the lever and add the leading dimensions.
3. Fig. 12-19 shows a bell clank lever
used on job shop printing press. The material
of the lever is mild steel. A force F of 100 kg
is applied at A in the direction shown. The
lever arms 'X' and 'I' are 20 cm and 15 cm
respectively. Design the lever and pins at Angular lever
A, B and C. FIG. 12-19
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1960)
4. Design a bell crank lever having both arms of equal length.
The stress in the material of the lever is not to exceed 150 kgIsq cm. The
free ends of the arms terminate in a circular ring of 75 mm external dia-
meter and 25 mm hole diameter to receive pins. The common end of the
arms is formed into a boss of suitable diameter to receive a pin of 40 mm
diameter.
594 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. XII

A load of 180 kg is applied at one of the free ends with an effective

arm length of 400 mm between the ring and boss centres. The arms have
an I section between the boss and the ring, such that the depth of the section
is about 2.25 times the flange width.
Make the necessary calculations and draw a dimensioned sketch of
the lever, giving sectional views where required.
(Bombay University, 1967)
5. Design a right angled bell crank lever. One horizontal arm is
48 cm long and a force of 450 kg acts vertically downward through a pin in
the forked end of this arm.
At the end of 12 cm long arm which is perpendicular to the 48 cm
long arm, a force P acts at right angles to the axis of 12 cm arm through
a pin into a forked end. The lever consists of forged steel material and a
pin at the fulcrum. The following data apply both to the pins and the
lever:
Safe stress in tension 750 kg/sq cm
Safe stress in shear 600 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure for the bearing 100 kg/sq cm
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1972)
(B) Rocker arm for exhaust valve:
The rocker arm is generally of I section and it is subjected
to bending due to applied load. In order to calculate the bending
moment, it is assumed that the arm of the lever extends from the
point of application of load to the centre of the pivot of the
rocker. This assumption results in a slightly stronger section near
the boss. One end of the rocker arm is forked to receive a roller,
which is carried on a pin which is free to revolve in a eye in order
to have uniform wear. The ratio of length to diameter of the
roller and fulcrum pin is taken as 1.25 and the permissible bearing
pressure is taken from 35 to 60 kg/sq cm. 3 mm thick brass bush
is pressed into the boss of the fulcrum and the eyes of the forked
ends to provide for wear. The outside diameter of the boss is
usually taken as twice the diameter of the fulcrum pin. The
radial thickness of each eye of the forked end is taken as half the
diameter of the pin. The outside diameter of the roller is taken
at least slightly larger than the outer diameter of the eye. A
phosphor bronze bush is provided for the roller as after sufficient
service it is to be discarded due to wear at the profile. As some
little clearance is provided between the roller and inside of the
I Art. 12-8 I LEVERS 595

fork, it is desirable that pin should be checked for bending as

explained earlier. Some cut away portion should be provided to clear the
nose of the cam. The amount of cut away portion to be provided is obtained
by trial and error method.
The other end of the rocker arm is made circular to receive
the tappet, which is a stud provided with a lock nut. The outside
diameter of the circular arm is twice the diameter of the stud and
the depth of the section is also equal to twice the diameter of the
stud.
Example :
1. Fig. 12-20 shows the rocker arm for an exhaust valve of a gas
engine. Total maximum force on the roller B is 200 kg. Design (i) the
pin R and (ii) the cross section of the arm at section AA. Allowable
bearing pressure at the pin may be assumed to be 50 kg/sq cm. The section
of the arm may be of I or rectangular form. The rocker arm is made of
forged steel for which permissible flexural stress is 840 kg/sq cm.
200 kg

Exhaust valve gear rocker arm

Fic. 12-20
As the arms of the lever are equal, the loads at two ends of
the rocker arm are equal. The reaction Q at the fulcrum is
obtained by the formula
Q, = V2002 + 2002 — 2 x 200 x 200 cos135° = 360 kg.
Assuming a ratio of length to diameter for the pin as 1.25,
we get,
50x 1.25d x d = 360
ii
4 .• d= = 24 cm; we adopt 2.5 cm.
50 360.25
x 1
596 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XII

360
The length of the pin = 50 x 2.88 cm; we adopt 3 cm.
The external diameter of the boss will be 5 cm and the internal
diameter will be 2.9 cm (bush 2 mm thick).
For the tappet end of the rocker arm, we adopt 18 mm stud
whose core area is 1.92 sq cm and compressive stress intensity will
200
not exceed = 105 kg/sq cm. It is provided with a lock nut.
1-92
The outer diameter of the circular end will be 2 x 1.8 = 3.6 cm
and the depth of the end will also be 3.6 cm.
Let us consider the rectangular section, with the proportions
t = jd. The modulus of section will be it x d x d2 = 1
fi cm3.
d3
840 = 15 x 200 = 3,000 kg cm.
16 x
f3000 x 16
or d= — = 3.84 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
840
Thickness of the lever = 1.5 cm.
Now let us design I section for the arm. We adopt the
following proportions for the I section:
Thickness of the web and flange - - t.
Breadth of the section = 2.5/.
Height of the section — 6t.
[2.5t (603 — 1.5t (403]
Modulus of section will be —
3t
12.33t3.
Maximum bending moment = 200 x 15 = 3,000 kg cm
•• 3000 = 12.33t3 x 840
3000
= 12.33 x 846 = 0.66 cm; we adopt 7 mm.

Breadth of the section = 1.8 cm.

Height of the section = 4.2 cm.
Load on the roller is 200 kg. We adopt here a bearing
pressure of 50 kg/8g cm and ratio of length to diameter 1.25.
••• 50 x 1.25d x d = 200

or
r
d = 11 200
50x 1.25
= 1.7 cm; we adopt 18 mm.
Art. 12-8] LEVERS 597

Length of the pin = 1.8 x 1.25 = 2.3 cm.

Thickness of each eye = 1.2 cm.
Overall diameter of the eye will be 1.8 + 2 x 0.2
+ 2 x 1-2 = 4.6 cm.
Exercises:
1. The exhaust valve rocking lever of a Diesel engine similar to one
shown in fig. 12-20 has arms 17.5 cm long. The exhaust valve is 10 cm
diameter and the gas pressure when the valve begins to open, is 3.5 kg/sq cm.
The initial load may be taken as 0.6 kesq cm of valve area, and the valve
inertia and friction losses as 25 kg. Design a suitable lever in malleable
cast iron, including the details at the tappet end and at the roller end.
Choose your own values of the working stresses.
2. Design a rocker arm for operating an exhaust valve of a gas engine.
The maximum force on the roller is limited to 220 kg. The effective length
of each of the two arms is 15 cm and the angle included is 135°. The load
and effort are applied at right angles to the lever arms. The opening of the
valve is adjusted by 1 cm stud and a check nut. The rocker arm is made
of forged steel, the permissible stress for which are 700 kg/sq cm in tension
and 560 kg/sq cm in shear. The bearing pressure between the pins and
bores at the fulcrum and fork end is 55 kg/sq cm. The pin may be taken
to have the same stresses as those of the lever. Width of roller may be
taken as 25 mm.
Calculate at least the following dimensions and stresses and make a
neat sketch or drawing. 4..
(i) Diameter and length of fulcrum pin (ii) Shear stress induced in
the fulcrum pin (iii) Diameter and length of bores in the fork (iv) Shear stress
induced in the roller pin in the fork (v) Section of lever near fulcrum.
3. Design a rocker arm for operating the exhaust valve of a gas engine.
The total maximum force on the roller is 200 kg. The included angle
between the limbs of the rocker arm is 135°. State the material used and
adopt suitable stresses. ?Gujarat University, 1971)

(C) Lever design for Transmission Dynamometers:

The transmission dynamometers are used where power must be
measured under service conditions, as in a machine tool performing
the function. It may be the belt dynamometer as shown in fig.
12-21 or epicyclic train dynamometer as shown in fig. 16-9. In
belt transmission dynamometer the driver and driven pulleys
598 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XII
revolve about fixed axes but the intermediate pulleys revolve
on pins fixed to the lever which in turn pivots about the fulcrum
on the fixed frame. If T1 and T2 be the tensions in the tight
and slack sides of the belt respectively, the disturbing torque on
the lever will be 2( T1 — T2) x, where x is the distance between
the fulcrum of the lever and the centre of the intermediate pulley.
The lever is kept in equilibrium position by adjusting the sliding
counter-weight W. If y be the distance of the sliding weight from
the fulcrum, then
Wy = 2 ( T1 — T2) x
2 ( T1 — T2) x
•• y w (i)
The design data include the power to be transmitted, speed
ratio and the size of either driver or driven pulley. As the speed
ratio is known, the size of the other pulley can be calculated. The
angle of lap may be taken as 180° and the coefficient of friction
as 0.25 to 0.3. With these data, tensions in the tight and slack
sides can be calculated. When forces acting on pins, i.e. 2 T1 and
2 T2 are known, the position of the sliding weight can be deter-
mined. By drawing the polygon of forces the reaction at the ful-
crum can be obtained.

Belt transmission dynamometer

FIG. 12-21

Freely revolving intermediate pulleys A and B are equal in

diameter. The diameter of intermediate pulley will be equal to
half the difference of the driver and driven pulleys. When the
diameter of the intermediate pulley is known, the distance 'x' can
be calculated. When the materials of the pins and lever are
Art. 12-9 J LEVERS 599

known, by assuming the suitable values of the permissible stresses,

the sizes of fixed pins, fulcrum pin and lever can be obtained by the
methods explained in this chapter. The sizes of the pins are
determined from bearing considerations and then checked for
strength.
Note: For design of an epicyclic gear dynamometer, please refer example
5 of article 16-14.

Exercise :
1. A 25 h. p. Diesel engine running at 300 r.p.m. drives a generator
at 900 r.p.m. by means of a belt. A belt transmission dynamometer shown
in outline in fig. 12-21 is used to measure the horse power transmitted to
the generator.
The cast iron spider supporting two guide pulleys A and B is pivoted
at P and has a horizontal lever arm, which supports the sliding counter-weight
W, used to balance the torque.
Making suitable assumptions, design and calculate the various dimen-
sions of the spider. Make a neat dimensioned sketch of the spider. The
following data may be used for the calculations :
Safe tensile stress in cast iron 175 kg/sq cm, bearing pressure not to
exceed 30 kg/sq cm, safe tensile stress in steel 850 kg/sq cm, and safe
tensile stress in belt 30 kg/sq cm. Coefficient of friction 0.25.

12-9. Design of overhung cranks:

There are two types of cranks: the side crane or overhung
crank and the centre crank. The proportions of each are different.
In the overhung crank, the crank pin a cantilever while in the
centre crank it is a simple beam. The arm of an overhung
crank must carry the same load as both s of the centre crank
types. The centre cranks may be dev p?d into multi-throw
crank shafts. The overhung crank is loc d as close to the bear-
ing as possible in order to reduce bending stresses in the shaft.
The cranks are made of cast iron, wrought iron or steel. Forged
crank shafts are commonly used. Generally, cast iron cranks
are used for small inexpensive machinery.
There are various methods of connecting crank pin to the
crank arm but the best method is to use either a press or shrink
fit. The crank is mounted on the shaft by means of shrink or press
fit. In addition key is also used.
600 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

Fig. 12-22 shows the proportions for the forged steel cranks.
The crank arm is subjected to multiplicity of moments and forces
which vary throughout the revolution. The force, Fc, acting
along the connecting rod resolves in two components: tangential
component and radial component. In any arbitrary position of the
crank, due to the tangential force, the crank arm will be subjected to trans-
verse shear, bending and twisting, while due to radial component it will
be subjected to direct stress and bending. It will be laborious to consider
all these straining actions in several positions of the crank. There-
fore, we shall consider the strength of the crank arm in two
positions, when the crank is in dead centre position and when the
crank and connecting rod are at right angles.

4- U -4-
p, 4

444t
*ifsOverhung crank
„4:, FIG. 12-22

When the crank is at dead centre position, there is no tangen-

tial component of the force in the connecting rod and any section
of the crank is subjected to direct and flexural stresses If the
section were to be rectangular of thickness t and width b, the direct
Fr
stress will be bi . If X be the distance of the centre of gravity of
the section from the line of action of the load, the bending moment
Art. 12-10 1 LEVERS 601

on the section will be F,X. The maximum bending stress on the

section will be
Fri , 6FrX
ibt2 — bt2 .
1 6X
The resultant maximum stress will be Fr[— l• bt + bt2
The resultant maximum stress should not exceed the permi-
ssible limit. So far as this straining action is concerned, the arm
must have a uniform section.
When the crank and connecting rod are at right angles, there
is no radial component of the force in the connecting rod. There
acts on the section (a) a bending moment Ftl, (ii) a twisting moment
3Ft
FtX and (iii) a transverse shear stress of maximum value — • The
2bt
torsional shear stiress due to twisting moment FtX has a maximum at the
middle of the long sides and a some what lower maximum at the middle
of the short sides. The bending stress due to Ft1 has a maximum
value of uniform magnitude along • the whole short side. This
maximum bending stress combines itself with the shear stress at the
middle of the short side to form maximum shear stress. The
maximum transverse shear stress has a maximum at the middle of
the long side and this shear stress is added directly to the maximum
torsional shear occuring at the same point.
When the crank is in any position, the section of the crank
arm is subjected to direct stress together with bending and torsional
stresses.
The permissible value of the stress varies from 350 kg/sq cm
for east steel to 700 kg/sq cm for steels.
&a (me :
1. Etplain how you will check the cross, section of the crank web of
an overhung crank for induced stresses when the maximum load acting along
the connecting rod is P and the crank is not at dead phases.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)

12-10. Design of a crank pin (overhung crank):

The dimensions of crank pins are based on the strength re-
quired to resist all the forces to which they will be subjected and
602 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

on the intensity of bearing pressure permissible between pin and

journal. The pressure must be low enough to maintain the film
of lubricant otherwise excessive heating and wear will result.
The allowable bearing pressure varies from 20 kg/sq cm for small
high speed engines to 70 kg/sq cm for large low speed engines.
We consider the design of crank pin, which is equally strong
in bending and bearing.
Let P = force acting on the crank pin
l= length of the crank pin
d = diameter of the crank pin
f= permissible tensile stress intensity in the pin material
p = safe bearing pressure on the projected area.
Assuming the crank pin to be a cantilever, the maximum
bending moment, is given by
PI
M -=
2 (i)
The equation derived from bearing consideration will be
P=pd1 (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get
P2
(iii)
M = 2pd
By equating the resisting moment of the crank pin to bend-
ing moment, we get
p2
71 d3
— f •
32 - — 2pd
16P 2
•
•• d= il (iv)
7Cfp
After calculating the diameter of the pin, the length of the
crank pin is obtained from the requirement of the minimum
projected area.
The following formulas are commonly adopted for the design
of the crank pin :
/
ratio for the crank pin . 1/ 2 (v)
d 9:P f

(vi)
Art. 12-10} LEVERS 603

If the crank pin were to be made hollow and a = -7- , then

ao
1 .10.2 f — act)
(vii)
do p
and
P
do = r (vill)
40)P
The crank pins for centre cranks may be treated as simple
beams with the load concentrated at the centre. In multi-cylinder
engines, as the torque from each cylinder is transmitted along the
shaft, the crank pins are subjected to torsional shear stresses in
addition to bending.
Examples :
I. Design an overhung crank pin journal to carry a load of 36,000 kg.
.The pressure on the projected area of the journal is not to exceed 56 kgIsq cm
and the maximum bending stress is not to exceed 840 kg/sq cm.
1
The ratio for the journal is given by

1 110.2f .
d r P
On substitution of values of f and p, we get
1/0.2 x 840
= 1.73.
56
Diameter of the crank pin is obtained by the equation
d = -11 P -11 36000
— 19 cm.
1. 73 x 56
(d ) P
The length of the pin will be 19 x 1.76 = 33 cm.
2. In an overhung crank the axial distance between the centre of
the crank shaft journal and the crank pin is 35 cm and the radius of the
crank is 45 cm. If the maximum tangential force acting on the crank pin
be 11,000 kg, design an overhung crank pin journal if the safe bearing
pressure is limited to 50 kgIsq cm and bending stress to 630 kg/sq cm.
Determine the diameter of the shaft journal if the principal stress is limited
to 630 kg/sq cm.
604 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

The diameter of the crank pin for an overhung crank pin is

f l6P2
given by the equation (iv) of art, 12-10. Hence we have

d --.----
iP 7=
where d = diameter of the journal
P = maximum load on the journal
f = permissible bending stress intensity
p = safe bearing pressure on the projected area.
On substitution of values, we get
d .1716 x 116502
= 11.8 cm; we adopt 12 cm.
TC X 6303< 50
11000
Minimum length of the crank pin --, = 184 cm •)
50 x 12
we adopt 19 cm.
Bending moment at the shaft journal = 11000 x 35
= 384,000 kg cm.
Twisting moment at the shaft journal= 11000 x 45
--.-.-- 495,000 kg cm.
The equivalent moment by Rankine formula,
Te = 384000 + V3840002 + 4950002 = 1,011,000 kg cm.
If D cm be the diameter of the shaft journal, then
D3 x 630 = 1011000
16
81011000x1_6
or D= 20.2 cm; we adopt 21 cm
TC X 630 =
diameter shaft.
Exercises:
1. Design an overhung crank pin journal to carry a maximum force
along the connecting rod of 70 tonnes. Allow a bearing pressure of 60
kg/sq cm of projected area and a maximum bending stress of 550 kg/sq cm.
Show by sketches how the pin may be fixed in the arms.
Ans. d = 26 cm; 1 = 47 cm.
2. The tangential force on the crank pin of an overhung crank is
25,000 kg. Find the diameter and length of the crank pin, (a) if the pin
is to be designed from strength point of view, the permissible stress being
630 kg/sq cm, (b) V the bearing pressure is not to exceed 56 kg/sq cm.
l
Assume ratio to be 1.25.
d
Ans. (a) 16.5 cm; 21 cm. (b) 19 cm; 24 cm.
 Art. 12-10 ] LEVERS 605

3. Design an overhung crank with pin and shaft of a steam engine

shown in fig. 12-23. The load on the dank pin is 3,000 kg, when the
crank and connecting rod are at right angles. Allowable bearing pressure
on the pin may be taken upto 70 kg/sq cm and for main bearing 30 kg/sq cm.
Assume suitable stresses for the design. Draw the crank with pin and
shaft which you have designed.

P
FIG. 12-23 FIG. 12-24
4. In fig. 12-24, is shown an overhung crank which has to support
horizontal load P of 600 kg as shown. Calculate the diameter of the shaft
`d required and obtain the dimensions of the web at the cross section XX.
You may allow a shear stress of 450 kg/sq cm in the shaft and a tensile
stress of 700 kg/sq cm in the web.
5. The crank pin of an overhung crank is acted upon by a force
of 3,000 kg at right angles to the crank. The length of the crank is 20
cm. Distance of the centre line of the crank pin to the .adjacent bearing
is 25 cm. Assuming the shaft and pin to be made of carbon steel, having
an ultimate strength of 4,500 kg/sq cm, calculate (a) the dimensions of
the pin and (b) the diameter of the crank shaft in the main bearing.
Assume your own value of the factor of safety. Safe bearing pres-
sures for the crank and shaft journal are 70 and 15 kg/sq cm respectively.
6. Design an overhung crank from the following data, when the crank
and connecting rod are at right angles :
Load on the crank pin = 3,000 kg
Allowable bearing pressure = 70 kg/sq cm for pin
= 35 kg/sq cm for main bearing
Length
1.2 for pin and 2 for main bearing
Diameter
Crank radius = 20 cm
Distance between crank pin bearing centre to main bearing centre.-- 25 cm.
(Gujarat University, J972)
606 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XII

12-11. Miscellaneous Examples:

Let us consider some illustrative examples, involving the
principles of designs of levers, considered in this chapter.
Examples:
1. Fig. 12-25 shows a cross lever to operate the twin cylinder double
acting pump. The force of 600 kg acts upwards, while that of 400 kg
acts downwards.
Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions of the cross lever and
pin sizes for A, B, C and D. The permissible bending stress in the
material of the lever is 600 kg/cq cm. The bearing pressure is limited
to 150 kg/sq cm.

400 kg 600 kg

FIG. 12-25
Let Q be the effort required.
Taking moment about the fulcrum of the lever, we get
Q x 100 = (600 + 400) 30
or Q =---- 300 kg.
The worst condition arises when one side of the pump does
not work. At that time the effort required will be given by the
equation Q x 100 = 600 x 30
Or Q = 180 kg.
Reaction at the fulcrum = 1/1802-+- 6002 = 624 kg when
only one side of the pump operates.
When both sides operate, the reaction at the fulcrum will be
1/3002 + (600 — 400)2 = 360 kg.
Thus the fulcrum pin is to be designed for a maximum load
of 624 kg. The pins A, B, C and D are to be designed for the
loads as shown below:
Art. 12-11] LEVERS 607

Pin Load (kg)

A 400
B 624
C 600
D 300
The dimensions of the pins B and C will be the same and the
dimensions of the pin A and D will be the same.
Bearing pressure for pins A, B, C and D is limited to 150
kg/sq cm. Maximum load for the design of pins B and C is to be
taken as 624 kg.
624
Bearing area required --, - = 4•16 sq cm.
150
/
We assume the - ratio as 1.25 .. 1.25d2 --=--- 4-16
d
V 4.16
or = =--- 1.84 cm; we adopt the diameter of pins B
1.25
4.16
and C as 2 cm. Length of the bearing ,---- ---, 2.08 cm;
we adopt 2.2 cm.
Thus, the dimensions of the pins A and C may be made 20 mm
diameter and 22 mm bearing length. We adopt 3 mm thick bush.
The diameter of the hole in the lever will be 20 + 6 -, 26 mm.
The outside diameter of the boss will be 2 x 26 = 52 mm.
It should be remembered that the direction of the load will
be reversed and consequently the loads will be changed and hence
the pins at A and C must be identical. Thus, pins at A, B and C
will be identical and so the holes in the lever will also be identical.
It should be noted that the lever is subjected to fatigue stresses.
Let us fix the thickness of the two horizontal arms.
Assume the ratio of depth to thickness for horizontal arm as
3:1
Modulus of section = * x t X (3t)2 = 1•5t3, if t is the thick-
ness of the lever.
Maximum bending mament = 600 x 30 = 18,000 kg cm.
0
Modulus of section = 164 , 30 cm3.
0
•• • 1.5t3 . 30

or t =173°
1 = 2.71 cm; we adopt 3 cm.
.5
Depth of the section = 3 x 3 =-4 9 cm.
608 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII

Section of the vertical arms:

Maximum bending moment = 300 x 100 -T- -- 30,000 kg cm.
30000
Modulus of section = — -- --.- 50 cm3.
600
The thickness of the lever is kept the same i.e. 3 cm. If d cm
he the depth of the section, then
-3 Y d2 = 50
y50 6
or d= . ,--, 10 cm.
3
We adopt 3 cm as the thickness and depth as 10 cm.
2. Fig. 12-26 shows a bench shearing machine used to shear mild
steel bars of cross section 5 mm x 3 mm. The ultimate shear strength
of the bar material is 4,000 kg/sq cm. Suggest the suitable cross sectional
dimensions of the lever.
Bearing pressure on the pins A, and fulcrum pin is not to exceed
200 kg/sq cm. Permissible tensile stress intensity in the lever and the link
AB is not to exceed 800 kg/sq cm.

100 300

Bar to be sheared
C

80 500 —

FIG. 12-26
Area to be sheared = 0.5 x 0.3 =. 0.15 sq cm.
Maximum shear force = 0.15 x 4000 = 600 kg.
Tensile load in the link = 600 = 150 kg, as the leverage for
4
the blade is 4.
Pins B and A are in double shear.
Assuming -(- ratio of 1, the diameter of the pin may be taken
as 1 cm.
Art. 12.11 1' tIvEsts 600

The dimensions of the pins at A, B and C will be the same.

n
The area of the pin .-- x 12 = 0.785 sq cm.
4
150
Shearing stress in the pin = 2 x 0.785 = 95.5 kg/sq cm.
150x 8
Effort required to operate the lever = = 20.8 kg;
58
we adopt 21 kg.
Outside diameter of the boss = 3 cm.
Maximum bending moment = 21 x 50 = 1,050 kg cm.
Permissible stress = 800 kg/sq cm.
If t cm be the thickness of the lever, then
Till [i X 3 3 — x 11
modulus of section = = il I cm2.
1 .5 t
26t
iii x 800 = 1050
1050 x 18
or t. = 0.91 cm; we adopt 1 cm as thick-
26 x 800
ness, and 3 cm as the depth of the lever.
The diameter of the circular cross section of the link AB
may be taken as 1 cm.
150
Tensile stress in the link = - -- = 191 kg/sq cm.
0 .785
The part grasped by hand may be 32 mm in greatest and 25
mm in the smallest diameter and 125 mm long. The maximum
force exerted by a man may be taken as 35 kg.
Note: As this machine is hand operated the parts should be sturdy; conse-
quently the induced stresses will be low.
3. A hand wheel is to be designed for a torsion testing machine
required to test to destruction standard test pieces upto 12 mm diameter for
materials developing maximum shear stress of 5,000 kg/sq cm. The
hand wheel is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to the test piece through a
reduction gear of 25:1 and having an efficiency of 40%. The operator
is capable of applying with ease a force of 12 kg*to the hand wheel.
Design the hand wheel, shaft and key assuming appropriate safe
stresses. Sketch two views of the hand wheel.
rc
Maximum torque on a test piece = 16 x 1.23 x 5000
= 1,760 kg cm.
Ideal torque on the hand wheel = 1760 = 74 kg cm as the
gear ratio is 25:1.
610 MACHINE DESIGN r Ch. XII

Efficiency of transmission is 40%. Hence the actual torque

to be applied by the hand wheel =
4 = 185 kg cm.
7-
0.4
185
Minimum diameter of the hand wheel = - — = 15.4 cm.
12
We adopt 20 cm diameter hand wheel, with three arms.
If d be the diameter of the solid shaft on which the hand wheel
n
is mounted, then r6- x d2 x 450 = 185, (where permissible shear
stress for the shaft material is taken as 450 kg/sq cm.)
-13/ 1 85 x 5.1
or d= = 1.26 cm; we adopt 15 mm diameter
450
shaft. The hub of the hand wheel will be 30 mm in diameter.
The dimensions of the key will be 30 mm x 4 mm x 3 mm.
30 x 4
Shear area of the key = = 1.2 sq cm.
-Too
185
Tangential force on the key = o5-- = 247 kg.
247
Shear stress induced = T.-- = 206 kg/sq cm, which is within
limits.
247
Crushing stress = 3 x 0715 = 550 kg/sq cm, which is safe.

Let us consider another method of mounting the hand wheel

on the shaft, by transverse taper key of dimension, d, for which per-
missible shear stress in the key may be taken as 600 kg/sq cm.

7' d2 x 600 x 1.5 = 185

4
185 x 4
or 100d2 = - -97r-- - = 26.2
• d= 0.51 cm, we adopt 0.52 cm key. Such a dimensioned
key will weaken the shaft.
The third alternative arrangement of mounting the hand
wheel on the shaft will be by means of a set screw.

The diameter of the set screw = y_Tangential

132
force

1/247
132= 1.36 cm.
Art. 12.11 ] LEVERS 611

This size is too large and hence we adopt two set screws
each of 1 cm diameter.
We have taken 3 arm handwheel.
Bending moment on each arm = 1 35 = 62 kg cm.
Assume 200 kg/sq cm as the flexural stress for the material
of the hand wheel.
62
Modulus of section required = -06 = 0.31 ans.
Elliptical cross section with major axis twice the minor axis
is adopted.
7C
• as = 0.31
• ' 64

v0.31 x 64
= 1.85 cm.
7C

We adopt 2 cm x 1 cm as dimensions of the cross seection

of the arm at the hub and those at the rim as 1.4 cm x 0.7 cm.
Another alternative is to mount the hand wheel on the squared
portion of the shaft. This will facilitate insertion and removal
of the hand wheel.
4. Fig. 12-27 shows a safety device. The door opens when the
load on it reaches 2,500 kg. Design the bell crank lever if the mechanical
advantage of the lever is 4 and the length of the shorter arm is 15 cm.
II
Bolt centre line Bracket Bell crank lever

MM. Mb MID MI Mb Mb Mb 111. .0

MP MN 1M. IMI. ONO IP WM
MD M M. M. •Mik NM. blIM

Nam amm .1mb , mew ...

m Mm, MB s.m. MM OMNI
4=. ••= ea. ••• mimp mm
OM Mb MN, 4EM WM
Mb 4M1 •• MEM a.m. ,
,m, ..•Mb INIM MM. IMM a•Mb

WM •••• mini. •Imo bbil.m bimm

•
Mb blomm, m••••• bi.M. MN. b••••

FIG. 12-27
Bearing pressure for the pin may be taken as 125 kgIsq cm and the
bending stress for the lever may be taken as 800 kg/sq cm. Also suggest
 ,
612 MACHINE !ANON t Ch. XII
the procedure for designing the bolts required to fasten the fulcrum bracket,
and the bracket.
As the load on the door is 2,500 kg, the effort at the end of
the horizontal arm will be 2 50 0 = 625 kg as the mechanical
4
advantage is 4.
Resultant load on the fulcrum pin = V25002 4 6252
= 2,580 kg.
Bearing pressure is limited to 125 kg/sq cm. Hence minimum
2580
projected bearing area = 125 = 22.5 sq cm. Let us assume --d
-
ratio to be 1.3.
• 1.3d2 = 22.5
•

22 5
or d= = 4.15 cm; we adopt 4.5 cm.
1-3
Length = 5.5 cm thus providing bearing area of 24.8 sq cm
and the bearing pressure intensity = 2580= 104 kg/sq cm.
24.8
Outside diameter of the hub = 2 x 4.5 = 9 cm.
Let us consider the cross section of the lever. We assume
that the thickness is 3/8th of the depth. Hence the modulus of
1 3 d3
section will be - x — d x d2 = — cm3
6 8 16
Let us consider the bending moment on the horizontal arm.
B.M. = 625 (60 — 4.5) = 3,400 kg cm. B.M. on vertical arm of the
bell crank lever where it joins hub = 2500 (15 — 4.5) = 2,630 kg cm.
d3
T6 x 800 = 3400 or d — -V 3400 x--- 16
800
= 4.05 cm.

We adopt d = 4.5 cm and thickness will be 1.5 cm, thus

providing i x 4.52 x 1.5 = 5.01 ems as the modulus of section
and the resisting moment will be 800 x 5.1 = 4,050 kg cm.
Hence the design is safe. The thickness of the lever at the boss is
increased by providing two welded washers of 2 cm thick on each side so as to
provide the necessary bearing length, for the pin, of 5-5 cm.
Design of a bracket bolt:
1. Due to horizontal load, the bracket bolts are subjected
to direct tensile load, which is the same for each bolt.
Ex. XII j LEVERS 613

2. Due to vertical load, the bracket bolts are subjected to

tensional loading due to tilting of the bracket about the
lower edge and direct shear load, which is the same for
each bolt. When permissible stress intensity is known
and when resultant tension load is calculated, the size of
the bolt can be fixed.
Design of the bracket :
Due to horizontal load the bracket is subjected to direct
tensile stress, while the bracket is subjected to flexural stresses,
due to vertical load. When the permissible stress is known, the
size can be fixed.

EXAMPLES XII
1. A band brake for a crane is required to hold a load of 450 kg. This load
is taken on a rope wound round the crane barrel which is of 40 cm diameter.
The brake drum, which is fixed to the barrel shaft is of 60 cm diameter. The
band embraces three quarters of the circumference of the drum and the coefficient
of friction between band and drum is 0.3. The brake is to be applied by a hand
lever above the drum and the operating force (vertically downwards) must not
exceed 25 kg.
Design and sketch a suitable mild steel operating lever, having one end of the
band attached to its fulcrum, assuming a working stress in bending of 1,000
kg/sq cm.
Devise and sketch a suitable catch for locking the brake in the "ON" position.
2. A beam scale, has to be designed to weigh upto 500 kg.. The scale pan
measures 900 mm x 900 mm. Making suitable assumptions, calculate the lead-
ing dimensions of the beam and the knife edges. The beam is made of cast
steel and the knife-edge inserts of case hardened carbon steel.
Safe stress for steel in tension is 1,100 kg/sq cm.
Safe stress for steel in shear is 700 kg/sq cm.
Make a neat sketch of the beam showing the knife edges and the central
hanger in position and put in all dimensions.
3. Fig. 12-28 shows a bell crank lever for a gtrrage jack to lift a load of
2,000 kg. The load platform P remains horizontal in all positions of the jack.
The lift is 15 cm. If the lever is made of carbon steel and is horizontal in the
lower most .position of the jack, design and prepare a dimensioned drawing of
the bell crank lever.
4. A machine part of the shape shown in fig. 12-29 has a load of 600 kg
acting at end A. The allowable stress in bending is 400 kgisq cm. Determine
the dimensions at section XX assuming bending only, if d = 41.
Using the calculated dimensions, obtain the stress at XX, taking into consi-
deration the torsional effect of loading.
614 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. Xil

5. Fig. 1230 shows the arrangement of a brake lever rod and indicates
the maximum loading. The ends A and B are freely supported in bearings.
Compute the load on each bearing giving the direction in each case. Deter-

2000 kg
Platform p

150

A 6 = 250
L CA B = 90°

FIG. 12-28
X

a
t 600 kg -a 0 4-

14 450
x 0)

75

FIG. 12-29

,.....11..ffilam.

4-200—m— 400—m---250---,
59 kg

FIG. 12-30
Ex. XII] LEVERS 615

mine a suitable diameter for the rod if it is of steel with a working shear stress of
550 kg/sq cm. The equivalent torque formula Te = 'V Ail + T2 may be wed.
Decide suitable dimensions for the two lever arms C and D and give a work-
ing sketch of the rod; the bending stress must not exceed 850 kg/sq cm.

6. The rocker arm for operating an inlet valve of an I.C. Engine is shown
in fig. 12-31. The rocker arm is pivoted to the pin B which in turn is mounted
on the bracket. A spring is provided to overcome the forces, at the end A.
Design:

120 kg
AB g150 BC = 225
/Y/4/4 9 =150 °
Q
Rocker arm
FIG. 12-31

(a) the rocker arm assuming it to be of rectangular cross section,

(b) the pin `13'. 11.

Material and safe stresses:

The rocker arm to be of forged steel having safe stresses:
.ft ---= 840 kg/sq cm; Is =-: 630 kg/sq cm; lb = 850 kg/sq cm.
The pin '13' is to be of steel having the same stresses as above.
Allowable bearing pressure may be taken from 50 to 70 kg/sq cm of projected

Make a neat sketch of the arrangement and enter principal dimensions.

7. Fig. 12-32 is a diagram of a hand operated mechanism in which the

plunger at D is required to exert a horizontal pressure. The actuating lever
ABC is pivoted at 0 and is operated by the manual force P applied at A. The
end C is attached to spring which not only counter-balances the weight of the
link work but also exerts an excess force which, in the position shown, is 20 lb
(9 kg) acting vertically.
The mechanism must be capable of withstanding an overload in which the
force P reaches 160 lb (72 kg). For such an overload, calculate for the position
shown:
616 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XII
(a) the horizontal force on the plunger,
(b) the force in the link BD,
(c) the side thrust on the plunger.

AB =1200
80 = 375
OC = 150
131) = 50

FIG. 12-32

Draw to scale the shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the
lever ABC and design this lever, assuming the position shown gives the severest
stressing. Use mild steel and adopt ieasonable working stress. Give a dimen-
sioned sketch of the lever. (A.M.I.t.E., 1953)
Ans. (a) 445.5 kg; (b) 463.5 kg; (c) 127 kg., lever of rectangular section
5 cm deep by 2.5 cm wide would suit.
8. The cranking mechanism in a bicycle consists of pedal, axle, a crank
and a main axle, forming an overhung type crank. The crank radius is 17.5 cm. The
length of the pedal axle is 10 cm. The maximum load on the pedal is 75 kg. The
load is transmitted to the pedal axle at two points 8.75 cm away from each other.
The material used for the axle, crank, and pedal axle has the following safe stresses:
ft = 980 kg jsq cm.
fs = 560 kg/sq cm.
fb = 63 kg/sq cm.
Design the crank and the pedal axle and show clearly the fixing arrange-
ments for main axle and pedal axle with crank and pedal respectively.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
9. The operating mechanism of a manually operated 25 tonne screw press
comprises a hand lever, single spur gear reduction and power screw elements.
Indicate by a sketch the general arrangement of the power mechanism.
(Sardar Patel University, 1968)
Ex. Mil LEVERS 617

10. Design a bell crank lever to raise a vertical load of 500 kg acting through
a pin at the forked ends, by a horizontal rod connected to the lever through a pin
at the other end. The lever consists of a steel forging, turning on the pin at the
fulcrum. Mechanical advantage of the lever is 4, the load arm being 20 cm long.
The following data apply both to pins and the lever:
ft = 800 kgisq cm; fs = 700 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressure for pins may be taken as 100 kg/sq cm
Sketch the lever designed by you. (Sardar Patel .University, 1970)
11. Design a rocker arm for operating an exhaust valve of a gas engine.
The maximum force on the roller is limited to 220 kg. The effective length of
each of the two arms is 15 cm and angle included is 135°. The load and effort are
applied at right angles to the lever arms. The opening of the valve is adjusted
by 1 cm stud and check nut. The rocker arm is made of forged steel. The
permissible stresses for which are 700 kg/sq cm in tension and 560 kg/sq cm in
shear. The bearing pressure between pin and bore at the fulcrum and fork end is
55 kg/sq cm. The pin may be taken to have same stresses as those of the lever.
Width of the roller may be taken as 25 mm. Calculate at least following
dimensions and stresses.
(i) Diameter and length of the fulcrum pin
(ii) Shear stress induced in the fulcrum pin
(iii) Diameter and length of bore in the fork
(iv) Section of lever arm near fulcrum. Make a neat sketch or drawing.
(Gujarat University, 1971)
12. Fig. 12-33 shows a limiting torque wrench. The upper limit of torque
is fixed by failure of nail A in shear viz. 130 kg.
Determine the cross-section of the handle at yy if it is made of mild steel.
Allowable ft = fc = 900 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
--5cm
0 B A lY
Ar
41, 10v-L..,1_
i
)
4 60cm 50 cm -PI v p
cm Nail

FIG. 12-33 I

13. A right angled bell crank lever has its both the am ts at an equal angle
with the horizontal plane. The longer arm of 32 cm length carries a vertically
downward effort. The shorter arm of 8 cm length carries a vertically down-
ward load of 1,600 kg. The fulcrum and the ends work in forked ends. Design
the lever fully taking ft = 900 kg/sq cm, fs = 600 kg/sq cm and fc . 1,200 kg/sq
cm; fb for pin = 100 kg/sq cm.
Assume height of the arm equal to three times its thickness.
Draw dimensioned drawing of the lever to half scale size.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1973)
618 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. Xil
14. In a boiler stop valve the effective steam load on the vertical valve
spindle 25 mm diameter is 900 kg. Suggest the suitable thickness of the cast
steel bridge mounted on two bolts 30 cm apart. Assume single start square
threads of 5 mm pitch and bearing pressure intensity of 700 kgisq cm. Flexural
stress in the cast bridge may be taken as 600 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
15. A lever loaded safety valve has a diameter of 60 mm and the blow off
pressure in the boiler is 14 kg/sq cm gauge. The weight on the lever is not to
exceed 60 kg. The fulcrum of the lever is at a distance of 6 cm from the axis
of the valve. Suggest the suitable cross section for the lever for a permissible
flexural stress of 600 kgisq cm. (Sardar Patel University, 1976)
16. A 1,200 mm lever of the safety braking mechanism of a winch takes up
a load of 50 kg. The lever must be of a rectangular cross section with a side
ratio of 2:3. Determine the cross sectional dimensions of the lever for an allow-
able flexural stress of 800 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER 13
BRACKETS

13-1. Brackets:
The bearings for workshop and mill shafting generally require
fixing to the walls or overhead beams for which purpose a number
of standard forms of cast iron brackets are used. The brackets
are generally of two types: (i) wall bracket (fig. 13-1) and
(ii) pillar bracket (fig. 13-2). The pedestal bearings may either
be cast with the bracket as shown in fig. 13-3 or bolted to it in the
form of a separate plummer block.

04

In
Unit=d 4 1
d-diameter of bearing

Wall bracket
FIG. 13-1

The pillar bracket shown in fig. 13-2 has a minimum amount

of overhung. It may be used to support a horizontal shaft from
a pillar where there is no wall in the way of wheels or pulleys on
the shaft. The pillar bracket may be used as wall bracket if the
620 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIII
....----5---IF
1345

0.259i

0.35-+
1-
0.4'+

1 n
Unitr-d +.

d-diameter of bearing
iv
0.5 0'16
%---2...1_*.
If,0.3 :0.60
Pillar bracket
FIG 13-2

0.9

4 ii
Unit=d +L
2
d-diameter of bearing

Wall bracket with integral bearing

FIG. 13-3
Art. 13-3] BRACKETS 621

shaft does not carry wheels or pulleys which may interfere with
the wall.

13-2. Hangers:
When the shaft is to be supported from a ceiling or from
the overhead beam, the pedestal is modified in form and is known
as hanger (fig. 13-4). The hanger shown in fig. 13-4 is known
as J hanger and the bearing is supported on one side only.

028
5.2 •
1 0.56

4k*-0.25

Le1

1.95 0.25
alb
,•••8••••
IMP 41111=••

0.8

1
Unit=d +1
s.- n a f% 0
d-diameter of bearing 0.9
J hanger
FIG. 13-4

13-3. Wall boxes:

It is used when a transmission shaft passes from one workshop
to another through a dividing wall. When wall boxes are built
during its erection, they may have broad outside flanges on each
face of the wall to prevent movement. All wall boxes giving
a clear opening through a wall should be provided with internal
flanges to which wrought iron plates can be bolted to form a
fire-proof barrier.
622 MACHINE DESIGN [oh. XIII

13-4. Design considerations:

The proportions for the end of the bracket depend upon the
size of the bearing fixed to it. The overhung of the bracket
depends upon the length of the base of the bearing and the width
of the bracket will depend upon the width of the bearing to be
mounted. When the bearing is integral with the bracket as
shown in fig. 13-3, the proportions of the steps, cap and cap bolts
are the same as for an ordinary pedestal.
The projecting arm of the bracket is subjected to bending
and shearing forces. T section of the arm offers the most economi-
cal form for strength and stiffness, which is absolutely necessary
for the bracket.
The fixing bolts for the wall and pillar brackets are subjected
to direct shear stresses and tensile stresses due to tilting action of
the bracket about the edge of the flange as a hinge. On the bolts
of the hanger, there are tensile stresses only; hence other things
being equal, the bolts for the hanger should be smaller than for
a wall bracket. The design of such bolts have been considered
in more detail in article 5-17.
The usual proportions for brackets and hangers have been
given on respective figures, the unit being d + 13 mm where d
is the diameter of the shaft. It is doubtful if the makers of the
brackets are able to calculate their necessary sections. It seems
that the manufacturers are guided
3000 kg
by previous experience and the
brackets are abnormally strong. 50 0
Examples :
1. Fig. 13-5 shows a steel bracket
fixed to a wall by four bolts as shown. The00
bracket carries a pedestal bearing. A load er
of 3,000 kg acts vertically. Design the
bolts and the cross section of the bracket
at AA. The permissible tensile and shear
stress intensities for the bolt and bracket 0
materials are 700 and 550 kgIsq cm
FIG. 13-5
respectively.
The bolts are subjected to direct shear load, which will be
equally shared by all the four bolts. In addition, the bolts are
subjected to extensional load due to tilting of the bracket about
Art. 13-4 BRACKETS 623

the lower edge. The magnitude of the tensile load in each bolt
will be proportional to its position from the tilting edge. We
assume that the entire tilting action of the bracket is resisted by
two upper bolts, the assumption being on the safer side.
00
Direct shear load on each bolt = 30 = 750 kg.
-4
If T be the tensile load in each of the top bolt, then
2 T (400 + 50) = 3000 x 500
3000 x 500
or T - 1,670 kg.
2 x 450
1670 + 1/16702 + 4 x 7502
Principal load = 2,105 kg.
Minimum cross sectional area at the bottom of the thread
2105
will be equal to 760- ----- 3 sq cm.
•

From metric table, we adopt M24 bolt having 3.53 sq cm

area at the bottom of the thread.
We assume that the moment arm of the bracket extends upto
the wall. This assumption gives stronger section for the bracket.
Maximum bending moment at the section AA = 3000 x 50
= 150,000 kg cm.
Let us assume the depth of the section as 30 cm. If t be the
thickness of the bracket, then
150000 =ixtx 302 x 700
150000 x 6
or = - = 1.5 cm.
700 x 30 x 30
The thickness calculated from the strength point of view
will be modified from rigidity considerations.
The maximum shear stress due to transverse shear of 3,000 kg
1.5 x 3000
will be — 100 kgfsq cm, which is well within limits.
1.5 x 30
2. Fig. 13-6 gives some dimensions of a, solid forged bracket to
carry a vertical load of 1,500 kg applied through the centre of the h)le.
The square flange is secured to the flat side of a vertical stanchion by four
M24 bolts. Calculate suitable diameter D and d for the arms of the
bracket.
Estimate the greatest shearing force on a fixing and also find the
tensile load on each top bolt. Mention the assumptions made in the estimations
and state whether the bolts are of adequate size. For all parts, assume
working stresses of 1,000 kg/sq cm in tension and 600 kg/sq cm in shear.
624 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIII

The section of the arm of the bracket having "D" as the dia-
meter is subjected to a bending moment of 1500 x 27.5 =
41,500 kg cm and twisting moment of 1500 x 25 = 37,500 kg cm.
The equivalent torque is 1415002 + 375002 = 55,700 kg cm.
n
If D cm be the diameter of the arm, then -i D3 x 600 = 55700

-V55700x 16
Or D 600 x 7 — 7.8 cm; we adopt 8 cm.

____+.20.
,
i

1
1
1

i
1

v
1500 kg
14--- 275

FIG. 13-6

Maximum bending moment on the arm of the bracket having

"d" as diameter is 1500(25 — 4) = 31,400 kg cm. By equating
the applied bending moment to the resisting moment of the
bracket arm, we get
TC
— d3 x 1000 = 31400
32
Art. 13-4] BRACKETS 625

-: 1731400 32
or .--- x -- = 6.8 cm; we adopt 7 cm.
1000 rc
The bracket bolts are subjected to extensional loads which
are due to tilting action of the bracket.
If F be the force in a bolt situated at a unit distance from
the tilting edge, then
2F (3.752 + 23.752), = 1500 x 30
F ----= 39 kg.
Tensile load on each top bolt = 39 x 23.75 = 920 kg.
The bolts are subjected to direct shear load of the magnitude
1500
-.,--- 375 kg. As the shear load does not pass through the
4
centre of gravity of group of bolts, bolts are subjected to secondary
shear load. As all bolts are situated at equal distances from the
centre of gravity of group of bolts, the magnitude of secondary shear
force is the same on each bolt. If Q be the magnitude of the secon-
dary shear force, then
Q x 4 x 10 x V2 = 25 x 1500
1500 x 25
•▪ • vi --, 663 kg.
Q- = 4 x 10 x
On a bolt having the greatest shearing force, the primary
and secondary shear forces will be inclined at an angle of 45°.
••• Maximum shear force on a fixing bolt
= V6632 + 3752 + 2 x 663 x 375 cos45° '`.
, 965 kg.
3. A horizontal pull of 500 kg is exerted by the belting on one of
the C.I. wall bracket which carries a factory line shaft. At a point 5 cm
from the wall, the bracket has a T-section of dimensions shown in fig. 13-7.
Calculate the maximum stresses in the flange and the web of the bracket due
to the pull of the belting.
The section is subjected to the direct 'tensile stress and the
bending stresses, which are tensile and compressive, due to the
eccentricity of the load. Maximum tensile stresses due to bending
occur in the flange and compressive stresses occur in the web.
The area of the section:
Area of the flange . 6.2 x 1.2 = 744 sq cm.
Area of the web = 0.9 x 7.6 = 6.84 sq cm.
Total area = 744 + 6.84 = 14.28 sq cm.
626 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. X.111

Determination of the centre of gravity :

If x be the distance of c.g. from the top of the flange, then
x x 14.28 = 7.44 x 0.6 + 6.84 x 5
.• x -= 2.7 cm.
The neutral axis passes through the centre of gravity of the
section.

Section on AA

FIG. 13-7
Determination of second moment of area of the section :
1.5 2.7
4 = f 0.8x2dx + f 6.2x2dx --=- 70 + 344 = 104.4 cm4.
-6.1 1.5

Modulus of section for maximum tensile stress = 104.4

2:7
= 38.7 cm3.
Modulus of section for maximum compressive stress
104.4
= = 17.15 cm3.
6.1
Bending moment exerted on the section = P x e, where P
is the load and e is the eccentricity of the load.
e = 3.8 + 2.7 = 6.5 cm.
Bending Moment on the section = 500 x 6.5 = 3,250 kg cm.
Maximum flexural tensile stress in the flange = 3250
3.
87
= 83 kg/sq cm.
3250
Maximum flexural compressive stress in the web= 0:16
= 190 kg/sq cm.
Art. 13-4] BRACKETS 627

Direct tensile stress in the bracket due to pull of belting

500
-,-. = 35 kgisq cm.
14.28
Maximum tensile stress in the , flange = 83 + 35
= 118 kg/sq cm.
Maximum compressive stress in the web = 190 — 35
= 155 -kg/sq cm.
Deetermination of the fibre of zero stress:
If x be the distance of the fibre of zero stress from c.g. then
35-- 190 x x
6.1
x 6.
or x = 35190
- 1 = 1.12 cm.
.. The fibre of zero stress is at a distance of 2.7 + 1.12 =
3.82 cm from the top of the flange.
Exercises:
1. The critical section AB of a wall bracket carrying a plummer
block is shown in fig. 13-8. State whether the section is safe or not if
the permissible tensile stress in the material is limited to 150 kesq cm.

Section on AB

FIG. 13-8
2. The bearing of a shaft is supported on a cast iron beam, which
may be considered to be a beam simply supported at the ends as shown in
fig. 13-9. Suggest the suitable I section for the beam if the permissible
tensile stress in the beam is limited to 140 kesq cm. The maximum load
on the bearing is 2,200 kg. The width and depth of the I siction may be
628 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIII

taken as 5 and 8 times the thickness of the web respectively. The thick-
ness of the flanges and the web are the same.
Ans. Thickness of the web and flanges 33 mm.

1250

FIG. 13-9
3. The wall bracket made of cast iron carries a plummer block and
the critical section for the bracket is shown in fig. 13-10. If the permissible
tensile stress intensity for cast iron is limited to 140 kg/sq cm, determine
the magnitude of the load P. State also the maximum value of the compres-
sive stress. Ans. 1,600 kg; 630 kg/sq cm.

0
M
T

FIG. 13-10

(4-350 >I

125

S e CU o 105
X X

r r

35 280 35

Fin. P3-11 Fm. 13-12

Ex. XIII] BRACKETS 629

4. For the crane runway bracket shown in fig. 13-11, determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses produced in the section XX
when the magnitude of load P be 1,100 kg. Also, determine..the stress
produced in two M23 bolts used in fastening the bracket to the roof truss.
Ans. 86.5 kg/sq cm; — 140 kg/sq cm; 516 kg/sq cm.
5. A bracket of mild steel for a guide pulley is shown in fig. 13-12.
Design the bracket and prepare a dimensioned drawing if the tension T
is 400 lb (180 kg) and the pin diameter of the guide pulley is 1.25" (30 mm).
(Poona University, 1960)

EXAMPLES XIII

1. Design and prepare dimensioned drawing of

the bracket (fig. 13-13) for a crane runway, including
the bolts for fastening it. The load (max.) lifted by
the crane is 2,000 kg. Distance between bolt centre
lines is 300 mm. Material—cast steel.
2. Fig. 13-14 shows a C.I. bracket to carry a
shaft and a belt pulley. The bracket is fixed to the
main body by four standard bolts. The tensions on
the slack and tight sides of the belt are 225 and
450 kg respectively.
Calculate (i) diameter D1 of the shaft, (ii) dia-
meter Da and thickness of the eye, (iii) diameter d of FIG. 13-13
the bolt and (iv) cross section of the bracket at AA.
eh.

FIG. 13-14

Safe ft for bolts 560 kg/sq cm; safe ji for shafts 450 kg/sq cm; safe ft for C.I.
280 kg/sq cm and safe bearing pressure for shaft 10 kg/sq cm.
630 MACHINE DESIGN [CA. X111

3. Fig. 13-15 shows a bracket for a guide pulley. A is cast iron flange,
B is a tube 3 mm thick, C is a cast iron fork and pin is of mild steel. Design and
prepare a dimensioned drawing of the bracket.
Safe stresses: Cast iron 200 kg/sq cm
M. S. tube 550 kg/sq cm
Pin 700 kg/sq cm
Permissible bearing pressure 150 kgisq cm.

1000kg
FIG. 13-15
4. Determine the sizes of the bolts to be used in fastening the bracket shown
in fig. 13-16 and the dimensions of the section XX. Assume permissible stress
in bolts 550 kg/sq cm and in brackets 200 kg/sq cm.
36 300 14- 36
X75
2000 kg
25
X
7
T section
Thickness I
46
Ilk

4 to i
Fro. 13-16
Give a dimensioned sketch of the bracket.
Ex. kill BRACKETS 631

5. A bracket (fig. 13.17) is to be rigidly secured to the side of a casting by

means of four fitted bolts. The bracket carries a vertical load of 500 kg.
Determine.a suitable diameter for the bolts to be used on the assumption of failure
by maximum principal stress (tensile) which must not exceed 300 kgjsq cm.

FIG. 13-17
AZ

X
1

FIG. 13-18
6. A bracket (fig. 13-18) supports the hook which is acted on by two
forces A 250 kg (550 lb) and B 350 kg (770 lb). The diameter of the vertical
shaft is 100 mm (3.97"). Design the bracket and prepare its dimensioned
632 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIII
drawing. Material used is carbon steel. (Hook is not to be designed).
(Bombay University, 1960)
7. Fig. 13-19 shows a carbon steel bracket with the forces acting as shown
in the diagram. Design and draw dimensioned drawing of the bracket pin and
the four studs for fixing the bracket to the adjacent portion. The figure is
drawn to the scale.
Calculate the stresses at least at two cross sections.

325 kg

FIG. 13-19

FIG. 13-20
8., Fig. 13-20 shows a carbon steel bracket on the rear axle housing 'H'
of an automobile. The multiple leaf spring is transversely supported on pins
P through shackles (shown by chain lines). The sections at AA and BB are
Ex. XIII] BRACKETS 633

respectively I and rectangular. The reaction of the spring is 200 kg and may
be assumed to act vertically downwards.
Design' and prepare a dimensioned drawing of the bracket, choosing your
own values for the permissible stresses.
9. A cast steel bracket is shown in fig. 13-21. Design' and prepare dimen-
sioned drawing of the bracket and studs required to fix it if the tension in the
rope is 220 kg, which is equal to T . Ti . The line of action of T is inclined
at an angle of 45° to the vertical.

FIG. 13-21
10. A pedestal bearing is supported by a "3" hanger. A vertical load of
1,500 kg is acting down on the bearing. The square base of the hanger is fixed
with ceiling, by 4 bolts. The distance between the centre lines of the bolts is
20 cm. The load line is 4 cm away from the vertical line through the c.g. of the
base of the hanger.
Find a suitable diameter for the bolts. The tensile stress for the bolt material
is limited to 350 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
CHAPTER 14
BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES

14-1. Introduction:
The power transmission from one shaft to another shaft is
accomplished either by flexible connectors or by direct contact.
Where the distance between the shaft axes is large, flexible connec-
tors or belts are usually employed. Owing to slip and creep of
such connectors, the angular velOcity ratio of driving and driven
members is not constant.
Belt drives fall into two classifications: fiat belt drive in which
the width of the connector is appreciably larger than the thickness
and the connector operates on pulleys and V or rope drive in which
shaped belting material or rope operates in grooved wheels or
sheaves.
When driver and driven members rotate in the same direc-
tion, the drive is said to be open belt drive while in the crossed
belt drive the directions of the rotation of the driver and
driven members are opposite. Both these drives are used for
power transmission between parallel shafts. For satisfactory
flat belt operation, the law of belting should be observed which
states that the centre of the belt approaching the pulley must be in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

14-2: Materials for Belts:

The most common flat belt material is oak tanned leather, although chrome
leather and other materials are used extensively. Chrome leather belts are suit-
able for exposure to steam, water or oil. Double or treble ply belts are made by
cementing various thicknesses of hides.
Fabric belts are made from canvas or cotton duck folded to three or more
layers or plies and stitched together. In order to render the belt water-proof,
it is treated with linseed oil. They are used for intermittent service under hot
or dry conditions, and in installations where little attention is given to their main-
tenance. They are used for conveyor belts. Rubber belts are made from layers
of canvas, duck or other woven fabrics which are impregnated with compounded
rubber and then vulcanised. These belts are used where exposure to moisture or
outside weather conditions are anticipated. Rubber belting are cheaper than
leather belting but are less durable. They are affected by light, heat and oil.
Art. 14-3] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 635

A belting known as balata belting, which is 25% stronger than rubber belting,
is used. In this belting, unvulcanised balata gum is substituted for leather.
This material is acidic and water-proof; however it is seriously affected by
mineral oils and may become soft and sticky at temperatures in excess of 45°C.
Synthetic rubber belting is a comparatively new power transmitting medium
that will probably have many applications, in future.

14-3. Design of a Belt:

(A) Velocity ratio transmitted between two shafts:
Let coi = angular speed of driver
cos = angular speed of follower
ri = radius of driving pulley
r 2 =--- radius of following pulley
Ni = revolutions per minute of driver
N2 =- revolutions per minute of follower
/ = thickness of the belt

Si = percentage slip between driver and the belt

S 2 = percentage slip between the belt and follower.
We have
t
N2 co 2 (100 — si ) (100 — s2) ri 4- 2-
X (i)
Nit p)1 100 100 x t
r2 + 2

If S be the total percentage slip between the driver and

the follower, then O.

t
ri + -2-
N2 W2 . ( 1 00 -
x - -- (ii)
N,co l -- 100 t
r2 + --

If we neglect slip and effect of the thickness of the belt,

we have
N2
_. .—CO 2
. r1 (iii)
..N1 6.)1,. , r2
If we consider effect of creep on the velocity ratio trans-
mitted, the net effect of creep is to reduce slightly the speed of
the driven pulley.
(B) Length of a belt:
The length of crossed belt is obtained by the formula
I = (r1 + r2) (7c + 0.0349+) -I- 2C cos+ (iv)
636 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. X111

where t = length of the belt

ri = radius of larger pulley
= radius of smaller pulley
C = centre distance between pulleys
= angle of belt with common centre line in degrees.
r2
— sin-1 r1
C

(a)
Cross belt

(b)
Open belt
FIG. 14-1

When the drive is an open belt drive without idlers, the

length is determined by the formula,
(7c. ± 0.0349P) r1 + (7c — 0.0349(3) r2 + 2C cosp . . (v)
where (3 = angle of belt with common centre in degrees.
r r
= sin-1 -Le- !.
Art. 14-3 ] BELTS) PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 637

If the open belt drive has idler pulleys, it is more practical

to lay the pulleys out to scale and then to calculate the length of
the belt. '
Note: In order to give initial tension in the belt the actual length of the
belt will be slightly less than the calculated length. The decrease in length
depends on the initial tension to be given to the belt and the material of the belt.
The reduction in length for the leather belt may vary from 0.25 to 1% of the
calculated length.
(C) Ratio of driving tensions and power transmitted:
Let
T1 = tension in the tight side of the belt
T2 = tension in the slack side of the belt
ii, , the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley
0 =, the angle of lap on small pulley measured in radians.
Then
T1
— e[10 (vi)
T2
(T1 — TO is known as the effective tension in the belt.
Horse power transmitted will be t V is the
—1-4-6(10
A-- --
speed of belt in metre per minute and Ti. and T2 are measured in kg.
Width of the belt --1, (vii)
where F .--- safe tension per unit width.
At high speeds, the centrifugal tension becomes of consequence
and should be included when l determining the width .of the belt.
The centrifugal tension in the belt is given by
wv2
Tc = -- (viii)
g
where w = weight per unit length of the belt
v = linear speed of the belt per second.
When we consider the effect of centrifugal tension, we have
T1 — Tc = elle • (ix)
T2 — Tc
The horse power transmitted, when the effect of centrifugal
tension is taken into account, is given by

(T1 — Te) (1 — 6,110) v

h.p. = (x)
75
The velocity, at which maximum horse power is transmitted,
is given by
638 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

lgT
V -77:
3w
where T = maximum permissible tension in a given belt.
Maximum horse power is transmitted when one-third of the
maximum tension is utilized as centrifugal tension or conversely
when the tight side driving tension is equal to twice the centrifugal
tension.
(D) Rope drive with grooved pulleys:
Ropes of cotton, manilla or hemp fitting into circumferential grooves on the
pulleys are often used for power transmission. The drive may be single or multi-
ple rope. The main advantage in using the multiple rope system is the continuity
of power even though one rope may break. The tightening of the ropes is not
required frequently.

V groove Proportions for a rope groove

FIG. 14-2 FIG. 14-3
For horizontal transmission, the slack side is always on the top so that any
sag in the rope due to its own weight tends to wedge the rope in the groove as a
result, the angle of lap is increased. For vertical transmission the pressure of
the rope in the grooves of the lower pulley tends to be reduced and, in consequence,
initial tensioning of the rope is necessary.
The pulley groove angle a is 40° to 50° between the faces so that the rope
bears on the two side faces as shown in fig. 14-2. Fig. 14-3 shows the usual
proportions for the grooved pulley in terms of rope diameter.
The rope tension ratio, when the centrifugal tension effect
is considered, for the grooved pulley is given by
cc
— Tc 1.1.0 cosec
e 2 (xii)
T2-Tr
where a = groove angle.
The horse power transmitted by n number of ropes is
n (T1 — T2) V n (T1 — T2) v
h.p. = (xiii)
4500 = 75
 Art. 14-31 BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 639

Wire ropes, built up of twisted strands of wire, may be used

at comparatively low speeds where great tension is required. A
wire rope should run on the bottom of the groove, as the gripping
action of the sides would soon cause serious wear.

(E) Other design considerations:

The oak tanned good leather belt has a minimum tensile strength of 210
kg/sq cm. The average values for the single and double belts are 260 and 254
kg/sq cm respectively. In order to secure reasonable life of the belt, the working
stress should be limited to from one-tenth to one-eighth of the ultimate strength.
For average conditions, the permissible strength is taken as 28 kg/sq cm.
An average value of safe stress for manilla rope is taken as 14 kg/sq cm of
section corresponding to a factor of safety of about 20 to 25. Ropes can be run
at higher stresses but it is found that the possible life is shorter.
The maximum speed for leather belts should be 1,400 metre/minute. Higher
speeds have been used, but it is better to establish a maximum between 900
metre/minute and 1,400 metre/minute for best service. All high speed belts
should be made endless rather than be joined by lacings or hooks of any kind.
The linear speed, at which a cotton rope transmits its maximum horse power,
is about 1,450 metre per minute.
The coefficient of friction between a belt and a pulley depends on the kind of
belt material, the pulley material and the amount of slip between belt and pulley.
It is not constant but it rarely falls below 0.25, and 0.30 is a conservative figure.
Single belts should be run with the grain or hair side in contact with the
pulley. Double and three ply belts are built up with each side of the belt repre-
senting the grain. The thickness of the belt should be selected with reference
to the smallest pulley over which it is to be run; the larger the diameter of the
pulley, the thicker the belt may be. The belt thicknesses are available from
3 mm to 20 mm in steps of 1 mm.
For leather belts a good practical rule is to determine the thickness by the
relation
D
I ..,
--.5ifi
where D is the diameter of the small pulley.
The modulus of elasticity of belting leather is 2,100 kg/sq cm.
According to C.G. Barth, there exists a relation between initial tension Ti
and tensions Ti. and T2 . The relation can be expressed as
Art + Ain. 2V Ti (xv)
When the belt is new, initial tension is comparatively large so that Ti and 7;
are both large. After a few months' service the tensions are lessened due to a
permanent stretch and consequently belt cannot transmit as much power. It
must, therefore, be shortened and re-tightened so that initial tension will again
have its original value.
640 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV
Table 14-3.1 gives the efficiencies of various methods of belt fastenings:
Table 14-3.1

Method of belt joining Percentage efficiency

Cemented by belt maker 100

Cemented 98
Wire laced by machine 90
Wire laced by hand 82
Raw hide laced 60
Metal belt hooks 35

(F) Multiple ply leather belts:

Theoretical considerations indicate that if the thickness of the belt is doubled
by making the belt two ply, the horse power capacity of the belt should be doubled.
However, test results indicate that a two ply belt will have its capacity increased
by 70% of the single ply belt having the same thickness and that a three ply belt
will have its capacity increased by 125% instead by 200%.
(G) Stresses in belts:
In addition to the stresses caused by the working tension, the belt is subjected
to the stress due to bending on the pulley.
i
Bending stresses = E x - - (xvi)
D
where t = thickness of the belt
D = diameter of the pulley on which the belt wraps
E = modulus of elasticity of the belt material.
During each revolution the belt bends and unbends around the pulley twice.
Obviously, the smaller the pulley diameter, the higher will be the bending stress.
The repeated effect of the bending stresses may lead to fatigue failure of the belt.
In addition to bending stresses, there arc centrifugal stresses in the belt material
which cause a reduction in the angle of contact and the horse power rating of the
belt drive.
The highest stresses arise at the point where the belt runs into the smaller
pulley and are equal to
Ti Et wv2
f = bt + D + -g - . (xvii)
where b = width of the belt.
In practice however, belt drives are calculated not for strength but for the
horse power transmitted.
(H) Advantages and disadvantages of flat belt drives:
Advantages:
(i) Simplicity and low cost
iii) Smoothness of operation, ability to absorb shocks due to elasticity of
the belt and protect the driven mechanisms against breakage in case
of sudden overloads owing to belt slipping.
Art. 14-3] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 641

Possibility to transmit power over considerable distances between the

axes of the driving and driven shafts.
Silent operation
Simplicity of care and servicing
Possibility of transmitting power between the shafts arranged in a
variety of ways in space.
Disadvantages of flat belt drives:
(i) Inconstancy of the velocity ratio
(ii) Comparatively large size
(iii) Stretching of the belt calling for re-sewing when the centre distance
is Constant, or using a tensioning device.
(1) Service Factors:
All drives are designed for design horse power which is obtained by multiply-
ing the name plate horse power of the motor by service factor whose values are
given in table 14-3.2.
TABLE 14-3.2
Service factors
DRIVEN DRIVING MACHINES
MACHINES
Electric Motors Electric Motors
AC split phase AC Single Phase Series
AC Normal Torque Wound
Squirrel Cage, and AC High Torque or
Synchronous High Slip
DC Shunt Wound AC Slip Ring
Water Wheel AC Repulsion Induction
Turbines: Steam and AC Capacitor
Water DC Compount Wound
Internal Combustion Steam Engines and Line
Engines Shafts
(Hydraulic Drive) Clutch (32 Driver or
Driven Shaft
Agitators for liquids
Cam Cutters
Conveyors, package
Drill presses, Lathes 1.1 1.2
Screw machines
Small fans upto 10 hp.
Compressors and blowers,
(rotating)
Conveyors, ore, sand
Generators 1.2 1.4
Line Shafts
Machine tools (other)
Printing machinery
Pumps (rotating), Shears
Ball mills
Beaters (paper)
Circular saws
Compressors, reciprocating 1.4 1.6
Conveyors, bucket, apron,
screw, drag
642 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIV

Crushers, jaw, etc

Hammer mills
Pumps reciprocating
Punches, presses 1.4 1.6
Propellers
Revolving screens
Tube mills.
Hoists
Mine fans
Positive blowers
Spinning frames 1.6 1.8
Tumbling barrels
Twisters (textile)
Add 0.2 to the values given for each of the following conditions: continuous
(over 16 hrfday) service; wet environment; idler in drive; speed-up drives.
Subtract 0.2 if the operation is quite intermittent or seasonal.

14-4. Design procedure for a flat belt:

The following is the sequence of design calculations for a
flat belt: %
(i) Select type of belt to suit service conditions.
(ii) Determine the diameter of the smaller pulley.
(iii) Determine the diameter of the other pulley.
in
(iv) Determine the belt thickness. The relation Dra
t
determines the bending stresses in the belt when the belt
runs around the smaller pulley. As these stresses reduce
the service life of the belt as well as the effective tension,
D
the minimum value of --min -- is suggested. Table 14-4.1
t
Din h:
gives the value of and allowable values of stress
t
in the belt material due to effective tensions.
Table 14-4.1

Drain Dmin
Type of mm
min
belt t 25 30 40 60 100
Allowable effective stress kg/sq cm
Leather 25 17 19 21 24 26
Rubber 30 — 20 21 22 22
Woven Cotton 25 15 16 17 18 19
The value of the belt thickness is then rounded off to the
standard values.
(v) Determine the belt speed which should lie between the
limits 10 and 20 metre/sec. If the speed is lower, the
diameter of the pulleys must be increased.
Art. 14-5] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 643

(vi) Determine the centre distance which should be greater

than 1.5 to 2 (D1 + D2).
(vii) 'Determine the length of the belt.
(viii) Determine the angle of contact on the smaller pulley
which should not be under 2.5 radian. If this condition
is not complied with the centre distance must be
increased.
Determine the value of allowable effective stress depend-
An ita
ing on the ratio —- • Then this value is reduced suitably
t
corresponding to the service conditions of the drive.
(x) Determine the required cross sectional area of the belt;
hence determine the width of the belt and round it off
to the standard value.
(xi) Finally determine the load on the drive shafts. Opera-
tion of a belt drive is characterized by losses of energy.
The basic type of losses are due to the following factors:
(i) Slipping of the belt on pulleys
(ii) Internal friction between the particles of the belt if stresses vary
(iii) Friction of the belt and pulleys against air
(iv) Friction in the pulley bearings.
14-5. V belt drive:
Modern V belts are made of fabrics and cords moulded in
rubber and covered with fabric as shown in fig. 14-4. V belts
are used for short centre industrial drives for medium; and heavy
power demands. They can be run at low or high speeds on sheaves
with velocity ratios upto 10:1 and at comparatively short centre
distances. If one belt should break, the remaining belts in the '
drive will carry the load until it is convenient to shut down for
repairs. This drive, on account of wedging effect of the belt in
the sheave groove, causes less pull on the shaft than flat belts of the
same general characteristics. I
The speed ratio for V belt drive can be obtained by using the
pitch diameters of the sheaves. The equations (xii) and (xiii)
of art. 14-3 apply to V belt drive. The efficiency of the V belt
drive is somewhat lower and its elastic creep is somewhat higher
than in the flat belt drive.
In some respects the V belt drive is inferior to the flat belt
drive. At present the employment of V belt drive is second only
to gear drives.
 644 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

The V belt is of trapezoidal cross section. The cross section

of the pulley grooves is of the same shape. The cross sections and
pitch lengths of V belts are standardized. The included angle
of the profile is 40°. The diameters of the pulleys for V-belt
drives are also standardized. The calculations of a V belt drive
are confined to the selection of a belt of standard profile and length
and afterwards number of belts are fixed for the transmission of
given power. The number of belts should not exceed 8 to 12;
if it exceeds then the next larger belt section should be used.
The belt speed should range from 5 to 30 metre/second.
Table 14-5.1 gives the useful data for V belt drive (All dimensions in the
table are in mm.)
Table 14-5.1

b 5 6 8 10 13 17 20 25 32 40 50

a 3 4 5 6 8 11 12.5 16 20 25 32

Minimum
diameter 22 32 45 63 90 125 180 250 355 500 710
of a pulley

150 212 296 420 585 832 1100 1650 2303 3230 4600
Length from
of a belt to
860 1262 1916 2820 4275 6332 9540 14050 18063 18080 18100

Rubber and
fabric cover
Fabric
—Cord

Soft rubber

Pitch diameter

FIG . 14-4
Details of a V-groove
14-6. Design of V-flat drives:
On some drives with a speed ratio of 3 to 1 or more, and
where the centre distance is no greater than the difference in
Art. 14-6] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 645

pulley diameters it is possible to replace the large grooved pulley

by a flat faced pulley; the friction grip provided by the base of
V belts on the large flat pulley will not then be less than the
wedge grip in the smaller, grooved pulley.
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of V-flat drive:
Advantages:
(i) keduction in initial cost of drive, particularly if the large flat pulley
is, already in existence
(ii) Ability to run on the same short centre distances as drives using two
grooved pulleys
(iii) Less side wear on V belts as the flat pulley permits a certain amount of
self alignment.
Disadvantages:
(i) The efficiency can not be equal to that of a V-V belt drive because
there is no wedge grip on the flat pulley.
(ii) The belts must be operated at greater tension so reducing both V belt
life and efficiency and increasing bearing loads.
(iii) More maintenance attention required as V-flat drives are much more
prone to slip.
V-flat drives are recommended for the following applications:
(i) Where a large flat pulley already exists, the cost of removal, grooving and
re-erection or the cost of a grooved replacement pulley may appreciably out-
weigh the higher efficiency and longer belt life to be obtained by using two
grooved pulleys.
(ii) Where machine makers already have stock pulley castings or special
flywheel patterns available, V-flat principles are to be applied to cut down initial
cost and to maintain the flywheel effect.
(iii) Air compressor drives.
The following points should be remembered while designing V-flat drives:
(i) The face of the flat pulley must not be crowned; it should be as smooth
as possible.
(ii) Centre distance should not be greater than the difference in pulley
diameters, but care should be taken to see that it exceeds the sum of their radii.
Selection of V belt drive is generally covered in manufacturers'
catalogues and the majority of applications, can be satisfactorily
designed with only the information contained there. The
sequence of calculations is as follows :
(1) Select the best profile to suit the given horse power
capacity. Each amount of power can be transmitted by two or
even three recommended belt profiles. It is desirable to calculate
two or three versions of the V belt drive for each of the recommend-
ed profiles. The version adopted should be one that ensures the
smallest size and the longest service life of the belt.
646 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

(2) Calculate the speed ratio and select a pair of pulleys

from standard list to give as near the desired ratio as possible.
Refer art. 14-9 for the preferred sizes of the cast iron pulleys.
One must avoid minimum pulleys both for belt bending and motor
shaft bearing load reasons and aim for a belt speed of 15/25 metres/
second. This is likely to result in the most economical drive.
Table 14-5.1 gives useful data for V belt drive.
(3) Choose a centre distance, and from this calculate the
belt length required to give the desired centre distance with the
selected pulleys.
7C (D — d)2
Pitch length of the belt = 2C + (D -1- d)
2 4C
where C is the centre distance between the axes and D and d are
large and small pulley diameters respectively.
Afterwards select the correct length lo from the table and then
determine the exact centre distance Co more accurately from the
formula
Co = Al 1/412 — A2

where Al = 1[10 (D d)]

(D— d)2
A2 = •
B
It is recommended that the length 10 selected for the belts
be checked for endurance by the number of revolutions per second.
v
Number of revolution per second = - and this number
lo
should be less than 10 per second. If this condition is not satis-
fied, the centre distance and the length of the belt should be
increased.
It is important to avoid combinations which result in an arc
of contact of less than 120° on the smaller pulley. If the centre
distance is not dictated by the physical size of the machine being
D
coupled, adopt a centre distance from - 3d or D whichever
2
is larger.
(4) Determine the tangential turning force and from this
determine the number of belts required.
Number of belts = Tangential turning force
Allowable effective tension
Art. 14-6] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 647

Allowable effective tension is selected on the basis of experi-

ments carried out to find the horse power rating of a V belt drive.
For each cross section the effective tension is determined on the
following assumptions:
(i) The arc of contact is 1800.
(ii) The belt speed is 10 metre/sec.
(iii) The load is steady and the operation is smooth and
shockless.
Thus allowable effective tension should be corrected to consider the
Iffects of arc of contact, belt speed and the service conditions.
For finding out the minimum number of belts, the corrected
effective tension should be taken.
(5) The number of belts should not exceed 8 to 12; otherwise
the next larger belt section shoud be used.
The limitations of the number of belts is due to non-uniform
distribution of load due to variations in actual length of the belts
and in the dimensions of the individual pulley grooves.

Examples:
1. A compressor is driven by a 900 r.p.m. motor by means of 10 mm
by 25 cm flat belt. The motor pulley is 30 cm in diameter and the
compressor pulley is 150 cm. The shaft centre distance ij. 150 cm and
an idler is used to make the angle of wrap on the smaller pulley 220° and
on the larger pulley 270°. The coefficient of friction between the belt and
larger pulley is 0.25, and between the belt and smaller pulley is 0.3. The
allowable stress in the belt is limited to 20 kg/sq cm. Determine the horse
power capacity of the drive, neglecting the effect of centrifugal tension.
Would changing the smaller pulley to a multiple V-pulley (groove angle 45°
and coef ficient of friction 0.25) using the same compressor pulley, and
eliminating the idler pulley, provide a more effective drive with greater horse
power capacity? Assume that the pitch diameter of V belt pulley and the
pitch diameter of the large pulley remain the same as for flat belt arrange-
ment. Assume, also, that the total of the maximum force in each belt is
the same as for the flat belt.
When the belt is on the point of slipping the tension ratio is
Ti
given by = 8148. As the coefficient of friction is not the same
T9
648 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIV

for both pulleys, we have to determine at which pulley the belt

will slip.
For larger pulley, the angle of lap is 270° and the coefficient
of friction is 0-25. Therefore the tension ratio for the slip to
= 0-25 x lig X 7C = 3-26.
Ti
occur at larger pulley is
6
For smaller pulley, the angle of lap is 220° and the coefficient
of friction is 0-30. Therefore the tension ratio for the slip to
T1
occur at smaller pulley is 77...— = e
0• 30 x ?N.x7r
= 3.16
.1 2

Thus, we see that the horse power capacity of the drive is

governed by smaller pulley.
Maximum tension T1 = area of the belt x permissible stress
intensity = 1 x 25 x 20 = 500 kg
500
Minimum tension T = = 158 kg.
2 3.16
7r x 0.3
Belt velocity = 900 x 6 = 14.2 metre/sec.
0
(500 — 158) 14.2
Horse power capacity - = 65.
75
For open belt arrangement with no idles , the angle of Lip on
30
smaller pulley is = 180° — 2 sin-1 150 — --. 132-8'.
2 x 130
1150— 30
Angle of lap on larger pulley = 180° + 2 sin-
2 x 150
— 227-2°.
lle/sin a
Tension ratio for smaller pulley = e
2
0.25 132.8
sin 22.5° X 180 x n
Tension ratio for smaller pulley = e
= 7.27.
227.2_ X 7T
0.25 x -
180
Tension ratio for larger pulley = etLe = e
= 2-69.
Art. 14-6] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 649

Thus, although the capacity of the smaller pulley is increased,

the larger pulley is now the design criterion.
As the limiting tension ratio with V-flat arrangement is less
than that for flat belt arrangement, the horse power transmitting
capacity of V-flat drive is less.
T1 remains the same and the peripheral velocity of the belt is
the same.
7- 500
186 kg.
-2 = 2.69
( 00 — 186) 14.2
Horse power capacity of V-flat drive = --
75
= 59.5.
2. An electric motor drives an exhaust . fan. A flat leather belt is
to be used. The following data are known:
Motor pulley Fan pulley
Diameter 40 cm 160 cm
Angle of wrap 2.5 radian 3.78 radian
Coefficient of friction 0.3 0.25
Speed 700 r.p.m.
Power 1) ansmitted 30 h. p.
The belt is 5 mm thick and the permissible stress is 23 kgIsq cm.'
Calculate the width of the belt.
Since the angles of wrap and the coefficient of friction are
different for different pulleys, we should calculate the value of
eve for each pulley and the pulley which governs the design is
one with smaller value of eve. eve for motor pulley will .be
0'3)(2 ' -- cm." and for the fan pulley will be 0'255(3'25 - e0.045.
'Therefore, the smaller pulley governs the design, i.e. the smaller
pulley is transmitting its maximum power with the belt on the
point of slipping while the larger pulley s not developing its
maximum capacity.
Belt speed = 7-)-(-Q° x 700 = 880 metre/minute
10
We have
(Ti - 7 2) x 880
= 30
4500
30 500
T1 — A..7._2
:---.
.- 154 kg.
880 =
650 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

7-1 = 0.75 = 2.12.

T2
2.12 T2 - T2 = 1454.
154
or T2 = 137 kg.
1.12
Tx = 137 + 154 = 291 kg. •

If b cm be the width of the belt, then b x 0.5 x 23 = 291

91
or b= = 26 cm.
0-52 x 23

3. A rope drive is to transmit 350 h. p. from a pulley 120 cm

diameter running at a speed of 300 r.p.m. The angle of lap may be taken
as 7C radian. The groove half angle is 22k°. The ropes to be used are
5 cm in diameter. The weight of the rope is 1.3 kg per metre length and
each rope has a safe maximum pull of 220 kg. The coefficient of friction
between rope and pulley is 0.3.
Determine the number of ropes required. Also, suggset the suitable size
for the pulley shaft if it is made of steel with a shear stress of 400 kgIsq cm.
Let us consider the power transmitted by one rope.
x 1.2 x 300
Velocity of the rope = 60 - = 18.84 metre/sec.
wv2 1.3 x 18.842
Centrifugal tension = 47 kg.
g 9.61
0.3 x TV x cosec 22.5° = 11.2.
Tension ratio = e

H.P. transmitted per rope _47) r i 1

18.84
L 11.2
= 39.7.
350
Minimum number of ropes required = 39 8.83.
.7
We adopt 10 ropes.
The width of the grooved pulley for such a drive will be
1.5 x5x94-2x2x5= 87.5 cm. (See fig. 14-3.)
We adopt 90 cm.
Let us take 50 cm as the overhung of the grooved pulley.
,r (220 — 47)
2 = 1/.2 --r- = + 47 = 62.5 kg.
1
1.2
Art. 14-6] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 651
Maximum bending moment on the shaft due to rope pull
will be equal to 10 (220 + 62.5 + 2 x 47) x 50 = 188,250 kg cm.
71620 x 350
Twisting moment = = 83,500 kg cm.
300—
According to Guest's formula, equivalent twisting moment
Te = V (188250)2 + (83500)i = 206,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
3 x 400 = 206000
16 d
is/206000 16
or d ----= X — = 13.8 cm; we adopt 14 cm.
400 It
Note: See illustrative example 4 on page 354.
Exercises :
I. A squirrel cage line-starting motor drives a compressor. The
cast iron motor pulley is 32 cm in diameter and the motor speed is 940
r.p.m. The belt has cemented joints and is to run on 125 cm flywheel of
a compressor. The horse power transmitted is 80 with a centre distance of
2.75 metre. Determine the width of a medium double leather belt. Assume
the suitable values for the stress and the coefficient of friction.
2. A 50 h.p. 940 r.p.m. compensator started motor drives a pump
at 320 r. p.m. The pump normally requires 45 h.p. but it is subjected to a
peak loads of 180% of the full load. The centre distanceais to be appro-
ximately 135 cm. Determine the width of 10 mm thick belt if the permissible
tensile stress intensity in the belt material is not to exceed 30 kg/sq cm.
The coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.3.
3. An exhaust fan in a wood shop is driven by a belt from a com-
pensator started squirrel cage motor running at 960 r4.m. A medium
double leather belt 20 cm wide is used. The safe tension in the belt material
is 14 kg 1cm width. Determine the length and power transmission capacity
of the drive f the centre distance be 150 cm. The motor pulley is 40 cm in
diameter and the diameter of the driven pulley is 150 cm.
4. A medium double leather belt transmits power to drive a mine
fan which requires 20 h.p. at 950 r.p.m. The motor pulley 25 cm in
diameter and the pulley turning with the fan is 90 cm in diameter. The
centre distance is 8 metre. Design a suitable belt for the drive. Assume
your own values for the stresses.
652 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIV

5. Determine the percentage increase in horse power capacity made

possible in changing over from a flat belt to a V belt drive. The diameter
of the fiat pulley is the same as the pitch diameter of the grooved pulley.
The pulley rotates at the same speed as the grooved pulley. The coefficient
of friction for the flat belt and the V belt is the same, 0.35. The V belt
pulley groove angle is 600. The belts are of the same material and have
the same cross sectional area. In each case the angle of wrap is 160°.
Ans. 38.1%.
6. Stale the advantages of V belts and mention a typical material
for such belts.
A V belt drive is to be arranged between two shafts whose centres are
85 cm. The driving pulley is of 30 cm effective diameter and is to be
supplied with 95 h. p. at 960 r.p.m. The follower pulley is to run at
450 r.p.m.
Determine the number of belts required, being given the following
particulars :
Area of belt section 4 sq cm
Weight of belting — 1 gm/cu cm
Safe working tensile stress 21 kg/sq cm
Coefficient of friction — 0.27.
Groove angle of pulley - - 40°.
Estimate the initial tension required in each belt.
14-7. Pulleys — Materials and Types:
They are used to transmit power from one shaft to another
shaft by means of belts or ropes. Because there is a certain amount

Straight arms Curved arms' Split pulleg

Various kinds of pulleys
FIG. 14-5
of slippage between both driver and driven pulleys and the belt,
they are not used when an exact velocity ratio is desired .
 Art. 14-8 ] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 653

Pulleys are made of cast iron, pressed steel, welded steel, wood
and paper in standard sizes as regards diameter, width of face and
bore for the shaft. The principal parts of the pulley are the hub,
which is adjacent to the shaft, the arms extending radially from the
hub and the rim at the circumference. Instead of arms some
pulleys have a solid web between the hub and the rim. Some pulleys
are made in two semi-circular halves and bolted or riveted together
(fig. 14-5). When the belt speed exceeds 1,200 metre per minute
the pulleys should be carefully balanced.
The specifications for cast iron and mild steel flat pulleys
have been recommended by IS: 1961-1960.

14-8. Cast Iron Pulleys:

They are either solid or split. The split pulleys are used for
very long shafts where it would be troublesome to apply a new
solid pulley when several other pulleys and bearings are already in
place. Solid pulleys are connected to the shaft by means of plain
sunk keys. Sometimes headless set screws are also provided to
prevent endwise motion. Split pulleys are frequently so made that
when two halves are bolted together, they grip the shaft firmly.
As the material of the pulley is comparatively weak in tension,
the maximum safe rim speed is limited due to centrifugal stresses.
The maximum rim speed should be considered as about 1,500
metrefminute.
0-;
Varying thicknesses in any casting are responsible for an
unequal cooling which tends to set up within the casting an
internal stress of unknown magnitude. This must be carefully
watched in the casting of the pulley and the internal stresses can be
reduced or minimised by permitting the casting to cool slowly
in the foundry sand or by proper annealing after its removal from
the sand.
Manufacturers classify pulleys as light duty and heavy duty.
Light duty pulleys are constructed for use with thin belts while
heavy duty pulleys are to be used with heavy belts.
The crown is provided on the rim of the pulley [fig. 14-6(a)]
to keep the belt in the centre of the width of the pulley. The
taper which provides the height of the crown should not exceed
1 in 96 of the face width. Some pulleys are flanged [fig. 14-6(b)]
at the edges to hold the belt on the pulley but flanged pulleys
654 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

rims chafe and wear the edges of the belt. The rim is also
slightly tapered on the inside and the hub on the outside so as to
facilitate the removal of the pattern from the mould.

(a)

Flat crown pulley Flanged pulley

Pulleys
Ft°. 14-6

14-9. Design of Cast Iron Pulleys:

The parts to be considered in the design of cast iron pulleys
are hub, arms and rim.
The diameter and length of the hub of a pulley are propor-
tional to pulley diameter, face, bore and conditions of service.
A formula that gives good average values in most cases is as follows:
'TC
Length of the hub -,- — x diameter of the shaft. The minimum
2
length of the hub is # the width of the face of the pulley; it may be
more for loose pulleys, but in no case exceeds the width of the
face of the pulley. The outer diameter of the hub is equal to
1.5 x diameter of the shaft + 2.5 cm.
If the diameter of the hub is found to be more than twice
the diameter of the shaft, which will be the case for smaller
diameter shafts, in that case the length of the hub should be
twice the diameter of the shaft.
If the diameter of the pulley is less than 20 cm, the rim is
usually connected to the hub by means of a solid web of thickness
equal to that of the rim measured at the middle of the pulley face.
Art. 14-9] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 655

For the pulley whose diameter is greater than twenty cm we

employ arms. The number of arms may be taken as 4 for dia-
meters from 20 to 60 cm, 6 for diameters from 60 cm to 150 cm
and 8 for larger sizes. It is customary to use a double row of
arms when the width of the face exceeds the diameter.
For larger size pulleys, the arms are generally curved as they
are then less liable to fracture from internal stresses set up by the
unequal rates of cooling of the rim and boss. With care, by
avoiding abrupt changes of section and keeping the thickness as
uniform as possible, a straight armed pulley can be cast free from
internal stresses and this form is preferable being lighter and
stronger than the curved form.
Fig. 14-7 shows four forms of cross sections used for pulley arms.
The one most commonly used is the elliptical form in which minor
axis is 0.5 times the major axis. The arms taper from hub to rim.

A
= uffn
B C
Various sections for arms
Fic. 14-7
The designer considers each arm as a cantilever beam fixed
at the hub and supporting a concentrated load at the rim. At
any time during rotation, about half the total number of arms are
connected to a portion of the rim which is not in contkct with the
belt. Experiments by Prof. Benjamin indicate that the power is
transmitted from rim to hub or vice versa, through dnly half the
total number of arms at any given time. When we consider the
bending moment on each arm the above fact must be taken into
account. The length of the cantilever is taken as the radius of the
pulley and this gives the stronger arm. Under the assumption
that the arms act as cantilever beams, there is no bending moment
at the rim end and hence no bending stresses, although the shearing
stresses are present throughout the length of the arm. For economy
1
the arms are tapered from hub to rim, the usual taper is 48
— to — .
312
These values give ample area on the outer end to resist shearing
forces.
The width of the rim (width of pulley face) should be in
accordance with table 14-9.3.
616 MACHINE DESIGN XIV

According to Prof. G. Niemann, the thickness of the pulley rim

d d
will vary from -- + 2 mm to -I- 3 mm where d is the dia-
300 200
meter of pulley in mm. The number of arms n will be given by
d
n , 1-7 -100 and should be greater than or equal to 33.

The pi ocedure for the design of cast iron pulley can be summarised as follows:
(i) The diameter of the pulley is determined either from the centrifugal
stress considerations or from velocity ratio considerations.
The following gives the diameters of pulleys to be used with flat belts as well
as V belts: (The dimensions are given in mm). The diameters of pulleys are bawd
on R20 series.
* * * * * *
20, 22, 23, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180,
200, 224, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400, 450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000, 1120,
1250, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2240, 2500, 2800, 3150, 3550, 4000, 4500, 5000.
The sizes marked with * are used for only V belt drives.
Table 14-9.1 gives the tolerances on the nominal diameter of the pulleys.
TABLE 14-9.1
Recommended series of pulley diameters and tolerances, mm
Nominal 'Tolerance i Nominal Tolerance Nominal Tolerance
Diameter on Nominal Diameter on Nominal Diameter on Nominal
Diameter Diameter Diameter

40 + 0.5 160 1 5601

45} 180 4- 2.0 630 If [ 5.0
50 I- 0.6 200 710 J
56} 8001
0.8 224) 900
(;3 2503 } 2.5 I 6.3
1000
71 1 280} i 1120 }
80 5 -1. 1.0 315 ± 3.2 1250 d- 8.0
355 1400
90
100 j- 1.2
112
1251 4001 1600
1401 -E 1.6 I 450 ± 4.0 1800 :_-}_ 10.0
500 2000
- -
(ii) From the diameter of the pulley, number of arms are fixed.
(iii) Tlie diameter of the shaft is generally known; from the diameter
the shaft we calculate the dimensions of the keyway and the dimensions
of the hub by proportions.
(iv) From h.p. requirement and speed, we calculate the torque to be
transmitted and hence the maximum bending moment acting on each
arm.
Art. 14-10j BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 657

(v) Assuming the arm to be elliptical, we determine the dimensions of

the arm at the hub and the rim when the permissible value of the stress
in the arms is specified.
(vi) When the thickness and width of the belt are known, the width of the
pulley face is determined.
(vii) From the diameter of the pulley, the thickness of the rim is determined.
Table 14-9.2 gives the width of flat cast iron and mild steel pulleys with
tolerances.
Table 14-9.2
Recommended series of width of flat pulleys, mm

Width Tolerance Width Tolerance

20 160
25 180
32 200
40 ± 1 224 ±2
50 250
63 280
71
80 315
90 355
100 400
112 ± 1.5 450 ±3
125 500
140 560
630

Table 14-9.3 gives pulley width in relation to belt width

Table 14-9.3
Pulley widths

Belt width mm Pulley to be wider than the

belt width by

Upto and including 125 mm 13 mm

Above 125 mm upto and including 250 mm 25 mm
Above 250 mm upto and including 375 mm 38 mm
Above 375 mm upto and including 500 mm • 50 mm

14-10. Steel pulleys:

As they are fabricated from pressed steel sheets, they have
strength and durability. Compared to cast iron pulleys, they are
very light and the coefficient of friction with leather belting is same
as that we obtain with cast iron pulleys. The rim of the pulley is
generally formed in two halves. They are clamped to the shaft
as a result no key is required. Steel pulleys are generally equipped
658 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. .X117

with interchangable bushings to permit their use with shafts of

different diameters. Pulleys upto 30 cm width are normally
supplied with single row of spokes. Wider pulleys requiring
double row of spokes are at times in demand. Table 14-10.1
gives the details of spokes for mild steel pulleys.

Table 14-10.1
Details of spokes for mild steel pulleys

Diameter of pulley Diameter of spoke

mm No. of spokes mm
-- -9--
280 to 500 6 1
560 to 710 8 19
800 to 1,000 10 22
1,120 12 22
1,250 14 22
1,400 16 22
1,600 18 22
1,800 18 22
2,000 22 22

The length of the boss is equal to half the width of the face subject to a mini-
mum of 100 mm in the case of pulleys with 19 mm diameter spokes and mini-
mum of 138 mm for pulleys with 22 mm diameter spokes. The length of the
boss is practically never greater than the width of the pulley.
The thickness of the rim of all pulleys is usually 5 mm.
The diameters and widths of flat mild steel pulleys are the same as those
for cast iron. The sizes of cast iron pulleys are given in article 14-9.
14-11. Wooden pulleys:
These pulleys are light and possess higher coefficient of friction than possessed
by cast iron and steel pulleys. They are built up of laminated segments of
mapple glued together under heavy pressure. The protective coating of shellac
or varnish prevents the moisture being abosrbed by the pulley as a result warping
is prevented. As they are light, they can be run at high speeds without vibration
and, excessive centrifugal stresses. These pulleys are made with C.I. hubs with
keyways or have adjustable bushes which prevent relative rotation between them
and the shaft by the frictional resistance set up.
14-12. Tight and Loose Pulleys:
When we want to run a shaft intermittently from a continuously rotating
shaft this arrangement is provided (fig. 14-8). There are two pulleys in the
arrangement. One is known as the fast pulley and the other is a loose pulley.
The fast pulley is keyed to the shaft while the loose pulley rotates freely on the
shaft. When a belt runs over the fast pulley the power is transmitted to the
machine. By means of belt shifter, when the belt is shifted from fast pulley to
Art, 14-131 BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 650

loose pulley, no power is transmitted. To enable the belt to mount easily the
larger pulley rim is bevelled at the edge.

Fast pulley Loose pullet)

Key
kl
wow: _ Iromr

Collar
Sleeve

Fast and loose pulleys

na. 14-8

The loose pulley is generally mounted on a cast iron or gun metal sleeve
with a collar at one end to prevent axial motion, the sleeve being secured to the
shaft by means of a set screw. In order to relieve the tension in the belt during
idle period, the loose pulley is made slightly smaller than the fast pulley. In
order to reduce wear and friction, the extra long hub is provided. The hub
should be symmetrical with the pulley face to prevent wobbling due to wear.
Provision is made for the proper lubrication.

14-13. Speed Cone:

The velocity ratio between two shafts connected by belt is
fixed by the diameters of the driver and driven pulleys. In workshop
machines, we require variable velocity ratio. This can be effected
by a system of pulleys as shown in fig. 14-9. Such an arrangement
is known as speed cone or stepped pulleys. Speed cones on two
shafts are so arranged that the smallest step of one pulley is opposite
to the largest step of the other. It is evident from the figure that
the same belt must serve as the connector fox' each of the steps, and
of course the belt tension should be the same whatever step the
belt is driving from. As the belt is shifted, it engages pairs of steps
of different diameters and in this manner may secure as many
different speeds for the machine as there are pairs of steps. The
diameters of the pairs of steps which work together must be so
selected that they will give the desired speed ratio and permit the
use of the same length of belt. This condition is satisfied exactly
for the cross belts and very nearly for the open belts if the sum of
 660 MACHINE DEMON [ Ch. XIV

the diameters of corresponding pulleys is constant. The "Bur-

mester" method for a graphical solution is widely used to determine
the diameter of the pulleys for open belts.

l.

Speed cone
FIG. 14-9
The graphical construction for the diameter of stepped pulleys is stated as
follows:
From A on a horizontal line AB (fig. 14-10), draw a line AC, inclined at an
angle of 45° with AB. Lay off AS on AC equal to the distance between centres
of the shafts. From S draw ST perpendicular to AC. Let SK equal to i AS
and with radius equal to AK draw an arc of a circle xr. From a convenient
point D on AC, draw a vertical line FDE, and make DE equal to the given radius
of a step on the cone, and EF equal to the given radius of the corresponding
step on the other cone. Draw FG and EH parallel to AC. From the point G on
the arc, drop a vertical line cutting EH on H. Through H draw a horizontal
line ML touching AC at M. Then if horizontal distances are measured from
M, as Ma, MH, MP, to equal the radii of the pulleys on one cone, the corres-
ponding vertical distances ab, HG and PN will be the radii of the corresponding
steps on the other cone.
If the radii of the two steps of any pair are to bear a certain ratio, as ab: ,
Ma, from M draw a line at an angle with ML whose tangent equals that ratio,
and from the point where it cuts the arc, as b, drop a vertical ba. Ma and ba
will be the radii required.
The designer of a pair of cone pulley is concerned chiefly
with the diameters. Rim and hub are proportioned in the same
manner as for plain cast iron pulleys.
The given data usually include the r.p.m. of the driver, the
several speeds of the driven pulley, the power to be transmitted
Art. 14-13] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 661

and the centre distance of the pulleys. First of all the diameter
of the smallest pulley on the driver and the largest on the driven
pulley are determined. For this calculation, the speed of the driver
and the slowest speed of the follower are utilised. The thickness
of the belt and width are calculated from the power requirement.
This calculation gives belt which is large enough to transmit the
full power requirement at the slowest speed and hence more than
large enough for all other speeds. The diameter of remaining
steps are calculated by graphical methods for open belts. For
crossed belt arrangement the calculation is very simple.

NC

.B

Geometrical construction for determining step diameters

FIG. 14-10

The rim thickness for the largest step of the pulley is obtained
first and the other steps should have the same thickness as the rim.
Each step is connected to the adjacent one by a solid web of
the same thickness. The connection between rim and hub is made
with arms or a solid web much the same as with plain cast iron
pulleys.

Example :
1. A cast iron pulley is 56 cm in diameter and carries four elliptical
arms in which the major axis is twice the minor axis. The pulley transmits
662 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIV

25 h. p. at 300 r.p.m. Determine (a) the diameter of the shaft if the per-
missible value of the shear stress is limited to 500 kg/sq cm; (b) the dimensions
of the arms at the hub assuming the allowable working stress in the arms to
be 150 kg1sq cm; (c) the width of the pulley assuming that the angle of
lap is 180°, that the coef ficient of friction between the pulley surface and belt
is 0.3 and that the permissible tension per cm width of the belt is 25 kg;
(d) the length of the hub; (e) the diameter of the hub and (f) the dimensions
of the key.
Note: When the mean diameter of the pulley is not given, it is decided
from the centrifugal stress considerations. The centrifugal stress induced in
the run is given by the formula
plA
ft = — where
g
p = density of the rim material
o = velocity of the rim
g = acceleration due to gravity.
In our present example the diameter of the pulley is given.
71620 x h.p.
Torque on the pulley shaft - - kg cm
=speed
- -- in r.p.m.
71620 x 25
-.--- 5,970 kg cm.
300
If d cm be the diameter of solid shaft, then
n- d3 x 500 = 5970
16
ft 5970 x 16
or d= 3.96 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
500-X- 7 C - =
The diameter of the hub for relatively small shafts is obtained
by the formula:
Diameter of the hub = twice the diameter of the shaft.
=2 x 4 = 8 cm.
Length of the hub is obtained from the formula,
Length of the hub = - x diameter of the shaft.
2
Tr
= X 4 = 6.28 cm; we adopt 6.5 cm.

Generally the length of the hub is normally kept 1B to B

where 13 is the width of the pulley rim.
Let us determine the width of the rim.
Torque on the shaft = 5,970 kg cm.
Art. 1443) BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 663

Radius of the pulley = 28 cm

.. Net pull in the belt = Ti — T2 = 528 = 213 kg.

For belt tension ratio, we have

Ti ego
Ta
where T1 and T2 are the tensions in tight and slack sides respec-
tively, 1.s, the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley and
0 the angle of lap of the belt in radians.
Ti .
•. • 7., e0.3x ic = 2.56.

a% T1 = 2.56 T2.
We have T1 — T2 = 213 kg. From above two equations we
get T1 = 350 kg and T2 ----7. 137 kg.
As the permissible tension is 25 kg per cm width, minimum
350
width of the belt = = 14.0 cm; we adopt 15 cm.
25
For the width of the pulley face, we adopt 18 cm.
The hub length of the pulley as calculateil is 6.5 cm, but this
is too small so we adopt 12 cm.
d 560 ,
Thickness of pulley rim = - - -I-
300 • 2 mm = 300 + 2
= 3.86 mm; we adopt 5 mm.
We assume that only half the number of arms are effective as the belt
wraps itself around the pulley rim through 180°. Assuming that arms
act as cantilevers and that the arms extend upto the centre of the
5970
pulley, bending moment on each arms is given by
4/2 =
2,985 kg cm. The permissible stress in the arm material is 150
kg/sq cm.
••• Modulus of section necessary for elliptical section of the
arm = 298 5 = 19.8 cm3.
150
The section modulus, for an ellipse whose major axis is a and
a . na3
minor axis
27- IS 64 •
naa
•• -- 19.8.
64
664 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

or a = -V19.8
x 64
= 7.35 cm; we adopt 7.5 cm.
n
Minor axis of the ellipse = 3.8 cm.
Dimensions of the key:
Rectangular sunk key of dimensions 15 mm x 10 mm will
be suitable.
Exercises:
1. A shaft 75 cm between bearings supports a 63 cm diameter pulley
placed at 30 cm to the right of the left bearing. Determine the pulley bore,
face of the pulley and pulley-arms of elliptical section if the pulley is of cast
iron and transmits 20 h.p. at 250 r.p.m.
2. A cast iron pulley is to transmit 12 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. Find the
suitable diameter of the pulley, the face width of the pulley, rim thickness,
hub,bore, keyway and arms, which are of elliptical section and six in number.
Assume that single belt is used for the transmission.
3. A 5 cm diameter line shaft of a factory is run by an electric motor
of 10 h.p. running at 500 r.p.m. The line shaft speed is 150 r.p.m.
Design the pulley suitable to be mounted on the line shaft, the pulley on the
motor being 25 cm diameter. Assume six elliptical arms on the line shaft
pulley.
4. Design a belt pulley to transmit 10 h.p. at 180 r.p.m. The
velocity of the belt is not to exceed 500 metre/minute and the maximum
tension is not to exceed 15 kg/cm width. The tension on the slack side
is one half that on the tight side. Calculate all the dimensions of the pulley.
Sketch neatly the sectional elevation and end view showing all leading
dimensions.
5. A set of 3 step cone pulley is required for a leather belt drive
connecting two parallel shafts 4 metre apart and running in same direction.
The driving shaft has a speed of 150 r.p.m. and the driven shaft is required
to rim at 140, 200 and 260 r.p.m. Maximum h.p. to be transmitted is
5 and the load in the belt should not exceed 14 kg/cm width. Design the
stepped pulleys and also specify suitable dimensions for the belt. Diameter
of the smallest driven pulley = 20 cm.
6. A line shaft is driven by a vertical belt from a motor placed directly
below the shaft. The belt runs over a pulley 125 cm in diameter and
weighing 120 kg. The distance from the centre line of the pulley which is
overhung, to the centre line of the supporting bearing is, 40 cm. The
Art. 14.14] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 665

shaft transmits 24 h.p. when rotating at 200 r.p.m. Determine the suitable
size of the belt and the diameter of the shaft if the permissible shear stress is
limited to 450 kg/sq cm. Also, design a key for securing pulley to the
shaft. Design also the overhung pulley suitable for the drive. Sketch
arrangement.
7. A cast iron pulley transmits 10 h.p. at 400 r.p.m. The diameter
of the shaft on which the pulley is keyed is 30 mm. Calculate:
(i) diameter of the pulley if the hoop stress in the rim is not to
exceed 45 kg/sq cm if the density of cast iron is 7.26 gm/cu cm,
(ii) dimensions of the four elliptical arms, allowing a bending stress
of 150 kg/sq cm and major axis being twice the minor axis and
(iii) dimensions of the key allowing a shear stress of 650 kg/sq cm.
The width of the rim is 15 cm.
Give a neat dimensioned sketch of the pulley.
Ans. (i) 1 metre diameter, (ii) 4 cm x 2 cm
(iii) 10 mm x 8 mm x 50 mm.
14-14. Short centre drive — Gravity Idlers:
High speed ratios and short centre distances decresae the
arc of contact on the small pulley. In order to transmit the given
horse power the initial tension should be high which may affect
the life of the belt. The angle of contact on the pulley is increased
by gravity idlers as shown in fig. 14-11. The idler is so located that

Gravity idler
FIG. 14-11
the angle of wrap on smaller pulley is near about 240° and the
clearance between the idler and the pulley should not be more
than 4 to 5 cm. It is always located near the smaller pulley and
on the slack side. It should never be crowned.
666 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

The advantages of gravity idlers are as follows:

(i) The belt may be relieved of initial tension when the
drive is idle.
(ii) The initial tension of the belt may be regulated and may
be maintained at the proper magnitude. .
14-15. Special tension adjusting belt drives:
The Rockwood drive, fig. 14-12, uses the weight of the motor
to maintain belt tension practically independent of stretch. The
motor is bolted to an intermediate base which is pivoted to the
sub-base.
The equilibrium equation for the moment is
T1 x x+ T2 xy= W x c+ reaction torque.
From the figure, we see that the effect of the reaction torque
is to rotate the motor anticlockwise about the pivot point and
thus to increase the belt tension. In this type of drive the lever
arm of the weight is very large so that most of the belt tension is
due to product of the weight of the motor and the moment arm c.
By shifting the motor along the pivoted support, the lever arm can
be adjusted so that belt tensions can be adjusted according to power
requirements.

Reaction torque =T s I
...'r

A ri
ti

Pivot
point

Pivot
point
W W
Rockwood drive Drive as suggested
by American Pulley Co.
FIG. 14-12 FIG. 14-13
When the motor has been properly balanced to maintain the
required belt pull at the heaviest peak load, no further adjustment
is necessary.
Art. 1445] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 667

The important feature of this drive is that the pressure be-

tween the belt and pulley is determined by the weight of the motor
and its leverage and the sum of the belt tension increases or decreases
as the load transmitted increases or decreases. Hence, at all loads
except maximum load, the belt tension is much less than that
required with, an ordinary open belt drive, as a result the life of
the belt is increased.
Wherever possible the pulling side of the belt should pass
between motor pulley and hinge point to reduce the effective
moment of the belt pull about the hinge point. In this case the
motor can be mounted very near to the hinge.
When maximum power is exceeded, the belt will slip on the
pulley, which will prevent the overloading of the motor but may
damage the belt.
A latter development by the American Pulley Co. depends
mainly on reactive torque to adjust belt tension to suit the
requirements of transmission. The reactive torque is equal and
opposite to the applied torque. In this device, the pivot is placed
close to the motor shaft (fig. 14-13) so that gravity causes only
a small initial belt tension. In order to locate the pivot near the
centre of the motor, the motor is mounted on a cradle so that the
motor will swing about the point shown in figure. In this drive
the belt tensions are built up as required by the load. The over-
loading may damage the belt or bearing.
This drive as well as Rockwood drive is limited to motors,
where the power can enter through flexible leads. Such drives are
great savers of space and belting, because they make very short
drives possible with flat belts and plain pulleys.
Example:
1. Fig. 14-12 shows a Rockwood drive. When the belt is on the
point of slipping the maximum belt tension is 150 kg and the belt tension
ratio toll = 3. The motor weight is 70 kg and the distances x and y are
8 cm and 25 cm respectively. Calculate the required moment arm c.
Investigate the bearing loads at 50% of the maximum horse power and
at no load.
The belt tension ratio is 3 when ' the belt is on the point of
slipping.
150
T1 = 150 kg and therefore T2 = -s- = 50 kg.
In order to determine the required motor moment arm c,
668 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIV

we take moment about the hinge point when maximum power

is being transmitted.
• 70 x c = 150 x 8 + 50 x 25
150 x 8 + 50 x 25
• • • c— _35 cm.
70
When operating at one half the maximum load the tension
ratio will not be three because the belt is not on the point of
slipping. At half load, the net belt pull T1' — T2' will be half of
the net belt pull at full load.
•• Tit — T21 = i ( Ti — T2) = i (150 — 50) = 50 kg (i)
The second equation will be the moment equation
.. Ti' x 8 ± T21 X 25 = 70 x 35 (ii)
From the above equations, we get T1' = 112.3 kg and
T2' = 62.3 kg.
When operating under no load, the net belt pull will be zero
and the belt tensions will be practically equal.
••• Ti. " (8 + 25) = 70 x 35 (iii)
70 x 35
•• • T1" = = 74 kg.
33
The total belt pull on the motor bearing ( T1 + T2) will be
200 kg at maximum load, 174.6 kg at half load and 148 kg at
no load. With an open belt drive with fixed centres the sum of
belt tensions will remain practically constant at all loads. Hence
the bearing load will always be 200 kg, a value only reached with
the Rockwood drive when the belt is operating at its maximum
load.

Exercise :
I. A 10 h. p. 960 r.p.m. motor is arranged for a Rockwood drive as
shown in fig. 14-12. The pulley diameter is 20 cm and the motor weight
is 150 kg. The distance y and c are 40 cm and 50 cm respectively. The
starting torque on the motor is 200% of the rating. Calculate the values
of tensions T1 and T2 required for starting and the distance x from the
hinge point to the line of action of the tension T1. (Also, determine the
tensions in the belt at the rated load and no load.
Art. 14-161 BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 669

14-16. Chain Drives (Introduction) :

The chain drive belongs to drives with an intermediate link
(flexible connection) which is represented by a chain. This drive
uses an endless chain running around two or more sprockets
(wheels with teeth of a special profile). This drive transmits
motion between parallel shafts only. As distinct from the belt
drive, it operates without slipping. •

Chief advantages of chain drives :

Effective transmission of power over considerable
distances (5 to 8 metres)
Comparatively high efficiency of the drive (up to 98%)
Small size compared to flat belt drive
Smaller load on the shafts than in belt drives
Possibility of transmitting motion by one chain to
several shafts.

Disadvantages of chain drives:

(i) Increase in the chain pitch (stretching of the chain)
due to wear of the chain joint thus requiring the use
of take up devices
Relatively high production costs
Noisy operation
Velocity fluctuations
More complicated design
Need for accurate mounting and careful maintenance.
Chains are employed for velocity ratios upto 10 and for
velocities upto 25 metre/sec and for power ratings upto 200
horse power (at times to 4,000 horse power).
Chain drives are used in bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural
machinery, the transmissions of auxiliary mechanisms in rolling
mills, lathes, conveyors, coal cutters, transport mechanisms, etc.
From the functional point of view, the chains used in mecha-
nical engineering are divided into three basic groups:
(i) Driving chains
(ii) Crane chains
(iii) Pulling chains.
67() MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

Driving chains are used for transmitting motion from one

shaft to another shaft. Crane chains serve for suspending and
lifting loads and operate at a maximum of 0.25 metre/sec, while
tractive chains are used for moving loads in elevators, conveyors,
etc. at a speed upto 2 metre/sec. We shall consider here driving
chains only. Driving chains are subdivided into bush roller, bush,
silent and link belt chains.
The roller chains (fig. 14-14) consists of two rows of outer
and inncr plates. Fitted into the outer plates are pins passed
through the bushings which are pressed into the inner plates. The
chain rollers mounted on the bushings roll over the sprocket teeth.
The bushed chains are similar in design except that they have no
rollers. Bushed and roller chains may be either single strand or
multiple strand type.

Bushing Pin Side bar

Roller

Roller chains
FIG. 14-14

Silent chains consist of special profile plates corresponding

to the profile of the sprocket teeth.
Link belt chain is employed to handle small horse powers at
maximum peripheral velocities of 3-4 metre/sec. We shall consider
the principles of design of roller chains only.

14-17. Roller chains:

The usual materials for the various components of roller chains
will be heat treated alloy steels. Good practices include: pins
and bushing carburized and case hardened for wear resistance;
Art. 14-17 ] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 671

shot peened pins, rollers, link plates and bushings; pressing balls
through the holes of the link plates for cold working to improve
fatigue strength. When necessary, the sprocket teeth are hardened
(induction, flame, carburi7ing).
For a single reduction the velocity ratio should be kept near
about five, but as high as ten has been used.
Let us now consider the design part of the various components
of a chain.
Pins are subjected to bending and shearing stresses and are,
therefore, generally made from high grade low alloy case hardening
steel. The suitable heat treatment gives them a tough core and a
wear resistant hard surface. They are ground and hence can
maintain very close tolerances.
Bushes have to withstand bending and deformation stresses
and are generally made from case hardening steels or steel alloys.
Proper heat treatment ensures wear resistance and surface quality.
They are also ground to maintain close tolerances.
Rollers are subjected mainly to impact stresses and are, there-
fore, normally made from heat treated steels. Thick walled rollers
can also be manufactured from case hardening steels.
Link plates are subjected to tensile stress and are made from
heat treatable steels. They are heat treated properly, according
to the type of the chains to achieve high fatigue and tensile strength
with corresponding elasticity.
The hole accuracy and pitch accuracy ensures an excellent
fit for pins and bushes and a close overall tolerance in the length
of the chain.
The basic dimensions which are important for a chain are:
(i) Inner width i.e. width between .inner link plates
(ii) Chain pitch i.e. centre distance between adjacent pins
(iii) Roller diameter in case of roller chains and bush diameter
in case of bush chains
(iv) Overall pin length so that it may not foul with guide
rail or chain case
(v) Breaking load.
The strength of a chain or breaking load Q is found experi-
mentally and given by the manufacturers in their catalogue.
672 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XIV
The pitch I and width b are the main geometrical characteristics
of chains. They are used to select the proper type of chain.

14-18. Design of Chain Drives:

Chain drives are usually put out of commission due to chain
elongation, failure of the joints and plates and wear of the sprocket
teeth. Elogation is produced by increased pitch caused by joint
wear under the action of tension and dynamic forces during opera-
tion. With time the chain pitch grows so large that it fails to match
the sprocket teeth and the chain may run-off the sprockets.
Experience shows that the maximum chain elongation should not
exceed 3%.
The main criterion of operating ability of a drive is the wear
resistance of the joint.
A very small number of teeth in the sprocket unfavourably
affects chain service life and intensifies noise.
The transmission ratio or the velocity ratio of the chain drive
is given by
., .__ Z2 _ n1
.,- __._ (i)
Z1 n2
where .Zi. --,--- number of teeth on sprocket pinion (smaller)
Z2 = number of teeth on sprocket wheel (larger)
n1 = speed of rotation of pinion in r.p.m.
n2 ------- speed of rotation of gear in r.p.m.
Preferred transmission ratios are 1, 1.12, 1.25, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8,
2, 2.25, 3.15, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.6, 6.3, 7.1.
These ratios are based on R-20 series of preferred numbers.
The number of teeth on the smaller sprocket or sprocket pinion
should be selected depending on the magnitude of velocity ratio
according to the data in table 14-18.1.

Table 14-18.1
Number of teeth, Z1 in a sprocket pinion

Transmission ratio i ( 4-5

1-2 2-3 3-4 5-7
I

Number of teeth on
130-27 27-25 25-23 23-21 21-17
sprocket pinion Z,
Art. 14-18] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 673

Where space is a problem minimum value of 2 = 7. Number

of teeth on sprocket gear = i x Zi. Maximum teeth on sprocket
gear ranges from 100 to 120. When Z2 is very large, chain slips
off the sprocket for a small pull. It should be noted that the velocity
ratio of a chain drive does not remain constant in operation and
this in turn causes minor variations of the angular speed of the
driven sprocket, though the angular speed of the driving sprocket
remains unchanged.
The transmission ratio or velocity ratio is limited by the angle
between the chain sides, this angle depending on the centre distance,
A, between the sprockets and on their diameters. The maximum
allowable angle between the chain sides is 1 radian (i.e. the mini-
mum angle of contact is approximately equal to 3.14 — 1 = 2.14
radian). The sprocket must be engaged by at least 5 to 6 chain
links. A larger arc of contact especially on the driving sprocket
assures a more uniform distribution of load on the sprocket teeth
and better conditions of engagement.
The maximum allowable velocity, depending on the type of
chain, the number of teeth of the sprocket pinion and the chain
pitch, is shown in table 14-18.2.

Table 14-18.2
Maximum velocity for Bush Roller chains, r.p.m.

Number of teeth Zi Chain pitch t in mm

a.
•
of sprocket pinion
12 15 20 25 30

15 2,300 1,900 1,350 1,150 1,000

19 2,400 2,000 1,450 1,200 1,050
23 2,500 2,100 1,500 1,250 1,100
27 2,550 2,150 1,550 1,300 1,100
30 2,600 2,200 1,550 1,300 1,100

The choice of a chain is made from the Condition that the useful
force i.e. turning force does not exceed the following values:
Ultimate strength of the chain
max _
Load factor
factor x Safety factor
Load factor is sometimes called drive operating factor. The
drive operating factor takes into account the nature of the load,
the method of lubrication and the service conditions (one, two or
three shifts).
674 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

Load factor k = k1 x k2 x k2 (iii)

where k1 = 1 to 14 that takes into account the nature of the load
k2 = 1 to 1.5 that takes into account the method of lubrication
k3 = 1 to 145 that takes into account the service vonditions.
Depending on the r.p.m. of the sprocket pinion, and the number
of teeth Zi, the factor of safety is selected from table 14-18.3.
Table 14-18.3
Factor of Safety for Bush Roller chains

R.P.M. of the sprocket pinion

Chain width mm --- — - -
50 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,000

12--15 mm 7.0 7.8 8.55 9 35 10.2 11.0 11.7 13.2 148

20-25 mm 7.0 8.2 9.35 10.3 11.7 12.9 14.0 16.3 —
30-35 mm 7.0 8.55 10 2 13.2 14.8 163 19.5

After selecting the type of chain, and the number of teeth on

the sprocket pinion and knowing its r.p.m. we find the chain
pitch from table 14-18.2
The pitch diameter of the sprocket is given by
t
Pitch diameter of the sprocket = Dp = (iv)

where t = chain pitch

Z = number of sprocket teeth.
For small sprockets, it is necessary to determine whether the
number of teeth and the pitch selected will result in a sprocket
large enough to be mounted on the shaft with due allowance for
a key way. On this basis the following relations may be used to
determine the minimum number of teeth that may be used with a
given pitch for a sprocket bore d.
4d
Zmin = + 5 for pitches upto 25 mm
P
4d
= — -I- 4 for pitches from 30 to 55 mm.
P
Sprocket outside diameter = Do = Dp + 0•8d (v)
where d is the roller diameter.
The profile of the sprocket teeth is selected in keeping with the
directions of special reference books.
Art. 14-181 BEIM, PuLtsys MID CHAIN DitIVEd 675

After the selection of the pitch of the chains, •the various

proportions of the chain link can be expressed in terms of the chain
pitch.
(i) Roller diameter is approximately 5/8 of the pitch.
(ii) Inner width i.e. minimum distance between roller link
plates is approximately 5/8 of the pitch.
(iii) Pin diameter is approximately 5/16 of the pitch.
(iv) Thickness of the link plates is about 1/8th of the pitch.
(v) Maximum height of roller link plate equals 0.95 times
the pitch.
(vi) Maximum height of pin link plates is 0.82 times the pitch.
(vii) Breaking load can also be expressed in terms of pitch
length.
The chain should be checked for wear b) limiting the permis-
sible value of bearing pressure intensity on projected area. The
value of permissible bearing pressure intensity depends on the
number of teeth, speed of rotation and the chain pitch length.
The minimum centre distance is selected depending on the
velocity ratio so that the arc of contact on the smaller sprocket is
not below 120°.
Approximately we can assume ti ansmission ratio as 4.
D +
Amin -= 1- D2 + 30 to 50 mm 9- (vi)
2
where D1 and D2 are the diameters of addendum circles of the
sprockets in mm.
The normal operating conditions of the drive correspond to
30 to 50 times the pitch. When the centre distance is greater, the
chain length becomes excessive and it rapidly stretches and causes
jerky operation of the dirve. Usually centre distance less than
80 times pitch is recommended. The length of the closed chain is
L = m x t where m is the number of chain links obtained from
the expression
m ,__ 2 A_ ± Zi. ± Z2 + ( Z2 - Z1 \ 2 t (vii)
t 2 27r ) A
The number of links found from the above equation is approximated
to the nearest even number. After this the accurately specified centre
distance will be
676 MACHINE tataat [ CA. XIV

A= !,, [„, zi -,f- z2 + 11( In Zi -F Zsi 8 ( Z2;- 92]

2 =
(viii)
The value of A obtained from the above equation should be de-
creased by 2 to 5 mm to ensure adequate slack in the chain.
With odd tooth numbers on the smaller sprocket and an even number
of pitches in the chain the frequency of contact between a particular tooth
and a particular roller is a minimum, presumably better distributing the wear.
Finally the actual factor of safety is determined and compared
with those given in table 14-18.3. If Po be the total force in the
driving side of the chain, then
Po = P + Pc + Pi (ix)
where P = Net driving force in the driving side of the chain
Pc = chain tension caused by centrifugal force and
Pf = tensioning due to sagging.
Pc is equal to q v2 where q is the weight per metre length of
g
the chain and v is the chain speed in metre/sec.
A2
P f—
— qgf (x)
where A = centre distance
f -,-- chain sag
q = weight per metre length.
Q =- — Q
Actual factor of safety = — (xi)
Po P + Pc ± P1
where Q is the breaking load.
The forces acting on the drive shaft are found approximately,
depending on the drive position, by the equation
P3h = P + 2kqA (xii)
where k is the factor accounting for the position of the centre line.
For a vertical position, k = 1 for the centre line inclined at
an angle upto 45°, k = 2 and for a horizontal position k = 4.
Loads on the supports are determined in confirmity with the
location of the sprockets and other components which take the
forces acting on the shafts.
Example:
1. Design a chain drive to actuate a compressor from 15 h. p.
electric motor running at 970 r.p.m. the compressor speed being 330 r.p.m.
The compressor operates in two shifts. The centre distance should be
minimum 500 mm. The chain tension can be adjusted by shifting the
Motor on slides.
Art, 14-18] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 677

The sprocket pinion will be mounted on the electric motor,

whose speed is 970 r.p.m. The velocity of the driving sprocket
is low and we further assume that the chain velocity will not exceed
12 metre per second. We, therefore, select a bush roller chain as
a simpler and cheaper type. The transmission ratio = 330 2.94,
which is nearer to 3.
From table 14-18.1, we select the teeth for the sprocket pinion
970
as 25 and those for the sprocket gear 25 x = 74. From
330
table 14-18.2 we conclude that for the teeth on sprocket pinion
as 25, any pitch length from the table can be adopted. We adopt
15 mm as the pitch length of the chain. The mean peripheral
velocity of the chain will be 25 x 15 x 970= 6.05 metre/sec.
60 x 1000
The mean peripheral velocity of the sprocket should not exceed 12 metre/sec
for bush roller and 16 metre/sec for silent chains.
The load factor or drive operating factor, which depends on
the nature of load, the method of lubrication and the service
conditions, varies from 1 to 3. Let us adopt the value of load
factor as 2.
15 x 75
Driving force P = = 188 kg.
6.05
From table 14-18.3, we select a factor of safety as 11. The
ultimate strength of the chain will be 11 x 2 x 188 = 3,940 kg.
We select a chain whose breaking load exceeds 4,000 kg.
We arbitrarily assume the distance between the shafts to be
40 times the pitch length. We adopt the distance as 40 x 15 =
600 mm.
The number of links is found from the following formula:
m —— --2—
Z1 + Z2 + 2A (Z2 — Z1)2 t
t- + 2n .A
252+ 74 2 x 600 (74 -- 25)2 15
----- — - + 15 ± X. 600
2n
= 130.
The exact centre distance can now be obtained with the help
of the following equation.
A = !Int _ Z -F Z2 + m _ Z1 + Z2 12 8 ( Zz — Zx \21
4L 2 2 J k 27c / J
25 + 74\2 8 (74 — 25\21
= 145 [130- 25 +744(130
2 ) k 27c ) _1
= 594 mm.
678 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIV

With odd tooth number on the smaller sprocket and an even

number of pitches in the chain the frequency of contact between
a particular tooth and a particular roller is a minimum, thus distri-
buting the wear.
To ensure proper slack of the chain the centre distance should
be diminished by 2 to 5 mm. We provide the centre distance as
590 mm.
The total length of the chain is 130 x 15 = 1,950 cm.
The pitch diameter of the sprocket pinion will be 15
180°
sin
25
= 119.96 mm and that for the sprocket gear will be 353.29 mm.
Roller diameter is generally adopted as Ith of the pitch.
For this drive the roller diameter will be I x 15 = 9.375 mm.
We adopt 10 mm.
Sprocket outside diameter = 119.96 + 0.8 x 10 = 127.96 mm.
Other proportions of the roller chain can be decided, with
the proportions given in art. 14-18.
Though we have adopted factor of safety as 11, it will be reduced
when we consider inertia force due to centrifugal force and tension
due to slack. When the weight per metre of chain length is
known, the load on the shaft can be obtained.
Exercises:
1. Design a chain drive from an electric motor to a compressor to
transmit 80 h.p. at 720 r.p.m. of the motor and 140 r.p.m. of the driven
shaft. A short centre distance is desired and 1,000 mm is the limit for the
diameter of the sprocket gear.
2. A roller chain must be used to drive the camshaft of a four
stroke petrol engine running at 720 r.p.m. The centre distance is approxi-
mately 600 mm. The crankshaft diameter is 130 mm. The camshaft
drive requires 3 h.p. Determine all necessary dimensions for the chain
and sprockets.
3. An oil engine developing 240 h.p. at 1,200 r.p.m. drives a wire
rope reel on an oil well rig through a roller chain. The speed of the reel
varies from 10 to 50 r.p.m. The engine can be slowed down to 240 r.p.m.
and the torque remains approximately constant. The load is applied with
heavy shocks. (i) Select a suitable roller chain. (ii) Determine the
numbers of teeth, the pitch diameters, and the outside diameter of the
sprockets. (iii) Determine a suitable centre distance and the length of the
chain.
Ex. XIV] BELTS, PULLEYS AND CHAIN DRIVES 679

4. A roller chain is to be used on a paving machine to transmit 30

h.p. from an engine running at 1,000 r.p.m. to a countershaft running
at 500 r.p.m. The centre distance is fixed at 600 mm. The chain will
be subjected to intermittent overloads of 100%.
(a) Determine the pitch and the number of chains required to transmit
this power.
(b) What is the length of the chain required? Hwy much slack
must be allowed in order to have a whole number of pitches?
(c) How much is the bearing pressure between the roller and the
pin?

EXAMPLES XIV

1. Design a shafting of 20 metre length to transmit 15 h.p. at 180 r.p.m.

required for various machine tools in the workshop.
Speed of the motor — 600 r.p.m.
Pulley for the motor — 30 cm x 20 cm.
The maximum bending moment on the shaft at the maximum torque
is equal to 12,000 kg cm. Maximum load on bearing is 680 kg.
Safe working stress for shaft steel = 450 kg/sq cm
Safe working stress for bolt steel = 250 kg/sq cm.
Design, also, the coupling and the main bearing required for the shaft and
give approximate sizes of the pulley on the shaft and belt required to transmit
the power. Prepare dimensioned drawings of (a) coupling (b) main bearing.
2. A 20 h.p. engine running at 375 r.p.m. is to drive a centrifugal pump
requiring 15 h.p. and to run at 1,440 r.p.m. through a countershaft. Considering
the engine pulley and pump pulley diameters as 90 cm and 20 cm respectively,
design the countershaft and the two pulleys.
Assume the three plummer blocks as producing the conditions of built in
ends and take:
Safe combined stress for torsion and bending = 400 kg/sq cm.
Maximum belt speed = 1,200 metre/minute. •
Total belt pull = 3 times the net driving force.
Safe tensile stress in C.I. pulleys = 80 kg/sq cm.
Draw a dimensioned sketch of the shaft and pulleys.
3. Design a 120 cm diameter cast iron belt pulley transmitting 5 h.p. at
90 r.p.m. The tension in the belt is not to exceed 15 kg per cm width of the
belt. The pulley has six elliptical arms.
Tension on the tight side is double the tension on the slack side and the
centrifugal tension in the belt is to be neglected.
Sketch two fully dimensioned views of the assembly.
680 • MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XIV
4. A pulley of 90 cm diameter is to drive another pulley in the same direct
tion with a speed reduction of 2.5 to 1 by means of a flat belt. The pulleys are
spaced at 450 cm centres. The driving pulley is to deliver 24 h.p. at 400 r.p.m.
Determine necessary width of belting if it is 6 mm thick of density 1 gm/cu cm
and has a working tensile stress of 22 kg/sq cm. Assume a coefficient of friction 0.28.
Estimate the necessary intitial tension for the belt, stating the assumptions made.
5. A cast iron pulley transmits 20 h.p. at 150 r.p.m. the diameter of the
pulley being 70 cm. The pulley has four straight arms of elliptical cross section,
the major axis being 2.5 times the minor axis.
Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for the elliptical section of the
arm (a) at the boss and (b) at the rim if the permissible stress in the arm is limited
to 150 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1969)
6. Design a belt drive for a pump driven by a 10 h.p. oil engine running at
600 r.p.m. The pump r.p.m. are 200. The engine pulley is 30 cm diameter, belt
thickness 0.8 mm and permissible stress in belt is limited to 30 kg/sq cm. The
distance between the centres of engine pulley and pump pulley is 1.5 metre.
Neglect slip and assume p. = 0.4 and permissible tensile stress in C.I. arms not
to exceed 140 kg/sq cm and the shear stress in mild steel = 300 kg/sq cm.
Sketch the pump pulley.
(Bombay University, 1969)
7. Design a 120 cm diameter cast iron belt pulley transmitting 5 h.p. at
90 r.p.m. The tension in the belt is not to exceed 15 kg/cm width of the belt.
The pulley has six elliptical arms. The belt tension ratio may be taken as 2.
Using your own values for the permissible stresses, sketch two fully dimensioned
views of the assembly. The diameter of the solid shaft may be taken as
s/ H.P.
d . 12 x -i R.P.M.
— cm.
Show your calculations for the key and the cross section of the arm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
8. A conveyor is driven by a 2 h.p. high starting torque electric motor
through a flexible coupling to a worm gear speed reducer of transmission ratio
35 and then via roller chain to the conveyor shaft that is to turn about 10 r.p.m.
Motor r.p.m. are 1,450, operation is smooth and 8 hours a day. Design the main
dimensions for the chain.
Ans. 15 and 60 tooth sprockets, 25 mm pitch, 88 links, 600 mm centre
distance.
9. A 1200 mm pulley making 100 r.p.m. transmits 8 h.p. If the tension
in the belt is not to exceed 18 kg /cm width, determine the minimum width of the
flat belt required if • —Ti = 2. The pulley is placed centrally between two
T2
bearings 80 cm apart. Calculate the various dimensions of the pulley assuming
it to have 6 arms of elliptical section.
Allowable shear stress for the shaft and key of 500 kg/sq cm and allowable
flexural stress in arms of 150 kg/sq cm may be adopted.
Sketch two views of the pulley giving dimensions.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER is
FLY WHEELS

15-1. Introduction:
A flywheel is a machine part which may be loOked upon as
a rotating energy reservoir which is attached to the shafts of parti-
cular types of machines. There are two classes of machines which
require use of flywheels. In one type of class, where the opera-
tion is intermittent the flywheel absorbs energy from a power source
during the greater portion of the operating cycle and delivers a
large amount of stored energy as useful work in a very short por-
tion of the cycle. This class includes punching machines, riveting
machines, shearing machines, presses, crushers, etc. By application
of flywheels to such machines the smaller power unit is required
as a result sudden drain of power from the power lines is reduced.
In other type of class, including steam engines, internal combustion
engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps, the flywheel
smoothens out the speed fluctuations caused by non-uniform flow
of power to and from the piston during each energy cycle.
When energy is supplied to a machine at a variable rate and
taken from the engine at a constant rate, the speed of the output
shaft varies. Use of flywheel would allow the engine to operate
with the minimum of speed variation, which is an important factor
in the design of all flywheels.
Flywheels may be formed of solid one piece section or they
may be of sectional construction. Flywheels upto two metres in
diameter are cast solid. The hub may be split up to avoid the
cooling stresses. Flywheels ranging from two to five metre in
diameters are cast in sections. The number of sections generally
equals the number of arms in the wheel. The pieces composing
the flywheel are joined at the hub either by through bolts or
secured by using links shrunk into place.

15-2. Determination of Weight of a, Flywheel for given

coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed:
The kinetic energy E of the flywheel of moment of inertia
I rotating at co radian per second is given by the equation
682 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XV

E tho2 (i)
Differentiating the above equation, we get
SE = hoSo.) (ii)
where SE = maximum fluctuation of energy of the flywheel
I = moment of inertia of the flywheel about the axis of
rotation
(,) = mean speed of rotation of the flywheel
Sca = maximum permissible fluctuation in speed of flywheel.
Equation (ii) is the important equation for the design of
flywheels.
The above equation can be modifi ed to the form
8co
8E = /co2

8co is known as the coefficient of fluctuation of speed. The value

of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed depends upon the kind of
work the machine is required to do. It is greatest in machines
such as punches where it is limited only by the danger of having
the driving belt slip off the pulley. It is least for the engines driv-
ing alternating current generators running in parallel.
The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as
the coefficient of steadiness for the flywheel.
The moment of inertia of the flywheel, I, may be expressed
by — k 2, where k is the radius of gyration. It is usual practice to
consider the weight of the flywheel to be concentrated at the mean
radius of the rim and finally to make adjustment for the flywheel
effect of the hub and arm of the flywheel. The actual weight of
the rim of the flywheel may be taken as approximately 10% less
than that calculated by equation (ii) to allow for the flywheel effect
of the arm and the hub.
If the flywheel is a disc type, the moment of inertia may be
taken as 4 Wry= where r is the radius of the disc.
The maximum permissible values of coefficient of fluctuation
of speed for different applications that have been found to give
satisfactory operations vary considerably and have been given
in table 15-2.1.
Art. 15-21 FLYWHEELS 683

Table 15-2.1
Values of coefficient of fluctuation of speed

So)
......
Engines operating to

Crushing machinery 0.2

Hammers 0.2
Punches and shears 0.1 to 0.15
Pumping machinery 0.03 to 0.05
Machine shop drive 0.025 to 0.028
Engines with belt transmission 0.03
Gear wheel transmission 0.02
Textile machinery 0.025
Direct current generators 0.0065
Alternating current generators 0.0003 to 0.003

The general method of designing a flywheel is to determine

a fluctuation of energy which varies for different classes of service.
It may be found either graphically or analytically. The graphical
method is more convenient when enough data are available to draw
the energy diagram.
The mean diameter of a flywheel may be assumed or it may
be fixed by a consideration of the centrifugal stresses in the rim.

The centrifugal stress in a flywheel rim is glen by the

expression
1 , pv2 (iv)
g
where p = density of the material
v = mean velocity
g =---- acceleration due to gravity.
Density of cast iron is 7.26 gm/cu cm and that of cast steel
7.8 gm/cu cm.
With the help of equation (iv), when permissible stresses are
known, by knowing the speed of the flywheel, the maximum
limit for the diameter of ,the flywheel can be specified. It can
also be fixed within certain limits by the general design of the
machine. The use of a larger diameter flywheel will permit a
smaller weight in the rim, with smaller cross sectional dimensions.
684 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XV

The practical design formula for use in metric unit will be

f = 0.0737 v2 kg/sq cm where v is the rim velocity in metre per
second.
For cast iron, the flywheel rim speed is usually limited to
1,200 to 1,800 metres per minute. For steel flywheels, higher
speeds can be adopted depending upon the construction of
flywheels.
The speed of the flywheel-shaft is known ordinarily and the
coefficient of speed fluctuation is known when the type of service is known.
When all these values are known, the weight of the rim and the
cross sectional area required to obtain this weight can be calculated,
when the decisions for material and diameter have been taken.
The ratio of the width to height of the rim section varies from
0.6 to 2. If a belt is run on a flywheel, the face width must be at
least 2 to 3 cm wider than the belt.
The general procedure will be illustrated in more detail by
considering numerical examples.
Note: It should not be taken for granted that a flywheel is always necessary.
If some means can be found to reduce the energy fluctuation, the need for the
flywheel is also reduced. In many machineries the flywheel effect is supplied by
other rotating elements of the installation. We give some of the examples of the
flywheel effect.
(i) The crankshaft and the equivalent mass of the connecting rod at the
crank pin
(ii) The rotating parts of the clutch mechanism in automotive installation
(iii) Propellers and propeller reduction gears in air craft engines.

15-3. Flywheel for punches and shears:

In punches and shear the drive is generally produced by an
electric motor so that the steady torque line is the input and it is
the torque resistance which varies. For metal working machi-
nery the energy for a cycle may vary over wide limits and depends
on the type of operation and particular set of tools that are used.
If we were to obtain the indicator diagram for punching a hole in a steel
plate, it will be observed that the energy required to punch the hole of a spec
diameter in a plate of given thickness increases as the radial clearance
between punch and die is decreased. Other factors such as sharpness
of tools, and speed of operation will cause further variations in the
Art. 15-4 ] FLYWHEELS 685

indicator diagrams. When more definite informations are

lacking, the maximum force on the punch can be calculated.
Maximum force on the punch = Area to be sheared X
Ultimate shear strength. (i)
Energy required to punch a hole is the average force multiplied
by the thickness of the plate. (ii)
Average force = i x maximum force on the riunch.. . . . (iii)
Maximum force is used in the design of all the parts of the
machine. By mounting the flywheel in a metal working machinery horse
power of the driving unit is reduced but the maximum stresses in the various
components of the machines more or less remain unaffected. In order to
keep the diameter and weight within reasonable limits, it is desirable
to mount the flywheel on a high speed auxiliary shaft. [See note
at the end of illustrative example 3.]

15-4. Engine flywheels:

There is an essential similarity between engines of a given
type and consequently it has been found possible to generalise
on the results from calculations of many engines and to establish
values for the excess energy to be absorbed by the flywheel. This
excess energy is found to be a certain proportion of the energy
produced by an engine per revolution. The proportion of the
energy to be absorbed depends on
(i) number of cylinders
(ii) regularity of the firing strokes and
(iii) fuel used.
Table 15-4.1 gives some values of this proportion K.
(A) Steam engines :
Table 15-4.1

% of cut-off Single cylinder Twin cylinders Three cylinders

crank at 90° cranks at 120°

0.10 0.35 0.088 0.040

0.20 0.33 0.082 0.037
040 0.31 0.078 0.034
0.60 0.29 0.072 0.032
0.80 0.28 0.070 0.031
1.00 0.27 0.068 0.030
 OM MACHINE DESIGN I ch. -.x V
(B) Petrol engines:

Engine types Firing fre-

quency Average
Single or
Cylinders Cycle double Crankshaft Angles of Crank value
turn of K
acting
Single 4 stroke single 720° regular 2.4
Single 2 stroke single
2-twin
2-opposed
4 stroke
1 4 stroke
single
single
0°
180" } 360° regular 1.0

Single
} 4 stroke double
1800-540°
2-twin
Single
2-twin of
4 stroke
4 stroke
2 stroke or
single
double
double
180°

180"
} alternate 1.60

1
tandem
4-in-line
3-in-line
4 stroke
4 stroke
4 stroke
single
single
180°
120°
} 180° regular

240° regular
0.2

0.7
4-in-line 2 stroke single 90°
4-twin or
tandem
I 4 stroke double 90°
I 90° regular 0.09

8-in-line 4 stroke single 90'

6-in-line 4 stroke single 120° 120° regular 0.12
V-12 4 stroke single 120° 60° regular 0.02
V-16 4 stroke single 90' 45° regular 0.01

(C) Diesel Engines:

The values of K given in table for petrol engines are to be increased by 25%
for Diesel engines.
Thus if E is the energy developed by the engine per revolution,
then fluctuation of energy 8E = K x E. When fluctuation of
energy is known, the size of the flywheel can be calculated.

15-5. Flywheel for Electric generators:

When an engine drives an alternator, it is not the variation
of speed within each cycle that is of prime concern but rather
the phase shift that will be produced in a generated voltage as
compared with a regular sinusoidal wave and this is of particular
interest when alternators are to run in parallel. Since the
flywheel is alternately absorbing and delivering energy, the speed
varies in each revolution as a result the flywheel mounted on the
shaft is displaced ahead of and behind its mean position. Proper
voltage regulation requires that the maximum angular displace-
ment shall be limited to 2i or 3 electrical degrees. Since a
complete electrical cycle transpires as the generator rotor turns
Art. 1;5-5] FLYWHEELS 687

past a pair of successive poles, a shift of three phase degrees on

a 16 pole generator will mean that the flywheel must be large
enough to be capable of maintaining a steady speed within ±
f of a degree.
Examples:
1. A machine, driven directly by an electric motor, has a cyclic load
which is approximately represented by the torque angle graph in fig. 15-1.
The speed of the machine must not vary during the cycle by more than
--E 2 per cent of the mean speed of 500 r.p.m.
Load torque kg

I 1..
I Tm
I .1,
I 1 1 1 17 1I 2
4 1 1
Reuolutions of shaft

FIG. 15-1

Assuming the motor torque to be constant, calculate the necessary

moment of inertia of the flywheel. If space considerations limit the
diameter of the flywheel to 60 cm, determine suitable dimensions for the
rectangular section rim if the breadth is twice the thickness. Neglect the
inertia of the hub and spokes and assume the density of cast iron to be
7.25 gmlcu cm.
Determine the necessary horse power of the motor, allowing for a
25 per cent overload.
Select a suitable diameter for the steel output shaft assuming a work-
ing shear stress of 450 kg sq cm.
The maximum torque on the output shaft is 90 kg metre.
688 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX

If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then

da x 450 = 90 x 100

9000 16
or d= x— 4.67 cm; we adopt 5 cm.
450 it
The energy required per cycle is given by the area under the
Tr
torque angle graph which represents 90 x + 70 x = 807c
2
kg metre of energy.
Number of cycles per minute = 520 = 250.

.• Minimum h.p. of the driving motor = 250 x 807c 14

4500 — .
As we have to allow for 25% overload, the rated h.p. of the
motor will be 14 x 1.25 = 17.5.
If Tm be the mean torque during a load cycle, then
80 7r
Tm 2 = 20 kg metre.
2 x 7s
•[ — 290 20T
• 8E =maximum fluctuation of energy = 90 x 90
= 86 kg metre.
(Areas of similar triangles are proportional to square of their altitudes.)

=_- x 2rc
52'5 radian/sec.
50060
8w 100 X 52.5 = 2.12 radian/sec.
r
On substitution of values in equation 8E = /caw, we get
2
86= x52.5 x2.12
9.81
86 x 9.81
or Wks = 7.6 kg metre2.
52.5 x 2.1-2 =
Assuming that the radius of gyration is the same as the mean
radius of the flywheel, the weight W of the flywheel rim will be
7.6
---- 84.2 kg. If a sq cm be the area of the cross section of
0.32
the rim, then
a X 27; X 30 x 7.25 = 84.2 x 1000
84.2 x 1000
or a = = 61.7 sq cm.
60 x rc x 7.25
Art. 15-51 FLYWHEELS 689

As the rim is rectangular in section, its dimension will be

12 cm x 6 cm, providing 72 sq cm cross sectional area.
2. A multi-cylinder engine is to run at a constant load at a speed
of 500 r.p.m. On drawing the crank ef fort diagram to scales of
1 cm = 250 kg metre and 1 cm = 30°, the areas above and below the
mean torque line were measured and found to be sq cm in order:
± 1.60, — 1.72, + 1.68, — 1.91, + 1.97,. — 1.62.
If the speed is to be kept within the limits 495 and 505 r.p.m.,
calculate the necessary moment of inertia of the flywheel.
Determine suitable dimensions for a cast iron flywheel with a rim
whose breadth is twice its radial thickness. Assume that 95% of the
moment of inertia is to be provided by the rim. The density of cast iron
in 7.25 gm/cu cm and its working stress in tension is 60 kgIsq cm.
The approximate shape of the crank effort diagram for a
cycle is shown in fig. 15-2.

•
FIG. 15-2

Let E be the energy of the flywheel, in sq cm of crank effort

diagram, at the beginning of the cylcle.
The energies at salient points B, C, D, E and F of turning
moment diagram will be E + 1.6, E— 0.12, E -I- 1.56, E— 0.35
and E + 1.62 sq cm respectively. The maximum and minimum
energies of the flywheel will be at F and E respectively. The
maximum fluctuation of energy of the flywheel during a cycle will
690 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. XV

be equivalent to 1.97. sq cm of crank effort diagram. The energy

scale of the diagram is
X 7T
1 sq cm = 2506 = 131 kg metre.

Maximum fluctuation of energy will be

131 x 1.97 = 258 kg metre.
Mean speed of the flywheel = 500 = 52.5 radian/sec.
60
x
Maximum fluctuation of the speed of the flywheel
=.- (505 — 495) 2n = 1.05 radian/sec.
60
We have 8E ----- leo 8to.
On substitution of values, we get
258 = I x 52.5 x 1.05
or I = 52- = 4.7 kg metre sect.
52x81.05
The maximum diameter of the rim can be obtained from
the centrifugal stress considerations. The centrifugal stress is
given by the equation
f = 0.0737 v2 kg/sq cm.
On substitution of values, we have 60 = 0.0737 v2.
ii- 60
•• v= — 28.5 metre/sec.
0.0737
If D be the outside diameter of the flywheel rim in metre,
7rD x 505
then =-- 28.5
60
28.5 x 60
Or D = 1.07 metre.
x 505
1.0 7
••• Maximum radius of the flywheel = 0.535 metre.
2
= 53.5 cm.
We adopt 45 cm as the mean radius of the flywheel. If W be
the weight of the flywheel rim in kg, then

91' 45-0 )2 = 4.7 x 0.95

4. X (-0

or W = 4.7 x 0.95 x 9.81 x (1

(= 222 kg.
4502
)
Art. 15-51 FLYWHEELS 691

If a be the cross sectional area of rim in sq cm, then

nxax 90 x 7.25
— 222
1000
222 x 1000
or a= = 107 sq cm.
rc x 90 x 7.25
The rim section is a rectangle having breadth as twice the
radial thickness. We adopt 16 cm wide and 8 cm. thick section
which provides 128 sq cm cross sectional area.
3. A punching machine is required to make 28 working strokes per
minute and is to be capable of punching holes of 23 mm diameter in 18 mm
thick plates of steel having an ultimate shear strength of 3,000 kg/sq cm.
The punching of a hole is to occupy one-tenth of a revolution of the crank
shaft of the machine.
Estimate the horse power needed for the driving motor, assuming a
mechanical efficiency of 95 per cent. Determine suitable dimensions for
the rectangular section rim of the flywheel, which is to revolve at 9 times
the speed of the crank shaft.
The wheel is to be made of cast iron having a working tensile stress
of 60 kg/sq cm and weighing 7.25 gm/cu cm. The diameter of the wheel
must not exceed 140 cm owing to space considerations. It may be assumed
that the hub and spokes provide 5 per cent of the rotational inertia of the
wheel. Check the centrifugal stress.
Maximum punching force = it X 1.8 x 2.3 x 3000 = 39,200 kg.
Energy required per stroke = i x 1.8 x 39200 = 35;200 kg cm.
(We assume that the resisting shear force decreases uniformly from its
maximum value to zero value as the hole is being punched.)
Number of cycles per minute = 28.
352 x 28
.. H.P. of the driving motor = = 2.3.
4500 x 0.95
The mean speed of the flywheel = 28 x 9 = 252 r.p.m.
We adopt the mean diameter of the flywheel as 120 cm. The
radius of gyration may be taken as 0.6 metre.
As the punching operation occupies one-tenth of a revolution
of the crankshaft of the machine, during nine-tenth of the revolu-
tion of the crankshaft, the motor power is used to accelerate the
speed of the flywheel; while during one-tenth revolution, when the
actual punching operation is being performed, the energy stored
up in the flywheel during the earlier part of the stroke is given out
at the expense of its angular speed.
 692 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV

The maximum fluctuation of energy of the flywheel will be

A. x 352 = 317 kg metre.
We assume that the permissible coefficient of fluctuation
of speed is 04. As the flywheel rotates at 9 times the speed of the
crankshaft, the mean speed of the flywheel shaft will be 28 x 9
= 252 r.p.m.
x 2.7v
Mean speed of the flywheel = 252 = 26.4 radian/sec.
60
Maximum fluctuation of speed of the flywheel will be
0.1 x 264 = 2.64 radian/sec.
If W kg be the weight of the flywheel rim, then

§-:-tif x 0.62 x 264 x 2.64 = 317 x0.95

317 x_0.95 x 9.81
or W = 0.6
2 x264 x 2.64 = 120 kg.
If a sq cm be the area of the cross section of the rim, then
axnx 120 x 7.25 = 1000 x 120
1000 x 120
or a = = 44 sq cm.
Tr x 120 x 7.25
We adopt rim section as 9 cm x 5 cm, thus providing nece-
ssary area of 45 sq cm.
The outside diameter of the flywheel rim will be 125 cm.
252
Linear velocity of the rim will be 1 .25 [Link] To- x 1.05
= 17.3 metre/sec.
Centrifugal stress = 0.0737v2 kg/sq cm = 0.0737 x 17.32
= 22 kg/sq cm.
• Note: In the problem discussed we notice that the flywheel is mounted
on a high speed shaft. We can see that the higher the average speed of the fly-
wheel for a given coefficient of fluctuation of speed, the smaller the flywheel need
be. Therefore, it is desirable that the flywheel be attached to the shaft in the
mechanism haying the highest speed in order to reduce the size of the flywheel.
However, there are limitations in the speed of the flywheel. Because of high
stresses developed by ctntrifugual forces, these stress must be considered in the
selection of the flywheel speed. Also the gears connecting the flywheel and crank
would have sudden loads imposed on them necessitating expensive gears. In
most punch presses the flywheel is attached to the crank in order to eliminate
the gears between the flywheel and crank.
Art. 15-5] FLYWHEELS 693

Exercises:
1. The flywheel of a punch must be capable of supplying 260
kg metre of energy in order that the machine may punch a hole. The flywheel
is 125 cm in mean diameter and rotates at 150 r.p.m. when running
at a normal speed. Determine the cross sectional area required for the rim
of the cast iron flywheel if the coefficient of fluctuation of speed be limited
to 0.15. Ans. 80 sq cm.
2. The turning movement diagram for a three cylinder engine is drawn
to the following scales: crank displacement, 1 cm = 40°; turning moment,
1 cm = 700 kg metre. During one revolution of the crank the areas above
and below the mean turning moment line taken in order are 0.60, 0.69,
0.64, 0.75, 0.78 and 0.58 sq cm. If the speed is to be kept within I%
of the mean speed which is 90 r.p.m. and the mean diameter of the flywheel
is 210 cm, determine the minimum cross sectional area of the cast iron
flywheel. Ans. 420 sq cm.
3. A single cylinder double acting pump is driven through gearing
at 40 r.p.m. by an electric motor which gives a uniform torque. The
resisting torque for each half revolution of the pump shaft may be assumed to
follow a sine curve with a maximum value at 90° and 270° of 430 kg metre.
Determine the diameter of the pump shaft if the permissible value of the
shear stress is limited to 420 kg/sq cm. Determine the h. p. of the motor
to drive the pump if the efficiency of transmission be 85%. Find what
weight of flywheel will be required on the pump shaft to keep the speed
within li% of the mean speed if the mean radius of the flyw&el is 120 cm.
The flywheel effect of the motor armature and gear wheels is equivalent to
450 kg at a radius of 90 cm on the pump shaft. Suggest the suitable rim
section for the cast iron flywheel. Ans. 2,000 kg; 370 sq cm.
4. A flywheel is required for a punching machine capable of punching
19 mm diameter holes through steel plates 16 mm thick. The machine
shaft has a belt driven shaft at the rear which carries a flywheel and a pinion
that meshes with a gear on the main shaft at the top of the machine which
runs at Ath speed of the driven shaft. The ultimate shear strength of the
material is 3,600 kg/sq cm. The hole is punched during lir revolution
of the gear shaft. The preliminary lay out shows that the flywheel should
have a mean diameter of about 80 cm. Determine the weight of the flywheel.
5. Design a cast iron flywheel for a four stroke cycle ' engine to
develop 100 b.h.p. at 200 r.p.m. Assume that the work done in the power
stroke is 1.25 times the average work during the whole cycle. The fluctua-
694 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XV

lion of speed is limited to 3% of the mean speed and the diameter of the
flywheel may not exceed 4 metres. Assume that the spokes and hub provide
5% of the rotational inertia of the wheel and the allowable stress in cast
iron is limited to 200 kg/sq cm.

6. A multi cylinder engine is to run at a constant load et a speed

of 500 r.p.m. On drawing the crank—effort diagram to scales of 1 cm
= 250 kg metre and 1 cm = 60°, the areas above and below the mean
torque line were measured and found to be in order
+ 1.60,— 1.72, + 1.68,— 1.91, + 1.97 and— 1.62.
If the speed is to be kept within the limits of ± 1% of the mean speed,
design the suitable type of flywheel.

7. The torque equation for an engine operating at 600 r.p.m. against

a uniform load is
T = 125 + 200 sin() + 30 sin26 -F 2.4 sin30 kg metre
where 6 is the crank angle measured from the inner dead centre position.
Determine the horse power of the engine and the suitable flywheel to be
mounted on the crankshaft if the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is limited
to 0.02. What will be the maximum value of acceleration and retardation
of the flywheel?

8. During the proposed cycle of operations the torque required by a

machine tool is expected as under :
The torque increases uniformly from 5 kg metre to 20 kg metre during
the first half revolution, remains constant for the following revolution, decreases
uniformly to 5 kg metre during the next half revolution and then remains
constant at this value for the next two revolutions, the cycle being repeated.
Estimate the horse power required at the mean speed of 140 r.p.m.
If the moment of inertia of the motor armature is 0.03 kg metre sec2, and
its mean speed is 1,450 r.p.m., design the suitable flywheel required on the
machine shaft to limit the speed fluctuation to 4% of the mean.
Ans. 4.1 kg metre sec 2.

9. What is the function of a flywheel in a punching machine or a

riveting machine? On what shaft should the flywheel be mounted? Is there a
stress reduction in the crankshaft of a machine by mounting the flywheel?
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
Art. 15-6] FLYWHEELS 695

15-6. Stresses in the rim of flywheels:

The analysis of stresses in flywheel is rather complicated
because of the effect of the centrifugal force in the rim and arms,
stresses due to change of speed and load and unknown shrinkage
stresses caused by unequal cooling rates of the metal in the hub,
arms and rim.
The centrifugal stresses can be obtained, with considerable
accuracy. If the arms have no restraining effects on the rim,
the centrifugal stresses in the rim are given by

fc =
pv2
— (i)
g
where p = density of the material,
v = mean velocity of the rim,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
When the arms of the flywheel are rigid, the portion of the
rim between the arms may be considered as a fixed beam with a
uniform loading, equal in intensity to the centrifugal force. If
we consider the portion of the rim as a straight beam fixed at both
ends, the maximum bending stress will be
n2Dpv2
fb = '
I gbn2
where D = mean diameter
b = rim thickness
n = number of arms.
It should be remembered that the derivation of the bending
stress by the beam theory is inaccurate.
Since the arms are neither completely rigid nor completely
flexible the actual stress value shall lie between two extreme cases.
According to Prof. Lanza (Transactions of A.S.M.E. Vol. 20
page 951), the stress in the ordinary type of flywheels may be assumed to
be equal to three-fourths of the hoop stress plus one-fourth of the bending
stress. Therefore, the resulting stress may be taken as
ov2 r 1,2D
f= ife+ ifb iL- L3 +
It can be seen froth equation (ii) that the bending stress can
be reduced. by increasing the number of arms and it can be
entirely eliminated by providing a web construction.
696 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV

Although the equation (iii) is often used to calculate the stresses

in the flywheel rim, care should be exercised in using it because
the shrinkage stresses at the junction of rim and arms are very
severe if the wheel is not carefully designed.
Wherever possible the cross section of the rim should be
designed to withstand bending action which requires the radial
depth of the rim larger than the width.
In order to reduce the shrinkage stresses the flywheel may
be cast in sections and bolted together or the sections may be con-
nected by shrink links or shrink rings. The bursting force to be
ov2
resisted by the joint is A, where A is the area of the rim. When
the permissible stress for the connecting member is known, the
minimum cross sectional area for the bolt or shrink link or shrink
ring can be calculated. The bolts at the hub are usually made of
the same size as those at the rim.

15-7. Design of a hub:

The flywheel is mounted on a shaft which may transmit only
the torque going to or coming from the flywheel. Manytimes
the flywheel shaft transmits a torque greater than the flywheel
torque. The hub is designed as a hollow shaft transmitting the torque
acting on the flywheel. Usually the hub diameter is taken twice the
shaft diameter while the length equals 2 to 2.5 times the shaft
diameter.

15-8. Arms of the flywheel:

The arms of the flywheel are usually of elliptical cross section
whose major axis is usually twice the minor axis and the major axis
of the ellipse is in the plane of rotation to give the arms greater
resistance to bending stresses and reduce the air resistance which
may be considerable at a high velocity.
The stresses in the arms may be severe, due to the inerita of a
heavy rim when sudden load changes occur. In addition the
arms are subjected to complete reversal of stresses. Therefore the
factor of safety should be at least 8. When the flywheel is used
on metal cutting machineries subjected to severe shock, the factor
of safety should be as high as 15.
Art. 15-8j FLYWHEELS 697

The arms are designed to carry the maximum torque acting

on the flywheel. The determination of maximum torque on the
flywheel requires careful consideration. Each arm is assumed to
act as a cantilever, which is fixed at the hub and carries its propor-
tionate share of the load concentrated at the rim. This assumption
regarding cantilever is permissible when the rim is flexible. This
assumption may be taken when the rim is light.
If T be the torque acting on the rim of mean diameter D,
the maximum bending moment M on the arm at the hub of
outside diameter d will be
T (D— d)
M= x --r (i)
)
where n = number of arms.
If we assume that the arm of the cantilever extends upto the
centre of the shaft, then
T
M= — (ii)

If Z be the section modulus of the arm-cross-section at the

hub, the maximum stress will be
(iii)
f=
While fixing the permissible stress for the flywheel arm it
should be remembered that, the direct tensile stress dtte to radial
expansion of the rim is present. The value of this stress is equal to
the stress in the rim when it is free to expand due to centrifugal
stress. The permissible tensile stress for cast iron should not exceed
140 kg/sq cm and if there be severe shock as in pumps the stress
should not exceed 70 kg/sq cm.
For an elliptical section, the modulus of section near the hub
7C
is Z= abs where a is the minor axis and b the major axis. The
arms usually taper towards the rim. The cross sectional area at
the rim should not be less than two thirds the area at the hub.
The usual number of arms is six but these may be eight, ten or
twelve depending upon the diameter and rim width of the flywheel.
The following proportions for the arms in terms of the shaft
diameter are usually adopted for cast iron flywheels :
698 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XV

No. of arms Length of major axis at hub

6 1.3d
8 1.2d
•
If a flywheel rim is very heavy, the arms may be considered as
a beam fixed at both ends. This assumption will give us equal
bending moments at hub and rim, which has half the value of
that for a simple cantilever. The dimension should be same
at both the places.
The usual procedure is to design the arm at the hub as a
simple cantilever and it is tapered towards the rim. The usual
taper of 1 in 50 is commonly used on the width and about half
this amount on the thickness. The width at the rim, however,
should never be less than 0.8 times the width at the hub.
Examples:
1. Design a cast iron flywheel to store 60,000 kg metre of energy at
180 r.p.m. The radius of gyration is 120 cm. Calculate
(i) weight and thickness of the rim if width is 35 cm (Assume
that 90 per cent of the energy is stored in the rim.),
(ii) diameter of the shaft if the energy is being transmitted at the
rate of 360 horse power,
(tti) dimensions of six arms, cross section to be elliptical, minor axis
0.5 times the major axis and safe flexural stress 150 kg/sq cm,
(iv) dimensions of the sunk rectangular key, and
(v) dimensions of the boss of the flywheel.
rc
The angular velocity of the flywheel — 180 x 2
60
--,-- 18.8 radian/sec.
If W be the weight of the flywheel rim, then
W
60000 x 0.9 . I x 1.22 x 18.82
x98
60000 x 9.81 x 2 x 0.9
Or W '-= = 2,080 kg.
1.2 x 1.2 x 18.8 x 18.8
If a sq cm be the area of cross section of the rim, then
axnx2x 120 x 7.25 =-- 2080 x 1000
2080 x 1000
Or a= = 380 sq cm.
Is x 2 x 120 x 7.25
Art. 15-8] FLYWHEELS 699

380
Thickness of the rim = = 10.85 cm; we adopt 11 cm.

x 360
Torque on the shaft = 71620 = 143,240 kg cm.
180
Assuming permissible shear stress to be 400 kg/sq cm, the
diameter of the shaft can be obtained. If d cm be the diameter of
the solid shaft, then fg6- ds x 400 = 143240

5/ 143240 x 16
or d= 400 x TC
— 12.2 cm.

We adopt 14 cm as the diameter of the solid shaft.

The dimensions of the rectangular sunk key should be checked
for the stresses. The dimensions of the key may be taken as
30 cm x 3 cm x 2.5 cm.
The outside diameter of the boss may be taken as 30 cm and
the length of the boss may be taken as 25 cm.
The arms of the flywheel are subjected to bending moment
due to inertia torque; its magnitude depends upon the rate at
which the energy is either given out by the flywheel or stored by
the flywheel. The maximum value of the torque on which the
arms are to be designed is equal to the product of the moment of
inertia of the flywheel and the maximum angular acceleration or
retardation. Here we do not have the knowledgeregarding the
maximum angular acceleration. Hence we design arms on mean
torque transmitted, taking the lower value of permissible stresses.
The flywheel has six arms. We design the arm as a cantilever
whose moment arm extends upto the axis of the shaft. The
143240
maximum bending moment on each arm will be = 24,000
6
kg cm.
0
Modulus of section required = 2400 — 160 cms.
150
If b cm be the major axis of the elliptical section at the hub,
then N x 0.5 bs = 160

or
b 1160 x 32 _, 14.7 cm; we adopt 15 cm.
V x 0.5
700 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV

The minor axis will be 7.5 cm.

The dimensions of the elliptical cross section at the rim are
10 cm x 5 cm.
Let us verify whether we can arrange six arms at the hub or
not. The circumference of the hub = n x 30 = 941 cm. As
there are six arms, the maximum value of the major axis of the
.2
--- = 15.7 cm. As
elliptical cross section should be limited to 94
6
this value is more than 15 cm, the arms can be accommodated.
2. Design a cast iron flywheel for a four stroke engine to develop
15 h. p. (brake) at 150 r.p.m. The work done during the power stroke
is 1.3 times the average work done during the whole cycle. The mean
diameter of the flywheel may be taken as 3 metre. The total fluctuation of
speed is to be limited to 5 per cent of the mean.

Work done during a cycle = 150 7 4500 = 9,000 kg metre.

5
Work done during the power stroke = 1.3 x 9000
= 11,700 kg metre.
9000
Average resistance overcome per stroke = - 4-
= 2,250 kg metre.
Excess energy to be stored in the flywheel during the power
stroke = 11700 — 2250 = 9,450 kg metre.
150 x 27c
Mean speed of the flywheel = —
60
= 15•7 rad/sec.
Maximum speed fluctuation = 0.05 x 15.7 = 0.785 rad/sec.
If W kg bejthe weight of the flywheel rim, then
9450 = W1 x 1.52 x 15.7 x 0.785
9-8
9450 x 9.81
or W= ,360 kg.
1.52 x 15.7 x 0.785 == 3
Assuming a rectangular cross section of the rim, width being
twice the thickness, we get
3360x 1000 = 7C X 300 x 2t x t x 7.25

or t=
y 3360 x 1000
= 15.7 cm; we adopt 16 cm.
TC x 300 x2 x 7.25
Width of the rim = 2 x 16 = 32 cm.
Art. 13-8] FLYWHEELS 701

Assuming that the turning moment diagram for a power

stroke is a triangle, we get
rc
Tmax x = 11700
2
= 11700
x2
or T max = 7,450 kg metre.
7C

Let us assume that the permissible shear stress in the shaft

material is limited to 400 kg/sq cm. If d cm be the diameter of
the solid shaft, then in
-6 d3 x 400 — 7450 x 100

. f7450 x 100 x 16
or = = 21.2 cm; we adopt 22 cm.
400 X 7C

The outside diameter of the boss may be taken as 44 cm and

the length may be taken as 35 cm.
Resisting torque on the shaft = 150 x 4500= 720 kg metre.
27c x 150
Torque acting on flywheel = 7450 — 720 = 6,730 kg metre.
We take six arms of elliptical section for the flywheel. The
minor axis of the ellipse may be taken as 0.5 times the major axis.
100 I-
300— 441
Maximum bending momen ton each arm = 6730 - x
6 L 300
= 96,000 kg cm.
We assume that the permissible stress for the attn is 200 kg/sq
cm. If b be the major axis of the ellipse, we have

96000 = 200 x ; x 0.56 x b2

-II 96000 x 32
or -
b -= -5- = 22 cm.
200 x rc x 0.
Minor axis of the ellipse will be 11 cm.,
The arm section at the rim will have 18 cm as the major axis
and 9 cm as the minor axis.
It can be verified that the arms can be accommodated.
3. An electric motor is employed to drive a rolling mill, the power
being supplied by 12, 4 cm diameter cotton ropes. The normal speeds of
motor and mill shaft are 360 r.p.m. and 90 r.p.m. respectively. The
preliminary design of the flywheel for the drive suggests 780 sq cm as the
702 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV

rim section. The centre of gravity of the rim section is 2.4 metre from the
flywheel axis. The flywheel, which is made of cast iron, is cast in pieces.
Suggest the suitable size for the rim bolts. Take the permissible tensile
stress in the bolt material as 560 kgIsq cm.
The material of the flywheel is cast iron. The centrifugal
pv 2
stress in the rim is -. The bursting force to be resisted by
g
pv2
bolts = '— A. Density of cast iron is 7.25 gmicu cm.
g
7C X 2.4 x 2 x 90
v= 60 ----- = 22.6 metrefsec.
, 22.62 1000
Bursting load to be resisted by bolts -.=---. 7.25
1000 X 9.81 X 10000 X 780
= 29,400 kg.
We assume four bolts. The load to be resisted by each bolt
400
-4 = 7,350 kg.
will be = 29

The permissible tensile stress intensity is 560 kg/sq cm. The

required minimum cross sectional area at the core of the threads is
7350
= 13.1 sq cm.
560
From tables we adopt M48 which has 13.53 sq cm as the
core area and 41.504 mm as the core diameter. Thus we adopt
4-M48 coarse bolts for the rim of the flywheel.
Note: Please refer example V-1 on page 278.

Exercises:
1. A multi-cylinder I.C. engine working on four stroke cycle develops
45 h. p. at 500 r.p.m. The maximum energy variation is 32% of mean
energy per cycle and total speed variation is 1%. Design and draw the
C.I. flywheel for the given conditions of operation, assuming a mean velocity
of 1,200 metre /minute at the rim.
2. A machine shaft running at a mean speed of 200 r.p.m. requires a
torque which increases uniformly from 100 to 350 kg metre during the
first half revolution, remains constant for the following revolution, decreases
uniformly to 100 kg metre during the next revolution and then remains
constant again for the next two revolutions, the cycle being repeated It is
directly coupled to a motor which exerts a constant torque and has a rotor
weighing 400 kg with a radius of gyration 23 cm. It is desired to limit the
fluctuation of speed by the addition of a flywheel to ± 2% of the mean
Art. 1528] FLYWHEELS 703

speed. Assuming the flywheel rim to contribute 90 per cent of the inertia,
design a suitable rim, boss and arms. The rim speed should not exceed
1,250 metre/minute. Suggest the suitable size of the shaft.
3. Design the main dimensions of a flywheel for a punch press operat-
ing under the following conditions:
The press requires 15 h.p.; the complete punching cycle consists of 8
revolutions of the flywheel of which only three take place during the
working portion of the cycle. There are 24 complete cycles per minute.
The desirable mean diameter of the flywheel is 150 cm. The coefficient of
steadiness is 5.
The flywheel effect due to weight of the boss and aims is 8 per cent
of the total flywheel eject. The flywheel is to have 6 arms of elliptical
cross section with the major axis twice the minor axis. The stress in the
arm is not to exceed 100 kgIsq cm.
4. Design a flywheel for a punch press which must be brought to
rest by one punching operation if the power has been shut off. The maximum
work required consists in punching 30 mm hole in 20 mm thick mild steel
plates for which ultimate shear strength is 3,500 kg/sq cm. The punch
capacity is 24 holes per minute, and the speed ratio of the driving shaft to the
eccentric shaft berating the punch is 9 : 1. In order to clear the floor,
the wheel diameter cannot be larger than 105 cm. The wheel is keyed
to the driving shaft, and the mechanical efficiency of the press and drive is
72%. Determine (a) the weight of the flywheel rim if the density of cast
iron is 7.25 kgldm3 neglecting the energy stored in the arms and hub, (b) the
maximum stress in the rim, and (c) the coejicient of steadiness of the
driving shaft if the duration of the working stroke is one-half that of the
idle stroke.
5. An electric motor is employed to drive a rolling mill, the power
being transmitted by cotton ropes. The motor is rated at 260 h.p., which
is the normal power required, but is capable of taking a 40% overload for
a short time. The mill is liable to require exce4s upto 420 h.p. for
a maximum duration of 10 seconds. The mill shaft rope pulley must
supply the excess power with a drop of speed not exceeding 10% of the
mean speed. The normal speeds of motor and mill shaft are 400 r.p.m.
amd 90 r.p.m. respectively. Ropes of 4 cm nominal diameter with a maxi-
mum load of 175 kg; weight 0.91 kg per metre run, coefficient of friction
between rope and pulley is 0.2. Angle of pulley groove is 45°.
Design the flywheel, which is to be cast in two halves, showing details
of the joints at the rim and boss.
704 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XV

Assume pull*, diameter = 30 x rope diameter.

Ans. 12 ropes; area of cross section of the grooved rim = 690
sq cm; 4-M48 bolts will suffice.
6. Assuming the maximum stress in a flywheel rim can be approxi-
mated as suggested by Prof. Lanza, by adding I of the stress computed by
considering the rim as a free rotating ring and i of the stress computed by
considering the rim as a straight beam of length equal to the arc between
arms, fixed at both ends, and loaded uniformly with inertia forces, derive
the equation for maximum stress. Take the density of cast iron as 7.26
gm/cu cm.
Use the above equation to determine the maximum tensile stress in the
thin rim of a cast iron flywheel running at 500 r.p.m. The rim has a
mean radius of 150 cm, thickness 20 cm and width 30 cm. The flywheel
has six arms. Comment on the result. How can you reduce the maximum
stress in the rim without changing the speed of rotation?

EXAMPLES XV
1. A plate shearing machine requires 102 horse power for a period of 5
seconds during the shearing operation. The motor to drive tli% machine has a
maximum power rating of 95 horse power.
Two equal flywheels are to be provided to limit the speed fluctuation of the
main shaft during shearing operations to 15 r.p.m. The maximum speed is to
be 110 r.p.m
Determine suitable dimensions for the rectangular section rim of each fly-
wheel, assuming 5% of the rotational inertia to be provided by the hub and spokes.
The wheels are to be of cast iron having density 7.25 gm/cu cm. The centri-
fugal stress must not exceed 55 kg/sq cm.
For space reasons the diameter of the wheels must not be more than 180 cm.
Give a working sketch, approximately to scale of a suitable flywheel, esti-
mating the remaining dimensions by judgment.
Ans. 26 cm x 13 by 150 cm mean diameter would suit.
2. A machine is to be driven at 450 r.p.m. by an electric motor which
exerts a constant rorque. The load torque diagram on the machine varies cycli-
cally as shown in fig. 15-3. EstiMate the necessary horse power of the motor.
Decide suitable dimensions for the rim of a flywheel to be mounted on the machine
shaft to limit the cyclic speed fluctuation to ± 1.5% of the mean speed. The
other rotating parts of the machine and motor have a combined moment of
inertia of 0.6 kg metre. The flywheel rim is to have an outside diameter of 75
cm and is to be of rectangular section. The flywheel is made of cast iron for
which the density is 7.25 gm/cu cm.
Ex. leV1 FLYWHEELS 705

Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for the arm of the pulley,
which has got six arms of elliptical cross section.

One cycle

E 700
en
.sc
to 1 I
=
t. I I
0r
1611
I I
0 I
0
Iftsi
I I
I I
I I ,..
1 1.
71 4
Revolutions of shaft

FIG. 15-3

3. Fig. 15-4 shows a rope drive between two

shafts with axes parallel. The smaller driving pulley
diameter has p.c.d. of 60 cm and rotates at 500 r.p.m.
The larger pulley is to rotate at 200 r.p.m. Ropes
3 cm diameter are to be used having a weight of 0.575
kg/metre, the pulley groove angle is 45° and, the coeffi-
cient of friction between rope and pulley, 1.1. = 0.2.
Find the number of ropes required to transmit 120
h.p. if the maximum allowable tension in each rope is
90 kg.
The larger pulley is to act as a flywheel to provide
30% excess power for a period of 6 seconds with a
speed reduction not exceeding 10%. Calculate the FIG. 15-4
minimum required weight of the larger pulley assuming a radius of gyration of
70 cm.
4. An automobile four cylinder engine develops 30 b.h.p. at_1,200 r.p.m.
Fluctuation of energy is 30% of the energy developed in one revolution. Design
a suitable flywheel of 200 mm diameter to keep the speed within ± 2% of the
mean speed.
Given that:
Width of steel rim of flywheel 75 mm
Weight of steel 7,869 kg/cubic metre
Safe shear stress for shaft material 350 kg/sq cm
 706 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV

Width of key seat may be taken as 10 mm.

Draw a dimensioned sketch of a sectional elevation and end view.
(University of Bombay, 1965)
Sketch the flywheel designed by you.
(Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, 1966)
5. A 75 h.p. 400 r.p.m. engine has two cylinders with cranks at right angles.
The coefficient of speed fluctuation is not to exceed 3% and the maximum varia-
tion of energy per revolution is found to be 20% of the mean energy of a revolution.
If it is assumed that the arms and hub contribute 5% of the flywheel effect, deter-
mine the dimensions of the rim of the flywheel if the speed at the mean radius does
not exceed 28 metre/sec. Assume a square cross section for the rim and the
density of C.I. as 0.00725 kg/cu cm.
Sketch the flywheel with the assumption that the shafting is subjected to
negligible bending moment and that the arms are about 1 strong as the shaft to
resist the maximum turning moment. Take allowable shear stress for shafting
= 400 kg/sq cm and the allowable tensile stress for C.I. =-- 150 kg/sq cm.
(University of Bombay, 1967)
6. Design a flywheel for a 4 cylinder 45 h.p. engine running at 1,200 r.p.m.
The variation of speed is to be within ± 2% of mean speed and the fluctuation
of energy may be assumed as f of that of one revolution. The cross section of
flywheel rim is a rectangle with width equal to twice the depth. Density of steel
7.8 gm/cu cm and allowable shear stress in steel 350 kg/sq cm. The diameter
of the flywheel should not exceed 25 cm. Sketch the flywheel.
(University of Bombay, 1968)
7. Design completely the flywheel, its shaft and the key for a punching press
to the following specifications:
The punch press has a capacity of 24 holes per minute of 20 mm diameter in
18 mm mild steel plates having a shear strength of 3,500 kg/sq cm. The punching
1
operation lasts for -ili th of the revolution of the press crankshaft through a reduc-
tion gearing of 1:9. Assume that:
(i) The mechanical efficiency of the punching press is 80%.
(ii) During the punching operation the speed of the flywheel is reduced
by a maximum of 10%.
(iii) The space restrictions limit the diameter of the flywheel to 90 cm.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
8. A horizontal machine shaft is supported by two bearings. The input and
the resisting torque act at sections between the two journals. The input torque is
constant at 100 kg metre, but the resisting torque varies so that the torque diagram
is triangular on the latter half revolution of the shaft as the base. The cycle
consists of one revolution of the shaft. The flywheel is fitted at a short distance
beyond one of the bearings so that the bending effect on the shaft near the
adjacent bearing is negligible. Taking into account only the variable torque
due to flywheel inertia, find out the shaft diameter to provide a factor of safety
PI The stress concentration factor for the shaft may be taken as 1.8 which
Ex. XV] FLYWHEELS 701
includes surface finish, size effects and also the weakening effect of the key way.
The material has yield and endurance strengths in shear of 3,000 kg/sq cm and
2,000 kg/s4 cm respectively.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
9. The flywheel of a rolling mill engine weighs 30 tonne, has a mean radius
of 250 an, and has an average speed of 60 r.p.m. It is secured to a shaft 30 cm
diameter. During the rolling operation which lasts for 2 seconds, the speed drops
from 60 r.p.m. to 45 r.p.m. The flywheel has 10 arms of elliptical cross section,
the major axis being twice the minor axis. Suggest the suitable cross section for
the arm near the hub for a peimissible stress of 120 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
10. (a) Explain why flywheels are incorporated in punching machines.
On which shaft should it be mounted? Does the mounting of a flywheel reduce
the stress level induced in the shafts? Give reasons for your answers.
(b) A flywheel is required for a punching machine capable of punching
20 mm diameter holes through steel plates 16 mm thickness. Twenty holes are
to be punched per minute. The hole is punched during jth of a revolution of
the crankshaft. The ultimate shear strength of the plate is 3,600 kg/sq cm.
Calculate the dimensions of the flywheel and specify the size of the motor which
is to run at 1,450 r.p.m.
(c) Sketch the layout of the arrangement of the drive from the motor to the
crankshaft of the punching machine. Also specify the horse power to be trans-
mitted by various parts of the transmission drive.
(University of Bombay, 1977)
CHAPTER Is
GEARS

16-1. Introduction:
Toothed gears are used in preference to belts where moderate
or large amounts of power must be transmitted at a constant velo-
city as the drive is positive. Gears may transmit power from
parallel, intersecting or skew shafts.
Three general types of toothed gearing are classified with
respect to the relative position of the axes of the shafts on which
the gears are mounted. The first type of gearing known as spur
gearing, which is used for connecting shafts whose axes are parallel,
includes external gearing, internal gearing, rack and pinion, helical
gearing and herringbone gearing. The second type of gearing
known as bevel gearing, which is used for connecting intersecting
shafts, includes straight bevel gears, miter gears, crown gears and
spiral gears. The third type of gearing includes gearing for
shafts whose axes are neither parallel nor intersecting, consisting of
worm and worm wheels, hypoid gearing and spiral gearing.

(A) DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS:

16-2. General characteristics:
The following are the general characteristics of spur gearing:
(i) The drive transmits a constant velocity ratio.
(ii) As the centre distance may be relatively short, the
drive is a compact one.
(iii) The provision can be made for interchanging them to
change the speed of the driven members.
(iv) The provision can be made for shifting them along the
axes to get the various speed changes for the driven
members.
(v) As the loss of power transmitted at contact surfaces is
less than 1 per cent, the efficiency is very high.
(vi) The life of the drive is long.
(vii) The maintenance cost of the drive is less.
Art. 16-3] GEARS 709

16.3. Spur gear terminology (fig. 16-1):

The following are the definitions of terms wed with teeth of spur gears:
The addendum circle is the circle that limits the tops of the teeth.
The addendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the addendum
circle.

Thickness of tooth Width of space

Working depth Profile
Whole depth Addendum circle
Face**Addendum
...,
Flan 4"NN
Dedendum

Pitch circle
/ \\ Clearance
\ Base circle Root or
dedendum circle
Working depth
circle
I Arc AB= circular pitch

Spur gear tooth parts

Fro. 16-1
The pitch circle is the trace of the pitch cylinders on which the tooth curves
are formed. The size of the gear is dictated by the diameter of the pitch circle.
The dedendum or root circle is the circle that litnits the bottom of the tooth.
The dedendum or root distance is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the
dedendum or root circle.
The clearance is the distance between the top of the mating tooth and the
bottom of the space of the other gear into which the tooth projects.
The working depth circle is a circle of radius equal to that of the dedendum
circle plus the clearance.
The base circle is one that occurs only in the involute system of gears. It
is the circle from which the involute curve of the tooth profile is generated. Base
circle diameter = pitch circle diameter x cosine of the pressure angle.
710 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XVI

The pressure angle is the angle which the line of action makes with the
common tangent to the pitch circle. For involute system of gears, the pressure
angle is constant and it may be either 141 or 20 degrees.
The face is that part of the tooth lying between the pitch and addendum
circles. The face of the gear is its width measured along a tooth of a straight
tooth gear.
The flank is that part of the tooth which lies between the pitch and dedendum
circles.
The thickness of the tooth is its width measured on the pitch circle. The
width of the space is the space between the teeth measured on the pitch circle.
The backlash is the difference between the thickness of a tooth and the space
into which it meshes, measured on the pitch circles. Theoretically it should be zero;
but from a practical view point some backlash is provided.
The circular pitch is the distance between similar points of adjacent teeth
measured along the pitch circle. It is denoted by a leter "p".
The diametral pitch is the number of teeth on the gear per unit of diameter
of the pitch circle. The product of the circular pitch and the diametral pitch
equals n. The reciprocal of diametral pitch is known as module of gears. It
is denoted by a letter "m".
The angles of action are the angles through which the gears turn while a
pair of teeth are in action.
The angle of approach is the angle through which a gear turns from the
beginning of contact of a pair of teeth until the contact reaches the pitch point.
The angle of recess is the angle through which a gear turns while the contact point
of a pair of teeth moves from the pitch point to the point where the teeth pass
out of contact.
Angle of action = angle of approach -I- angle of recess.

16-4. Gear tooth forms:

The law of gearing states that for a constant velocity ratio the
profile of the teeth must be such that the common normal to the profiles at any
point of contact always intersects the line of centres at the same point, which
is called the pitch point, which is the point of tangency of their pitch circles.
The number of curves can be employed for the teeth profile.
However, from a commercial stand point, cycloidal and involute
curves are employed giving rise to cycloidal and involute systems. Due
to number of advantages, the involute system is exclusively used
in modern gear practice.
The profiles of gear teeth as well as dimensions have been
standardised. Gears having 144 degree pressure angles are made
either in 144 degree full depth system or in the composite system.
The latter type is stronger but is not interchangable. In order to
Art. 16-4 ] GEARS 711

get stronger teeth in involute system the pressure angle of 20

degree is adopted. However, the force tending to separate the
mating gear is greater with 20 degree pressure angle. Still greater
gear tooth strength may be obtained by using 20 degree involute
stub tooth. As a general rule, stub tooth gears with less than 25 teeth
are near about 25 per cent stronger than 20 degree full depth teeth and 40
per cent stronger than 141 degree involute teeth. The gain in strength
decreases as the number of teeth increases.
The following proportions for tooth form have been reco-
mmended by American Standards Association.

Dimensions for 14* degree composite, 14f degree full

depth and 20 degree full depth gears (involute system)

In terms of
Part circular pitch p

Addendum 0.3183p
Minimum dedendum 0.3683p
Working depth 0.6366p
Minimum total depth 0.6866p
Minimum clearance 0.0500 p
Pitch diameter 0.3183 Np
Outside diameter 0.3183 (N+ 2) p
- - -

Dimensions for 20 degree stub gears, helical

gears and herringbone gears (involute system)

Addendum 0.2516p
Minimum dedendum 0.3183 p
Working depth 0.5092p
Minimum total depth 0.5729p
Minimum clearance 0.0637p
Pitch diameter 0.3183 Np
Outside diameter 0.3183 (N + 1.6)p

N ---- number of teeth in a gear.

The following modules have been standardised by Indian Standards Insti-

tution:
1, (1.125), 1.25, (1.375), 1.5, (1.75), 2, 2.25, 2.5, (2.75), 3, [3.25], 3.5, [3.75],
4, (4.5), 5, 5.5, 6, [6.5], (7), 8, (9), 10, (11), 12, (14), 16, (18), 20.
712 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The modules given above are in mm. Modules given in round

bracket should be given second choice, while those in square
brackets should be the third choice. The rest of the values ,of
modules, are preferred which should be normally used.
The standards of many European countries provide for the following modules:
0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1, 1.25, 1.5 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5,
6, 6.5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42,
45, 50 mm and further every 5 mm. These modules apply to straight and helical
gears.

A rack whose teeth are proportioned according to standard tooth

form is called a basic rack. It determines the form and proportions
of the teeth of wheels as a result of rolling the gear blank relative
to the cutter.
Wheels cut with the shift of the basic rack are said to be
corrected. The degree of correction is characterised by shift
factors.
The proportions of the standard basic rack tooth profile are usually given in
fractions of a module.
Addendum = fo m (i)
Dedendum = (fo -I- Co)m (ii)

Tooth thickness = - m (iii)

2
Circular pitch = 7071 (iv)
fo is called addendum factor and its value is 1 for full depth sysstem. Co is
called clearance factor whose value is 0.25. Half the angle between the sides of
a basic rack tooth is called the profile angle and its value is 20°.

16-5. Accuracy of Gears:

To ensure normal operation of a gear the elements of its
wheel and housing should be manufactured with sufficient accuracy.
The standards provide for 12 degrees of accuracy (quality) :
from 1 to 12, 1 being the highest.
The degrees of quality is specified depending on the kind of
service of the gear and the demands it has to make. The degree
of quality (accuracy) also specifies the cutting method, tooth contact
surface finishing methods, operating conditions, peripheral veloci-
ties of wheels and efficiency.
Table 16-5.1 gives the peripheral speed of gears of different
quality (accuracy).
Art. 16-5] GEARS 713

Table 16-5.1

Quality Peripheral speed of gears

(accuracy) metre/second

1-4 Above 15
5-7 Above 8 and upto 15
8-9 Above 1 and upto 8
10-12 upto 1

Three types of norms have been established for each degree of

accuracy:
(i) Kinematic accuracy of wheels
(ii) Smooth operation
(iii) Contact between the teeth.
Table 16-5.2 gives the values of backlash required for gears.

Table 16-5.2

Backlash for gears in millimetres

Pitch line velocity

Module Upto 8 metre/second Above 8 metre/second

di-
mm
Minimum Maximum Module Backlash
mm mm mm mm

20 0.75 1.25 8 0.40

16 0.50 0.85 7 0.38
12 0.35 0.60 6 0.36
10 0.30 0.51 5 0.28
•
8 0.22 0.40 4 0.23
6 0.20 0.33 3.5 0.22
5 0.15 0.25 3 0.21
4 0.13 0.20 2.75 0.20
3 0.10 0.15 2.5 0.19
2.5 0.08 0.13 2 0.18
2 0.08 0.13
1.5 and finer 0.00 0.10
714 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The nature of admissible errors in a toothed gear depends on

its purpose. Thus, for example, in a heavily loaded low speed
gear the most important factor is length of contact along the teeth;
in a high speed gear, main requirement is smoothness and for
reversible gears the main consideration is the magnitude of back-
lash and the variation of this magnitude.
The values of composite error limits of different quality of
gears have been standardised by ISI.
Table 16-5.3 gives the recommended values of quality of
gears for various services :
Table 16-5.3

Kind of service Quality (accuracy) of gears

Reduction gears for turbomachineries I 3-6

Metal cutting machine tools 3-8
Automobiles 5-8
Air craft 6-9
General purpose reduction gears 6 —9
Gears of rolling mills 6-10
Trucks 7— 9

Hoisting mechanisms and cranes i 7-10

Tractors 8-10
Mine winders 8— 10
Farm machinery 8-11

Single reduction gears with spur wheels have a velocity ratio

of 25; however under ordinary conditions, the velocity ratio should
never exceed 8 for a single reduction gear. Higher values of velo-
city ratio are permitted for helical and herringbone wheels.
When the velocity ratio is high, a multiple-reduction gear
should be used. If the velocity ratio ranges between 10 and 50,
the gear should be designed as a double reduction gear. At a
gear reduction of 40 or more, a triple reduction gear can be used.

16-6. Materials :
Metallic gears with cut teeth are commercially obtainable in
cast iron, steel, brass and bronze in many sizes and they are
Art. 16-6] GEARS 715

stocked by manufacturers and suppliers. Where smooth action

is not important, cast iron gears with cut teeth may be employed.
The limiting pitch line velocity of commercially cut gears is about
5 metre/second. The velocities larger than this would cause
vibration and noise which can be eliminated by non-metallic
pinion as one member of the gear set. Non-metallic gears are
made of various materials such as treated cotton pressed and
moulded at high pressure, synthetic resins of the phenol type and
raw hide. The raw hide pinions are affected by moisture. Gears
made of phenolic resins are self supporting while other two types
are supported by metal side plates at both ends of the plate.
Some metallic shrouds are also used.
To save alloy steels large wheels are made with fr'tting rings.
In this case the wheel centre is cast from cast iron or more rarely
from steel. The ring is forged or roll expanded from the steel
of the respective grade specified by the tooth design.
Table 16-6.1

1 Minimum Brinell Basic Basic

I tensile Hardness Surface Bending
Material Condition strength Number Stress Stress
kg/sq mm B.H.N. factor fc factor fb
-Y.-

White heart malleable

iron castings Grade B 28 217 max 0.599 6.9
Blackheart malleable
iron castings Grade B 32 149 max 0499 7.72
Cast iron Grade 20 As cast 20 179 min 0.81 4.22
,, 25 ,f 25 197 min 0.876 5.27
„ 35 25 207 min 0.915 8.60
., 35 Heat
treated 35 300 min 1.00 8.60
Phosphor bronze casting Sand cast 16 60 min 0436 4.07
3, Chill cast 24 70 min 0.50 5.8
!9 Centrifu-
gally cast 26 90 0.69 6.92
Cast steel 55 145 1.125 13.38
Carbon steel
Carbon 0.3%
normalised 50 143 0.985 11.93
Carbon 0.3%
hardened and tempered 60 152 1.125 14.80
Carbon 04%
normalised 58 152 1.15 14.05
Carbon 0.4%
hardened and tempered 60 179 144 14.80
716 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

Minimum Brinell Basic Basic

Material tensile Hardness
Condition strength Number Surface Bending
Stress Stress
kgfsq mm B.H.N. factor fc factor fb

Carbon 0.55%
normalised 72 201 1.69 17.60
Carbon 0.55%
hardened and tempered 70 223 1.83 16.90
0.55 carbon chromium
steel hardened and
tempered 90 225 2.105 22.2
Carbon manganese steel
hardened and. tempered 60 170 1.41 14.8
ManganeseMollybdenum
Steel 35 Mn 2 Mo 28
hardened and tempered 70 201 1.69 16.9
ChromiumMolybdenum
Steel 40 Cr 1 Mo 28
hardened and tempered 70 201 1.69 16.9
Nickel steel (40Ni 3)
hardened and tempered 80 229 1.90 19.7
Nickel chromium steel
(30N1 4 Cr 1)
hardened and tempered 154 444 3.87 35 9
Nickel chromium I
1
Molybdenum steel
(40Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo 28)
hardened and tempered 90 225 2.11 23.2
I
Surface hardened steels
Carbon steel 55.12 145 core 1.97 8.35
460 case
0.4% carbon steel
0.5% carbon steel 70 86 200 core 2.80 10.55
520 case
Carbon chromium steel
55% carbon chromium
steel 86.61 250 core 3.58 12.91
500 case
1% chromium steel 70.86 500 case 2.80 10.55
Nickel steel 3% P9 200 core 3.57 12.91
330 case

Case hardened steel;

Carbon steel
0-12% to 0-22%
carbon steel 50.39 650 case 7 28
Nickel steel
3% nickel steel I 70.86 200 core 7.17 28.12
600 case
Fabric _ 0.39 3.16
Art. 16-7 ] GEARS 717

Table 16-6.1 gives some of the properties and factors which

will enable to determine the rating of machine cut spur and
helical gears. This topic has been discussed fully at a later
stage in this chapter. The procedure to determine the power
transmitting capacity of a gear set is explained with illustrative
examples. The table also gives the properties of the materials
(steel) employed in manufacture of gears:

16-7. Allowable stresses :

The static design stresses for the gearing can be obtained by
dividing the ultimate strength of the material by the suitable value
for the factor of safety. Buckingham suggests that the factors of
safety given in table 16-7.1 should be used with the ultimate
strength to obtain the safe static stress, which is the allowable stress
at zero pitch line velocity.
Table 16-7.1
Factors of safety for gear teeth
For steady load on a single pair of gears 3
For suddenly applied loads on single pairs. 4
For steady loads on gears of a train beyond the fist mesh... 5
For suddenly applied loads on gears of a train beyond
the first mesh 6

Table 16-7.2 gives the safe static stresses for various materials:
A-
Table 16-7.2

/static
Materials kgisq cm

Non-metallic materials 420

Cast iron 560
Semi-steel 840
Bronze . 840
Cast steel 1,050
Forged steel 1,120
Hardened steel 2,100
Case hardened alloy steel 3,500

The actual allowable stresses or permissible stress due to load

transmitted decreases with increase in velocity due to the increase
in the effect of shock loads and inertia of parts at the higher speeds.
Due to the uncertainty of the numerous variables involved, it
718 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI
would be very difficult to obtain a purely rational expression for
variation of allowable stress with pitch line velocity. Hence,
an empirical expression known as a velocity factor is used, which
was first of all suggested by Barth. The value of the velocity
factor k is less than unity. When v is the pitch line velocity in
metre/second, then
3
k ,---,- for ordinary industrial gears operating at velocities
3+v upto 10 metre/second
6
—_ for accurately cut gear operating at velocities
6+v upto 20 metre/second
0 5
--= 1 :7
+ v + 0.25 for non-metallic gears.

Permissible stress = safe static stress x velocity factor k.

It is obvious that for hand operated gears, the velocity factor

is unity.

16-8. Design considerations:

The specifications for a gear drive include the horse power to
be transmitted, the speed of the driver, the velocity ratio to be
transmitted and the centre distance. As the usual sources of power
i.e. turbines, high speed internal combustion engines and electric
motors, run at higher speeds than those required by the driven units
such as compressors, reciprocating pumps, machine tools, hoisting
machinery, etc., the usual drive will be a speed reduction.
Occasionally, however, speed increases are also required, the
common example being centrifuges.
The following points should be taken into considerations while designing a
gear drive for a particular service:
(i) The gear should have a sufficient strength so that it does not fail at
starting torques or under dynamic loading during running conditions.
(ii) The teeth must have very good wear characteristics so that the life
of the gear must be very satisfactory.
(iii) The suitable material combination must be chosen so that a gives
good wear characteristics and the drive is silent. ,
(iv) The chive should be compact.
(v) The drive should be properly aligned.
(vi) The proper lubrication arrangements should be made.
Art. 16-91 GEARS / 719

16.9. Strength of gear teeth—Lewis equation:

In calculating the strength of gear teeth, a gear or pinion
tooth is considered to be subjected to a load Q acting along the
line of action as shown in fig. 16-2(a).
N
a
l'
F
Pitch
circle

(a)

Force on a tooth Action of a tooth as a beam

FIG. 16-2

This load Q may be resolved in two components: a rotational

component F, tending to break the tooth by bending and a force
/V = F tan 4' tending to separate the gears of the set and to produce
a compressive stress in the tooth. The component F produces
tensile stresses at B and compressive stresses at A. The uniform
compression on the section reduces the bending tensile stress at B
and increases the bending compressive stresses at A. If the material
is stronger in compression than in tension, as is cast iron, the,,.effect of the
radial component is to strengthen the tooth. Since the uniform compres-
sive stress is small compared to bending stress, it is usually, but not
always, neglected in design. Thus, we assume that only the stress
due to F need be considered.
In designing the teeth of a gear, it is assumed that a gear tooth
acts as a cantilever beam which is subjected to an end load equal
to the tooth pressure F. The dangerous , section, therefore,
becomes the root area ABCD, which must be large enough to
withstand the load. Since the thickness AB depends upon the
form of the tooth and upon the thickness of the tooth on the pitch
circle (and therefore on circular pitch) and the length of the tooth
or the face of gear AD can also be expressed in terms of circular
pitch, it is evident that the creation of a safe root area depends
upon the proper selection of a circular pitch that is large enough
to withstand the forces that are involved in the design. An equa-
720 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

tion or formula which will provide such a pitch has been derived
by Mr. Wilfred Lewis. This equation is known as Lewis formula
and is accepted universally. Lewis formula is given as follows:
F = fpy b (i)
where F = tangential load at the pitch line
p = circular pitch
f = permissible working stress
b , breadth of the face of tooth
y = a constant which is based on the shape of the profile
of the tooth and depends on the number of teeth of
the gear. It is called a tooth factor.
The permissible stress f = k fstatic (ii)
where k is the velocity factor defined earlier and .1:static the safe
static stress.
The tooth factors for standard form of teeth can be obtained
from the following formulas, in which N represents the number
of teeth.
For cycloidal, 141 degree involute and generated gears,
.684
y =-- 0.124 — 9— (iii)
N
For 20 degree involute gears,
0.9 2
y = 0.154 — —.At (iv)
For 20 degree stub involute gears,
0.841
y . 0.175 (v)
If V be the linear velocity in metre/minute, then
FV
(vi)
11.13. = 4500
The maximum practical pitch line velocity is 10 to 12 metre
per second for spur gears. Above 6 metre/second, the operation of
gears is apt to be noisy unless the teeth are very accurately aligned
and run in a continuous bath of lubricant. The pitch line velo-
city of cast teeth is limited to 3 metre/second. In order to make
the operation silent in cases where the load is moderate under
high speed conditions, one of a pair of mating gears, generally,
the pinion is made of softer material or of non-metallic material.
The derivation of Lewis equation is based on the assumption
that the load is uniformly distributed across the face width. The
Art. 16 -101 GEARS 721

strength of a tooth varies directly as the face width. Gear face

widths of considerable size are likely to be subjected to a non-
uniform pressure distribution and the strength equation may give
misleading results. Very narrow faces, however, are not econo-
mical. To minimise both these troubles, the face width should
not be either too great or too short. For cast gears, the face width
should not be wider than 2 times the circular pitch. For cut gears,
the face width is generally between 3 and 3.5 times the circular
pitch. For accurately cut gears, the width might be 5 times the
circular pitch. The effective width of non-metallic pinions with
metallic shrouds is usually 6 mm greater than the face width of a
metallic gear of the same pitch to eliminate contacts with the
shroud. The total length of a non-metallic pinion is 15 to 25 mm
greater than the effective face width.
The load transmitting capacity of the speed reduction unit
depends on the weakest tooth of the unit. When both pinion
and gear are made of the same material, the pinion is the
determining factor. When different materials are used, it
becomes necessary to investigate a given case with care. In
applying Lewis formula, it can be seen that the terms b and p are
the same for both pinion and gear; hence it is only necessary to
multiply the tooth factor y with allowable stress f to determine
which of the two governs the design. The product fy is known as
the strength factor of the gear.
d,
The strength of the tooth determined from Lewis equation is
known as the beam strength of the tooth and we denote it as
Fb = f p y b (vii)
16-10. Dynamic Tooth Load:
In the preceding section the velocity factor was used to make
the approximate allowance for the effect of the dynamic loading.
The dynamic loading is due to the following reasons:
(i) The teeth are never perfectly spaced.
(ii) The elements of the face are not perfectly parallel to the axis.
(iii)The profiles are never perfect involutes.
(iv) When the tooth is under load, it deflects, which causes kinematic
imperfections.
(v) The load is never distributed uniformly across the face.
(vi) The shaft and mountings deflect under load.
722 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV/

Due to the above irregularities, there will be dynamic load due to shock
and impact. The dynamic load on the gear tooth will be greater than the steady
transmitted load.
The use of following equation is recommended for determining
the dynamic tooth load.
6.5V (Ceb F)
Fd = (i)
6.5V + +F
where V = pitch line velocity in metre/second
Fd = dynamic tooth load in kg
F = tangential transmitted steady load in kg
e = error in tooth profile in cm
b = face width in cm
C = coefficient that depends upon the materials of construc-
tion of mating gears and the pi essure angle of tooth profiles.
The value of coefficient C is given by
a Ep E g
C= (11)
Ep+Eg
where Ep and ge are the young's moduli for pinion and gear
materials.
The value of a = 0.107 for 14i° gears,
= 0.111 for 20° full depth gears, and
= 0.115 for 20° stub teeth gears.
The values of permissible tooth error for various values of modules
and various types of gears are given in table 16-10.1.
Table 16-10.1
Values of permissible error e in cm

Module Ordinary Carefully cut Percesion

m gears gears gears
mm

2 to 4 0 005 0.0025 0.0012

6 0.007 0.0032 0.0015
8 0.008 0.0040 0.0018
10 0.009 0.0045 0.0022
12 0.010 0.0050 0.0025
16 0.011 0.0055 0.0030
25 0.012 0.0060 0.0033
Art. /6-111 tilts ns
To ensure against tooth breakage, the bearri strength, Fb%
of the tooth calculated by Lewis formula should be somewhat
greater than the dynamic load calculated by the equation (i). As
an added precaution Buckingham suggests the following relationship :
For steady loads Fb 1.25 Feb
For pulsating loads Fb 1.35 Fd
For shock loads Fb 1.5 Fd
The ratio of dynamic load and tangential transmitted load is
called the dynamic load factor, which is a function of degree of accu-
racy, peripheral velocity and tooth surface hardness. As the
degree of accuracy increases the dynamic load factor increases.
It also increases with increase in peripheral velocity. With increase
in the tooth strength, it is possible to increase the transmitted load,
and the dynamic load factor will decrease.

16-11. Design for wear:

Reduction gear teeth may be strong enough to transmit the
desired horse power and withstand the dynamic loading and yet be
unable to resist rapid wear, when the unit is in continuous service.
Gears may wear excessively because of improper or insufficient
lubrication and because of foreign particles in the lubricant. In
addition, there will be wear, causing pitting of the tooth surfaces
due to compressive fatigue stresses. Properly applied lubrication
may eliminate some of the troubles, but the teeth. must be such
that compressive fatigue failure of the material may not take place.
Tests have shown that in the order of increasing resistance to
wear, the l4i° full depth involute tooth comes first, the 20°
involute stub tooth comes next, while the best is 20° full depth
involute teeth.
The limiting load on the basis of wear, is given by
Fw = Dp b Q W (i)
where Fw is the limiting load for wear in kg, Dp the diameter
of the pinion in cm, b the face width of the gear in cm, Q the
velocity ratio factor and W the material combination factor.

— "IL— for spur gears

— Ng + Np (ii)
2Ng for internal gears
— N.
Np
724 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

where Ng and Np are the number of teeth in the gear and the
pinion respectively. The material combination factor W depends
on the maximum fatigue limit compressive stress, the pressure angle
of the gear teeth and the moduli of elasticity of the material of the
gears. The value of W depends also on the degree of hardness
of the teeth materials. The material combination factor is given by
fes2 sin 4) r 1_ 11 ]
W— (iii)
14 Ep ' Eg
where fes = surface endurance limit of a gear pair in kg/sq cm
4) = pressure angle
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pinion material in kg/sq cm
Eg . modulus of elasticity of the gear material in kg/sq cm.
The surface endurance limit may be estimated from
fez = 28 x B.H.N. — 700 kg/sq cm (iv)
The wear load Fu, is an allowable load and must be greater
than dynamic load Fd. In case Fu, is less than Fd, the pinion and
gear materials are not hard enough and the suitable treatment
should be given.
Table 16-11.1 gives the representative values of W for 141°
involute gears.
Table 16-11.1

Combination of matciials IW

Cast iron pinion and gear 14

Semi steel pinion and gear 14
Non-metallic pinion and metallic gear 14
Machine steel pinion cast iron or semi steel gear 7
13 23 PP phosphor bronze gem 6
)) 13 PP machine steel gear 5.5
1/ ” 1, cast steel gear 3.5
Hardened steel pinion hardened steel gear 17.5
11 /1 $1 cast iron or semi steel gear 10
,, )9 JO phosphor bronze gear 9.5
11 // )1 machine steel gear 7.7
PI 1/ 11 cast steel gear 6.5

It should be noted that the units of W are kg/sq cm.

In order to get the values of W for 20° involute gearing, the
values given in the above table should be increased by 33%.
If the number of teeth in a gear be a simple multiple of teeth
in the pinion, the same pair of teeth will engage in every revolution
Art. 16-12] GEARS 725

of the gear. In order to distribute the wear more evenly, an

additional tooth known as the hunting tooth is provided if change in
velocity ratio due to introduction of hunting tooth is permissible.
16-12. Gear wheel proportions:
The important parts of a gear are (i) hub, (ii) web or arms
and (iii) rim. An exact analysis of stresses is exceedingly difficult
so we arrive at the various proportions by the methods employed
in practice.
Table 16-12.1 represents the proportions as adopted by many
manufacturers :
Table 16-12.1
Dimensions of gear hubs

Diameter of a hub
Type of service Length of a hub
cast iron cast steel

Light load without shock lid + 3 mm lid + 6 mm 1.75d to 2.25d

Medium load and
medium shock lid -1- 3 mm lid + 5 mm 3.9
Heavy load and
great shock 2d lid + 3 mm ,9

In the above table, d denotes the bore of the hub in mm.

The hubs of gears are either made solid or split-, In both the
cases, there should be sufficient metal over the key. The split hub
reduces the cooling stresses in the gear and facilitates the mounting
of the gear on the shaft. The solid hub gear is to be mounted
overhung on the shaft. In case of solid hub, the key should be
placed under the arm, as shown in fig. 16-7, while in case of split
hub, the key is placed at right angles to the hub joint. The length
of the hub depends fundamentally on the length of the key.
Generally, it is not less than the width of the gear face.
If the pitch circle diameter of the gear is so small that there
is no space between the rim and the hub, the gear wheels are made
solid like the pinion and they are of uniform thickness. Small gears
upto 250 mm pitch circle diameter are built with a web, which
joins the hub and the rim. The thickness of the web of the gear
should be such that it is capable of transmitting the torque without
shearing off at the hub where it joins. The thickness of the web is
726 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

generally equal to half the circular pitch. For larger diameter

gears, arms are provided, the number of arms being dependent
on the pitch circle diameter of the gear.
The following represents the prevailing practice:
(1) Four or five arms for gears upto 300 to 500 mm diameter
(ii) Six arms for gears from 500 to 1,500 mm diameter
(iii) Eight arms for gears from 1,500 to 2,400 mm diameter
(iv) Ten or twelve arms for gears above 2,400 mm diameter.
The commonly adopted sections or the arms of the gear are
shown in fig. 16-3. These sections for arms are found in gears
manufactured by Nuttall Works.
Root or dedendum circle

Addendum circle .„

Pitch circle \ 4%.'

• / i
/
/ I
/ s• -4, + - 16 b 4-
1 1
// 1
/

iI 1 tAk aI k
/, /

Arms taper 1 in 16

Elliptical arm H arm Cross arm I arm

Sections for gear arms
FIG. 16-3
Cast wheels with crossed spokes are used when pitch circle
diameter is less than or equal to 1,000 mm and face with is less
than 100 mm. When pitch circle diameter is greater than 1,000
mm and face width is greater than 200 mm, wheels are cast with
I shaped spokes.
Art. 16-12] GEARS 727
.
The arms are calculated on assumptions that they transmit
the stalling torque safely. The stalling torque is the torque that could
be transmitted safely by the teeth at zero velocity; hence it is equal to the
applied torque divided by the velocity factor.
The elliptical cross section is used for lighter loads, while
remaining sections are Used for large and heavy gears. With the
elliptical arm, the major axis is twice the minor axis and the major
axis lies in the plane of rotation.
While determining the cross sectional dimensions of the arm,
we assume that the rim is rigid so that the tooth load is equally
shared by each arm. The arm is assumed to be a cantilever fixed at
the hub and loaded at the pitch line. The bending moment
acting on each arm is equated to the moment of resisance. When
the permissible stress for the material of the arm is known, section
modulus can be obtained. When the section modulus is calculated,
the dimensions of the arms can be specified. The dimensions of
the arm at the pitch line are generally made approximately seven-
tenth of those at the hub.
Gear with wide faces are provided with either two rows of
elliptical arms or H arms or cross arms.
Forged wheels are made solid or cored with round holes.
The cored type is lighter but requires more machining. For a
more convenient clamping of the wheels on the machine tool the
web of the disc should be drilled between the rim and the hub.
Sometimes large diameter holes are drilled to reduce weight.
Empirical formulas are used to detrmine the rim thickness.
The thickneks of the rim should be such that the rigidity of the rim
is insured so that the rim distributes the load on the teeth equally
among the arms. The Nuttal Works recommend the following
formula, for calculating the rim thicknesp:
V number of teeth
Rim thickness = Module X (i)
2 x number of arms
In a good design, the rim should be provided with a central
rib of thickness equal to half the circular pitch.
Diameter of the gear shaft can be calculated when the
lay out of the shaft is known. When no such data are available,
the diameter of the shaft is obtained by the following formula:
728 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

H.P.
d = 13 fl (ii)
r.p.m. cm
Toothed wheels fixed on the shaft are fitted by interference —
for example, press or light press fit. Press fit is employed at impact
load or speeds above 2,000 r.p.m. If the wheel is to be removed
from the shaft (to replace the bearings or the wheel itself) medium
fits are used. The fit is selected depending on the degree of accu-
racy of the toothed gear.
16-13. Internal gears:
A ring with the teeth on the inside is called an annulus
or internal gear. With such gears, a compact design is possible due
to a shorter centre distance than with external gears of the same
size. The centre distance in internal gearing is equal to the
difference between the two pitch radii instead of their sum (fig.
16-4) .
The internal gears have the following desirable characteristics:
(i) Much stronger teeth due to greater base width
(ii) More teeth in contact
(iii) Less sliding action, hence less weal
(iv) Higher efficiency
(v) Smoother operation.

Cutting clearance
Shroud Ring
Dg-Dp
ke- 2
Pinion
4

Pitch circle
01•11" Centre
of pinion A. distance
AL- NA I
! Taper pin
Annular
/Pitch circle of// Key solid back
internal gear

Internal gear Supports for internal gears

FIG. 16-4 FIG. 16-5
For an internal gear of the same material as its pinion, it is
unnecessary to calculate the strength of the tooth of the annulus. As
the tooth of the internal gear has a greater base width, the teeth
of internal gears are much stronger than the pinion teeth.
Art. '16-141 GEARS 729

To avoid interference, the internal gear shold have at least

12 teeth more than the pinion when 141 degree full height teeth
are used. With 20 degree stub tooth gears, the internal gear
should have at least 7 teeth more than the pinion.
Internal gears are used extensively in epicyclic gear trains for
increasing or decreasing speed.
Internal gears may be obtained in either solid back type or
ring type as shown in fig. 16-5. The solid back type internal gear
has a machined recess at least 8 mm deep to provide for cutting
clearance for gear shaper cutters. The ring type gear should be
seated in a machined recess in a shroud which may be keyed or
screwed and pinned in place.

16-14. Racks:
They are used for converting rotary motion into reciprocating
motion and vice versa. It is used for adjustable sliding members.
A rack may be considered a spur gear with infinite number of
teeth. Fig. 16-6 shows the methods of connecting racks to the
frames.

Frame

L
... . \
Pitch circle of piniori-,\ •
Pitch line of rack

Racks
Flo. 16-6
amples :
f
1. It is desired to transmit 15 h.p. from a motor shaft rotating
at 1,440 r.p.m. to a low speed shaft with a speed reduction of 3:1. The
teeth are 141° involute with 25 teeth on the pinion. The starting torque is
50% higher than the running torque. Both the pinion and gear are made of
steel heat treated for which maximum allowable static stress may be taken
730 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

as 2,100 kg/sq cm. The shaft on which the gear is to be mounted, and the
key are of mild steel for which the safe stress may be taken as 420 kg/sq cm.
Design the suitable spur gear drive to satisfy the above conditions.
As the gear reduction ratio is 3, the number of teeth in the
gear will be 3 x 25 = 75.
We assume module as 6 mm.
Pitch circle diameter of the pinion = 6 x 25 = 150 mm.
Pitch circle diameter of the gear = 150 x 3 = 450 mm.
As the starting torque is 50% higher than the running torque,
spur gears should be designed for 15 x 1.5 = 22.5 h.p.
7T X 0 . 1 5
Pitch line velocity v = x 1440 = 11.3 metre/sec.
60
22.5 X 75
Tangential tooth load F = = 150 kg.
11.3
3 3
Velocity factor = 0.21.
3 ± v = 3 + 11.3 =
Allowable stress = 2100 x 0.21 = 441 kg/sq cm.
Circular pitch MT = 0.6 x 3.14 = 1.884 cm.
As both the pinion and the gear are made of the same mate-
rial, the drive will be designed for the pinion.
.
Form factor y = 0.124 0- 254= 0-0966.
According to Lewis formula, we have
F = fpy b.
On substitution of values, we get
150 --= 441 x 1.884 x 0.0966 x b
150
or b= = 1.88 cm.
441 x 1.884 x 0.0966
We adopt width of the tooth face as 40 mm which will be
ample strong.
The summarised particulars of the drive will be as follows:
Teethe Adden- Blank Clear- Deden-
loo. of m P.C.D. width
Item dum diameter ance dum
teeth mm mm mm mm mm mm mm

Pinion 25 6 150 40 6 162 1.5 7.5

Gear 75 6 450 40 6 462 1.5 7.5
1
Art. 16-14 I GEARS 731

Gear shaft: The maximum thrust Q between a pair of teeth

is directed along the path of contact and is such that Q cos tli = F.
•• Q =
F = 156 150
cos if cos 14f° — 0.9681 — 153 kg.
Let us make some estimation regarding the weight of the gear.
The weight of the gear can be approximated as
knbp2 kg, where
k = 0.012 for spur gear and 0.010 for bevel gears.
n = number of teeth
b = face width in cm
p = circular pitch in cm.
On substitution of values, we get
W=0.012 x 75 x 4 x 1.8842 = 12.8 kg.
The resultant of tooth thrust and weight of the gear is
R = V1532 + 12.82 + 2 x 153 x 12.8 x 0.9681 = 165 kg.
We assume that the gear is overhung on the shaft. In order to
reduce the bending effect, the overhung should be reduced to
minimum. We assume the overhung to be 12 cm.
Bending moment at the bearing = 165 x 12 = 1,980 kg cm.
Twisting moment = 150 x 22.5 = 3,260 kg cm.
The shaft will be under torsional shear stress and flexural
stresses which will be alternating in character. We design the
shaft for maximum shear stress. We have ....
equivalent twisting moment -.--: 1/19802 + 32602 = 3,800 kg cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
.rc
— d3 x 420 = 3800
16
-13/ 3800 x 16
or d= = 3.58 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
420 x 7c
Similarly we calculate the diameter or the pinion shaft which
will be of 3 cm.
Thickness of the hub for the gear will be 18 mm and that
for the pinion will be 15 mm.
Manytimes the pinion may be solid one and is bored out for
the shaft as shown in fig. 16-7 and in fig. 16-8.
We assume for the gears, four arms of elliptical cross section,
the major axis being twice the minor axis. Here, we design the
732 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

arms on driving torque. According to some authorities, they should

be designed on stalling torque. The stalling torque is the torque
that will develop the maximum stress in the tee!h at zero velocity.
'The modulus of section = n- a3 where a is the major axis of
64
the ellipse.
Maximum bending moment on each arm = 3260
4
815 kg cm.
We take the permissible bending stress as 420 kgfsq cm.
•Ic
••• 815 -- x a3 x 420
64
764 815
or a= x = 3.42 cm; we adopt 35 mm.
1 Tr 420
Thus, the arm cross section at the root will be 35 mm x 18
mm which would taper to 22 mm x 11 mm.
If we design the arms on stalling torque, the dimensions of the
arm at the root will be 60 mm x 30 mm.
Fig. 16-7 shows the final details of the gear under consideration.

--300 centres

ii
/ /
i , ....je
..
i \ • ...

//

450 P C D 150P.C.D. -01

. .s.
1
f `b
no. 16-7
Art. 16-14) GEARS 733

2. A pump rotates at about 200 r.p.m. and requires about 4 h.p.

for operation. The unit is to be driven by 4 h.p. 960 r.p.m. motor through
the medium of 14i° spur gearing. Design the suitable drive for the purpose.
960
Velocity ratio = = 4.8. The suitable combination for
200
a drive will be 68 75 85 For avoiding interference the pinion
14' 16' 18'
must have 15 teeth for 14i° gears. Therefore, we adopt V„- com-
bination. If the pinion and gear are to be of the same material,
the cast iron, the pinion will be weaker and it will serve as a
basis for design. We assume module as 4 mm and width of face,
b, as 4 cm.
The permissible static stress for cast iron is 560 kg/sq cm.
The pitch line velocity = nx16x0.4x960 = 3.2 metre/sec.
100 x 60
3
Velocity factor = s--4 3.2 = 0.485.

Allowable stress = 0485 x 560 = 270 kg/sq cm.

Circular pitch p = 7C x 04 = 1.256 cm.
Form factor y for a pressure angle of 144° is
0.8
64
y = 0.124 — =--- 0.0813.
16
Safe load transmitted = 270 x 4 x 1.256 x 0.0813
= 110 kg.
110 x 3.2
The h.p. transmitted = = 4.68 which will be
75
satisfactory from the strength point. If the pump operates
continuously the design should be checked for wear.
2Ng 2 x 75
Tooth shape factor Q = . - = 1.65.
'Ng + Np 75.-1: 16
Material combination factor W = 14.
For cast iron pinion and gear, semi steel pinion and gear and non-metalic
pinion and metallic gear, the material combination factor is taken as 14.

Limiting load for wear = P.C.D. x b x (bx W

= 16 x0.4x4x1.65x14=590 kg.
Design is safe as far as wear is concerned, as the limiting
load for wear is much greater than the tangential tooth load.
734 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV/

Let us consider the alternate design.

The static strength of the material for non-metallic pinion is
420 kg/sq cm. Let us assume the module as 6 mm and 5 cm
7CX 16 x 0.6 x 960
face width. Pitch line velocity v =
100 x 60
= 4.85 metre/sec.
0.75
Velocity factor = 0.25 4- 0.378.
. 1 4- 4.85 =-
Allowable stress = 420 x 0.378 = 160 kg/sq cm.
Circular pitch = 7c x 0.6 = 1.884 cm.
Form factor = 0-0813.
Safe load transmitted = 160 x 5 x 1.884 x 0.0813
= 122 kg.
x 4.85
The h.p. transmitted = 122 75 = 7-8.

The alternate design is satisfactory from the stand point of

strength. While the drive for non-metallic pinion has higher
pitch line velocity than cast iron gears, it will probably operate
much more calmly and reduce any shock tendencies.
3. 50 h.p. is transmitted at 450 r.p.m. to a shaft running at
approximately 112 r.p.m. through a spur gear drive. The load is steady
and continuous. Design the gear drive and check the design for dynamic
load and wear. Adopt 10 mm module.
The following materials are adopted:
Pinion: Heat treated cast steel
Gear: High grade cast iron. Comment on the design. If need
arises, the material of the gear can be changed.
We adopt 20° full depth involute system. We adopt 18 teeth
on the pinion. As the gear ratio is approximately four, we adopt
4 x 18 = 72 teeth for the gear.
Safe static stress for the heat treated cast steel is taken as 2,000
kg/sq cm and that for high grade cast iron as 900 kg/sq cm.
We adopt ordinary gears for which permissible error e in tooth
profile is 0.009 cm (from table 16-10.1).
Pitch circle diameter of the pinion = 18 x 10 = 180 mm.
Pitch circle diameter of the gear = 72 x 10 = 720 mm.
Art. 16-14] GEARS 735

.rc
Pitch line velocity = x 180 x 450 = 4.25 metre/sec.
60 x 1000
Tangential tooth load = 50 x 75= 880 kg.
4.25
As the pinion and gear are made of different materials, we
have to determine the strength factor, the product of static stress
and tooth factor, for each.
912
y for pinion = 0.134 — 0.98— = 0.08.
0.91 2
y for gear = 0.134 — w = 0.121.

Strength factor for the pinion = 0.08 x 2000 = 160 kg/sq cm.
Strength factor for the gear = 0.121 x 900 = 109 kg/sq cm.
Hence a tooth of the gear is the design criterion.
Circular pitch = 7r X m = it x 1 = 3.14 cm.
3
Velocity factor = 3 = 0.412.
+ 4.25
The static stress of the gear will be reduced to 900 x 0.412
-, 370 kg/sq cm. Hence the value of f will be accordingly
modified in Lewis formula.
According to Lewis formula, we have F = fypb where b is
the face width.
• 880 = 370 x 0.121 x 3.14 x b
880
or b= = 6.25 cm.
370 x 0.1 21 x 3.14
For cut gears the face width is generally between 3 to 3.5
times the circular pitch, hence we adopt 10 cm as the face width
of the gears.
Let us check the design for dynamic load. The dynamic load
acting on the gear is given by •
6.5V (Ceb + F)
Fd = +F
6.5V + A/Ceb +F
where Fd = dynamic tooth load in kg
F = tangential transmitted tooth load in kg
V = pitch line velocity in metre/sec
e = error in tooth profile in cm
b = face width in cm
736 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XVI

C = coefficient that depends on the materials of construction

of mating gears and the pressure angle of the tooth profiles.
The permissible error in tooth profiles can be taken from the
table 16-10.1.
Let us take Eg = I x 106 kg/sq cm and Ep ..--- 2 x 106 kg/sq
cm. Hence C will be given by
0-111 x 10 6 x 2 x 106
C— = 0.074 x 106 kg/sq cm
1 x 1 x6 +
102 x 106
6.5 x 4.25 (0.009 x 10 x 0.074 x 106 + 880)
Fd --=--- + 880
6.5 x 4.25 + 10.009 Y 10 x 0.074 x 106 +880
=-- 2,700 kg.
88 x 10 =
Beam strength = 0 1,400 kg.
6.25
As the dynamic load is more than the beam strength, the
design is not suitable. Hence we can not adopt ordinary com-
mercially cut gears. Therefore we choose precision gears for which
the permissible error is reduced to ith of its initial value and the
velocity factor will be higher.
6
The velocity factor = 6 +— 4. . 0.585.
25
Hence the beam strength of the tooth will be
1400 x 0.585
= 2,000 kg.
0.412
Fd for precision gears
6.5 x 4.25 (0.0022 x 10 x 0.074 x 106 + 880)
+ 880
6.5 x 4.25 + V0.0022 x 10 x 0.074 x 106 + 880
= 1,900 kg.
Thus the dynamic load is less than the beam strength. How-
ever there is no sufficient margin for the safety. Hence the design should
be changed. There are two alternatives either we reduce the
module or change the material of the gear. Let us take the same
material for both the pinion and the gear. If we keep the same
material for the pinion and gear, then the beam strength for a
precession gears for 10 mm module will be
160
2000 x 109 = 2,940 kg.
Art. 16-14] GEARS 737

As the material for the pinion and the gear are the same, the
value of coefficient C will be 0.111 x 3 x 106 = 0.111 x 106
kg/sq cm.
6.5 x 4.25 (0.0022 x10 x 0.111 x106-1- 880)
Fd = +880=1,950 kg.
6.5 x 4.25-1-V0.0022 x10 x0-111 x106+880
For steady loads beam strength 2,940 kg should be more
than 1.25 Fd = 1.25 x 1950 = 2,440 kg. As this, condition is
satisfied, the design is satisfactory.
Thus we adopt the same material for the gear and the pinion
and they will be precession gears.
Let us check the design for wear.
The limiting load for wear is given by
Fw = Dp xbxQx
where Fw is the limiting load for wear in kg, Dp the diameter
of the pinion in cm, b the face width of gear in cm, Q., the velocity
ratio factor and W the material combination factor in kg/sq cm.
2 Ng 2 x 72
Q— Ng + Np = 72 = 1.6.
The value of material combination factor from table 16-11.1,
is 17.5 kg/sq cm for hardened steel pinion and hardened steel gear.
.•. Fw = 18 X 10 X 1.6 x 17.5 = 5,050 kg.
'Thus limiting wear load is more than the dynamic tooth load,
hence the design is safe.
3. A raw hide pinion is to transmit 30 h.p. at 940 r.p.m. Select a
standard pitch for 20° full depth involute teeth. The safe static stress for
non-metallic pinion may be taken as 420 kg/sq cm.
In order to avoid interference, we adopt 18 teeth. The ratio
of width of the face to circular pitch is taken as 3.5.
The form factor for the pinion = 0.144 — 0 .912 = 0.103.
18
71620 x h.p. 71620 x 30
Torque to be transmitted
r. p.m . 940
= 2,280 kg cm.
Lewis formula F fp by is convenient to use when the pitch
diameter of the gear is known as the tangential tooth load is
readily obtainable. When the number of teeth is known, another
expression is derived which shall be useful in designing the pinion.
738 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

P.C.D. of the pinion in cm = .111. x m where m is the module

in cm.
[Link]
Torque on the gear shaft T = (i)
2
Substituting for F =fp b y, we get

T — fisrp by m
2

Let k =#-- and as p = 7CM we get

T _ [Link] 7c2 ms 2T
(iii)
or j k 7r2), ms
2
Thus, the above expression may be used directly in determining
the induced stress. For this example, the relation between the
induced stress and module will be
2 x_2280 71
f= 3.5 X ns x 0.103 x 18 x ms
kg/sq cm.

The velocity factor for non-metallic gears is given as

"5 + 0.25 where v is the pitch line velocity in metre/second.
[--
1 +v
0.75
Allowable stress = 420 [ 0.25] kg/sq cm.
1 v
As module and pitch line velocity are unknown, it will be
necessary to follow trial and error solution. We assume the values
of standard modules and calculate the values of the induced and
allowable stresses and adopt that value which gives induced stress
less than the allowable stress.

Induced stress
Module 1 v Velocity Allowable
mm i kg/sq cm metre/sec factor stress kg/sq ca
m
12 41.2 10.6 0.3145 132
10 71 8.85 0.326 137
8 139 7.1 0.344 145
6 330 5.3 0.369 155

With m = 8 mm, the allowable stress is 145 kg/sq cm and the

induced stress is 139 kg/sq cm. This module will be used and
face width b is given by b = 3.5 x n x 0.8 = 8.8 cm.
Art. 16-14] MARS 739

5. Fig. 16-8 shows a countershaft with a gear G mounted at one

end. Gear G meshes with a pinion P mounted on the shaft of 5 h.p. motor.
The pinion and gear have 18 teeth and 90 teeth respectively. The teeth are
of involute form having a pressure angle of 20°. Minimum diameter of
the pinion is to be 15 cm. The pinion shaft makes 500 r.p.m. and the belt
tension ratio is 2 : 1. The other end of the shaft carries a belt pulley 50 cm
in diameter from which the power is supplied to a machine directly below it.
Calculate the width of the belt for the pulley, the diameter of the gear
shaft and the width of the gear wheels.
Choose your own materials for the parts and values for the stress.
0
Speed reduction = 98 = 5.

Speed of the gear shaft = 500 =100 r.p.m.

100x 5 = 3,581 kg cm.

Torque on the gear shaft = 71620

300 —44-150

Bearings

Pinion P c
Motor shaft Pulley

FIG. 16-8
If T1 and T2 be the tensions in tight and slack sides of the
belt respectively, then
50
(T1 — TO —2— = 3581
3581 x 2
or (T1 — T1) = —50 = 143 kg.
740 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

As the belt tension ratio is 2:1, T1 will be 286 kg and T2,

143 kg. We adopt a leather belt of 1 cm thickness. We assume
the safe stress to be 20 kg/sq cm.
If W cm be the width of the leather belt, then
W x 1 x 20 = 286
286
or W = — = 14.3 cm; we adopt 15 cm.
20
The pulley is overhung on the shaft by 15 cm.
The gear shaft is subjected to bending and twisting. We
assume that the shaft is made of mild steel having a safe stress of
550 kg/sq cm in tension and 420 kg/sq cm in shear. The critical
sections are at two bearings A and B. We assume that the two
belt ends are parallel. Belt pull ( T1 + T2) causes the bending
moment at B of the magnitude (286 + 143) 15 = 6,450 kg cm.
The minimum pitch circle diameter of the pinion is to be
15 cm. The number of teeth is 18. We assume module as
10 mm. Therefore the pitch circle diameter of the pinion will
be 18 x 10 = 180 mm. As the speed reduction ratio is 5:1,
the pitch circle diameter of the gear will be 5 x 180 = 900 mm,
358
i.e. 90 cm. Tangential tooth load on gears = 1 = 79.5 kg.
45
The thrust between a pair of teeth is along the pressure line
which is inclined at a pressure angle to the common tangent at
pitch point.
7.5
9 79.5
Bending load on the shaft = co s = = 85 kg.
20° 0.9397
Bending moment at A = 85 x 10 = 850 kg cm.
The gear shaft is subjected to a constant twisting moment of
3,581 kg cm and as the bending moment at B is greater than that
at A, the critical section is at the bearing B.
Equivalent twisting moment according to Rankine theory
equals 6450 -I- V64502+35812 = 12,000 kg cm.
Equivalent twisting moment according to Guest's theory equals
164502+35812 = 7,950 kg cm.
if d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, as calculated by
Rankine's theory (principal stress theory), we have
Art. 16-14] GEARS 741

7C
-f, 6- ds x 550 = 12000

8/1 2000 x 16
• d= = 4.87 cm; we adopt 5 cm.
Y 550 x 7C
The diameter of the shaft calculated by Guest formula will
come out to be 4.6 cm which is less than 5 cm. So we adopt 5 cm
diameter shaft.
We assume that the spur wheels are made of cast steel with a
safe static stress of 1,050 kg/sq cm. When both pinion and gear
are made of the same material, pinion is weaker of the two.
TC 0.9
The pitch line velocity of the spur wheels = X 1 00 X
60
= 4.7 metre/sec.
3
Velocity factor = 3 0.39.
+ 4.7 —
Permissible stress f --- 0.39 x 1050 = 410 kg/sq cm.
The form factor for 20° full depth involute gears is given as
0.912
y = 0.154 where N is the number of teeth.
0.91 2
For 18 teeth, y = 0.154 — =0.103.
18
Circular pitch m n = 10 x 3.14 = 31.4 mm, i.e. 3.14 cm.
The face width, b, of the pinion can be obtairi'ed by Lewis
formula F =f x p x b x y.
On substitution of values, we get
79.5 = 410 x 3.14 x b x 0.103
79.5
or b== 410 x 3-14 x 0-103 — 0.61 cm.
' As the width is too small we adopt 5 ati for our purpose.
We could have taken a cheaper material cast iron and would
have adopted 5 cm as the width of the gear. The theoretical
1
width with cast iron would have been = 050 x 0.61 = 1.14 cm.
560
6. Fig. 16-9 shows a gear dynamometer. The pinion A is keyed
to the driving shaft and revolves in anti-clockwise direction. The
internal gear wheel D which is keyed to the driven shaft and revolves in the
742 MACHINE DESIGN E Ch. XV/
clockwise direction. Power is transmitted through an intermediate gear
wheel C, which is mounted on a pin fixed to the lever, which pivots freely
on the common axis of the driving and driven shafts. The counter-weight
keeps the lever floating between stops when no power is being transmitted.
The weight W is adjustable. The dynamometer transmits 30 h. p. The
driving and driven shafts revolve at 1,200 and 300 r.p.m. Gear wheel
A has 30 teeth and a module of 5 mm. The wheels are made of carbon
steel with a safe static stress of 1,540 kgIsq cm. Design gear, lever, pins
and the shafts (only for torsion).

Weight W

Epicyclic gear dynamometer

FIG. 16-9
The pitch circle diameter of pinion A = 30 x 5 = 150 mm.
1200
Speed reduction ratio is -300 --,-- 4.
The pitch circle diameter of the inernal gear D = 150 x 4
= 600 mm.
If the pitch circle diameter of intermediate gear be x, then
150 + 2x = 600
600 — 150
or x= = 225 mm.
2
5
Number of teeth in gear C = 22 , 45.
-5

Number of teeth in internal gear D = U = 120.

65
71620 x
Torque on the driving shaft = 30— 1,800 kg cm.
1200
1800
Tangential tooth load on the pinion = s- = 240 kg.
Art. 16.14] GEARS 743

The distance of pin C from the axis of the shaft is

225
75 + = 187.5 mm.
2
If W be the weight placed at the end of lever 750 mm long,
then
W x 750 = 240 x 2 x 187.5
.. W = 119 kg.
The load on the pin on which the intermediate wheel is
mounted = 2F = 240 x 2 = 480 kg.
The maximum bending moment on the lever will be at a point
where the pin for intermediate gear C is fixed.
Maximum bending moment on the lever = 119 (750 — 187.5)
= 67,000 kg mm.
The material of lever will be mild steel, for which we adopt
800 kg/sq cm as the permissible value of the tensile stress. We
assume the lever to be of rectangular section having thickness to
be 1 of the depth.
If h cm be the depth of the lever, the modulus of section will he
ha
}x ih x h2 = — 16
cm3.
h3
•• x 800 = 6700
16
3 6700x 16
or h= - -,--- 5.1 cm.
800
In order to account for the fixing of the pin, we adopt the
depth of the lever to be 7 cm and the thickness of the lever as 2 cm.
The pin, on which the intermediate gear C revolves freely,
will be designed from bearing considerations. We take the permi-
ssible stress at 70 kgisq cm. The load on the pin is 480 kg. The
480
minimum bearing area of the pin will be -10 = 6.86 sq cm.
We adopt pin of 2 cm diameter and length 3.5 cm. The mini-
mum length of the pin will be equal to the width of the inter-
mediate gear C.
As the bearing length of the pin in the intermediate gear is
3.5 cm while the thickness of the lever is 2 cm, the pin will be fixed
in the lever and hence it will be treated as a cantilever. Assuming
744 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

the load to be uniformly distributed the bending moment on the

480 x 3.5
pin will be 2 — 840 kg cm and flexural stress will be.
840
= 1,070 kg/sq cm which is within limits.
7C
- x28
32
The load coming on each tooth of any gear will be 240 kg.
All the gears are made of the same material, the carbon steel; the
pinion A will be the weakest and it will serve as basis for design.
The safe static stress = 1,540 kg/sq cm.
15 x 1200
The pitch line velocity = n X - = 942 metrefsec.
100 x 60
We employ accurately cut gears for which the velocity factor
6
may be taken as •
6+v
The velocity factor =
6-± 942 =0.389.
Allowable stress = 0.389 x 1540 = 600 kg/sq cm.
We employ 20° full depth involute teeth.
Form factor y = 0.154 0 912 = 0124.
30
Circular pitch = n x 0.5 = 1.57 cm.
According to Lewis formula, we have
240 = 600 x 1.57 x 0.124 x b
240
Or = 2.05 cm.
b = 600 x 1.57 x 0.124
We adopt 3.5 cm as the face width for all the gears.
As the width of the gear comes out to be equal to the bearing
length of the pin, the length of the pin may be retained as calculated
earlier.
Torque on the driver shaft = 1,800 kg cm.
We assume that the shaft is made of mild steel for which the
safe shear stress is taken as 420 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the driver shaft, then
-116 (13 x 420 =1800

or d = f1800 x —
16
-,-- 2.8 cm; we adopt 3 cm.
420 7C
Art. 16-14] GEARS 745

As the speed reduction is 4:1, the torque on the gear shaft

will be four times that on the pinion shaft and as the diameter of
the shaft is directly proportional to cube root of the torque, the
diameter of the gear shaft will be 2.8 .j/4 = 445 cm; we adopt
4.5 cm.
Exercises :
1. It is desired to transmit 7.5 h.p. by a pair of spur gears at 1,450
r.p.m. of the pinion, for intermittent service. The pinion is made of cast
iron and has 18 teeth, 144° full depth. The gear runs at 580 r.p.m.
Determine the diameter of the pinion shaft, module, face width and number
of teeth for the gear.
2. The thrust on a drill press spindle is 1,600 kg. If a 16 teeth
pinion driving a rack collared on the spindle is used to feed the drill in the
work, determine the standard module for the semi steel pinion if the
width of the face is 5 cm. Solve for both 144° and 20° full depth involute
teeth and indicate which design is safe.
3. A motor develops 2,000 kg cm torque at 1,000 r.p.m. This
torque is transmitted to a shaft running at 300 r.p.m. through a cast iron
pinion and gear having 20° stub teeth. The centre distance must be
maintained at 26 cm. Design the drive and check the design for dynamic
loading and wear.
4. A 15 h.p. motor running at 940 r.p.m. drives a ventilating fan
through a gear reduction having a velocity ratio of 3:1. in order to make
the drive compact, 20° stub teeth are employed. The pinion is made of raw
hide and the gear is to be made of cast iron. Assuming 20 teeth on pinion,
determine the module, pitch diameters and the face widths of gears.
5. The eccentric shaft of a punch is driven by a cast iron gear having
105 teeth. The gear must transmit a torque of 60,000 kg cm when
rotating at 35 r.p.m. It meshes with 21 teeth 144° involute pinion.
Assuming the face width to be three times the circular pitch, determine
the standard module and the pitch diameter of the gear. Also, check the
design for wear.
6. A driving shaft P rotates at 300 r.p.m. and is placed in align-
ment with a driven shaft Q rotating at 25 r.p.m. A spur gear on P
drives a gear B on a bark shaft S. Another gear C on shaft S drives
a gear D on shaft Q,. The centre distance between shafts P and S is
to be not less than 225 mm and not more than 150 mm. Gears C and D are
746 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI
of module 6 mm and A and B are of module 5 mm. Find 'he teeth of the
gears f no gear is to have more than 75 teeth and less than 12 teeth. The
drive transmits 2 h.p. Choosing your own materials for the gear, design
the gears.
7. In an automotive type of gear box, the second speed gear shaft
is to be driven from a main shaft transmitting 50 h.p. at 2,500 r.p.m.
with a velocity ratio 1.5 : 1. The shaft centre distance is not to exceed
100 mm. Determine the suitable module and number of teeth for 20°
stub tooth gears of heat treated steel.
8. A hoist drum 60 cm in diameter is to lift a maximum load of 5
tonnes. The drive is through a double reduction spur gear using 950
r.p.m. motor. The speed reduction between the motor shaft and the
intermediate shaft is 5 : 1 and between the intermediate shaft and drum
shaft is 6 : 1. The efficiency of each gear reduction is 96%.
Calculate the horse power of the driving unit and complete the tables.

Shaft Motor shaft i Intermediate shaft Drum shaft

I
Torque kg cm - -
Speed r.p.m.

If a brake is to be attached, to which shaft would you attach the

brake? Suggest the suitable diameter for the shafts. Design any one
gear of the system.

Motor shaft to Intermediate shaft to

intermediate shaft drum shaft
Pinion Gear Pinion Gear
Module, mm 5
Number of teeth 120
Pitch diameter, cm 10 12.5
9. A #0 cm cast iron gear transmits 25 h.p. at 220 r.p.m. The
module of the lir involute teeth is 6 mm and the face width is 6 cm.
The gear is mounted on a shaft 5.5 cm diameter.
(a) Determine dimensions for the hub diameter, rim thickness and
bead.
Art. 16-14] GEARS 747

(b) Determine the number of arms for the gear. Assuming ellip-
tical shaped arts, determine the dimensions of the arm at the
hub and at the pitch circle.
(c) Determine also the dimensions of a cross shaped arm as well
as of an I shaped arm.
10. The gate of a sluice valve weighing 5 tonnes is raised by means
of cast iron rack and pinion. Design a train of gears including the rack
so that the gate may be raised by two men working on 40 cm crank handles
and exerting a pressure of 13 kg each. Give also the linear speed of the
rack motion, assuming that the crank makes 30 r.p.m.
11. Two shafts transmitting 24 h.p. and connected by a spur gear
are to be run at 150 r.p.m. and 300 r.p.m. respectively. The axes
of the shafts are approximately 45 cm apart. Calculate the diameters of
the shafts allowing a safe stress in the shaft of 350 kg/sq cm and design
suitable spur gear wheels for mounting on the shafts. Four arms of the
wheel may be assumed to be of elliptical section and are to be designed for
a safe stress of 210 kg/sq cm. The diameter of the nave may be taken to
be double the shaft diameter, and its length as 1.8 times the shaft diameter.

12. An internal gear drive for intermittent service has a velocity

ratio of 29:15 and the driving pinion has 30 teeth, 6 mm module, 7 cm face
width and is made of hardened steel. If the pinion rotates at 500 r.p.m.,
what is the horse power transmitted? What will be the gear material?
13. A reduction gear is to transmit a maximum of 100 h.p. at 60
r.p.m. to the drum shaft of a winding drum. The gear ratio is 5:1 and
the pinion is to have 21 teeth of involute form. The wheel is to be of
cast steel, with an elastic stress limit of 1,400 kg/sq cm. The tooth factor
0.912
may be taken as y = 0.154 for 20° pressure angle, where N
is the number of teeth. The width of the face .should not exceed four times
3
the circular pitch. Take the speed factor C = 3 - v , where v is
+
the pitch line peripheral speed in metre per second. Find a suitable module
and face width and assuming 6 arms and a shaft' diameter of 180 mm,
determine suitable dimensions for the wheel boss, arms and rim. Make
a neat skeich, showing base circle and tooth proportions. Give an approxi-
mate idea of the weight of the wheel. Indicate a suitable material for
the pinion.
748 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

14. A spur gear reduction unit is to transmit 75 h.p. continuously

with moderate shock load. The speeds of the shafts are to be 720 r.p.m.
and 144 r.p.m. respectively. The centre distance is not restricted, but it
should be small and a satisfactory contact ratio obtained. Fifty units are
to be constructed. Make a complete design for these two gears, including
sketch showing all dimensions. The cost should be kept low, but it is
important that the gears be designed for a long and trouble free life.
Determine the shaft diameter on the basis of pure torsion.
15. Assume that you are planning the design of a drive to connect the
rotating drum of a cement kiln to a motor. The drum is to rotate at approxi-
mately 18 r.p.m. and the speed of the motor is 960 r.p.m. Assume that
it is reasonable to consider V belt drive andlor spur gears in combinations
of any one or two for the drive.
(a) Make a neat sketch showing the layout of the drive you would
propose.
(b) Specify the speed ratios, belt pulley diameters and number of
gear teeth in combinations you propose in the drive. See fig. 16-21
for one solution of the problem pertaining to the drive.
16. Design the gears, shafts and bearings for a double reduction
unit. The first pinion shaft :3 to be attached to a standard 50 h.p.
squirrel cage motor by means of a straight shaft coupling. The motor
has no load speed of 1,500 r.p.m. The output shaft of the unit is to rotate
at 25 r.p.m. and is to be connected to the driven machine through a straight
shaft coupling. The load is steady and continuous. Only one unit is to be
built using spur gears. Size of the reduction unit is not important, but
the noise level should be as low as possible.
17. In a standard design, two shafts are connected by gears having
30 and 133 teeth. The gears have 20° full depth teeth of module 1.5 mm.
An order for a number of these machines can be obtained if the gear ratio
can be changed to 4:1. Examination of the gear housing for clearances
indicates that the smaller gear cannot have outside diameter greater than
54 mm. The shaft centre distance cannot be changed. Is it possible to
replace the regular drive by two gears cut with standard gear cutters?
If it is possible, make a dimensioned sketch of the drive and prove that it
will operate satisfactorily.
18. Design any one set of gears of the four speed sliding gear box in
a motor car having an engine of 30 h.p. running at 800 r.p.m. The speed
ratios between the driving and driven shafts of 4:1, 2.5:1, 1.5:1 and 1:1
Art. i6-15] GEARS 749

approximately are required in first, second, third and top gear respectively.
The module of all the gears is the same and the distance between the axes
of the mating gears is 150 mm. No pinion is to have less than 12 teeth.
Sketch the arrangement of the unit including construction of the reversing
gear. State the suitable number of teeth required on each gear wheel.
Choose the suitable materials for the gears.
19. Draw the arrangement of a 3 stage spur gear reducer with
important dimensions for the hoist of a crane which is to hoist a load of 5
tonnes at a speed of 5 metre minute. The rope is so arranged that the speed
at which the rope is wound on the barrel is twice the speed of the lift of the
load. The barrel on which the rope is wound is 80 cm in diameter and the
hoisting motor runs at 1,450 r.p.m. Assume the modules of three stages as
5 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm respectively to find out the number of teeth on the
gears. Assume that the largest the gear is connected integrally to the barrel.
20. Design a spur gear drive for a heavy sugar mill crusher roller
with the following particulars:
Speed of driving pinion 716 r.p.m. (approximately) ; speed reduction
4:1; h.p. transmitted 100; centre to centre distance of gears 30 cm; service
factor 0.8; pressure angle 20° for involute teeth system. The pinion is
made of forged steel for which allowable stress is 1,100 kgIsq cm and the
gear is of cast steel having allowable stress as 1,050 kg/sq cm. Allowable
shear stress in mild steel shaft is 400 kg/sq cm. Draw the gear arrangement
to a suitable scale. Also draw one tooth of the gear to full scale giving
all dimensions. (University of Bombay, 1967)
.*;
(B) DESIGN OF HELICAL GEARS

16-15. Introduction:
For high pitch line velocities and heavy loads, helical gears
are used. In helical gears tooth elements are helices instead of
being right lines parallel to the axes of the gears as we find in
spur gears. Two important types of gearing are helical gears and
double helical or herringbone gears. When straight teeth spur
gears begin to engage, the contact theoretically extends across
the entire tooth on a line parallel to the axis of the gear. This
sudden application of load results in noisy operation and high
impact stress. In helical gearing, contact begins at one end
of the entering tooth and gradually extends along a diagonal line
across the tooth face as the gear rotates. The gradual engage-
ment and load application reduces the noise and the dynamic
750 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI
load. Therefore, the operation is silent and hence higher pitch
line velocities can be employed. Pitch line speeds of 20 to 35
metre/second are common with turbine and automobile gears.
Herringbone gear sets of special design have been successfully
operated at pitch line speeds of 60 metre/second.
As the contact extends along the diagonal line, the average
lever arm is much less than the tooth height and therefore it can
sustain greater tangential loads than straight tooth spur gears of
the same size.

16-16. Proportions for:helical gears:

Fig. 16-10 shows a tooth of a helical gear. Here we are
concerned with two pitches: the normal pitches and the real
pitches. The relation between the normal pitches pn and real
pitches p, is:
pn = p cos (i)
where a is the helix angle.
Diametral plane
.4 b

Normal plane
Tooth of a helical gear
FIG. 16-10
In order that contact may be maintained across the entire
active face of the gear, the minimum value of b must be
bmtn (ii)
tam
The American Gear Manufacturers' Association recommends
minimum face width 15% higher than
tan%
Art. 16-16] GEARS 751

If Ng be the number of teeth in a gear, then

7TDcoscc
pn =, p cosa, -----. (iii)
Ng
where D is the pitch circle diameter.
If helical gears are manufactured with standard hobs, the normal
diametral pitch is standard and so the diametral pitch in a diametral plane
will be a decimal fraction and hence the pitch diameter also contains the
decimal fraction.
The pressure angle gin in the normal plane is given by
tan 'Fa = tan is cos or. (iv)
where 'II is the pressure angle in the diametral plane.
The centre distance is given as half the sum of the pitch circle
diameters of the mating gears. If A be the centre distance, the
(Np + Ng) mn (Np -I- Ng)
A = mc (v)
2 2cos cc
where mc ----- circular module and
mn = normal module.
The normal module should be selected from the table of
the standards.
The addendum and dedendum circle diameters are
( N
Da = ma + 2mn = mn (vi)
cos o: + 2 .w.
N
Dd = ma — 2.5mn = mn ( — 2.5 ) (vii)
cos CA
The smallest number of teeth N' for the helical gears which
are adopted to avoid interference is given by
N' = N x cossa (viii)
where N is the minimum number of teeth in a straight teeth
gear which can be used to avoid interference.
The velocity ratio is given by
Ng Dg COS CLg
velocity ratio = -..-.. (ix)
Np Dp cos ocp
When the gear pair transmits loads, there will be three mutually
perpendicular components of tooth load.
752 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch XVI

Three components will be as under:

Torque transmitted
(i) Tangential component F =
Pitch circle radius of the gear
(ii) Axial component F tans
(iii) Radial component F tan 4,
where ot is the helix angle and 4 is the pressure angle.
The component F tans along the axis of the gear is called
the end thrust. The end thrust produced by the component
F tans is objectionable but it can be neutralised by using two
helical gears with teeth sloping in opposite directions. These
gears are placed side by side as a result end thrust of one is opposite
to that of the other and thus the thrust is eliminated. Sometimes
both sets of teeth are formed on one blank and the resulting gear
is called a herringbone gear.
If the helix angle is small say less than 20°, the end thrust may
be taken up by a thrust bearing either of roller type or ball type or
even by the end of a plain bearing.
To determine the loads on the bearings the type of supports
for the shaft must be known. If the shaft is relatively short with
long sleeve bearings, a distributed load must be assumed. If the
shaft is relatively long with short sleeve bearings, the shaft may be
assumed to be simply supported.
Though helical gears are not interchangable, however, the
table 16-16.1 gives the American Gear Manufacturers' Associa-
tion's recommended practice.

Table 16-16.1
Helical gear proportions:

Item Maximum Minimum

Pressure angle in the plane of rotation 25° 15°-23'
Helix angle a 45° 20°
Addendum m 0.7 m
Clearance 0.3m 06.457 m

Helix angles of 15°-15' and 23° are in common use for single
helical gears and 30° and 450 for herringbone gears. The larger
angles are used with the higher pitch line velocities.
Art. 16.17] GEARS 75g

16-17. Design of helical gear teeth:

(a) Design for strength:
As the contact extends along the diagonal line, according to
Buckingham the modified form of Lewis equation is applied - to
helical gears. So, we get
Fb = 0.75 pn f b y' (i)
where Fb = the beam strength of the tooth in plane of rotation
p. = normal circular pitch
f = allowable stress for the material
b = width of the face measured parallel to the axis
yi = tooth factor corresponding to the formative number
of teeth given by
N
N' = (ii)
COS 30L

Let us explain the introduction of factor cos3m into equation

(ii).
If we dissect a helical gear by a plane perpendicular to the
tooth, we obtain an ellipse whose radius of curvature at the point
1
of meshing is ----- times larger than the radius of the helical gear.
cos 'a
1
Having drawn the circle of radius r = rp x — -- and placed on it
cos 2a
straight teeth of module mn, we obtain tooth profiles fiat practically
coincide with the profiles of helical gear teeth at normal section.
The number of teeth in this equivalent straight tooth gear
N' . d. —. 2r .2rp . dp _N ____.
Ms Inn ifinCOS 2 OC Me cosa cost a coslia
The face width b is made from 2p to 4p.
(b) Design for dynamic load:
• a

With the notations of art. 16-10, the dynamic load on the

helical gear is given by
6.5V (Ceb cos2m + F) costa
Fd — +F (iii)
6.5V + liCeb cos2a + F
The velocity factor for spur helical gear will be higher than
that for spur gears as the tooth engagement is smooth and gradual.
The following gives the values of velocity factors for helical and
Herringbone gears:
754 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

k . 4.5
for gears operating at velocities upto 5 metre/sec
4.5 + v
6
= ---- for gears operating at velocities upto 10 metre/sec
6+v
15
----= --- -- for gears operating at velocities upto 20 metre/sec
15 v
5.5
3 -- r for precision gears operating at velocities of
= 3' - + -v
more than 20 metre/sec.
The following relationships should be satisfied:
For steady loads Fb > 1.25 Fd.
For pulsating loads Fb > 1.35 Fd.
For shock loads Fb > 1.5 Fay.
(c) Design for wear:
With the notations of art. 16-11, the limiting load that can
be carried without undue wear is given by
DpbQW
Fw .--: --- — (iv)
cosy a
The value of wear load Fw should be greater than Fd.
16-18. Herringbone gears:
These gears are used to eliminate the axial thrust. There are
many advantages of these gears such as silent operation, absence
of vibration, higher efficiencies, higher velocity ratios, high pitch
line velocities, etc. Theie gears find many applications in engineer-
ing such as drives for rolling mills, drives for reciprocating machin-
eries, drives for hoisting machineries, drives for machine tools,
drives for alternators from steam turbines, etc.
Speed reducers employing helical and herringbone gears
are employed to get speed reduction ratios upto 800. For speed
reduction upto 11, single pair units are employed. For higher
ratios double pair or triple pair reducers are provided.
16-19. Rating of machine cut Spur and Helical gears:
Generally the cut gears may be purchased from ready stock
and before it can be used whether the given pair of gears will be
able to transmit the required horse power without fatigue failure
or surface failure may be ascertained. Thus we should calculate
the rating of the given pair of gears from
Art. 16-19 j GEARS 755

(i) Strength consideration

(ii), Wear consideration.
Let m = module of the wheel pinion or the gear in mm
N = speed of the wheel in r.p.m.
b = face width of the wheel in mm
T = number of teeth in the wheel.
The horse power rating of a spur gear with 20° pressure angle
and helical gears for strength is given by
Xb Tb fb bm2 NT 1774
H.P. (strength) --,-- X (i)
25.4 108
where Xb = speed factor for strength for appropriate running time
rb = strength factor for gears
fb = bending stress factor.
Speed factor Xb depends upon
(i) running time in hour per day and
(ii) speed in r.p.m. of the wheel.
For a given running time, the speed factor decreases with the
increase in speed. Speed factor for strength for various speeds of
wheels and running time in hours per day can be read from curves
of fig. 16-11. The strength factor for spur external gears with 20°
pressure angle and for helical gears with 30° helix angle can be
read from curves of fig. 16-12. For other helix angle the strength
factor obtained from this figure is to be multiplied by a factor
COSOC_ )2
where
cos30°
a is the helix angle of the gear.
The above factor (strength factor) for helical gear is to be
used if the face width is sufficient to give overlap. In other words,
axial pitch of the gears is less than the face width.
Axial pitch mir cots (ii)
When the face width is less than axial pitch, then the strength
factor obtained from curves given in fig. 16-12 should be multi-
plied by the factor
1r face width ]2
j L2 *4- axial pitch *
The bending stress factor fb depends on the tensile strength,
of the material of the wheels. The values of the bending stress
factor are given in a table 16-6.1.
756 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

Combined speed factor for strength — x

0 o 0 o P O—
U' .b 411 01 0

5~
speed andrunning t ime(actorsfor Spurand Helical gears

O
to
O

901

3. 8
sc3 a
--
0

inn

0
O

a
glit./;:/Phi
R
Equivalent running time -H ( m hours per day)
•

Speed factor for strength

(Spur gears with 20° pressure angle and helical gears)
FIG. 16-11
 Number of teeth in mating gear
400 200 150 100 80 60 50 40 35 30 . 26 22 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
10 Rack I
(Ass,
g. 12"
0

6s
20
f. 22
26 ass
e -go
ge
04
a 40 ass
'cr 50
0.90
= 80
100
a 150

Fig. 16 -12 Y b Strength factor Helical gears - 30° Helix angle and . Spur gears,
20 normal pressure angle
758 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The allowable tangential load in kg/mm of face width for

strength is given by
F= IC
— b 2r b fb m kg/ mm of face width

We shall have two horse power ratings from equation (i);

one for pinion and other for gear.
The horse power rating of a spur gear with 20° pressure angle
and helical gears for wear is given by
Xc rc fc b m .NT 1774
H.P. (wear) = x (iv)
1 08

where Xc = speed factor for wear for appropriate running time

rc = zone factor
fc ---,--- surface stress factor
K = pitch factor.
Speed factor Xc depends on (i) running time in hour per
day and (ii) speed in r.p.m. of the wheel.
For a given running time, the speed factor decreases with the
increase in speed. Speed factor for wear for various speeds of wheels
and running times in hours per day can be read from curves of
fig. 16-13.
The speed factors Xb and Xc for 12 hours running time per
day are equal, except for speeds below 40 r.p.m.
The zone factor Tc is different for spur gears with 20° pressure
angle and helical gears. The zone factor for external spur gears
with 20° pressure angle can be read from curves of fig. 16-14,
while the zone factor for helical gears with 30° helix angle can be
read from curves of fig. 16-15. For other helix angle, the zone
factor can be obtained from the curves of fig. 16-15 by multiply-
cos30° 2 )
ing' with a factor cosy.
— , where a is the helix angle of the gear.

The zone factor for internal gears is given by

[G ± 1 T.8
T (internal gear) = rc (external gear) -G-i- - .... (v)

where G . speed reduction ratio.

The surface stress factor depends upon the hardness of the
material. The values of this factor for different materials is given
in table 16-6.1.
 0.06 Revolutions per minute
0.04 25000
to 200 600 2000 5000 20000
0 0.02 0.2 0.6
3.0 0.01 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 810 20 40 60 100 500 1000 3000 10000

2.0 4

15

)4
bk
LO

•
0.6
t 0.5
0.4
-0—
0.3

'411410111111b..
`411111k..
711111... "41111111111111...
"41111b..NINIMIlk..
f, 0.2
.. 141111116.
-111%144%11.....41411 .
0.15

0.1

kig. 16 -13 Combined speed and running time (actors for Spur and Helical gears for wear
 Number of teeth in pinion
Rack 400 200150 100 80 60 50 40 35 30 26 22 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

12
14
16'
11)
k -11411111111M1
c
1111
V
be
Number of tee th In wheel

20 CO)

161119111
V
2
04
26
30. 0
O

CS1

Zone factor
AILMEMIL
MACHINEDESIGN

35
ig
40 •.4 C•0

50 - In

80 L*....
'"1:74.1111111121111ESLIm'' tu 4.•
bc
5.4

;1
4

Fig. 16 -14 Ye = Zone factor - Full depth Spur gears 20°pressure angle
 Number of teeth in pinion
400 200150 100 80 60 50 40 35 30 26 22 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

20
I22
26
30
t 35
•I 4
2 so
60
80 •
100
150
200

400

Rack
tt
Fig. 16 - 15 yc = Zone factor - Helical gears - 30° Helix angle 20° normal pressure angle
762 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI
The pitch factor K depends on the circular pitch on a section
at right angles to the axis. The values of the pitch factors can be
read from fig. 16-16.

Pitch factor - K
Li W 4. vi 0 ..4 02 5' r.., .17.

Li
p

b
o
cz
pup 1031141 'MIS 101

'AI
I

-4 i
VI

La 4.
P
WI

til

W.

Pitch factor
Fm. 16-16

We shall have further two values of horse power ratings

from equation (iv): one for pinion and other for gear.
Art. 16-19] GEARS 763

The horse power rating of any pair of gears is the least of the
four values : two for pinion and two for gear.
The allowable tangential load in kg/mm face width for wear
is given by
Xe rc fc
Fw = -- — (vi)
K
We shall have four values of allowable tangential tooth load:
two from strength consideration and other two froin wear consi-
deration. The least of the four values is the allowable tangential
tooth load for any pair of gears.
Examples :
I. A pair of straight spur gears is required to reduce speed from
500 to 100 r.p.m. per minute for 12 hours running time per day continu-
ously. The gears are of 8 mm module, 80 mm face width and 20° pressure
angle. The pinion has 20 teeth.
The properties of materials of wheels are gwen below:

Pinion Gear
Material
0.40% carbon steel cast iron

Bending stress factor lb 1 14.05 4.22

Surface stress factor fc 1•I25 0.81

Determine the horse power rating of the gear set. .,

Horse power for strength:
Xb rb fb bm2 NT 1774
H.P. (strength) =
254 x TO'
After reading the values of Xb and Ti from the curves and
substituting in the equation, we get
. on ..: 0• 3175 x 0.72 x 14.05 / 80 x 82 x 500 x 20 1774
Pinion . x
25.4 108
= 1144 h.p.
0.42 x 0.615 x 4.22 x 80 x 82 x 100 x 100 1774
Gear =_ 25, -—_ x
25.44— 108
- 39 h.p.
Horse power for wear:
Xc Tc fc b m NT 1774
H.P. (wear) . x •
108
764 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

After reading the values of Xc, 2-, and K from the curves and
substituting in the equation, we get
0.305 x 2.2 x 1.125 x 80 x 8 x 500 x 20 1774
Pinion =
2.5 X 108
= 34.3 h.p.
0.4 x 2.2 x 0.81 x 80 x 8 x 100 x 100 1774
Gear = x
2.5 108
= 324 h.p.
The horse power rating of the gear set is the least of the four
values. The least value is 324 h.p. Hence the rating of the
speed reducer is 324 h.p.

2. Determine . the horse power capacity of a pair of helical turbine

gears having a transmission ratio of 8:1. The lower speed is 500 r.p.m.
The teeth are 20° full depth, 30° helix angle, 6 module and 100 mm face
width. The material is 0.4% carbon steel untreated. The pinion has
30 teeth. You consider only the strength view point. The gear is to run
continuously. The bending stress factor is 14.05.
The horse power for strength of a wheel, with usual notations,
is given by the equation
Xb rbfb b m2 NT 1774
H.P. (strength) = x
25.4 108
After reading the values of Xb and rb from the curves and
substituting in the above equation, we get
0.165 x 0.8 x 14.05 x 100 x 62 x 4000 x 30 1774
Pinion ...--. — — x 16-8
254
= 56 h.p.

Gear =
25 4
x .
0.292 x 0.705 x 14.05 x 100 X 62 X 500 x 240 1774
TO
= 874 h.p.
Thus we see that the rating of the reducer is 56 h.p.
Note: If pinion and gear arc made of the same material, the pinion is
weaker and the power transmitting capacity is governed by the pinion.

3. A helical cast steel gear with 30° helix angle has to transmit 40
h.p. at 1,500 r.p.m. If the gear has 24 teeth, determine the necessary
module, pitch diameter and the width for 20° full depth teeth. The static
stress for cast steel may be taken as 560 kg/sq cm. The width of the
face may be taken as 3 pn . What will be the end thrust on the gear?
Art. 1649] GEARS 765

Let us consider this example by diametral pitch method.

The diametral pitch is the number of teeth per unit diameter of
pitch circle. The product of the normal circular pitch and the
normal diametral pitch equals n.
, 71620 x 40
Torque transmitted = = 1,915 kg cm.
1500
24
Formative number of teeth = 37.*
(cos 300)$
912 = 0.127.
y' = 0.154 0.37

Let pd be the normal diametral pitch. The normal circular

n • Here pd is taken in MKS system. Its unit
pitch pn equals ---
Pd
being cm-1.
7C X 3 942
Width of the gear = 3Pn = ...
--z.
Pd Pd
Pd
Diametral pitch in the plane of rotation = cos30° — 1.16Pd.
24 20.7
Pitch circle diameter of the gear =
1.16pd Pd
Tangential tooth load = 1915 x 2pd = 185pd.
20.7
Fb
Induced stress =
0.75pn by'
185pd x Pd X Pd
— =65pd3kg/sq cm.
0.75 x 7r x 942 x 0.127
7C 20.7 1500 16.3
Velocity V . = x X -0— = metre/sec.
100 pd 60 Pd
6, 6 Pd
Velocity factor =
16.3 pd + 2.72
6+
pd
•• Allowable stress = 560 [pd Pd
±2.721 kg/sq cm.

We choose the diametral pitch or the module so that the

induced stress is less than the allowable stress.
65 .7
Induced stress = 65.7pd3 — when m is measured in cm.
y
m
Pd
Allowable stress .!---_ 560 [ 1= 560 [ 1 1 ]
Pd + 2 .72 + 2.72m
kg/sq cm; here m is also measured in cm.
766 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

HELICAL GEAR PROPORTIONS

Module i Induced stress Allowable stress

i
-1 6.7
5 1
3 kg/sq cm 5b0 [ if 2.72 id kg/sq cm
inni 1 C111 m
I

6 06 304 213
8 U.8 129 177
10 1.0 65 7 151

We adopt 8 mm module.
Pitch diameter = 20.7 x 0.8 = 16.56 cm.
Width -= 942 X 0.8 = 7.536 cm; we adopt 8 cm.
185
Tangential tooth load = = 232 kg.
0.8
Axial thrust = 232 x tan30° = 134 kg.
Exercises.
I. State the comparative advantages and disadvantages of helical
gears and straight spur gears.
Using a 3 dimensional sketch, derive an equation relating the pressure
angle in a plane normal to the teeth, the pressure angle in the plane of
rotation and the helix angle.
2. A pair of helical gears as to transmit 50 h.p. at 3,000 r.p.m.
of the pinion. The velocity ratio is to be 5 and the helix angle is to be 23°.
If the minimum pitch diameter of the pinion is 12 cm, choosing your own
material for the gears determine the pitch, face width and number of teeth
in gears. Check the design for dynamic load and wear. The teeth are 20°
full depth involute.
3. Determine the horse power capacity of the pair of helical gears if
the pair has a module of 5 mm, a normal pressure angle of 20°, a 7.5 cm
face width and a 12° helix angle. The 18 teeth pinion operates at 1,450
r.p.m. and is made of cast steel. The gear has 108 teeth.
4. A pair of equal diameter herringbone gears of cast iron has a
centre distance of 7.5 cm and are to transmit 6 h.p. at 1,000 r.p.m. Select
a proper pitch, pitch diameter, helix angle and width of a face for 20°
full depth teeth.
5. A certain machine has a 2:1 ratio, 3 mm module spur gear drive
operating at a centre distance of 15 cm. It is desired to change this ratio
Art. 16-20 I GEARS )67

to 2.5:1, maintaining the original centre distance, and substituting a drive at

least as strong as the original. Give complete data as to the substitute drive.
6. Determine the horse power capacity of a pair of helical turbine
gears having a transmission ratio 8:3. The lower speed is 3,000 r,p.m.
The teeth are 20° full depth, 30° helix angle, 6 mm module and 100
mm face width. The material is 0.4% carbon steel untreated. The pinion
has 27 teeth. Determine the rating of the speed reducer. .

(C) DESIGN OF BEVEL GEARS

16-20. Introduction:
Bevel gears are used for connccting two shafts which are at
right angles. They may be connected at any desired angle.
Some of the applications of bevel gears are found in rear-axle
drives of automobiles, the vertical spindle of a drilling machine,
the elevating screws for the cross rail of a planer, the crushing
head or cone of a gyratory rock crusher, etc.

4
er.,
-S,
Q
*
9/
\\ la

Centre \ \
al
angle Face \
angle

,-v y....,Addendum
Addendum angle

Dedendum Dedendum angle

14-- —Pitch diameter---÷I 1
Outside diameter — —*1
Angular addendum

Bevel gear tooth parts

Fic. 16-17

Two types of bevel gears are used—straight teeth gears and

spiral teeth gears. Here, we shall limit ourselves to straight teeth
gears, in which case the elements of the teeth converge to a common
point 0 called the apex (fig. 16-17).
768 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XV1

There are various types of bevel gears. When a pair of bevel

gears of the same size are on shafts intersecting at right angles,
they are called miter gears. The purpose of the miter gears is to
change the direction of the shaft through a right angle without
attempting any change in speed. Angular bevel gears are mounted
on intersecting shafts which make an angle of other than 90° with
one another. In a crown gear, the pitch angle is 90°. In internal
bevel gears the teeth are cut on the inside of the pitch cone.
16-21. Definitions:
With bevel gears any combinations of numbers of teeth may be used;
however, it should be remembered that bevel gears are not interchangeable and
must be made in pairs.
The definitions relating to bevel gears are given below and arc shown
graphically in fig. 16-17.
The pitch line is a straight line passing through the apex of the cone and
lying on the slant surface.
The pitch angle is the angle between the pitch line and the axis of the cone.
The length of the pitch line from the cone apex to the base is known as the pitch
cone radius.
The addendum is the distance by which tooth extends outside the pitch
line at the outer edge while the dedendum is the depth of the tooth below the
pitch line at the outer edge.
The apex of the cone, 0, is always shown on the working drawing. The
formulas for calculating proportions of bevel gears are given in table 16-21.1
Table 16-21.1
Formulas for calculating proportions of bevel gears
Item Formula
sins
Pitch angle or the centre angle Op = tan-1
g -1-cos a
.
sin a
Og = tan-1
NN
g
+ cos cc
Shaft angle a = Op + Og
Pitch diameter Dp = Np X m; Dg = Ng X rn
D
Apex distance, cone distance 2 sine
Formative number of teeth N'= N
cos0
dedendum
Cutting anglt or root angle 0 — tan-1
apex distance
addendum
Face angle 0 + tan-1
apex distance
Outside diameter D + 2 x addendum x coati
speed of pinion . Np = Dg
Velocity ratio
speed of gear Ng Dp
Art. 16-22 1 OEARS 769

The addendum angle is the angle between the pitch line and the tooth top
line, which intersect a t the apex while the dedendum angle is the angle between
the pitch line and tooth base line, which also intersect at the apex.
The root angle or the cutting angle is the angle between the tooth base line
and the cone axis which intersect at the apex.
The face angle is the pitch cone angle plus the addendum angle. The
diameter of the base cone is known as the pitch diameter. The outside diameter
is the pitch diameter plus twice the angular addendum, which is defined as the
distance of the outer edge of tooth from cone axis minus one-half the pitch diameter.

16-22. Strength of bevel gear teeth:

For manufacture of bevel gears, most often the blanks are cast
and hence they are of cast iron, cast steel or bronze. For higher
power and lighter weight forged steel blanks are used. Various
formulas have been suggested for calculating the safe working load
on a bevel gear tooth, taking into account the variation in size
between small and large ends. The sufficient accurate results can
be obtained by taking the pitch and the linear velocity of the tooth
at the mid face and then calculating the strength by the same
method as for spur gears.
Strength of a straight-teeth bevel gear may be based on the
Lewis equation. It should be noted that the tooth tapers and
becomes smaller in cross section as it converges to the apex of the
cone. Hence the Lewis equation is modified to correct for this
situation. The modified formula for the strength of 4eeth for bevel
gears is given as
-
Fb =-- fbpy 1— - (i)

where f = permissible stress for the gear

b = the face width of the gear
p = circular pitch
y = the form factor based on the' formative number of
teeth, and not on the actual number of teeth
1 = the cone distance.
The formative or virtual number of teeth N' is given by
N
N' = cos (ii)

where N is the actual number of teeth on the gear and a the

pitch angle or half of the cone angle.
770 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

b
As the term in the bracket (1 — -1-) takes care for the bevel
gears, that factor may be termed as the bevel factor.
b
For satisfactory operation of the bevel gears the ratio
P
b
should be between 2 and 3 and the ratio should not exceed I.
b
To secure the ratio -- less than -1-, the number of teeth in the
/
48
pinion must not be less than __ - , where R is the required
Vil ± R2 b
reduction ratio. The above formula (i) should be used when
/
does not exceed 1.
The dynamic and wear loads may'be checked by formulas for
spur gears using the virtual number of teeth for the pinion and gear
and the pitch line velocity at the large diameter and Ft the
equivalent tangential load at this pitch line veocity. In deter-
mining the numerical value of Q for wear load, the number of
formative teeth should be taken.
The cone distance 1 is given by
I = Vrpz + 7g2 (iii)
where rp = pitch circle radius of the pinion
rg = pitch circle radius of the gear.
When the bevel gears connect two shafts at right angles, the
pitch cone angle Op for the pinion is given by
1
Op = tan--, (iv)
R
where R is the required reduction ratio.
Og -= tan-1R (v)
16-23. Constructional details :
The bevel gear cast blanks have either solid webs or T shaped
arms. The T section is generally adopted because it is cheap and
the stem of the T provides an ideal strengthening rib against the
thrust load. The strengthening rib is not taken into account when
considering the resistance of the section to bending in the plane of
rotation. Sometimes the gear is a steel ring attached to a separate
hub.
The same general plan as used for the design of arms for spur
gears may be applied to the case of bevel gears. We imagine that
the arms extend upto the axis of the shaft. Therefore, the bending
Art. 16-231 6EA116 /7 1

moment on the arms will be equal to the torque on the gear. Because
of an eccentric force application, there is possibility of twisting
on the arm, so it is advisable to assume that only half of the arms
carry the tangential load. The resisting moment of each arm
th2
will be - -f. The value of I may be taken equal to the rim thick-
6
ness and the thickness of the stem as 0.3b.

ins tr
enou
prat.

ri)

Dp .D1
distance for the miter gears will be — = .
8 8
The shafts for bevel gears and bearing supports should be
sufficiently rigid so that the deflections at the teeth under load will
not be excessive. Also the gears should be properly adjusted when
they are installed.
Since the bevel gears are cut on cones, the clearance between
the teeth is affected by any variation in the location of the bevel
gears on their shafts. Since manufacturing tolerances affect the
7'72 mAtHiNt tdstoN t Ch. XVI

location of the gears when the machine is assembled, means must

always be provided to allow adjustment of the position of the
bevel gears at assembly. This adjustment is best accomplished by
the use of shims to provide a positive location once the adjustment
has been completed. The proper lubrication should be provided.
If the gears are not enclosed, protective guards should be provided.
Fig. 16-19 shows both pinion and gear mounted overhung. The
bearing supports are rigid.
Gear Spacing washer

Shaft

K 9 Bush

0
Pinion

Body
Bevel gear mounting
Fig. 16-19
16-24. Bearing loads :
The resultant tooth load on either wheel or pinion of a pair
of straight bevel gears is compounded of three forces acting at the
mid-point of the face width.
(i) Force, acting perpendicular to the axis and of magnitude
torque 41
x =Q
pitch diameter 21— b
where 1 = cone distance and
b = face width
(ii) Force, perpendicular to (i) and perpendicular to axis,
of magnitude Q tan'1' case
(iii) Axial force, acting from apex, of magnitude
Q tanii sine.
Art. 1644] GEARS 773

When the components of the forces are known, by knowing

the locations of gears on the shaft, the components of bearing loads
can be easily calculated.
Owing to limitations in gear cutting machines, bevel gears
cannot conveniently be made of higher ratio than about 8 to 1;
in general it is preferable not to exceed 6 to 1.
Examples :
1. A bevel gear is required to transmit 40 h. p. with a velocity ratio
of 6:1 from a bevel pinion with the following shaft angles :
(a) 75° (b) 90° (c) 135°.
Determine the semi pitch cone angles for pinion and gear.
(a) Shaft angle 75° :
since sin 75°
Op = tan-1 _tan-1
Ng , 6 + cos 75°
cos
os cc
N
0.9659
= tan-1 = 8° --42'.
6 + 0.2588
sina. sin 75°
02 = tan-1 = tan-1
.1%i 1 + cos 75°
-1- cos cc
JVg
0.9659
= tan'1
0.166 + 0-2588 — 66°-18'.
(b) Shaft angle 90° :
sin 90°
Op = tan-1 = tan-1 i = 9°-32'.
6 + cos 90°
sin 90°
Og = tan-1 — tan-1. 6 = 80°-28'.
* + cos 90°
(c) Shaft angle 1350 :
sin 135° 0.7071
Op = tan-1 6 = tan-1 = 7°-36'.
+ cos 135° 6 — 0.7071
sin 135° 0.7071
Og = tan-1 = tan-1 = 127°-24'.
+ cos 135° 0.166 — 0.7071
2. A pair o bevel gears is required to transmit 25 h.p. at 600 r.p.m.
The output shaft speed is 300 r.p.m. and is at right angles to the input shaft.
Both gears are carried on overhanging shafts supported in the housing very
close to the gears. Design the pair of bevel gears.
20 x 25
The torque on the pinion shaft = 716600 = 3,000 kg cm.
The velocity ratio is 2.
774 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

1
The semi-pitch cone angle of the pinion Op = tarri ii
= tan-1 * = 26°-34'.
Let us adopt 28 teeth on the pinion. The formative number of
teeth =
28 ..-.,..•. 28_._— = 31.3, say 32.
cos 26°-34' 0.8§54
We adopt pressure angle as 20° and adopt full depth teeth.
.912
y = 0.154 —0 - = 0.125.
32
Let us take the width of the gear as *rd the cone distance.
/ — b 1- 0.331 n ci
.•. Bevel factor = -= - — = trol.
I I
Let p cm be the circular pitch. Therefore, the pitch circle
x
radius of the pinion = 28 p = 446p. The cone distance is equal
27t
4.46p 10p
-
to =10p. The face width will be equal to - = 3.33p.
sin26°-34' 3
'3000 672
'Me tangential effort on the pinion = = - kg.
4.46p p
Let us assume the material for the pinion and gear to be cast
steel for which the safe static stress to be taken as 1,050 kg/sq cm.
x600
The pitch line velocity = 28 160 p=2.8p metre/sec.
x 60
The velocity factor =.-. 3
3 +2.8p
According to modified Lewis formula, we have
6 3
3 ----- 1050 3.33p < 0.125 x 0.667p.
; [3 + 2.8p]
From which, we get p3 - 1.63p— 1.74 = 0.
The value of p will be obtained by trial and error method.
The value of p lies between 1.6 and 1.7 cm. The corresponding
value of the module will be 5.1 and 542. The next standard
module will be 6 mm. Therefore, the circular pitch will be
6 x , --,--- 18.8 mm, i.e. 1.88 cm.
This will give a pitch circle diameter for pinion as 28 x 6
= 168 mm arid that for gear 168 x 2 = 336 mm.
Cone distance = 118.42 + 16.82 = 18.8 cm.
Face width of the gear = 183.8 = 6.3 cm.
After module has been decided upon, other dimensions for
the tooth can be obtained.
Art. 16-24 ] GEARS 775

Let us determine the wear load. Formative number of teeth

for pinion = 32. Actual number of teeth for gear = 56. Formative
56
number of teeth in gear = = 124.
cos 53°-26-'
Q = ff
2 x=F.124A
F = 1.59.
Assuming material combination factor to be 14, we get
Fri = 16.8 x 6.3 x 14 x 1.59 = 2,360 kg. •
672 672
Tangential effort on the pinion = ,
7T771 1.884 = 358 kg.
Hence the design is safe from wear considerations.
The diameter of the pinion shaft can be calculated, considering
the load to be uniform. We design the shaft from torque con-
sideration only taking the lower value of permissible shear stress.
We assume the permissible shear stress as 350 kg/sq cm. If
d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
TC
d3 x 350 = 3000
16

or d=
f 3000
3 50
16
x — = 3.52 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
TC
Since the speed reduction is 2:1, the wheel shaft will transmit
a torque twice that of the pinion shaft; hence the diameter of the
gear shaft will be 3.52 .0 = 4.45 cm; we adpot 4.5 cm. The
standard keyways should be provided in the pinion and gear hubs.
The gear should be provided with four arms. ....
3. Two shafts intersecting at an angle of 90° are connected by straight
teeth bevel gears to give a velocity ratio of 2:1. The pinion has a mean
diameter of 20 cm and delivers 7.5 h. p. at 500 r.p.m. The teeth have a
pressure angle of 144°. The mean plane of the gear is 15 cm from the right
hand bearing and 10 cm from the left hand bearing. Determine the pitch
angles of the gears, the forces on the gear bearings, the bending moment on
the gear shaft and the necessary diameter of the shaft.
The semi pitch cone angle for the pinion Op = tan-1 4 = 26°-36'.
og -,_ tan--1 2 = 63°-24'.
71620 x 7.5
Torque on the pinion shaft = - -- - = 1,080 kg cm.
500
As the speed reduction is 2:1, the torque on the gear shaft will
be 1080 x 2 = 2,160 kg cm. The pitch circle radius of the gear
20 x 2
-= 20 cm.
2
776 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XVI

For determining forces at the mid point of the face width

of a gear, we adopt the methods described in art. 16-24.
We assume the ratio = - = 1.
/
2 160 r 4
•.
• Q, the force acting perpendicular to the axis
= —40 1.2 —
= 130 kg.
Force perpendicular to Q and perpendicular to the axis
= 130 tan 14i° x cos 63°-24'
= 130 x 0.2586 x 0.44.78 = 15.1 kg.
Axial force acting from the apex = 130 tan 14i° x sin 63°-24'
= 130 x 0.2586 x 0.8942 = 30.2 kg.
Due to tangential load of 130 kg, the horizontal reaction at
the right hand bearing will be itio- x 130 kg = 52 kg and for left
hand bearing the horizontal reaction will be -Ar x 130 kg = 78 kg.
Vertical reaction due to axial force at each bearing will be
.2 x 20
equal to 30 25 = 25.6 kg. The magnitude of the reaction
at each bearing will be the same but their directions will be
opposite.
Vertical reactions due to third force will be Po x 15.1 = 9.06 kg
at left hand bearing and iiiy x 15.1 = 6.04 kg at right hand
bearing.
The maximum load will be on the left hand bearing and will
be equal V781 + (25.6 + 9.06)2 = 85 kg.
Maximum bending moment on the gear will be 85 x 10 = 850
kg cm and twisting moment 2,160 kg cm.
We assume the permissible shear stress to be 400 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
---6- d3 x 400 = V8502 + 21602 = 2,321 kg cm
1
3 2321 16
or d= --4-(-)0 X -- = 3.1 cm; we adopt 3.5 cm.

4. The bevel gear wheel of 4 arms of T section is subjected to a

twisting moment of 6,000 kg cm. If the permissible stress for the gear
material is 650 kg/sq cm, suggest the suitable dimensions for the arms.
In designing the arms for the gear, the flange of the T section
will be assumed to resist the bending moment produced due to
Art. 16-24] GEARS 777

the tangential load. In order to account for the possibility of the

twisting on the arm, we assume that only half of the arms carry
the tangential load. Therefore, the bending moment to be resisted
000
by T section = 6 — — 3,000 kg cm. We assume the width of
the flange to be six times the thickness of the flange.
••• Modulus of section = ith2 = it (61)2 = 6t3.
••• 3000 = 6t2 x 650
-I/ 3000
or t = 6-x-- 650=0.915 cm; we adopt 1 cm.
The width of the flange will be 1 x 6 = 6 cm. The vertical
leg may be made 1 cm thick and the height of the leg should be
about 2.5 cm less than the length of the hub.
Exercises:
1. A straight teeth bevel gear .and pinion provide a 3:1 ratio and
have perpendicular axes. Could this same pinion be used with a smaller
gear in another installation with perpendicular axes to provide a 2:1 ratio?
Explain briefly.
2. Why must bevel gear assemblies be constructed so that the position
of the gear and pinion can be adjusted length wise along their shafts at
assembly?
3. Explain how the positions of the gear and pinion are adjusted
axially and why this is necessary. ill

4. A bevel pinion and gear are to be designed to operate with a shaft

angle of 75°, 90° and 120°. The speed ratio is 5:1.
Calculate the centre angles for each drive.
Ans. 100-241 and 64°-36'; 11°49' and 78°-41'.
5. The vertical spindle of a drilling machine is to be driven by
means of a pair of straight bevel gears with 20° full depth teeth of module
5 mm. The pinion is to be mounted on the horizontal shaft. The
reduction ratio is 2:1. If the drill requires a torque of 30,000 kg cm at
400 r.p.m., determine the proportions for bevel gears if they are made of
steel with a static stress of 1,400 kg/sq cm.
6. A pair of bevel wheels transmits 50 h. p. One of the wheels has
60 teeth and 50 mm pitch cone diameter and the other wheel has 45 teeth. Find
the driving force between the teeth and determine the diameter of the shaft
(pure torsion only). The shaft of the 60 teeth bevel wheel makes 120 r.p.m.
778 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XN
Calculate the dimensions of the arms of the wheel (assuming 4 arms) and of
the nave. Draw sectional elevation and plan.
7. A gear box is required for speed reduction ratio of 3:1. The
shafts are at right angles and the high speed shaft transmits 30 h.p. at 900
r.p.m. Gears are to be straight bevel type and are made of steel having
a strength of 2,100 kg/sq cm. The shafts are of carbon steel. The
gear shaft is supported in two bearings, while that for the pinion is
overhanging. Provision should be made for preventing dust. Lubrication
by splash from the reservoir on the housing should be included in the design.
Housing should be made from good grade of cast iron. You may take 96
as value of factor in calculating limiting load for wear and profile error less
than 0.05 mm. Calculate the gear and pinion dimensions and bearing loads.
Draw an assembly drawing in section of the gear box.
8. A pair of bevel gears is required to transmit 25 h.p. at 600
r.p.m. The output shaft speed is 300 r.p.m. and is at right angles to the
input shaft. Both gears are carried on overhanging shafts supported in
the housini very close to the gears. The gear is of cast iron and the
pinion is of steel.
Design the gear wheel and prepare its dimensioned drawing. The
static strength of iron is 560 kg/sq cm and the pitch line velocity should not
exceed 500 metre/minute. The wear factor is 44.
(D) DESIGN OF WORM GEARS
16-25. Introduction:
Worm gearing is used to transmit power between shafts with
perpendicular, non-intersecting axes. The essential elements of
worm gearing are a worm and a wheel. The worm is usually of
cylindrical form and resembles a screw; a section through the
worm wheel will show that the teeth are straight sided and similar
to those of an involute rack. The worm may be left handed or
right handed and single threaded or multiple threaded. The
worm wheel is essentially a helical gear with a face curved to fit
a portion of the worm periphery.
The worm gearing is classified as non-interchangable, because
a worm wheel cut with a hob of one diameter will not operate
satisfactorily with a worm of different diameter, even if the thread
pitch is the same.
The principal advantages of the worm and worm wheel drive are:
(i) The suitability for transmission of power at high velocity ratio
Art. 16-26] GEARS 779

(ii) The self-locking property of the drive

(iii) The silent operation.

16-26. Worm gear nomenclature:

Fig. 16-20 shows the principal elements and parts of the
drive. The same terminology is applied to worm gear teeth as
to all other forms of toothed gearing. The circular pitch p of
the worm wheel becomes the linear pitch of the worm. The lead
of the worm is the distance that a point on the pitch circle of the
worm wheel will advance during one revolution of the worm.
A double threaded worm has a lead equal to two tin'les the pitch;
in a single threaded worm the lead and pitch are the same.

I4-Pi 13
AP FA
r w r•

ii
i

IC
/. O
_.

P C t4 A

I1
8"

Worm and worm wheel

FIG. 16-20

The velocity ratio depends upon the lead ofathe worm and
the pitch diameter of the wheel. The velocity ratio R is given
by
nw N g Dg
R (i)
ng Nto Dulancc
where nw is the r.p.m. of the worm, n g r.p.m. of the gear,
Ng the number of teeth on the gear, Nw the number of threads in
parallel on the worm, Dg the gear pitch diameter, Dw the worm
pitch diameter and a the helix angle of the worm. The helix
angle a of the worm threads is the angle between a line tangent
to the thread helix at the pitch line and a plane perpendicular to
the axis of the worm.
, lead
a = tan-- (ii)
7cDw
Unlike the most gearing the velocity ratio is independent of
the pitch diameter of one of the elements—the worm
780 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The tooth pressure angle is measured in a plane containing

the axis of the worm and is equal to one-half the thread profile
angle. (See fig. 16-20.) For single and double threaded worms,
the pressure angles of 14i° are used and for triple threaded and for
quadruple threaded worms the pressure angles of 20° is used. For
automotive applications the pressure angle of 30° is recommended
to obtain a high efficiency and to permit overhauling.
The following are the approximate proportions which can
be recommended for worms:

Table 16-26.1
Proportions of worms
p = circular pitch in cm

Symbol Single and double Triple and quad-

threads ruple threads

Normal pressure angle fa 14i° 20°

Pitch diameter, bored
for shaft, cm Dw 2 4p + 2 8 2 4p 4 2 8
Pitch diameter, integral
with shaft, cm Dw 2 35p + 1 2.35p + 1
Face length, cm w (4 5 + 0.02Nw) p (4.5 + 0.02Nw) p
Depth of tooth, cm h I 0 686p 0.623p
Addendum, cm a 0 318p 0.286p
Hub diameter, cm Dh 1 66p + 2 5 1.726p + 2 5
Maximum bore for
shaft, cm dw p+ 1 35 p+ 1.35

The worm gear efficiency depends on the material of the worm

and the worm wheel, the atnount and character of the lubricant,
the velocity of rubbing and the size of the helix angle of the worm.
Single threaded worms have low helix angles and efficiencies. Such
worms are used for getting large mechanical advantage. Due to
their low efficiencies they are employed where self-locking property
is desirable as in hoisting machinery. For such worms the helix
angles must be generally less than 5°. To get maximum efficiency
multiple threaded worms are employed; however, the use of such
worms increases the size of the unit. For a compact design, the
helit angle is given as
3t
tan cc --,--. v R (iii)
Art. 16-271 GEARS 781

According to F.A. Halsey, the angle a less than 9° results in

a rapid wear and the safe value is l2°.
The following expressions for efficiency are based on velocity
ratio:
1 ,---- 100 — R (iv)
7) ----- 100 (v)
- 2
Equation (iv) is applicable to worm gear sets without cases,
mounted or installed by the purchaser, while equation (v) to com-
mercial worm gear reducers.

Table 16-26.2
Proportions of worm gears
p = circular pitch in cm

Single and double Triple and quad-

Symbol threads ruple threads

Normal pressure angle 13 14° 20°

Outside diameter, cm Do Dg + 1.0135p Dg + 0.8903p
Throat diameter, cm Di Dg + 0.636p Dg + 0.572p
Face width, cm b 2.38p + 0.65 2.15p + 0.5
Radius of gear face, cm rb 0.882p + 1.4 0.914p + 1.4
Radius of gear rim, cm rr 2.2p+ 1.4 2.1p + 1.4
Radius of edge, cm re 0.25p 0.25p

16-27. Strength of worm gear teeth:

The power transmitting capacity of a worm gearing is decided
by the strength, the ability to resist wear and abrasion and the
heat radiating capacity. In determination of tooth size and strength,
it is safe to assume that the worm gear wheel should govern the
design rather than the worm. The worm is made of steel while
gear is made of cast iron and bronze. The continuous section of
the worm thread offers greater resistance to bending than the gear
tooth.
In worm gearing, two or more teeth are usually in contact,
but due to uncertainty of load distribution among themselves, we
assume that the load is transmitted by one tooth only.
According to Lewis formula
[ ]
permissible tooth load = f bpy (i)
3 v
782 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The static stress of 370 kg/sq cm for cast iron and 550 kg/sq cm for
bronze are the usual values. The permissible tooth load found
out by equation (i) must be greater than actual tooth load which
is determined from the torque transmitted and the worm wheel
pitch diameter.
The limiting load F for wear in a worm gear set is found by
Fw --- Dgb147 (ii)
where Dg is the pitch diameter of the gear in cm, b the face
of gear in cm and W a constant dependent upon the materials of the
worm and gear. For continuous service, the worm should be
hardened and have a Brinell Hardness Number of 250 or more.
Table 16-27.1 gives value of W with hardened worms:
Table 16-27.1
Wear constant W for worm gears
1
Matr► ial of worm wheels IV

Cast iron or semi steel 3.5

Manganese bronze 5.6
Phosphor bronze 7
Non-metallic materials 8.7

The limiting input horse power rating of a plain worm gear

unit, from stand point of heat dissipation, for worm speeds upto
2,000 r.p.m. may be estimated by
2C'
H. P. - - (iii)
R+ 5
where C :--- centre distance in cm and
R ==- speed reduction ratio.
When the worm is underneath the wheel, it should be run in oil
bath to insure adequate lubrication. The gears should be entirely
enclosed to prevent oil leakage and to protect them from dust or
foreign material. In order to increase the efficiency and to
maintain proper alignment, ball bearings or roller bearings should
be used.

16-28. Bearing loads on the shafts:

The worm shaft is usually mounted on ball bearings and there
is often a double row radial ball bearings on the side where an axial
Art. 16-28 j GEARS 783

thrust load exists. The gear shaft is supported either by ball

bearings or Timken adjustable roller bearings.
2 x torque on gear wheel
End thrust on worm = • P . • • (i)
pitch diameter of wheel
2 x torque on worm
End thrust on wheel = --- • • • • ( ii)

pitch diameter of worm

journal loads on worm bearings

-- V[P2 (tan( secs dw) -1 Q2] (iii)

journal loads on worm wheel bearings

--A y
(Z2 (tanp cosecs ±
Dg 2
) + P2
L
(iv)
where 1 and L are the respective journal bearing spans on worm
shaft and wheel shaft respectively. The two bearings on each shaft
are assumed to be equidistant from the common perpendicular to
the shafts.
Because the teeth of the gear are cut in a concave surface so as
to partially wrap around the worm, as shown in fig. 16-20, it is
necessary that the gear be so located that the centre line of its face
lines up with the centre line of the worm axis which condition is
shown in fig. 16-20, but to obtain it in a machine, means must be
provided to adjust the gear position axially at assembly. One
method of getting this adjustment is a shimmed cap as the case
with bevel gears. No adjustment is needed on the worm location,
since the operation of the worm and gear is not affected by axial
variation in the position of the worm.
The illustrative examples given below give some ideas regard-
ing the design procedure adopted for worm and worm wheels.

Examples :
1. A triple threaded worm has a pitch cliometer of 10 cm and an
axial pitch of 2 cm. Determine the helix angle.
lead
Helix angle
ndw
where 4 = mean pitch diameter of the worm, and a , helix angle.
2 3 x 2
tan== —3 x:-- ----
- 0.191 or , tan—'
nX10
•
X 10
• •x 10°-49'.
784 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

2. A worm gear reducer unit is to have 40 cm centre distance. What

should be the approximate worm diameter and axial pitch of the worm?
The following design equations are employed :
00.875
du, = -189
, =7, 3pc (i)
where du, _-, mean pitch diameter of the worm
C = centre distance between axis of worm and axis of wheel
Pc = circular pitch of the wheel.
b = 0.37 du, (ii)
where b = face width of wheel.

/ . pc 4.5 + A
-5,4 cm (iii)

where 1 --,--- axial length of the worm in cm

Ng = number of teeth in wheel.
00.875 4.00.875
dz. = __ = 13.3 cm.
1.89 1.89
Further du, = 3 pc.
13.3 A Avi2
• PC ' 3.33 = -.-•,.., cm.

Further pc --.--- mTc.

pc 4-43
•• m= = = 1 .41 cm. We adopt 1§, mm module.
7t n
I‘
3. A speed reducer unit is to be designed for an input 1 h. p. with a
transmission ratio of 27. The speed of the hardened steel worm is 1,750
r.p.m. The worm wheel is to be made of phosphor bronze. The tooth
form is to be 144° involute.
It is necessary to choose a centre distance for trial, which we
assume to be 10 cm. The mean diameter of the worm is given
00.875
by the equation du, , -
1-89 cm.
On substitution of values, we get
100.875
dw -,,- 1.89,4 cm

We have di. •=1 3 pc. Therefore, circular pitch will be

approximately 4 = 1-33 cm.
Art. 16-28] GEARS 785

The pitch circle diameter of the gear will be 20 — 4 = 16 cm.

The number of teeth in the gear must be some multiple of 27;
i.e. 27,54,81, etc.

The pitch must also be equal to 16 = 27,54,81, etc.

p
and it must be near about 1.33 cm.
We assume double start worm. Therefore, the number of
teeth in worm gear will be 2 x 27 = 54 teeth.
16
• •
• Nearest pitch = 7c-1 5X4- = 0.93 cm.

If m is the module, then circular pitch will be equal to mit.

93
Therefore, probable m will be 0 = 0.295 cm. We adopt 3 mm
.rc"--
as the module. Therefore, circular pitch will be n x 3 = 9.42 mm
i.e. 0.942 cm. The axial pitch of the worm is equal to the circular pitch
of the gear. The pitch circle diameter of the worm wheel will
0.942 x 54
be = = 16.2 cm.
7
Pitch diameter of the worm = 20 — 16.2 = 3.8 cm.
Face width b = 0.73 x 3.8 = 2.78 cm; we adopt 2.8 cm.
Let us check the design from strength, wear and heat dissi-
pation considerations.
Tangential tooth load = f b p y.
For phosphor bronze, the static stress may be taken as 560
kg/sq cm.
16.2 1
Pitch line velocity of the gear = zc x x 1750
100 X 60
= 0.55 metre/sec.
3 3
Velocity factor = 3 v -5- = 0.845.
35
Form factor for 14i° involute profile having 54 teeth is 0-111.
p = 0.942 cm. b = 2.8 cm.
F = 560 x 0.845 x 0.111 x 0.942 x 2.8 = 138 kg.
, 138 x50.55 = 1.02.
H.P. transmitted =
7
786 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVI

Thus given reducing unit can transmit 1.02 h.p. safely.

Wear load F = Dg XbXW kg
where Dg = pitch circle diameter of the gear in cm
b =--- face width of gear in cm
W = material combination factor in kg/sq cm.
For hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear
W . 7 kg/sq cm.
On substitution of values, we get
Fw = 16.2 x2.8 x 7 = 318 kg.
318 7 0.55
H.P. (wear) = = 2-33.
Permissible input power from heat dissipation view point
2C1'7
= R+5
where C = centre distance in cm, and R = speed reduction ratio.
1.7
••• H.P. = = 1.57.
227 ±105
Thus, the entire calculations can be summarised as follows:
Safe power Based on
1.02 Strength
1.57 Heat dissipation capacity
2.33 Wear.
The rating of the given unit is 1 h.p.

4. Design a worm gear drive for a hoist with a drum diameter of

75 cm to ly't a load of 250 kg through a distance of 20 metre in 15 seconds,
driven by 950 r.p.m. motor.
20 _ 34 r.p.m.
Speed of the drum shaft = 0.75 x 4 —
xn
motor speed 950 _
Velocity ratio = 28
drum speed = 34 — '
In order to make the drive compact, we adopt 28 teeth bronze
worm wheel and a single threaded worm.

Torque on hoisting drum = 250 x 75 = 9,300 kg cm.

2
9300 x 2./t 2090
Tangential tooth load on wheel . 28p = kg,
p
Art. 16-28] GEARS 787

where p is the probable circular pitch in cm. This load

should be less than or equal to the strength of the tooth calculated
from Lewis formula.
The permissible static stress for phosphor bronze is 560
kg/sq cm. For a pressure angle of 14-r, for a 28 teeth wheel,
0.684
y = 0.124 — = 0.098.
28
The face width b of a gear is given by
b = 0.73 du, --=--- 0.73 x 3p = 2.19p.
Let us take b = 2.2p.
p 34
Pitch line velocity = 28 0x -- x = 0.159p metre/sec
10 60

Let us solve the problem by trial and error method.

Module Circular face width Velocity Tangential Beam strength

m pitch b = 2.2p factor tooth load
P 3 2090/p fbP)1 [3-T-0-3-15
. Tp]
mm cm CM 37-F0.159P kg kg

6 1.88 4.15 0.91 1,110 430

8 2.51 5.52 0.882 833 672
10 3.14 6.91 0.858 664 1,030
12 3.77 8.3 0.835 554 1,430

We adopt 10 mm module, which will provide a circular pitch of 3.14 cm.

Note: Hoist service is usually intermittent and the question of wear is not
always considered. In a design of this character, however, and particularly in
view of the comparatively small size of the worm gear, it may be advisable to
investigate the possibilities of failure or unsatisfactory service from such cases.
x
Pitch diameter of gear wheel = 28 3.14---= 28 cm.
IT

Wear load Fu, = Dg x b x W kg, •

where Dg --:--t pitch circle diameter of the gear in cm
b = face width of gear in cm
W = material combination factor in kg/sq cm.
For hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear,
W = 7 kg/sq cm.
On substitution of values, we get
Fw = 28 x 6.91 x 7 = 1,350 kg.
788 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI

As the wear load is more than the beam strength, which is

1,030 kg, re-design is unnecessary. If the wear load were to be less
than the active load, the re-design would be necessary. We could
have adopted double threaded worm with finer circular pitch.
R 28
The efficiency of the gear set = 100 -- 2- = 100 — -2- .86%.
x
H.P. absorbed at the load = 250 20— 4.45.
15 x 75
.
As the efficiency is 86%, the input horse power = 4 45
0786 = 5. 17 '
Let us consider the heat dissipation capacity of the gear
reducer unit designed.
The pitch diameter of the worm is approximately equal to
three times the circular pitch of the gear. As the circular pitch is
3.14 cm, the pitch diameter of the worm is equal to 3 x 3.14 =-
28 +9.14
9.14 cm. The centre distance C = — = 18.57 cm.
2
2C1.7 2 x 18.571-7
H. P. = ii-475 . 28+5 = 9.15.

Thus, the design is satisfactory from heat dissipation view

point.
Note: The artificial cooling is obtained by circulating the lubricant and
cooling it outside the housing, by circulating water in cooling coils inside the
housing or blowing air across a finned part of the housing.
Two types of worm gear construction similar to one shown in
fig. 16-5 are common. In one construction, the worm gear is an
integral casting and must have a hub, web and rim of the same
material as the teeth, while in other construction the bronze rim
is mounted on a cast iron spider. This construction requires
additional machining than the solid type of wheel, but the addi-
tional cost of machining is usually more than compensated for
by saving in material particularly in large gears.
5. Fig. 16-21 shows a layout drawing giving details of a drive to a
rota?), cement kiln. Using the data given in fig. 16-21 calculate
(i) Torque to turn kiln
(ii) Electric motor horse power
(iii) Worm gear-box ratio
(iv) Journal and thrust loads on the worm shaft bearings
Art. 16.28] GEARS 789

(v) Diameter of the worm shaft using a shear stress of 250 kg sq cm

in conjunction with the equivalent twisting moment formula for a steady
torque and bending moment. Consider the worm shaft as being simply
supported in its bearings.

KILN GEAR RING

240 TEETH
KILN BEARING
900 mm DIA.
14 = 0.12
t BEAR-f-
125mm
ROTARY KILN
WEIGHT = 24 TONNES -4-
125mm
SPUR GEAR _.i...
24 TEETH; GEAR 1.= 60 %,„-- -'11. t BEARING
WORM BOX WITH TWO START
(GEAR BOX n=85%) WORM FLEXIBLE
ELECTRIC MOTOR COUPLING
600 R.P.M.

PITCH CIRCLE DIA. OF WORM = 100 mm.

HELIX ANGLE 0C = 12°
ANGLE OF WORM THREAD 5 = 20°
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION iiit a 0.03
6; = F•CossSincic.j4 F. Cosec
F = F CosS Cos•c - 14 F Sin•c
Y
F = NORMAL REACTION BETWEEN TEETH AT
THE POINT OF CONTACT
F IS THE TURNING FORCE ON THE WORM
F.: IS THE TURNING FORCE ON THE GEAR

Drive for a rotary kiln

FIG. 16-21
790 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

The load on the journal bearings of a kiln is 24,000 kg and the

diameter of the journal is 90 cm. As the coefficient of friction at
journal bearing is 0.12, the torque required to overcome the friction
90
at the journal bearings is 24000 x 0.12 x -- = 130,000 kg cm.

Hence the torque required to turn the kiln is 130,000 kg cm.

2n x 5
H.P. required at kiln = 130000 x = 10.1.
100 4500
As the efficiency of the worm gear box is 85%, and that of
spur gear drive is 60%, the horse power of the electric motor will
10.1
be = 20.
0.85 x 0.60

Speed reduction at spur gear is 240 = 10. Hence the speed

of the spur gear pinion will be 5 x 10 = 50 r.p.m. Worm gear-box
600
speed reduction will be 5-0- = 12.

Torque on the motor shaft = 71620 x 20 = 2,400 kg cm.

600
Pitch circle diameter of the worm = 10 cm
Tangential force on the worm = axial force on the wheel
._,- 2400
— =--- 480 kg.
5
Axial force on the worm = tangential force on the wheel.
Fx = 480 kg.
•• 480 = Fcos12° x sin12° + 0.03 x Fcos 12°.
From the above equation we get F = 2,140 kg.
Fy = turning force on the gear = axial force on the worm
= 2140 cos20° x cos12° — 0.03 x 2140 x 0.208
= 1,956 kg
Journal load on the worm shaft = 480 kg.
Thrust load on the worm shaft bearings = 1,956 kg.
In the initial stage we neglect the effect of axial load on the
shaft.
480 x 25
Bending moment on the worm shaft = --- --, 3,000 kg cm
4
Twisting moment = 2,400 kg cm.
Art. 16-28] GEARS 791

If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then according to

maximum shear stress theory, we have
(13 x 250 = V24002 + 30002.
16
From above equation we get d. 4.35 cm.
In order to account for the thrust, which has been neglected
for finding out the diameter of the worm shaft, we increase the
diameter to 55 mm.
The students are advised to check this diameter as an exercise.
Exercises:
1. State the most important advantages and disadvantages of worm
gearing compared to other types of gearing.
2. Make a force analysis of a worm and gear with the gear driving
the worm. Derive an equation for the efficiency of the drive. Derive an
equation that expresses the relationship between the lead angle, pressure
angle and coefficient of friction if the drive is self locking. Show that when
this condition of worm driving exists, the efficiency is less than 50%.
Ans. 1.i. cosclan tancc
3. Explain how the position of the gear is adjusted axially in the
worm gear speed reducer. Why such an adjustment is necessary?
4. Explain why bronze gears are commonly used with hardened steel
worms, rather than having both the worm and gear made of hardened steel.
5. A double threaded worm has a lead angle of 23°. For an axial
pitch of 3.14 cm, what is the diameter of the worm? Aks. 4.73 cm.
6. A worm gear reducer unit has a centre distance of 22 cm and a
transmission ratio of 18. What is its approximate horse power input
rating in order to prevent overheating? Ans. 11.7 h.p.
7. A hardened steel worm rotating at 960 r.p.m. transmits power
to a phosphor bronze gear with a transmission ratio of 15:1. The centre
distance is 23 cm. Determine the remaining design and give estimated
horse power input ratings from the standpoint of strength, wear and heat
dissipation. The teeth are of 14i° involute, full depth form.
8. A worm gear reducer unit is to have 25 cm centre distance. What
should be the worm diameter and axial pitch of the worm?
Ans. 8 cm; 2.492 cm.
9. Design a worm and worm gear to transmit 30 h.p. at a speed
of 480 r.p.m. The desired velocity ratio is 15:1. The efficiency must
not be less than 90%. Use a worm with three threads.
792 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVI

10. Design a set of worm gearing for use in the apron of a

centre lathe, The worm is to slide on and revolve with the lead screw,
which is to rotate at a minimum speed of 10 r.p.m. The speed reduction
of worm gearing is to be 30. The outside diameter of the lead screw is
50 mm, having 6 mm pitch single start threads. The gear should be designed
for the maximum possible efficiency and to work at a maximum centre
distance of 10 cm.
Materials :
Worm: Hardened steel
Worm wheel: Phosphor bronze
Duty: 8 hours /day.

EXAMPLES XVI

1. A three-speed gear box of sliding gear type is to have the following for-
ward speed ratios as nearly as possible:
Bottom gear 5 to 1
Second gear 3 to 1
Top gear 1 i to 1.
The input and output shafts are to be in line and the centre distance (which
is horizontal) between them and the layshaft is to be 15 cm exactly. The module
is to be 5 mm for all wheels and no wheel must have less than 20 teeth. The
pressure angle is to be 20°. Determine suitable number of teeth and pitch circle
diameters for all wheels and sketch diagrammatically the arrangement of the box,
describing its operation.
State the actual speed ratios achieved. If the input is 25 h.p. at 2,000 r.p.m.,
determine:
(a) the greatest horizontal force exerted on the layshaft by the gears;
(b) the greatest torque reaction on the casting.
Neglect friction.
2. A pair of spur gears is required to transmit 30 h.p. with a speed reduction
of exactly 3* to 1, the pinion being driven at 450 r.p.m. The centre distance is
to be approximately 25 cm. The teeth are to be of standard involute form
having module of 5 mm. Design the gears using Lewis formula.
Adopt working stresses of 1,400 kg/sq cm for cast steel and 1,820 kg/sq cm
for forged steel.
Use elliptical section arms for the wheel and take the permissible maximum
bending stress to be 600 kg/sq cm.
In designing each shaft, assume a maximum bending moment of 12,500 kg cm
to act in addition to the torque. Use a working shear stress of 500 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Tooth breadth 50 mm. Pinion shaft 35 mm. Wheel shaft 65 mm.
Ex. XVI] GEARS 793

3. A pair of straight bevel gears are used to drive the vertical spindle of a
drilling machine. The pinion is mounted on the horizontal drive shaft which
rotates at 950 r.p.m. by a motor which delivers 22 h.p. The pinion is to have 24
machine cut stub teeth, pressure angle 20°, 4 mm module, speed ratio approxi-
mately 2:1. Determine a suitable face width for the gears and obtain the
available drilling torque, neglecting gearing and bearing friction. Permissible
static stress at low speed = 1,400 kg/sq cm. Tooth form factory for 20° stub teeth
0
spur gear is y = 0.175 — 0•9- •
n
4. The shaft of a wire pulling machine rotates at 1,450 r.p.m. and is required
to transmit a torque of 1,000 kg cm from the gear located at one end of a shaft to
a flexible coupling at the other end. The bearings that support shaft are 80 cm
apart and the gear is located 10 cm outside its adjacent bearing centre to centre.
The gear is driven by a driving gear from a motor with a velocity ratio 1:1.
Specify the horse power of the driving motor and design the suitable spur gear
for the shaft.
5. What is the visual evidence of gear teeth failure by bending fatigue and
by surface fatigue? What surface treatments could be used to increase the
bending fatigue life and surface fatigue life of gear teeth ?
An overhead crane has a rated capacity of 20 tonnes while it hoists at a speed
of 2 metre/minute when the direct current motor is developing its rated horse
power. A current relay limits the maximum motor torque to 125% of its rated
torque. The rope drum diameter is 750 mm and the sheave diameters are 500 mm.
The rope drum is driven by the direct current motor through a closed speed
reduction gear. All gear wheels are of spur type. The final pair of spur gears,
which is to be designed, is to provide a ratio of 3:1, with the pinion keyed to a
85 mm diameter shaft and the gear keyed to the 125 mm diameter shaft of the
rope drum. Design the final pair of spur gears and make a neat dimensioned
sketch, to scale, showing the cross section of your gear and pinion.
6. Design a gear drive for a small hand driven blower for a blacksmith's
hearth. Blower speed is 800 r.p.m. and approximate speed of hand lever is 70
r.p.m. Force at the hand crank is 5 kg. Length of the crank is 30 cm. The
gear must be completely enclosed in a gear case and should incorporate cheap
production methods. Material used: Cast iron for gears, lever and gear case.
Mild steel for shaft and hand crank.
Take allowable static stress for cast iron as 560 kg/sq cm and the form factor
0.912 •
for 20° gears as y = 0.154
number of teeth
For mild steel take the allowable tensile stress as 800 kg/sq cm, for shear
400 kg/sq cm and 70 kg/sq cm for bearing pressure.
(University of Bombay, 1968)
7. Design a back gear for a lathe to give a reduction of 9:1.
Distance between shaft centres 15 cm
H.P. transmitted 2.5
Speed of cone pulley 600 r.p.m.
794 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVI
Length of cone pulley 20 cm (exclusive of gears)
Safe static stress for materials of gears 2,500 kg/sq cm
Safe shear stress for spindle 500 kg/sq cm
Minimum no. of teeth 20 with 20° pressure angle
Form factor 20 60 90 180 teeth
y 0.1 0.13 0.14 0.16
q 3.3 2.75 2.6 2.5
Sketch neatly the arrangement (University of Bombay, 1969)
8. (a) Write explanatory notes on the following illustrating your answers
with sketches:
(i) Load variation on a gear tooth as it passes through engagement
(ii) Undercutting in gears
(iii) Gear teeth failures
(iv) Equivalent spur gear.
(b) In a gear box the centre distance between the bearings on the output
shaft is 50 cm and its diameter at the bearings is 8 cm. The helical output gear is
mid way between the bearings. The diameter of the gear hub is 18 cm and its
axial length is 15 cm. The bearings are self aligning roller bearings with an
outside diameter of 16 cm and an axial width of 5 cm.
Make a well proportioned sketch of the assembly of the gear, the shaft and the
bearing mounted in the body of the gear box. The sketch should show explicitly
how all the components are fixed and only the relevant parts of the gear and gear
box need be shown.
You are free to modify the shaft and use any additional components you wish,
provided you label them on the assembly.
(University of Bombay, 1969).
9. (a) A pair of bevel gears is required to transmit 25 h.p. at 600 r.p.m.
The output shaft speed is 300 r.p.m. and is at right-angles to the input shaft. Both
gears are carried on overhanging shafts supported in the housing very close to
gears. The gear is of cast iron and the pinion is of steel. Design the gear wheel
and prepare its dimensioned sketch. The static strength of cast iron is 560 kg/sq
cm and the pitch line velocity should not exceed 500 metres/minute
(b) Why must bevel gear assemblies be constructed so that the position of
the gear and pinion can be adjusted lengthwise along their shaft at assembly?
(University of Bombay, 1972)
10. Design spur back gear of a lathe for a total speed reduction of 9 from
the following data:
Maximum power to be transmitted 2 h.p.
Maximum and minimum speeds of spindle 1,600 r.p.m. and 50 r.p.m.
respectively with 3 step pulley. All gears are of cast iron having allowable stresses
of 5 kg/sq mm.
Minimum number of teeth on gears 20
Assume gears to be of full depth type pressure angle 20°.
Load stress factor 20 kg/sq cm
Sketch method of engagement and disengagement:
(Gujarat University, 1973)
Ex. XVI] GEARS 795

11. (a) Discuss briefly the advantages of epicyclic gear trains over the plain
or simple gear trains.
(b) Describe and sketch two lay outs of epicyclic gearing for obtaining
ratio of about 2.
(c) Describe briefly the problems associated with the design of epicyclic
gear trains. (University of Bombay, 1974)
12. Discuss the factors which must be considered while designing gears.
A pair of bevel gears is required to transmit 10 h.p. from a shaft rotating
at 720 r.p.m. to another shaft at right angles, rotating at 300 [Link]. Considering
strength as the design criterion design fully the gear drive including shafts,
keys, etc. Prepare a neat dimensioned sketch showing clearly the mounting of
the gears. Choose suitable materials and stresses.
(University of Bombay, 1975)
13. A hardened steel worm rotating at 960 r.p.m. transmits power to a
phosphor bronze gear with a transmission ratio 15:1. The centre distance is
23 cm. Determine the remaining design and give estimated horse power ratings
from the stand point of strength, wear and heat dissipation. The teeth are 14r
involute full depth form. (M. S. University of Baroda, 1976)
14. A two stage reduction drive is to be designed to transmit 2.5 h.p., the
input speed being 960 r.p.m. and overall reduction ratio being 9. The drive
consists of straight tooth spur gears only, the shafts being spaced 20 cm apart, the
input and output shafts being co-axial.
(i) Draw a lay out of a suitable system to meet the above specifications,
indicating the speeds of all rotating components.
(ii) Calculate the module, pitch diameter, number of teeth, blank diameter
and face widths of the gears for medium heavy duty conditions, the gears being
of medium grades of accuracy.
(iii) Draw to scale one of the gears and specify on the drawing the calculated
dimensions (duly rounded off to standard dimensions) and other data complete
in every respect for manufacturing purposes.
(University of Bombay, 1977)
CHAPTER 17
WELDED CONNECTIONS

17-1. Introduction:
Welding, rather than being a machine element is a manufactur-
ing process, which reminds us that there are many facets of design
in addition to stress analysis. Of the total design time stress ana-
lysis and proportioning parts consume only a minor part of the
time. In majority of instances designs are affected by the manu-
facturing processes, which must be learnt. The effect of welding
on design is very great and hence the designer must exercise his
ingenuity in applying welding advantageously in his own design.
Welding may be defined as the joining of two pieces of metal
by application of heat.
Welding
4,
4, 4,
Forge welding Electric resistance welding
welding
(Pressure welding)
4.
4, 4,
Direct Alternating
current current
y 4, _
4, 4, 1, 4,
Manual Machine Gas Electric arc Thermit

General fields of application of welding are fabrication as an

alternate method for casting or forging, fabrication as a substitute
for riveting and as a repair medium.
Whether to weld or cast or forge, etc. is an economic problem
that may be answered correctly in different way , depending upon
local circumstances. Welding may be the least expensive process
where the pattern cost for castings would be a large percentage of
the total cost or where there are unusual machining or casting
difficulties. Special rolled shapes, special screws and special studs
are designed to be welded in place.
Art. 17-21 WELDED CONNECTIONS 797

17-2. Welding Processes:

In forge working, the parts which are to be connected are heated to the
plastic state at the regions, where they are to be joined and by application of
external mechanical pressure they are forged together by a hand hammer or press.
This kind of welding is confined to odd shaped pieces made for millwrights and
the maintenance staff of an engineering work. Wrought iron and low carbon
steel may be forge welded. The machine forging finds its extensive use in the
manufacture of wrought iron pipes.
In electric resistance welding, the parts to be joined are pressed together
and current is passed from one part to other until the metal is heated to the fusion
temperature at the joint. When welding temperature is reached, mechanical
pressure is applied for the purpose of consolidating the metal and forming a sound
weld. The low voltage is usually obtained by a transformer. For relatively
thick plates, butt joint may be used. In case of lap joint for thin plates, if the
pressure is applied by two electrodes on each side of the over lapped plates, a spot
weld is obtained. If rollers are used instead of point electrodes and if they (plates
to be joined) are pulled between the rollers, we get a uniform continuous strip
of welded surfaces. Such a joint is known as seam weld.
Fusion welding is the process of joining two pieces of metals in the molten
state without application of mechanical pressure. Generally, this method of
welding is preferable to pressure welding. Internal stresses set up during the
welding process may be removed by the heat treatment process, which consists
of heating the entire joint or a member to a temperature somewhat below the
critical temperature of the metal and then cooling it slowly. Gas welding process
uses oxy-hydrogen or oxy-acetylene gas which is burnt in a welding torch,
which provides a pointed flame which is allowed to play upon the joint as a re .ult
the welding metal or filler rod melts which on cooling results in a strong joint.
Long seams are gas welded by heating the edges of the plates which are butted
together and passed between the rollers thereby spreading the nfttal as the weld
develops. This method gives a very good, almost undetectable joint. For
welding non-ferrous metals of low melting points, oxy-hydrogen process is used;
while for welding ferrous metals and some non-ferrous metals, oxy-acetylene process
is used. For a repair medium oxy-acetylenc process is employed. Gas welding
equipment may be modified for use in flame cutting of plates.

Electric arc welehng :

The welding temperature is developed by an electric arc which is struck
between the work to be welded and the electrode which is held by the operator
or guided automatically in a specially designed machine. This method employs
either a carbon rod electrode with a separate filler rod used for the source of weld
metal or metallic rod electrode in which the electrode serves also as a source of
welding metal.
In thermit welding, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium called therinit
is ignited and the iron oxide is reduced to molten metal. The molten metal is
poured into a mould constructed around the joint and fuses with the parts which
are to be connected. A major advantage of this type of welding is that all parts
 798 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVII

of the weld section are molten at the same time and the cooling of the weld is
almost uniform, as a result residual stresses are minimum and the heat
treatment of the joint will be eliminated. The thermit welding is partictilarly
useful in joining together pat is of large castings or forgings that are too compli-
cated to be manufactured in one piece, in welding rail joints and in repair of
heavy parts such as locomotive frames, ship rudder posts, etc.
17-3. Types of Welded Joints:
The most important of the various types of welded joints in
common use are:
(a) Butt welds
(b) Fillet welds
(c) Edge welds
(d) Tack welds.

Butt weld
FIG. 17-1

Weir an •••• MP Moms,

P<

Fillet weld Edge weld

FIG. 17-2 FIG. 17-3
A butt weld is obtained by butting together the edges of two pieces having
practically the same cross section and heating until fused together. Fig. 17-1
shows a certain butt weld, in which the metal is deposited between the edges to be
joined. A fillet weld is one which is placed in a corner made by two adjoining
members. They are made with equal legs so that the length of these legs is used
to represent the size of the weld. Fig. 17-2 shows a fillet, in which the weld
metal is deposited in the corner between two surfaces. Figl 17-3 shows the edge
weld where the weld metal is deposited on the edges of thin plates. Tack welds
are used for holding metal parts in positions while the major welding operation
is in process.
Art. 11-5] WELDED CONNECTIONS 799

17-4. Working Stresses in Welds:

The design stress values recommended for welded joints vary
with type of loading. In machine design applications, repeated
loads, reversal of loads and suddenly applied loads lower the value
of permissible stresses. For tension (usually butt welds), the values
of permissible stresses vary from 420 to 840 kg/sq cm depending
on type of loading. Compression values are higher. For shear
(fillet welds) design, stress values from 280 to 560 kg/sq cm are
common. For fillet welds, (fig. 17-6 and fig. 17-7) the working
stress may be expressed in another form as allowable load per unit
length of a weld of given length. Suppose that the fillet weld of
h cm is subjected to a shear loading. Suppose that the shearing
stress of 800 kg/sq cm is permissible, then if we consider 1 cm length
of weld, the area of throat will be hsin45° x 1 = 0.707h sq cm.
Allowable shearing load per cm length of weld will be equal to
0.707h x 800 = 565.6h kg. Thus, we specify the permissible
shear load for a parallel fillet weld as 565.6 x 1.5 = 845 kg for
a 15 mm fillet. This form is more convenient for design purposes.

17-5. Strength of Welds:

(a) Strength of butt welds:
These welds are sometimes called V welds which may act
only in tension or compression, whereas fillet welds undergo shear
as well as tension or compression and frequently beading in addi-
tion. Fig. 17-4 shows a single V groove weld loaded by a tensile

Single V groove butt weld

FIG. 17-4

force P. The strength of the above butt weld is assumed to be

equal to net cross sectional area through the weld multiplied by
the allowable stress.
Load = ft x area of the weld.
800 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. XVII

P = ft x h x I where h is the weld throat, / the length of

the weld and ft the permissible stress intensity in the weld material.
Length of the weld will be equal to the width of the plate. In
calculating the value of the throat, we do not consider the rein-
forcement of welds. The reinforcement is desirable in order to
compensate for flaws, but the amount of reinforcement varies
throughout the length of the weld and it produces stress concentra-
tion at end points. Fig. 17-5 shows a double V groove weld
subjected to a load P. It is easy to see that the tensile stress
P
induced in the weld is given by ft = — — - -
(h1 + h 2) 1.

Double V groove butt weld

FIG 17-5
Note: Accoiding to Lincoln Electric Co. a properly made butt weld has
equal or better strength than the plate and there is no need for calculating the
stress in the weld.

(b) Strength of fillet welds:

The fillet welds are of two types: (i) transverse fillet welds,
which are assumed to fail in tension and (ii) parallel filet welds
which are assumed to fail in shear. It can be proved mathematically
that the plane of maximum shear stress in the conventional 45° fillet weld
is the 45° throat when subjected to parallel load and the 67i° throat when
subjected to a transverse load. This results in greater strength for a trans-
verse load. According to experiments carried out also, the trans-
verse fillet welds are found somewhat stronger than the parallel
fillet welds. However, it is a common practice to treat both of these types
of fillet welds as being of equal strength.
Before, we calculate the strength of the joint, the definitions
of several characteristic dimensions are necessary. The size of a
fillet weld is specified by the leg length of the largest inscribed
isosceles right angled triangle in case of fillet weld with equal legs
Art. 17-5] WELDED CONNECTIONS 801

as shown in fig. 17-6 or the leg lengths of the largest inscribed right
angled triangle in case of fillet weld with unequal legs. For the
cross section appearing in fig. 17-6 the weld has equal legs h and
the minimum cross sectional dimension of the weld is termed the
throat distance. Throat distance = h x sin 45° = 0.707h.

..e— Throat
Fillet weld with equal legs
FIG. 17-6

Transverse fillet weld

FIG. 17-7

...
,--.4 t
,.417 h 0
Parallel fillet weld
FIG. 17-8 •

The area assumed to be resisting the load is always the throat

area, because weld failures are more often across the throat, but the
size of the weld is its leg dimension h.
Fig. 17-7 shows a transverse fillet weld subjected to a load P.
P
Tensile stress intensity induced in the weld =
2 x Ix h sin45°
.0.707P .
hl
Fig. 17-8 shows a parallel fillet weld which is subjected to a
80 MAdilINE DESiGg [ Ch. I WI

load P. Shear stress intensity in the weld =

0.
hi7P . If the welds
are long, the loading is not distributed uniformly, and values of
allowable load per cm of weld should be reduced to about 90%
of that for short welds.

17-6. Special cases of fillet welds:

(a) Torsion of a circular fillet weld:
Fig. 17-9 shows a circular shaft, subjected to a torque T,
which is connected to a rigid plate by a fillet weld of leg h. The
shearing stress in the fillet weld in a horizontal plane, which
coincides with the upper face of the rigid plate can be determined
from simple torsion formula. The intensity of stress is given by
Td2 /
fs = — -- where J is the polar second moment of area of the
J
weld section and d the diameter of the solid shaft.

1--cl --61

Circular fillet weld subjected to torsion

Fin. 17-9

The value of J can be taken as •rchd.(d12) 2.

T dI2 2T
-fi = nhd (d J2)$ nIT12 ' (i)

This shearing stress occurs in a horizontal plane along a

leg of the fillet weld. This is not the maximum shearing stress.
The maximum value of the shearing stress occurs on the throat
of the weld, which is inclined at 45° to this horizontal plane.
The length of the throat is equal to h sin45° = 0.707h. Since
the throat distance is smaller than the leg h, the shearing stress
across the throat is greater than in a plane coinciding with the leg.
Thus along the 45° throat section, we have a maximum shearing
stress
Art. 17-6 WELDED CONNECTIONS 803

2T 2.83 T
fs max = nh12 (0.707) Tchd 2
(b) Torsion resisted by long adjacent fillet welds:
Let T be the torque acting about the vertical plate which
is attached to a horizontal plate by two identical fillet welds as
shown in fig. 17-10. Let 1 and h be the length and leg of the
Z

Long adjacent fillet weld

FIG. 17-10

fillet weld respectively. The effect of the applied torque is to

rotate the vertical plate about the Z axis [Link] mid point.
This rotation is resisted by shearing stresses developed between
two fillet welds and the horizontal plate. We assume that inten-
sities of these horizontal shearing stresses vary from zero at the
Z axis to a maximum at the ends of the plate. Let us denote the
shearing stress at the ends of the plate by fs. This variation of
shearing stress is analogus to the variation of normal stress over
the depth of a beam subjected to pure bending.
T x //2 3T
13 = 13 = izi2
2h x 1---
2
This is not the maximum shear stress in the fillet weld. The
maximum value of the shear stress will be in the throat and is
given by
3T 4.24T
(iv)
fs = hl' x 0.707 = hp
804 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVII

17-7. Eccentric Loads on Welded Connections:

Fig. 17-11 shows an eccentric welded connection for a bracket,
which is welded to another member. The line of action of the
load P does not pass through the centroid of the weld group. There
are two types of eccentric welded connections.
(i) Welded connection subjected to moment in a plane of
the weld.
(ii) Welded connection subjected to moment in a plane
normal to the plane of the weld.
Case 1. Welded connection subjected to moment in the plane of the weld
[Fig. 17-11(a) and 17-11(b)]:

C y B Welding on
1..........„_, back this
(a) (b)
Welded connection subjected to moment
in the plane of the weld
FIG. 17-11
The eccentricity of the load is the distance between the centroid
G of the weld group and the line of action of the load P.
The weld has to offer the following resistances:
(a) The resitance against translation which is assumed to
P
be uniform in the weld and it is equal to 1,- where L is the total
length of the weld.
(b) The resistance against rotation. This resistance per
unit length at any point on the weld is assumed to be proportional
to the distance of the point from the centroid of the weld group.
Note: Refer section 4-10 which relates to eccentric load on riveted connections.
It can be proved from first principles that total moment of
resistance offered by the weld lengths against
rotation = K [Ixx + ly A (i)
Art. 17-7] WELDED CONNECTIONS 805

where /xx = Moment of inertia of the weld lengths about

horizontal axis XX in the plane of the weld, through
the centroid of the weld group,
and /yy = Moment of inertia of the weld lengths about an
axis in the plane of the weld, normal to the axis XX
and passing through the centroid of the weld group.
By equating the moment of resistance offered by the weld
against rotation to the external moment, we get
Pxe=1C [Ixx + 1.,y]
K _Pe
Or (ii)
/xx ± by
From the above equation the constant K can be calculated for
any given arrangement of weld lengths.
The maximum, resistance against rotation is offered by the
weld at the most distant point of the weld from the centroid of the
weld group.
For design purposes consider the point A. The forces acting
at A per unit length can be calculated. Let 0 be the inclination
of GA with TY axis.
P
Total vertical force V per unit length of the weld at A=1
+ S sine (iii)
where S = Kra where ra = GA.
Total horizontal force H per unit length of tEe weld at A
S cos() (iv)
Resultant force per unit length of weld at A = V V' + H2
(v)
For the design to be safe this resultant force should not exceed
the safe load per unit length of the weld.
The positions of the centroid G of the 'weld group for the two
usual arrangements of the weld are as under :
When the rectangle ABCD is the weld length as in fig. 17-11(a),
b b
51 = and the eccentricity of the load e = a +y .
When the length ADCB is welded as in fig. 17-11(b),
b (b + d)
x= and e — a + g.
26 + d
806 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVII

Case 2. Welded connection subjected to moment in the plane normal

to the plane of connection: Pg. (17-12)
Fig. 17-12 shows an eccentric welded connection. Let all
the welds be of the same size. In this case also the welds have to
offer resistances against translation and rotation.
P
e —1

Welded connection subjected to a moment in a plane normal

to the plane of connection
FIG. 17-12

Resistance per unit length of the weld against translation is

P
assumed to be uniform and is equal to V — where L is the total
length of the welds.
Resistance per unit length at any point of the weld at a distance
y from the axis XX of•the weld line is given by 1
Pe
H=—xy (vi)
Ixx
Resultant resistance per unit length of the weld at any point
R = V v2 + H2 (vii)

17-8. Design procedure recommended by American Welding

Society :
Stress in a fillet weld shall be considered as shear stress on
the throat for any direction of applied load.
The allowable parallel load per cm of weld in a statically
loaded fillet weld is
P = ff x area of the throat of the weld
,,-. 0-707hf, kg/cm (i)
where fs = allowable shear stress according to AWS code.
Art. 17-8 ] WELDED CONNECTIONS 807

The throat area of 1 cm of weld at 43° is 0.707h sq cm.

The allowable transverse load per cm of the weld in a statically
loaded fillet weld is

p . fs X area of the throat of one cm weld at 67i°

fs X 0.765h
= 0.832h fs kg/cm (ii)
cos22i° .
If part of the load is applied parallel and part transverse, the
allowable parallel load must be used.

Where bending or torsion is encountered, the procedure for

the design is to treat the weld as a line with no cross sectional area. It
can be shown that the property such as section modulus of any
thin area is equal to the property of the section when treated as a
line multiplied by its thickness with negligible error.
If a weld is subjected to bending moment M, then
M
f .. Zw
where
Zw section modulus of the weld treated as a line for bend-
ing, the units being cm2
.1 = load in kg per cm.
If a weld is subjected to twisting moment T, thin
Txc
f- (iv)
Jw
where
Jw = polar moment of inertia of the weld treated as line,
the units being cm')
c = distance to the outer fibre in crp.
Fig. 17-13 gives in tabular form the values of section modulii
Ziv in bending and polar moment of inertia Jw in torsion of
typical welded connections with the weld treated as a line.
Section moduli in the above formulas are for maximum force
at the top as well as at the bottom portions of the welded connec-
tions. For the unsymmetrical connections, the maximum bending
force is at the bottom.
808 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVII
PROPERTIES OF WELD TREATED AS A LINE
OUTLINE OF
BENDING TWISTING
WELDED JOINT

x -I - x zw d2 d3
d =e J =
w 12

2
b —Ft _d i dob2,d2)
Z W-i W- 6
X ---L
Cd

-7-
t 74-1'
x - - - -x d
z=
w
bd -_ b j*3bd 2
-44' 6
b-ii
TT -1- - x z =4bd.d2 d2(4bd.d) , .(124414-6b2d 2
d -w 6 6(2b.d) jw 12(b.d)
i Y' rop BOTTOM

kb --1
2
.4-_
(212441 ) btb+d) 2
x -1.-, - x zw = bd. d
-
d 6 12 - ([Link]
y

I`— b -.1
d2 (b.d)3
zw = bd. - J =
x- - - - -x1 3 w 6
d

ti— b--bi
2bd.d!d2(2b.d ) , .(b.2d)3 dtb.d)2
X- 1t xl. z w= 3 - 3(b.d ) 'we 12 (b42d)
d roP BOTTOM
b 2 1:43 bd 2+ d 3
x_ .xl- [Link].#3 ,
1 w=
6
d
_t.

ltd gni'
x 0 -X Zw al 7 Jw= T.

6 whit? d • to

Properties of a weld treated as a line

FIG. 17-13
Art. 174] WELDED CONNECTIONS 809

If there be more than one force applied to the weld, these are
found and combined. All the forces, which are combined, must
occur at the same point in the welded joints.
In fig. 17-14 various types of loading on welded joints together
with induced stresses are shown. These formulas may help the
designer to design welded joints.

17-9. Fillet Welds under varying loads:

When the fillet welds are under varying load, the following
design values should be used which are based on AWS code:
Let k be the ratio of minimum load to maximum load.
Allowable fatigue strength:
For 2 x 106 cycles: 1900
k/2 kg/cm
1260
For 0.6 x 106 cycles: 1— k/
2 kg/cm

For 0.1 x 106 cycles: T-_-

1500 - kg/cm.
0

The above values should be used if they are less than 1,570
kg/cm; if the computed value is greater than 1570 kg/cm, the
latter value should be used.
The following values of k should be used:
k= 1, Steady load
=0 Released load
— 1 Completely reveresed load.
The fatigue strength related to the number of cycles can be
expressed by the relation
= [ NaT
FA FB (i)
NA
where FA = the fatigue strength for NA cycles
Fig = the fatigue strength for Na cycles.
C = constant which varies slightly with the specimen. The
value 0.13 has been used for butt welds and 0.18 for
plates in axial loading tension and/or compression.
Any abrupt change in the section along the path of stress flow
will reduce the fatigue strength.
810 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVII

Examples:
I. A spherical gas tank is made of 1 cm steel plate hemispheres butt
welded together. The tank is 1,500 cm in diameter. Determine the allowable
internal pressure to which the tank may be subjected if the permissible stress
be limited to 840 kg/sq cm.

The strength of butt weld is usually taken to be equal to the

product of the tensile working stress of the weld material by the
net cross sectional area of the weld. The net cross sectional area
of the weld — n.131 where D is the inner diameter of the spherical
tank and t the thickness of the spherical tank.
Area of the weld = it x 1500 x 1 = 4,720 sq cm.
The permissible tensile stress intensity in the weld is 840 kg/sq
Cm.
Bursting load that can be resisted by the weld = 4720 x 840
-,- 3.95 x 106 kg.
Let p be the pressure of the gas.
TC
Bursting load on the weld , p > x 15002 kg.
4
7C
• • X 15002 \ p = 3.95 A 106
4
3.95 x 4 106
or p- — 2.24 kg/sq cm.
r 1 (1500)2

2. Two plates are joined by fillet welds as shown in fig. 17-15

and subjected to a tensile load of 40,000 kg. What length of 1 cm weld

40000 kg

no. 17-13 FIG. 17-16

Art. 17-9] WELDED CONNECTIONS 811
-
is required to resist the load? The allowable working stress in shear for
the weld material is 800 kg/sq cm.
If I be the length of the parallel fillet weld and h the leg of
the fillet weld, the throat area will be equal to 2/hsin45°.
Area of throat = 1.414/ x h = 1.414 x / x 1
= 1.414 x 1 sq cm.
Permissible stress intensity in the weld material is 800 kg/sq cm.
• • 40000 = 1.414 x l ;,- 800
40000
or - = 35.4 cm.
I = 1.4 14 x 800
3. A 6 cm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate by 1 cm
fillet weld. Determine the maximum torque that the welded joint can
sustain if the permissible shear stress intensity in the weld material is not
to exceed 700 kg/sq cm.
The maximum shear stress intensity in the weld is given by
the formula
2.83—T
f .---= where T is the torque acting on the shaft, h the
nhd2 leg of the weld and d the diameter of the shaft.
On substitution of the values, we get 1.

2.83 T
700 ,------ —
n x 1 x62.
700_x TC x 36
T -- =----- 28,000 kg cm.
2.83 a.

4. Design a welded connection, as shown in fig. 17-16, consisting

of two 1 cm plates which are to be welded with 5 mm fillet welds. The load
acting on the plates is 18,000 kg. The allowable shear load per linear
cm of weld is 400 kg.
Note: The fillet welds should be considered under shear it the welds ate
placed either parallel or transverse to the direction of the lbad. The important
point to be observed in designing welds, which transmit or resist forces, is to
arrange them so that the line of action of the forces should coincide with the
centre of the lengths of welds.
180000
Total length of welds required = 45 cm.
40
The length of transverse weld is 10 cm. Therefore, the re-
maining length of the weld i.e. 35 cm should be so arranged that the
centre of gravity of length of welds lies along the line of action of
load. The length of welds A and B will be 18 cm each.
812 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVII
5. How long of a 1 cm fillet weld is required to weld the long side
of an angle 150 x 100 x 15 to a steel plate with side welds only if the
load is 12,000 kg and the allowable shear per cm of fillet weld is 700 kg?
The centre of gravity of a 150 x 100 x 15 angle is at a distance of 5 cm.
(Refer fig. 17-17.)
The length of fillet weld required — 12000 = 18 cm.
700
Since the side welds only are to be used, then 18 cm required
length must be divided into lengths for A and B so that their
centre of gravity should coincide with the line of action of load.
If x be the length of weld for side A, then the length of weld for
side B will be (18 — x) cm. Taking moment about the load line,
we get x X 10 = 5(18 — x).
or x = 6 cm.
The length of weld for B will be 12 cm.

150 %100x15
t
e
A of angle
B
e

Welding on
back side
12000kg

FIG. 17-17 FIG. 17-18

6. Fig. 17-18 shows an arrangement to support a load of 10 tonnes.

Suggest the suitable size of the fillet weld if the shear stress intensity in the
meld material is limited to 900 kg/sq cm.
10
The eccentricity of the load = 5 + -2- = 10 cm.
Moments of inertia of weld lengths can be calculated as under:
203
/xx = 2
L12 + 10 x 102] = 3,333 cm3
[10 3
/.xy = 2
12 + 20 x 51 = 1,167 cm3
Art. 17-9] WELDED CONNECTIONS 813

Resistance against translation per cm length of the weld

10 x 1000
= 166.7 kg/cm.
2 (10 + 20)
If K kg per cm be the force per unit length of weld situated at a
unit distance from the centroid of the group of weld, then
10000 x 10 = K (3333 + 1167)
10000 x 10 200
or K = = -- - kg per cm at a unit distance.
4500 9
Resistance against rotation at A per cm length of weld
200
= x V102 -I- 52 = 250 kg/cm.
9
5 10
Sin() = , ___ = 0.444 and cost) = = 0.896.
102 + 52
V'102 V102 ± 52
Total vertical component at A per cm length of the weld
V = 166.7 + 250 x 0444 = 277.8 kg/cm.
Total horizontal component at A per cm length of the weld
H = 250 x 0.896 = 222.2 kg/cm.
Resultant resistance per cm length at A = V277.82 ± 222.22
= 356 kg/cm.
If W be the size of the weld, then
0.7x Wx 1 x 900=356
3 56 11.
or W = — - = 0.565 cm.
0.7 x 1 x 900
We adopt 6 mm size fillet weld.
7. Fig. 17-19 shows an arrangement to support a load of 9,000 kg.
Suggest the suitable size of the weld for a permissible shear stress of 1,000
kg/sq cm.
If Fc be the distance of the centroid of the group of weld, from
b ( b + d) 15 + x 40
AB, then . = — 10.91 cm.
2b ± d 30 25
The eccentricity of the load is 10 + 10.91 = 20.91 cm.
Total weld length = 2 x 15 + 25 = 55 cm.
Resistance offered by the weld per cm length against transla-
9000
tion = 55 = 165.3 kg/cm.
814 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVII

253
2 15 X 12.52 x = 5 989.5 cm3.
12 '
r15 3
Iyy +15 (10.91 — 7.50)21E25 x 4-092 = 1,329.5 cmg.
-= 2 1_1 2
ixx = 5989-5,-E 1329.5 = 7,319 cms
GA : V10.912 + 12.52 = 16.7 cm.
10.91 12.5
Sind - = 0.653; cost) -,-- 0.75.
16 7 16.7

Fic. 17-19 FIG. 17-20

If K kg per cm be the force per unit length of weld situated
at a unit distance from the centroid of the group of weld, by
equating the moment of resistance offered by the weld against
rotation to the external moment, we get
9000 x 20.91 = K x 7319
9000 x 20.91
or A 25.6.
7319
Let us consider one cm length of the weld at A. Resistance
against rotation at A per cm of length = 25.6 x 16.7 = 428 kg/cm.
Total vertical component per cm length of weld at A
= 165.3 428 x 0.653 = 447 kg.
Total horizontal component per cm length of weld at A
428 x 0.75 = 320 kg.
Resultant resistance per cm length of weld at A
V'3202 + 4472 = 550 kg.
If W cm be the size of the weld, then
0.7 x Wxlx 1000 =550
Art. 17-91 WELDED CONNECTIONS 815

550
or W = 1000 = 0.785 cm.
0.7 x 1
We adopt 8 mm fillet weld.
8. A bracket carrying a load of 2,200 kg is to be welded on to a
stanchion by three fillets as shown in fig. 17-20. Calculate the size of
the welds if the working stress in the welds is limited to 800 kg/sq cm.
First of all, we calculate the centroid G of the weld by taking
moment about the left hand edge of the plate. We assume welds
of unit throat thickness.
_ = 5 x 2 x 2.5 + 7.5 x 0
x - = 143 cm.
5 x 2 + 7.5
The eccentricity of the load = 10 + 5 — 143 -,-- 13.57 cm.
I= = 2 x 5 x 3.752 + TI2 X 7. 53 = 176.5 cm3.
by = 2 x -A 3 + 2 x 5 x 1.072 + 7.5 x 1.432 , 47.5 CM3.
I = 176.5 ± 47.5 = 224 cm3.
Moment of the load = 2200 x 13.57 --.--- 30,000 kg cm.
Maximum radius r = V3.752 4 3.572 = 5.07 cm.
6 ..(5i; --,-- 0.704.
Cos° — 3
2 200
Fr -= 1-7:6- -,---- 125 kg/cm.
30000
Fb = -2N.— x 5.07 = 679 kg/cm.

Fr = 1 / 129 ± 6792 + 2x 125 x 679 x 0.704's-- 772 kg per

cm length. Assuming permisible shear stress intensity to be 800
kg/sq cm, we can verify that 18 mm weld will suffice.
9. Suggest the suitable size of the fillet weld required to connect the
bracket plate to the column as shown in fig. 17-21. Stress in the weld is
not to exceed 1,000 kg/sq cm.
Total weld length = 30 x 2 = 60 cm.
Resistance against translation per cm length of weld
8000
- = 133.3 kg/cm.
60
Moment of inertia of the weld lengths about XX -,----- 112 x 2 x 302
= 4,500 cm3.
Maximum resistance against rotation per cm length
. [Link]. 8000 x 20
x 15 = 534 kg/cm.
/xx 4500
816 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVII

Resultant resistance per cm length of weld = V5342+133.32

. 550 kg/cm.
If W cm be the size of the weld, then
W x 0.7 x 1 x 1000 = 550
550
or W = x 1000 = 0.785 cm.
0.7 x 1
We adopt 8 mm fillct weld.
-R. 8000 kg
10cm -1
,

-X

FIG. 17-21

10. A arcular bar of 6 cm diameter is welded to a steel plate, and the

bar acts as a cantilever of length 20 cm, the load being 1,000 kg. Deter-
mine the size of the weld if the allowable load is 1,700 kg/cm.
As the bar acts as a cantilever, the weld is subjected to a vertical
shear force of 1,000 kg and a bending moment 1000 x 20 =
20,000 kg cm.
We treat the weld as a line. From table of fig. 17-13, the
modulus of section = i x 7C x 62 -=-1 28.2 cm2.
Force per unit cm of weld at top and bottom = 20000
——
2.2
8
= 710 kg/cm.
Vertical shear, assuming uniform distribution of shear force
1000
= = 53 kg/cm
6 X 'TC
Resultant load = V7102 + 532 = 715 kg/cm.
715
Size of weld = 0-60 .042 cm.

We adopt 5 mm weld.

11. A rectangular beam as shown in fig. 17-22 is to be welded to a

side member. The maximum load of 1,000 kg is applied repetitiously.
Art. 17-9] WELDED CONNECTIONS 817

Determine the size of the weld required for 4,000,000 cycles. Assume
the shear load is distributed over the entire weld.
The weld is subjected to a fatigue loading. The bending
moment varies from a maximum of 1000 x 20 = 20,000 kg cm in
one direction to maximum value of the same magnitude in opposite
direction. The shear force varies from — 1,000 kg up to 1,000 kg.
as shown.

286 kg/sq cm 286 igg/sq cm

\ \ Bending Nk Bending
qp\ 4:5.
&\ et%
43
,r.) \ ..y. a-,)\.4.
4 \•*0
cr y S` \
Shear Shear may'
35 8 kg/sq cm 35.8 kg/sq cm

FIG. 17-22

The bending stress is maximum in the horizontal welds. The

top and bottom welds are stressed the same.
d2
The section modulus = bd + j- where b is the width of the
rectangular section and d is the depth of the section.
..-
Zuy --= 6 x 8+ —8-32 = 69.4 cm.2

The load in kg/cm due to bending = 20000= 286 kg/cm.

69.4
Average shear force, assuming that the shear force is uniformly
1000
distributed over the entire weld = 2 x 8 = 35.8 kg/cm.
2x6+
Resultant force = V2862+35.82=288.2 kg/cm, say 290 kg/cm.
The maximum force varies from 290 kg/cm in one direction to
290 kg/cm in the opposite direction. This is true for both top
,
and bottom welds.
900
Allowable force/cm for 2 x 106 cycles is 900 .
, k 1— + (— 1)
1—
i
= 600 kg/cm.
818 MACHINE DESIGN ` Ch. XVII

minimum stress
where k =l since the load is completely
maximum stress
reversed.
2 x 10610.13
The allowable force for 4 x 106 cycles will be 600
[4 x 10°
550 kg/cm.
290
The weld size will be -6-56 .0.55 cm; we adopt 6 mm size weld.

Exercises :
1. What general methods are used in making welded connections?
2. Name the principal types of welds used.
3. How are the stresses determined in welded connections?
4. What permissible stresses are used in welded connections?
5. Explain how you would determine the allowable loads per linear
cm of triangular fillet welds.
6. What are the advantages of welded joints?
7. The end reactions of a beam connected to two columns are 8,000 kg.
The allowable shear load per cm of fillet weld is 500 kg. What length
of fillet weld is required to carry this load? Ans. 16 cm.
8. Two plates are joined by a parallel fillet welds. The plate is
subjected to a tensile load of 35,000 kg. What length of 15 mm weld
is required to resist this load? The allowable working stress in shear for
the weld material is 800 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 41 cm length of weld adjusted on both sides.
9. Treating the weld as a line, determine the section modulus in zu,
d2
bending of a weld d cm high. Ans. 6 mi.
10. Treating the weld as a line, determine the moment 0' inertia
ya, about a centre of gravity of a circular weld of diameter d.
"re
Ans. —cm3.
4
11. A 5 cm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate by 1 cm
fillet weld. What will be the maximum torque that the welded joint can
sustain if the permissible shear stress intensity in the weld material is not
to exceed 800 kg/sq cm? Ans. 22,200 kg cm.
12. A 600 cm long plates are joined by two 1 cm fillet welds as
shown in fig. 17-10. Determine the maximum torque the welded joint
Art. 17-9 1 WELDED CONNECTIONS 819

can resist if the permissible shear stress intensity in the weld material is
limited to 800 kglsg cm. Ans. 680,000 kg cm.
13. Describe in brief the various processes of welding. Determine
the thickness of the plate and the size of the bracket for the arrangement
shown in fig. 17-23. The load P = 4,000 kg.
Assume the allowable stress for the plate as 1,200 kg/sq cm and
allowable shear stress for the weld 500 kg/sq rm.
P
250

Welding on
Welding on back side
back side
FIG. 17-23 FIG. 17-24

14. A bracket supporting a load P = 3,000 kg is welded to a

vertical member by four fillet welds as shown in fig. 17-24. Calculate the
size of the weld if the stress in the throat section is not to exceed 850 kg/sq cm.
The throat section may be taken as 0.7 times the size of the weld.
15. A bracket carrying a load of 1,500 kg is to be welded to a tolumn
by three 5 mm fillet welds as shown in fig. 17-25. Calculate the maximum
shear stress in the weld, assuming that the load acts in the plane of welded
joint and the centroid of the weldment coincides with the centroid of the
column.
1500kg 1200D leg
20 75

FIG. 17-25 FIG. 17-26 -

16. A load of 12,000 kg is applied to a bracket fillet welded to a

stanchion as shown in fig. 17-26. Determine the greatest resistance offered
 820 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. XVII

by the weld per cm length if each weld is 15 cm long. Suggest the suitable
size of the weld for a permissible shear stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 8 mm weld size
17. A 30 cm x 2.5 cm x 1 cm bar is welded to a 10 cm diameter
cylinder. Determine the size of a 45° fillet weld, assuming transverse shear
is uniformly distributed in the weld. Use an allowable load of 1,600 kg per
cm of weld. The load acting on the contilever is 70 kg.
Ans. 8 mm weld size.
18. A plate girder 20 metre long supported at its ends is composed
of web plate 800 mm x 12 mm and a flange plate 300 mm x 15 mm.
If the loading on the girder induces a maximum transverse shear stress of
800 kg/sq cm at the junction of the web and the flange, calculate the size
of the fillet weld necessary for the connection. Take permissible shear stress
for weld material as 1,000 kg/sq cm. Ans. 12 mm size.
19. Two 10 mm x 150 mm plates overlap each other by 60 mm and
are joined by double lap weld for full length normal to the load. Determine
the static load carrying capacity of the joint for a safe stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm.
What will be the load carrying capacity of the joint if the load is applied
with a medium shock. Assume shock factor to be 2.
Ans. 20 tonnes; 10 tonnes
20. A circular beam cantilever of 50 mm diameter and 250 mm
length is to be welded to a side member. The maximum load of 800 kg is
applied repetitiously. Determine the size of the weld required for 3,000,000
cycles. Assume that the shear load is distributed over the entire weld.

EXAMPLES XVII
1. Calculate the allowable load per linear cm of the fillet welds for the
following sizes assuming shear stress intensity to be 800 kg/sq cm:
5 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm and 25 mm.
Am. 280 kg, 560 kg, 840 kg, 1,120 kg and 1,400 kg.
2. Two 15 mm plates 75 mm wide are to be welded with 10 mm fillet welds.
The load acting on the welded plates is 15,000 kg. The allowable shearing stress
for the weld is 800 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 14 cm on each side.
3. How long of a 15 mm fillet weld is required to weld the long side of an
angle 150 x 80 x 15 to a steel plate, using the side welds only, if the load is
10,000 kg and the allowable shear load per cm of 15 mm fillet weld is BOO kg?
Ans. 12.5 .cm; the length should be so divided that the centre of gravity
should coincide with the line of action of the load.
Ex. XVII] WELDED CONNECTIONS 821

4. Show that the plane of maximum shear occurs at 45° for a parallel load
on a fillet weld of equal legs. Neglect bending. Determine the allowable force
P per cm of weld length if the allowable shear stress is 950 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 670h, where h is the leg size in cm.
5. Show that the plane of maximum shear force occurs at 67i° for a trans-
verse load on a fillet weld of equal legs. Neglect bending. Determine the
allowable force P per cm of weld length if the allowable shear stress is 1,000 kg/sq
cm. Ans. 827h, where h is the leg size in cm.
6. A 4 cm by 2 cm bar is welded to a 10 cm diameter shaft. The bar acts
as a cantilever of length 30 cm and carries a static loading of 200 kg. Determine
the size of a 45° fillet weld assuming that shear is uniformly distributed in the weld
for an allowable load of 1,800 kg/cm. Ans. 5 mm weld size.
7. (a) Why is it necessary to differentiate between:
(i) end weld and side weld
(ii) fillet weld and butt weld?
(b) Describe the significance of the term unit strength of the weld.
(c) A mild steel plate is to be connected to a gusset plate by a 6 mm size
fillet weld, the weld line forming a square of 7.5 cm each. Estimate the maxi-
mum stress any where if the joint is subjected to a torque of 25 tonne cm.
(University of Bombay, 1971)
8. (a) State the fabrication specifications for the welded joints.
(b) Design a suitable fillet welded joint between two plates of size 200 mm
x 10 mm and 250 mm x 10 mm to provide for the full strength of the smaller
plate in tension. Permissible tensile stress intensity in the plate is 1,500 kg/sq cm.
Use usual stress for weld.
(University of Bombay 1971)
9. An equal angle 10 cm x 10 cm x 1 cm is to be welded to a gusset plate
by means of 8 mm size fillet welds only. The maximum permissible stress in the
side weld is 820 kg/sq cm and the lap length is restricted to a maximum of 12 cm.
What is the maximum load the angle can carry? If the angle could be stressed
to a limit of 1,400 kg/sq cm, what is the efficiency of the joint?
The centre of gravity of the angle is situated at 2.84 cm from the back.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
10. (a) Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of welding over
riveting in structural steel fabrication.
(b) An I.S.A 10065 unequal angle welded to a gusset plate transmits a
tensile load 08.0 tonnes, through its 10 cm side by means of 6 mm side fillet welds.
If the permissible stress in the side fillet weld is 800 kg/sq cm and the centre of
gravity of the angle is at 3.25 cm from the back, design the joint.
(c) Make a neat sketch of the joint.
(University of Bombay, 1973)
CHAPTER 1 3
DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS—I
ENGINES AND BOILERS

18-1. Design of flat plates:

Cylinder heads, steam chest covers, piston faces, valve faces
and similar machine parts subjected to pressure may be considered
as flat plates. Generally, the shape is either circular or rectangular
and for each of these the loading may be either concentrated or
distributed. The plate may be rigidly fixed at the edges or may
be merely supported there. The exact theory of flat plates is com-
plicated and requires the knowledge of theory of elasticity, which
is beyond the scope of this book. Here, we derive in a simple
manner the formulas for circular and rectangular plates, subjected
to a uniformly distributed load and simply supported at the outside
edge. The results obtained can be successfully applied to blank ,
flanges, cylinder heads, piston tops and steam chest covers.
In the use of these results, it should be remembered that the results give the
average skin stress across what corresponds to the bleadth of the plate, but they
do not give the absolute maximum. The absolute maximum stress occurs at the
centre of the plate and its value is about 25% more than the average

(a) Circular plate subjected to a uniformly distributed

load of p and supported on the outside edge (Fig. 18-1) :
Let a be the radius of the circular plate. Let us consider the
equilibrium of half the plate. The resultant of fluid pressure is
rc
of magnitude 2 a2 p and acts at a load centre GI or centroid of the
4a
semi-circular area. The load centre is at a distance of — from the
3n
diameter and lies on the line of symmetry of the area The
n
resultant reaction = -- a2 p acts at the reaction centre Gr or the
centroid of the semi-circular arc. The reaction centre is at a
distance of -
2a- from the diameter and lies on the radius of symmetry.
7r
As two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
Art. 18.1] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 823

and their lines of action do not coincide, they give rise to a couple.
2a 4a 2a
The arm of the couple is [— =
,Tc 3n 37:
7C 2a pas
Bending moment on the section = - asp x = — (i)
2 3
If t be the thickness of the plate, the modulus of section will
be x 2a x O. By equating the resisting moment to the applied
pas
bending moment, we get x 2at 2 x f = T (ii)
where f = permissible stress intensity for the material of the
plate.

t =-- a

2
4,=-Nra
2
A 2a

R
- 2P"2

Circular plate subjected to Rectangular plate subjected

uniformly distributed load to uniformly dis6ibuted load
FIG. 18-1 FIG. 18-2
According to exact theory of plates, the thickness t of the plate
will be given by the equation
a 1/3 (3 + 11) (iv)
8 f
where p. is Poisson's ratio.

(b) Rectangular plate subjected to uniformly distributed

load p and supported on the outside edges (Fig. 18-2):
Let a and b be the sides of the rectangle. The diagonal of
the rectangle will be Vat + b2. Let us consider the equilibrium
of half the plat:, as shown in fig. 18-2. The length of the altitude
ab
H from the corner on the diagonal will be - •
Va2 b 2
824 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

pab
The resultant of the fluid pressure = — acts at the load
2
H
centre, which is at a distance — from the diagonal, while the
3
H
reaction force acts at the reaction centre, which is at a distance --2--
from the diagonal. As two equal and opposite forces do not act
along the same line of action, they give rise to a couple, the arm
H H H ab
of the couple being [— - —] = — =-
2 3 6 6 A/aT-+-ba
pa b a
The moment of the cou ple = -n- x ,.
4 0 1/a$b ±-b2
Va2
p a2b2
= 1 et —, (V)
14 Vat + b2
If t be the thickness of the plate and f the permissible stress,
then by equating the resisting moment to the bending moment,
p . a2b2
we get .1.02 Va2 +b2 = _ _ ,a2 4_ bi
12 v
1
or t = ab 1 12fil x (a2 + b2)
(vi)

(c) Circular plate subjected to a uniformly distributed

load p and clamped on the outside edge:
It can be proved from classical theory of plates that the
maximum stress occurs at the edge of the plate and is equal to
3 a2
(vii)
f == 4- P --
3 (viii)
or t = a 11 - x p-
4 f
If D be the diameter of the plate, the above formula will be
t=D x t (ix)
113 f
The above equations do not apply to flat plates which are ribbed.
The above theory can be applied for the plate, which forms the
flanged joint. Steam engine chests and pipe flanges must provide
a true or rigid surface for connection to mating parts, must be
strong enough to resist the bending stresses set up when the bolts
are tightened up, must be large enough to allow room for seating
Art. 18-1 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 825

and manipulating the nuts and must provide a good holding for
bolts and studs. The bolts and studs are required to compress the
packing material with sufficient force to make the joint pressure
tight. This force is indeterminate. In order to allow for this force, we
design the cover and bolts by assuming that the area, over which
the fluid pressure acts, extends upto the inner edge of the bolt.
The number of bolts are such that the pitch of the bolts for
steam tight joints do not exceed five times the diameter of bolts.
Generally, for such work, bolts of less than 18 mm diameter are
avoided.
Studs are preferred to bolts, because the absence of bolt-heads allows
the flanges to be made narrower.
The thickness of the flange should not be less than the bolt
diameter. It may be from 1.2t to 1.54 where t is the thickness
of the cylinder cover. It is better, however, to calculate the thick-
ness based on the assumption that the flange is a cantilever built in
at the skirt with a load equal to the pull on the bolts. The arm
of the cantilever is the distance of the bolt axis from the outer
edge of the skirt.
If there be n bolts of root diameter dc, subjected to a tensile
stress intensity f1, and a flange of thickness t1 , having a distance x
from the bolt circle to the root of the flange, then bending moment
M on the flange is given by
M= "1 dc2 nfi x (x)
4
If f2 be the bending stress allowable for the flange and D1
the outer diameter of the skirt, then the resisting moment M1 is
given by
7cD1 t 12 f 2
= 6—
By equating the bending moment to resisting moment,
we get
7r
tic2 nfi x 66 l fa,
4
1/3 n xfi
or dc —
2Dif2
Examples :
1. The piston of a gas engine is 150 mm diameter and is made of cast
iron. The maximum pressure acting on it is 30 kgIsq cm. Since the
826 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

skirt of the piston is quite thin and therefore flexible, the piston face may be
considered as a flat plate merely supported at the edges. Determine the
thickness for the face if maximum tensile stress of 300 kg/sq cm be permitted.
With usual notations, the thickness of the flat circular plate
supported at the edges and subjected to uniformly distributed

load is given by t = a 1/11 •

f
On substitution of values, we get
15 -0-3o
--,- 2.37 cm; we adopt 2.4 cm.
I = 2 y 300
2. A steam chest cover 30 cm long by 22 cm wide sustains a steam
pressure of 9 kg/sq cm. Assume the cover to be merely supported at the
edges, determine the thickness for a maximum stress of 350 kg/sq cm in tension.
With usual notations, the thickness of the steam chest cover
is given by
---
„ -1 •
t =ab IIP is,
2f a2 --i- b2
On substitution of values, we get

t = 30 x 221/ 9 x -1 =2.1 cm; we adopt 2.2 cm.

2 x 350 (30'+222)
3. A cast iron blank flange is required for a pipe 30 cm diameter
carrying steam at a pressure of 7 kg kg cm. Assuming the flange to be
fixed by studs and nuts, design
(1) the diameter of the steam pip,
(u) the size and number of studs required,
(iii) the size and thickness of blank cover flange,
(iv) the thickness of the flange at the opening of the pipe.
Use you; own values for the stresses.
Let us assume permissible stress for cast iron to be 150 kg/sq cm.
The thickness of the cast iron steam pipe is given by
pD
i = + c cm, where the value of "c" can be taken as
f
0.9 cm. (Please refer to page 179.)
On substitution of values, we get
7 A 30
t 150 i- 0.9 -- 1 -b cm.
2 A
We adopt M 20 studs having 420 kg/sq cm as the permissible
stress for the bolt material. The area at the bottom of the thread
Art. 18-1] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 827

is 2.45 sq cm. The load carrying capacity of each stud is

2.45 x 420 = 1,030 kg. As we have adopted studs, we can
reduce overhung of the flange and the bending stresses can be
reduced. The suitable pitch circle diameter for the stud will be
38 cm. The pitch between studs is not to exceed 5 x 20
= 100 mm i.e. 10 cm.
38 7C
.. Minimum number of studs — x = 11.9.
10
We adopt 12-M20 studs.
Maximum load carrying capacity of studs = 12 x 1030
= 12,500 kg.
If we assume that the pressure area extends upto the pitch
IT
— x 382 x 7
line of studs, maximum load on the cover = 4
= 7,900 kg.
Therefore, the design is safe.
With usual notations, the thickness of the blank flange is

given by t , all Pf •

Assuming f —. 280 kg/sq cm, t - 19 f 2L ------ 3 cm.

The suitable diameter of the blank flange will be 42 cm.
As we have used studs, the bending stresses in the pipe flange
will be reduced so we adopt the thickness of the cylinder Range
from proportion as 3.8 cm. .
Exercises :
I. A cast iron cylinder head 2.5 cm thick is fastened to a 30 cm
cylinder by means of studs. Determine the pressure that may be carried
in the cylinder assuming the maximum allowable stress in the head to be
350 kg/sq cm. Ans. 9.75 kgIsq cm.
2. A rectangular opening 25 x 20 cm in a steam chest cover is
closed with a cast iron flat cover. The steam pressure is 10 kg/sq cm and
the joining material may be considered as extending to the inside of the bolt.
Design the thickness of the cover assuming a working stress of 300 kg/sq cm
for cast iron. Also, calculate the number of bolts if the permissible stress
for the bolt material is limited to 420 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 25 mm; 14 bolts of 4%420 size.
3. You are required to design a cast imon cylinder for a low speed
steam engine of bore 25 cm and a piston rod of length 80 cm. The maxi-
828 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

mum steam pressure is 12 kg/sq cm by gauge. Suggest the suitable thickness

for the cylinder wall if allowable stress is 150 kg/sq cm.
Explain how you will determine the suitable number of studs to connect
the cylinder cover with the cylinder flange. Also suggest the suitable
procedure for determining the thickness for the cylinder flange and the cylinder
and cover. Also sketch the cylinder and cover for this engine.
(University of Bombay, 1971)
4. The bolts which connect the cylinder head to the cylinder block
of an I. C. engine are subjected to an impact loading. Explain how you
would proceed to design these bolts.
Illustrate your answer by designing the size and number of bolts for the
cylinder head of a Diesel engine with cylinder diameter of 200 mm. What
would be the initial tension in the bolts so that the joint does not open under
impact? (University of Bombay, 1976)
5. A rectangular opening in a pressure vessel of 30 cm x 20 cm
size is to be covered by a plate bolted to the receiver such that the centre line of
bolts is at 3 cm from edge of the opening. Determine the minimum plate thick-
ness for a permissible tensile stress idensity of 800 kg/sq cm. The pressure
inside the receiver is 10 kg/sq cm. (Sardar Patel University, 1977)
Project 1. Design of a hydraulic press (Fig. 18-3) :
Design a 40 tonne hydraulic press to handle bales of sizes 60 cm x
60 cm x 60 cm working on water under a pressure of 160 kg/sq cm.
Use the following materials and stresses:
Cast steel with safe tensile stress of 1,000 kg/sq cm
Cast iron with safe tensile stress of 180 kg/sq cm
Mild steel with safe tensile stress of 900 kg/sq cm
Ribs may be used for strengthening flat surfaces but no calculations
need be shown to work out these details. Effect of friction at the gland
may be accounted for by assunming a 20% increase in the load.
When we design any machine or machine element certain
questions are likely to occur to the designer. There will be no
end to such questions. The designer before he takes the final deci-
sion, he has to find out the satisfactory answers to certain minimum
questions. Here are listed some of these questions:
1. What are the main components of a hydraulic press ?
2. What are your specifications for the material of the cylinder ?
3. How do you propose to cast the cylinder of the press ?
4. How will you determine the inner diameter of the cylinder ?
5. How will you fix the thickness of the cylinder ?
Art. 18-1 1 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 829

a .0......„
Top plate
Jc

Side members ,

•
Bottom plate

Plunger Hydraulic seal

N

\
,/
/
Cylinder Water inlet

Base / Drain

Hydzaulic Press
FIG. 183
830 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. XVIll

6. Will you consider it a thin cylinder or a thick cylinder ?

7. Will you consider it an open cylinder or a closed cylinder ?
8. What will you prefer—flat bottom or semi circular bottom—
and why ?
9. How do you determine the height of the cylinder ?
10. What are the arrangements to be provided for draining the
cylinder ?
11. How do you propose to relieve the pressure from the cylinder ?
12. How do you propose to fix the cylinder to the foundation ?
13. What will be the thickness of the cylinder flange ?
14. What will be the shape of the flange ? Why do you prefer
such a shape?
15. What are the machining operations to be carried out on the
cylinder of the press ? How do you propose to carry them out ?
16. What will be the suitable material for the ram ? What are
your specifications for the material selected ?
17. How do you fix the size of the ram ? Do you propose to make
it solid or hollow ?
18. What will be the maximum stress in the ram? Which are
these points where these stresses occur?
19. How do you propose to prevent the leakage of the fluid
from the cylinder ?
20. Which kind of sealing material is generally used for systems
operating at higher pressures ?
21.. Make a sketch of the various shapes of sealing devices which
are normally used with hydraulic systems.
22. What will be the working principles of these sealing devices ?
23. How are the sealing devices manufactured ?
24. Will the seal be a static seal or a dynamical seal ?
25. How will you select a proper hydraulic seal?
26. What are your recommendations for the material of the
gland ?
27. What will be the shape of the gland ? What are the machining
operations to be carried out on the gland ? How do you
propose to carry them out ?
28. What do you understand by the term friction factor ? HoW
will you calculate the total load on the gland studs ?
29. How will you fix the number and size of the studs?
30. What are your recommendations for the material of the studs ?
31. How will you fix the length of the studs ?
Art. 18-1 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 831

32. How do you propose to fix the platform to the ram ?

33. What will be the suitable material for the platform?
34. How will you fix the size of the platform ?
35. How do you propose to guide the platform ?
36. What will be the suitable material for the side members ?
37. How will you fix the size arid the length of the side members
and their numbers ?
38. What are the nature of threads on the gland studs and the side
members ?
39. What is the nature of load coming on side members when the
press is working? When the press is not working ?
40. How will you keep the top plate in proper position on the
side members ?
41. What are the operations to be carried out on the side members ?
42. What are your recommendations for the material of the
top plate ?
43. How will you fix the proportions for the top plate ?
44. What will be approximate weight of each component of the
press ?
45. What will be the approximate weight of the press ?
46. Write short notes describing the procedure for assembly of
the press.
The above list is not exhaustive. It will serve as a guide for
preparing a list of questions for designing various components.

Material Selection:
The selection of the material specifically suited for a machine
component is the most important task of a designer. The follow-
ing group of properties are to be considered by the designer :
(i) Mechanical properties such as yield strength, modulus
of elasticity, percentage elongation, endurance strength, and
ultimate strength.
(ii) Physical properties such as thermal expansion, creep
rate, thermal conductivity, shrinkage rate and age hardening.
(iii) Technological properties such as castability, forgeability,
machinability, weldability, formability, etc.
832 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

(iv) Chemical properties such as materials microstructure,

the practicability of surface treatment and paint adhesion.
The designer must select a material strong enough to transmit the
loads economically, tough enough to withstand environmental changes, soft
enough to be machinable and inert enough to resist corrosion.
If the designer can answer the following questions affirmatively
he has probably made the appropriate material selection :
1. Will the material satisfy the strength and rigidity requirements ?
2. Can the material be made into parts ?
3. Will the part, made of this material, be able to perform its
task during the expected life in the environment in which it
may have to function ?
4. Will the material be available in sufficient quantity when
needed ?
5. Is the cost of making the part from this material as low as that
of any other material which also meets the above requirements ?

Design of a ram:
The ram has to develop an effective load of 40,000 kg on the
bale. The ram reciprocates in the cylinder of a press. Hence
there is a sliding friction. In order to overcome the frictional resist-
ance, more force must be exerted on the top of the ram by the
fluid. We assume the friction factor to be 1.2. Hence the fluid
pressure load on the top of the ram will be 1.2 x 40000 = 48,000 kg.
Let D cm be the outer diameter of the ram or plunger which
we propose to make hollow.

•• 7 D2 x 160 = 48000
4

or D=
V48000 x4- = 19.55 cm; we adopt 20 cm.
160 7L

The ram is made hollow to reduce the weight. The material of

the ram is taken as steel for which permissible tensile stress inten-
sity may be taken as 900 kg/sq cm.
Let us determine the thickness of the top of the plunger.
We consider it as a flat plate supported at the periphery and loaded
with uniformly distributed load of pressure intensity 160 kg/sq cm.
Art. 18-11 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 833

160
Thickness of the top of the ram ,---- 10 V9
-60 = 4.2 cm.

The ram is subjected to three principal stresses.

(i) Direct compressive stress due to fluid pressure
(ii) Tangential or hoop stress which is due to fluid pressure
and is maximum at the inner radius and the fluid pres-
sure intensity of p = 160 kg/sq cm is acting on the
outer periphery.
(iii) Radial stress which is compressive in nature and is 160
kg/sq cm at the outer periphery and zero at the inner
periphery.
We determine the inner diameter of the ram, considering it
to be a thick cylinder subjected to an external fluid pressure.
It is assumed that the cylinder is made of ductile material for
which theory of maximum shear stress is the design criterion. The
design equation for a single thick cylinder will be
2p k1
+ —2 = 1 (Refer art. 3-9 on page 191)
In the above equation p is the pressure of the fluid acting on the
side of the ram, f is the permissible stress intensity and k is the ratio
of the outer diameter of the ram to the inner diameter of the ram.
We assume that the permissible compressive stress intensity for the
material of the ram is 900 kg/sq cm. We neglect the colffmn action.
2 x 160 , 1
••
90 - 1-/0 = 1
1
or k= 2 x 160 = 1.25.
1
soo
200
• d Inner diameter of the ram = ---- 160 mm.
1.25

Packing for Hydraulic rams:

The success of applying fluid power to any application
depends largely on the ability of the sealing devices to prevent
both internal and external leakages in the system. Losses of fluid
from hydraulic machinery caused by leakage can be very costly
not only in terms of the cost of the fluid but also in production.
834 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

Modern fluid power systems depend more and more on the

development of sealing materials that will operate with special
fluids and at conditions of high pressures and temperatures. The
manufacturers of sealing devices have kept pace with the needs of
all industry through research and development programmes.
The recommendations of manufacturers in sealing devices are
always important in any application.
Each application for a seal must be treated as a specific
problem because' of slight variations in minor conditions of opera-
tion.
The following are the important factors to be considered
while selecting a seal:
1. Surface speed in combination with size of the member to be
sealed
2. Pressure in the system in contact with a sealing device
3. Temperature at the point of seal
4. Compatibility between sealing devices
5. Machine operating conditions such as fast reversals, inter-
mittent operation, etc.
The designer who specifies the type of sealing device for any
given application should study all of the problems very carefully
consulting the suppliers at every stage so that the proper final
selection is made.
Sealing materials may be classed into three general cate-
gories: leather, fabricated rubber and homogeneous.
Leather is the oldest material used for sealing devices and is
still popular for many applications. Leather seals have low fric-
tional properties and relatively high tensile strength which resists
extrusion into clearance spaces. Thus leather is used for applica-
tions where higher system operating pressures are used. Leather
does not score metal surfaces. Leather sealing devices are manu-
factured in "U", cup and hat or flange shapes as shown in fig. 18-4.
The U leather packing has been used in the press considered here.
The water leaks past the ram as far as the packing, and entering
its interior, presses one side against the recess in the cylinder and
the other against the ram. The greater the pressure of the water
the greater is the tendency to leak but in it* U leather packing
the force with which the leather is pressed against the ram and
Art. 18-1 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 835

against the recess is proportional to the pressure of the water.

This is one of the great merit of the U leather packing. This is
called a pressure actuated seal that depends on the hydraulic pressure in the
system to act against the lip to create contact pressure for sealing. In order
for the lip to move freely, the groove space should be slightly
greater than the seal. This type of seal is more effective when
the groove is properly proportioned to allow lip flexing with
little solid compression. When used at very 'high operating
pressures over 30 kg/sq cm, it is advantageous to use a fabricated
back up washer to prevent extrusion of material into the clearance
space. The U seal is considered a balanced type of seal. The
U leather packing is made from a disc or flat ring of leather, which
is moulded between two cast iron blocks. The leather is softened
in hot water and placed between the blocks which are then
pressed together in a hydraulic press or by bolts and nuts, bolts
passing through the blocks. The leather is kept in the mould for
about twenty four hours, when it is removed, and after it is dried,
it is trimmed to the form as shown in fig. 18-4(c).
Cup packing Hat packing U packing

D
la) (b) (c)
Leather Packings
FIG . 18-4

An objection to the U leather packing is that the ram must

be removed before the packing can be renewed and this, in many
cases, is very troublesome. In such cases the ordinary stuffing
box is generally used.
The flange seal is a pressure actuated seal that effects sealing
through the hydraulic pressure. These types of seals are generally
applied in the lower pressure ranges. The flange seal is consi-
dered an unbalanced seal.
Cup seals are primarily used for sealing cylinder pistons.
This seal is also pressure actuated, with the sealing accomplished
by the contact pressure outward against the cylinder bore. It is
essential that these seals be clamped in place and the method of
836 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVIII

clamping is important. It is important to note that the cup lip

be no higher than is necessary to follow the side play. This type
of seal is considered and unbalanced seal and its operating pressure
depends on the materials and conditions under which it operates.
Another type of seal known as 0 rings have been shown in fig.
3-5, where they form static seals between cylinder tube and its
covers and dynamic seals between piston head and cylinder and
piston rod and cover.
We adopt U packing the dimensions of the packing being as
under: t = 6 mm, tp = 30 mm and h = 40 mm.

Gland:
It will be of cast iron. The thickness of the gland is given by
d d
the empirical rule t = 2.5 to 1.25 1/
2.5
where d is the diameter of the plunger in cm. Hence the thick-
id o_
ness of the gland varies from t = 6:5 to 1.25 Y2
2.5
i.e. 2.82 cm to 3.52 cm. The thickness of the gland should be
equal to tp of the U leather packing.
We adopt the thickness of the gland as 3 cm and hence the
outer diameter of the gland will be 20 + 2 x 3 = 26 cm. Outer
diameter of the gland will be equal to diameter of the ram plus
twice tp of the U packing which amounts to 20 ± 2 x 3 =---- 26 cm.
Let us consider the load on the gland studs. We adopt 4 studs.
The load on these studs will be
(i) Due to fluid pressure and
(ii) Due to friction at the U packing.
Fluid pressure load: 7c
4- x (262 — 202) x 160 = 34,600 kg.

In order to determine the friction resistance for U packing we

assume that half the height is effective. Friction resistance for
U packing will be n d p h 21' where

p. = coefficient of friction
p = fluid pressure
h = height of the U packing and
d 2c= diameter of the ram.
Art. 184) DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 837

On substitution of values we get, the frictional resistance

4
as Tr X 20 x x 160 x 0-1 = 2,000 kg.
2
Here the coefficient of friction is taken as 0.1. Another way
to consider the friction at the packing is to consider the friction factor
whose value ranges from 1.03 to 1.07 and to multiply the fluid
pressure on the gland by this friction factor.
Total load on the gland studs =---- 34600 + 2000 = 36,600 kg.
Load on each stud, assuming that all the studs share the load
equally, will be 36600
-- = 9,150 kg.
4
Assuming permissible stress intensity for the stud material to be
= 10.17 sq cm.
900 kg/sq cm, the core area of the stud will be
900
We assume coarse threads. From table we adopt M45 studs.
Outer diameter of the ram = 20 cm
Outer diamter of the gland = 26 cm
Diameter of the stud = 4.5 cm.
We adopt 32 cm as the pitch circle diameter of the circular
flange of the gland. In order to determine the thickness of the
circular flange of the gland, we consider the flange to be a cantilever
fixed to the outer diameter of the gland and loadg.d by a load of
4 studs, which is 36,600 kg. The length of the cantilever arm =
+ (32 — 26) =3 cm.
Bending moment = 36600 x 3 = 109,800 kg cm.
109 00
Modulus of section = 11 - = 122 cm3.
900
If t be the thickness of the flange, then
* t2 X 7t X 26 = 122
/122 x 6
or t= = 3 cm.
-1 26 x 7C
We adopt 5 cm as the thickness of the flange. It has been
observed in practice that the thickness of the gland flange is
usually from 1 f to 1 i diameter of the stud. Outer diameter of
the flange will be 32 + 10 (more than twice the diameter of the
stud) = 42 cm.
838 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

Cylinder:
We design the cylinder as a thick cylinder. The cylinder
will be in contact with the ram only in the vicinity of the gland,
so that elsewhere there will be an annular water space between the
ram and the cylinder. Assuming that this space is to be 3 cm wide
the internal diameter of the cylinder will be 20 -I- 2 x 3 = 26 cm.
We adopt the permissible stress intensity for the cylinder as
1,000 kg/sq cm. If I be the thickness of the cylinder, then, accord-
ing to Lame's equation we get, with usual notations,

i
= D ril f + p 1 -1 ,... 26
1000++ 160
]
2 1 jfp — j 2 0'1000-160 1 = 2.21 cm.
Since the cylinder will be rough, both inside and outside, the
normal wall thickness will be 2.5 cm so that the outside diameter
becomes 26 + 2 x 2.5 = 31 cm.
The length of the cylinder must be sufficient to contain the ram
and make provision for the gland and packing. Fig. 18-3 shows
the other end of the cylinder, where the arrangement for admitting
high pressure water is shown. The arrangement for draining
water from the cylinder is also shown in the same figure.
Pillars:
The function of the pillars is to support the top plate when
the material is not being pressed. It also guides the bottom plate,
which is welded to the ram. The bottom plate can also be kept
free with the ram. The constraint will be maintained. W
adopt 4 pillars. When the material is being pressed, the pillars
will be in direct tension.
4800
Load per pillar .-- - --4-- = 12,000 kg.
If de cm be the core diameter of the threaded portion of the pillar
then,
n de2 x 900 = 12000
4
-V 12000 x 4 = 4.12 cm.
or de --r---
900 x n
As the press must be stable and rigid enough, we adopt 60 mm
as the diameter of the pillar and a collar of diameter 70 mm is
provided on the pillar to take its seat on the flange of the cylinder
Art. 1&.1 J DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE FARTS4 839

as shown in Fig. 18-3. The length of the threaded portion of the

pillar at the cylinder end may be taken as 120 mm as cast steel acts
as a nut 'and mild steel as the threaded portion. At the top
portion, of the pillar mild steel nuts can be used and hence the
length of the threaded portion can be reduced.

Cylinder flange:
We have to press the largest material of the size 60 cm x 60 cm
x 60 cm. The diameter of the pillar is 6 cm. Hence the centre
to centre distance between pillars (consecutive) 75 to 80 cm.
Let us adopt 75 cm as the distance between the pillar axes.
Let us consider the flange as a cantilever connected to the
cylinder at the outer diameter. The arm of the cantilever will
75 — 31
be = 22 cm.
2
Maximum bending moment on the flange where it joins the
cylinder is 22 x 48000 = 1,100,000 kg cm.
If t cm be the thickness of the flange, then by equating the
moment of resistance to applied bending moment, we get
it x t2 X rr x 31 x 1000 = 1100000
V 1100000 X .6
or t = = 8.05 cm.
3 1 x 1000 x rc
We adopt 9 cm as the minimum thickness of the flange where
it joins the cylinder. The top circular flange can be modified to
reduce the weight of the cylinder.

Lower movable table:

The table can be considered as a square plate loaded uniformly
and supported at the centre on a circle of diameter equal to the
diameter of the ram, which is 20 cm. It is not easy to obtain the
simple formula for maximum stress in such a,plate from the standard
books. We may be able to obtain the result from the research work.
Hence we shall make the nearest approach to the problem if we neglect
the corners of the lower table and assume that the plate is circular of dia-
meter 75 cm.
According to Grashof the thickness of the circular plate sub-
jected to uniformly distributed pressure intensity p and supported
at the centre of circle of diameter d is given by
840 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XVIII

t=a yip
f
loge 2—a + 1
d
where a is the radius of the circular plate and f is the permissible
stress intensity for the material of the plate. First of all let us
calculate the intensity of uniformly distributed pressure on the
plate, which is due to the pressing of the material. The load of
48,000 kg is supported on the circular area of diameter 75 cm.
48000
Hence p = ------ — 11.1 kg/sq cm.
: x 752

On substitution of values we get

11 [2 75
i = 37.5 1/ loge 20 ± 0.25] = 11.5 cm.
1000
A 120 mm thick slab if available or nearest higher thickness
is adopted and welded to the plunger or ram.
Upper table or Bridge piece:
The strength of the upper table or bridge piece can be
investigated by treating it as a flat square plate simply supported
at four corners and having a central uniformly distributed load
spread over a square area of the side equal to the side of the lower
movable table. (The theory of such a plate is given on page 220
of second edition of the book "Theory of Plates and Shells" by
S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky Krieger). The maximum
stress will be at the edges. For a material having a value of
Poisson's ratio as 0.3, the thickness of the plate is obtained as
t = 0.92 a 1/5-. where a is the side of the square and p is the
intensity of pressure.
48000
P = 75 x 75 = 8.5 kg/m' cm'
The thickness in cm of the plate is given by
8.5
t = 0.92 x 75 1/ - = 6.4 cm.
1 000
We adopt 65 nun as the thickness of the upper table.
Thus we have attempted to fix the main dimensions of the
hydraulic press from strength view point. These dimensions will
Art. 18-11 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 841

be modified in the design office to suit other requirements such as

manufacture, assembly, etc. The limitation of space prevents the
considerations of all such factors at this stage.
The water for working the hydraulic press will be supplied by an accumulator
which is a container in which fluid is stored under pressure as a source of fluid
power. There are two general types of accumulators; the hydro-pneumatic and
the mechanical designs. In the hydro-pneumatic design the compressed gas is used
to apply force to the stored liquid. Mechanical designs use a weighted member
or spring which applies force to the stored liquid.
The flow of fluid to the cylinder of the press from the accumulator and linen
the cylinder to the waste is controlled by a hand operated valve.

Project Exercises:
1. Design a hydraulic press for a repair shop or a small factory.
A capacity of 30 tonnes is to be produced by hydraulic ram and hand pump
with a pressure gauge. Press is to have a welded structural frame. Press
bed is to be about 30 cm by 100 cm and is to be provided with rails for
rolling out from under the ram for loading and unloading. A means is to
be provided for adjusting the height of the upper cross head. The design
is to be arranged for maximum utility and economy of construction.
2. Design a pipe bender for field use. A straight section of pipe is
placed across two pivoted concave supports. Mid-way between a 90°
concave bending a shoe is pressed into the pipe until the pipe assumes the
curvature of the shoe. The necessary force is supplied by a hydraulic
cylinder and hand pump. Shoes and a simple but rugged,ame are required
that can handle all diameters of pipe between 15 mm to 50 mm.
3. Fig. 3-7 shows a line diagram of a certain power circuit. Motor
drives the pump, and maintains a pressure of 40 kesq cm in the spherical
pressure tank A of diameter 50 cm.
(a) Find the thickness of the spherical tank if ft = 500 kg/sq cm
and efficiency of the joints is 90%. Give a free hand sketch of the joint.
(b) Design the hydraulic work cylinder B completely i.e. its thick-
ness, glands, packings, end covers, piston and piston rod and give a dimen-
sioned sketch of the cylinder assembly. Friction losses at stuffing box and
gland = 10%F, where F = 4,000 kg.
Stroke of the piston = 300 mm. Length of the piston rod = 400 mm.
U packing proportions:
t= 0.3 x d°'2; tp = It and h = 1.2 tp to 1.8 tp
842 MACHINE DESIGN lah. XVIII

where h, t and tp are shown in fig. 18-4(c), while d is the diameter of the
piston rod.
Assume your own values for the stresses.
4. Discuss briefly the important factors to be considered when selecting
a seal for a hydraulic cylinder. Differentiate between a static and a dynamic
seal giving typical examples of application in each case.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
5. The maximum force exerted by a small hydraulic press is 50,000
kg. The working pressure of the fluids is 200 kg/sq cm. Determine the
minimum diameter of the plunger operating the table. Also suggest the
suitable thickness for the cast steel cylinder in which the plunger operates if
the permissible stress for cast steel is 1,000 kg/sq cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
6. A cylinder of 100 mm bore, 150 mm stroke contains fluid under
pressure varying from 4 ata to 40 ata, the variation taking place 400 times/
minute. The cylinder is fitted with flat plates. The cylinder and the
cover plates are made from fine grain cast iron.
Define the studs to fix cover plates to the cylinder assuming an asbestos
gasket is used.
State clearly the did of gasket on the initial tension of the studs. Select
suitable material for the studs.
(University of Bombay 1976,)
7. (a) Answer the following questions briefly and to the point in
connection with design of thick cylinders of a hydraulic testing machine:
(i) What is the difference in assumption between the theory of thin
cylinders and theory of thick cylinders?
(ii) What are your specations for the material of the cylinder?
(iii) What are the arrangements to be provided for draining the
cylinder?
(iv) What kind of sealing material is generally used for systems
operating at higher pressures?
(b) A hydraulic testing machine has a maximum capacity of 50
tonnes. The piston diameter is 20 cm. Calculate the wall thickness of
the cylinder. Also design the necessary gland, gland bolts and hydraulic
seal for the cylinder.
(c) Draw a neat sketch of the cylinder gland in position.
(University of Bombay, 1977)
Art. 18-21 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 843

18-2. Design of pistons for I.C. engines:

The piston is a disc which reciprocates within a cylinder and
is either moved by or moves the fluid which enters the cylinder.
The piston of an I.C. engine receives the impulse from the expand-
ing gas and transmits the energy through the connecting rod to
the crank.
The following points are to be considered in the design of
pistons for I.C. engines:
(i) Strength to resist the gas and inertia forces
(ii) Dispersion of the heat of combustion
(iii) Gas and oil sealing of the cylinder
(iv) Bearing area sufficient to prevent undue wear
(v) Minimum weight
(vi) Noiseless operation
(vii) Resistance to mechanical and thermal distortion
(viii) Adequate support for a piston/pin.
Top of piston
, \
Oil passage / \ Ring groove
i I --,

I
Internal combustion engine trynk piston
FIG. 18-5

Trunk pistons are used for I.C. engines. The main constitu-
ents of trunk piston are: (i) head to withstand the pressure of the
gas, (ii) skirt to act as a bearing for the side thrust, (iii) gudgeon
pin or wrist pin to connect the piston to the connecting rod and
(iv) piston rings to prevent the leakage of the gas past piston.
Fig. 18-5 shows the piston for an I.C. engine.
844 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII
Piston Materials :
Materials used in pistons are, for the most parts, either
aluminium alloy or some form of cast iron. Various alloys of cast
iron are used including the special form Meehanite. A few engines
use malleable cast iron. Pin carrier inserts are generally cast
iron but sometimes are made of heat treated steel forgings. A few
large assembled pistons have a separate crown made of either cast
steel or a steel forging.
The coefficient of expansion, the increase in size per degree of
temperature increase of aluminium is approximately twice that of
cast iron. This fact must be taken into account when determining
minimum piston clearance.
The heat conductivity, the rate of heat flow, of aluminium is
approximately three times that of cast iron. The result is
that an aluminium piston has less variation in temperature from
top to bottom.
The density of cast iron is three times as much as aluminium.
This does not mean that an aluminium piston weighs only a third
as much as a cast iron piston because strength and heat transfer
problems dictate that the metal sections of an aluminium pistons
be made proportionately thicker.
Strength of aluminium decreases faster than that of cast iron
when temperature is increased. In pistons this is compensated for
by use of thick sections. Actual design of piston section is dependent
upon size, method of cooling employed and other factors. In
constrast cast iron pistons are made thin with several ribs to provide
(a) the required strength of the crown and lower structure, and
(b) additional surface for oil cooling.
Wear of aluminium pistons in many instances may be greater
than for corresponding cast-iron pistons. However, this is
compensated by the protection against serious scoring furnished
by aluminium.
The top of the piston may be treated as a flat plate fixed on
the cylindrical portion of the piston crown and subjected to a uni-
formly distributed load of the maximum intensity of gas pressure
The thickness of the piston top is given by
p.
a . D.y 3 x _f
16 (i)
where p is the maximum combustion pressure, D is the cylinder
diameter and f is the permissible stress in tension.
Art. 18-2] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 845

The maximum combustion pressure may rise upto 80 kg/sq cm.

The average value may be taken from 40 to 50 kg/sq cm.
For ribbed crowns or crowns of complex shape the section
modulus is determined by graphical and other methods and the
formula (i) will have to be modified accordingly. In calculating
the thickness of the piston crown by equation (i) the following
values of the bending stresses are permissible:
.f
Material
kgisq cm

Cast iron 350 to 400

Steel 600 to 1,000
Aluminium alloy 500 to 900

In fact there is much doubt about the validity of application

of the flat plate theory in design of pistons, as the results differ in
practice. Therefore, we adopt the empirical formula, recommended
by Held and Favary for calculation of the thickness of the piston head.
t = 0.032D -j-- 1.5 mm (ii)
Even though aluminium is weaker than cast iron, formula (ii) is
applicable for both the materials as aluminium pistons are ribbed
under the heads, the number of ribs being from 4 to 6 having thick-
ness ranging from t to t, where t is the thickness of the piston.
The piston may absorb sonic portion of heat in the burning gases and if not
cooled in some manner the piston would melt. In small engines the heat is passed
from piston to the cylinder through direct contact and through rings, which assist
the piston. On large pistons much of this heat is carried away by oil which is
introduced into the cavity under the top of the piston. Hence when we consider
the design of piston we should consider this point. The amount of heat absorbed
by the piston varies considerably in many engines, depending upon their designs.
It varies from 5 to 20 per cent of the heat supplied to the engine in form of fuel.
As the piston has to transmit the absorbed heat to the cylinder walls, the
considerable temperature difference exists between the inner and outer surfaces
of the piston crown. As a result thermal stresses are Induced which are supple-
mented to the mechanical stresses.
To determine the thermal stresses let us assume that the piston crown to be
a flat wall and the temperature changes through the crown thickness are of a linear
nature. The temperature difference 8T between the outer and inner surfaces is
given by the equation
8T= qxt
where q = quantity of heat passing through per sq metre of the crown surface
per hour.
846 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

1 = thickness of the piston crown

X = heat conduction coefficient.
The value of the heat conduction coefficient is 50 kcal/metre hour °C for steel and
cast iron and 175 kcal/metre hour °C for aluminium.
The value of q can be obtained if we know the specific fuel consumption, the
brake horse power of the engine, calorific value of the fuel, portion of the heat
transmitted to the crown and area of the piston.
KxCx Wx B.H.P. '
q_ (iv)
A
where K is the constant representing the part of the heat absorbed by the piston,
C is the higher calorific value of the fuel, W is the specific fuel consumption and
A is the piston head area.
The relative compression and tension of the layers on the outer and inner
sides of the flat top piston crown is given by
qt r E
fc =fi = ci 2 L 1 — mj .(v)
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion, E is the modulus of elasticity of the
crown material and m is Poisson's ratio.
In making calculations by the above described method, the following tempe-
rature stresses are allowed:
Cast iron 1,500 to 2,000 kg/sq cm
Steel 2,000 to 4,000 kg/sq cm.
The highest temperature of the crown of the cast iron piston may be taken as
400°C and that for aluminium alloy pistons as 250°C.
According to another design procedure the thickness of the piston head for
the heat flow is given by
qD2
th = (vi)
16C10
where 0 is the temperature difference between the centre and edge of the piston
head and C1 is the heat conduction factor in kcal/cm hour °C, its value being
0.134 for cast iron and 047 for aluminium.
In the above equation th denotes the thickness of the piston head for heat
flow considerations.
The temperature difference 0°C may be taken 220° for cast iron and 75° for
aluminium. The piston designed for heat transfer must be designed to prevent
the distortion of the skirt. A stiffening rib at the centre line of the boss extending
around the skirt distributes the side thrust and prevents distortion.
The thickness of the piston head in terms of the diameter D of engine cylinder
as found in practice for various engines is given below.
Thickness of piston head

Type of engine Piston material Four stroke Two stroke

Compression ignition Cast iron 0.11D— 0.13D 0.16D — 0.18D

If Aluminium 0.13D— 0.16D 0.17D— 0.20D
Spark ignition Cast iron 0.12D — 0.14D 0.20D— 0.23D
Art. 18-2] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 847

Another important design consideration is how much combustion chamber

volume is to be accommodated in the top of the piston. The exact amount depends
on the arrangement of the valve gear. If the inlet and exhaust valves open and
close at angles near top dead centre, the inlet valve may strike the piston or the
exhaust valve be struck by piston because of overtaking. When the cavity is in
the form of spherical segment, its radius is such that shallow depression is made
L L
except in cases where b ratio is more than 1.5. For engines of b ratio upto 1.5,
the cup in the top of the piston head may be drawn with a radius equal to 0.7D.
Automobile and air craft engine pistons have usually three
compression rings; sometimes four. Stationary compression
ignition engines have five to seven rings. These rings are placed
at the head of the piston where the leakage starts. For the better
heat transfer, it is advisable to use many narrow rings than using
few wide shallow rings.
As a rule the radial thickness tr of the piston ring can be given
in terms of the bore of the cylinder D as
tr = (0.029 to 0.033) 1) (vii)
and the ring thickness
b = (0.6 to 1) tr (viii)
The radial thickness of the ring can be calculated by consider-
ing the radial pressure between the cylinder wall and ring. The
maximum bending moment occurs in the ring at a section opposite
to the ring joint on closing the gap. From bending stress considera-
tion in the ring we get the radial thickness as under:
3p ..
Radial thickness, tr = D
11 ft (ix)

where pw is the radial wall pressure and ft the permissible

stress for the piston ring.
The value of pw lies between 04 to 0.7 kg/sq cm and the value
of ft between 1,000 to 1,500 kg/sq cm for cast iron.
When the piston ring is slipped on the piston the stress in the
1-6 x E x tr
section rises to kg/sq cm where 1 is the ring gap when
D — tr +
TC
the ring is being slipped on the piston and E is the modulus of
elasticity of cast iron which is 800,000 kg/sq cm. The value of
this stress is limited to 1,800 kg/sq cm.
D
The minimum axial thickness of the piston ring is given by --—
10 n
848 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

where D is the diameter of the engine cylinder and n is the number

of piston rings.
The thickness of piston wall under rings is to be taken equal
to the thickness of the head and decreases towards the end of the
piston down to 0.25 4 to 0.35 4 in order to make the piston lighter.
Piston rings are made of cast iron The distance of the first
ring to the edge of the piston crown is (0.15 to 0.30) D for low speed
and (0.10 to 0.18) D for high speed engines. The width of lands
betwee4 the ring grooves is about nth the axial thickness of the ring,
top land being wider than the ring and has upper edges bevelled.
The wider the top land, lower will be temperature of the top ring.
In Diesel engines, additional snap ring is placed near the
open end to retain the oil; but in gas engine trunk pistons, two or
three oil grooves are cut near the open ends for the same purpose.
Special oil rings have been designed to prevent the oil leakage
past piston into combustion chamber. Such rings have slotted
openings which in conjunction with small holes in the grooves
of the oil rings drain the oil from the piston into the crank case.
The piston skirt acts as a bearing for side thrust. The length
of piston below the ring section should be such that the bearing
pressure due to side thrust is limited to 3 kg/sq cm of projected
area. To reduce the weight of reciprocating parts for high speed
engines, the bearing pressure upto 7 kg/sq cm is permitted with
a slightly greater wear. The maximum thrust will be during the
expansion stroke. The side thrust can be calculated provided the
crank length, the connecting rod length and the pressure variation
on the piston head for various positions of the piston are known.
In calculating the projected area, the space occupied by rings must
be omitted. The length of piston is taken from 1.25D to 1.75D.
To ensure the necessary piston to liner clearance in a hot engine
the diameters of the piston crown and skirt should be made smaller
by a value 8D as given in the table 18-2.1:
Table 18-2.1
Materials
Reduction in
diameter Cast iron Aluminium

Crown (0.005 to 0.007)D 0.01D

Skirt (0.001 to 0.0013)D (0.0018 to 0.0025)D
Art. 18-21 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 849

Values of 81) in terms of D, the bore of the cylinder:

The side clearances of the piston rings are as follows:
Upper grooves 0.15 to 0.20 mm
Lower grooves 0.08 to 0.12 mm.
The maximum side pressure occurs at a crank angle of about
20° to 25°. The normal pressure varies from 0.08 to 0.1 of maxi-
mum gas load the lower value being for the higher values of the
ratio of the length of connecting rod to crank. •
Piston pin or wrist piii should be designed for the maximum
combustion pressure or inertial force of the piston whichever is
larger. The centre of the wrist pin should be from 0.02D to 0.04D
above the centre of the skirt to offset the turning effect of the
friction. The piston pin is usually hollow to reduce its weight
and is often tapered on the inside, the smallest inside diameter
being at the centre of the pin. The pin should be hardened and
ground and should turn in phosphor bronze bushing. The
material for the pin may be carbon steel or steel alloy. The allow-
able bending stress for these materials are as under:
Carbon steel 900 to 1,200 kg/sq cm
Alloy steel 1,500 to 2,300 kg/sq cm.
The bearing area should be about equally divided between the
bearing in the connecting rod and in the piston. The length of
the pin in the connecting rod bearing will be about 0.45 of the
piston diameter, allowing for end clearance of the pin, etc. The
outside diameter of the pin varies from a value less that' the length
in the connecting rod bearing to a diameter one third larger. Thus,
the piston area will be about three to four times larger than the
projected area of the bearing in the connecting rod, making the
maximum specific piston pin bearing load three to four times the
maximum combustion pressure or piston inertia force intensity.
The allowable bearing pressure in a sliding friction bearing is
120 to 200 kg/sq cm for babbitt lined shell and 200 to 250 kg/sq cm
for bronze shell. If needle type rolling bearings are used the value
of permissible bearing pressure may be taken as 300 to 600 kg/sq cm.
The bearing pressure intensity for cast iron boss is limited
between 250 to 450,kg/sq cm and for aluminium alloy piston it is
limited between 250 to 350 kg/sq cm.
After calculating the dimensions of the piston pin from
bearing consideration, it should be checked for flexural stresses.
850 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

It is to be considered a simple beam uniformly loaded for a length

of the pin in the connecting rod bearing, with supports at the centres
of the bosses at both ends. The bosses are at least li times the outer
diameter of the pin. The pin is subjected to double shear at the
boss. The allowable shear stress intensity is limited to 500 kg/sq
cm. The wrist pin is fixed in the piston by a set screw, which enters
one of the boss or the upper end of the connecting rod may be
clamped to the pin so that the pin turns in the wrist pin boss or it
may float both in piston and rod. In the last arrangement, the
pin is retained by circlips or soft plugs at the ends of the piston
pin to prevent the pin from contacting and scoring the cylinder wall.

Example :
I. Design a cast iron piston for a single acting internal combustion
engine having 20 cm as the cylinder bore. The maximum explosion pres-
sure may be taken as 40 kg/sq cm.
We adopt the material of the piston as cast iron, for which the
permissible stress for cast iron piston is taken as 385 kg/sq cm.
The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat plate
theory assuming that it is a circular plate fixed at the edges and
loaded transversely with uniformly distributed load.
3 40
t=D VA
16
x P --.--- 20 V1 x
6 -38-5
= 2.8 cm.
We adopt 5 compression rings and 1 oil ring.

Radial thickness of the ring— D

V'
ft .
We take pw -,- 0.4 kg/sq cm and fi = 1,000 kg/sq cm.

Radial thickness of the ring = 20

px 0.-4 = 0.7 cm.
1000
Axial thickness of the ring may be taken as 0.6 cm.
Let us take the distance of the first ring from the edge of the
crown as 0.1D, i.e. 0.1 x 20 = 2 cm.
Width of piston land between rings = I x axial thickness of
the ring ---= £ x 0.6 = 0.45 cm; we adopt 0.5 cm.
Length of the piston is adopted as 1.5D = 1.5 x 20 = 30 cm.
Length of piston skirt = 30 — 2 — 4 x 0.5 — 5 x 0.6 = 23 cm.
The centre of the piston pin above the centre of the skirt
equals 0.02D = 0.02 x 20 = 0.4 cm. Therefore, the distance
Art.' 18-2] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 851

from the bottom of the piston to the axis of the gudgeon pin is
23
equal to -T. + 0.4 = 11.9 cm, say 12 cm.
Thickness of the piston wall below the ring = 2.8 cm.
Thickness of the piston wall at open end = 1.2 cm.
Bearing area provided by the skirt = 23 x 20 = 460 sq cm.
Maximum gas load = 4 x 202 x 40 = 12,560 kg.
Assuming that the maximum side pressure is 0.1 of the gas
load,
side thrust = 12560 x 0.1 = 1,256 kg.
1256
Bearing pressure between the side walls and piston =
460
= 2.74 kg/sq cm,
which is within limits.
Maximum load on the gudgeon pin = 12,560 kg.
Let the length of the pin in* the connecting rod = 0.45D
= 0.45 x 20 = 9 cm.
Let us assume the permissible bearing pressure as 200 kg/sq cm.
This value is suitable for babbitt lined shell as well as for bronze
shell.
We assume the material of the pin as carbon steel for which the
permissible stress may range from 900 to 1,200 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the outside diameter of the pin, uteri
d x 9 x 200 = 12560
12560
or d= — 7 cm.
9 x 200
The bending stress in the pin is determined from the consi-
deration that the pin is a beam uniformly loaded for a distance of
9 cm (length of pin in the connecting rod) and supported at the
centres of the bosses. The maximum bending moment will work
out to be
P x D 12560 x 20
= 31,400 kg cm.
8 = 8
If f be the maximum bending stress induced in the pin, then
7C
R x 73 x f = 31400
31400x 32
Or f-- n x 73 = 935 kg/sq cm, which is within
852 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

limits. The weight of reciprocating parts can be reduced by

providing hollow gudgeon pin.
Let us consider a hollow gudgeon pin of 8.5 cm outside
diameter and 7 cm inside diameter.
8.54 — 74
Modulus of section =
—3ni
-
= 32.7 cm3.
8. 5
0
Bending stress = 3140
- 2.7 -,--- 960 kg/sq cm.

Thus, by adopting a hollow pin the stress has increased by

(960 — 935)
x 100 = 2•67%, while the weight has been reduced by
935
72 — (8.52 — 72)
x 100 = 52.5%. Thus, by adopting a
72
hollow gudgeon pin, the piston can be made lighter.

Exercises :
I. A trunk type cast iron pision for an internal combustion engine
has a diameter of 10 cm and length of 15 cm. The maximum pressure is
35 kg/sq cm. Maximum permisible tension for cast iron for the design of
head thickness is 300 kg/sq cm, and for piston pin material is 450 kg/sq cm.
Bearing pressure for piston pin should not exceed 200 kg/sq cm. Design
(a) the thickness of the head treating it as a fiat plate fixed at the edges and
uniformly loaded, and (b) dimensions of the piston pin.
Sketch the cross section of the piston through the piston bosses.
Ans. (a) 1.5 cm (b) Hollow pin of 65 mm outside diameter and 55 mm
inside diameter having bearing length in small end as 45 mm.
2. Design a trunk type piston for a single cylinder, four stroke cycle
engine developing 8 b.h.p. at 600 r.p.m. Draw to scale a fully dimen-
sioned working drawing of the piston with the piston rings, scraper rings
and the piston pin in position. Show clearly the arrangement for fitting the
gudgeon pin.
Diameter of piston is 12 cm and the maximum explosion pressure is
40 kg/sq cm. Heat supplied to the engine is 3,200 [Link].
About 6% of the heat is conducted through the piston crown. The heat
conduction factor for cast iron may be taken as 0.14 kcallcm' hour °C. The
temperature difference between the centre of the crown and the edge of the
crown may be taken as 250°C.
Assume any data necessary for the design.
Art. 18-3] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 853

3. Design an aluminium alloy piston with a flat head for an I.C.

engine having 100 mm bore. Draw a neat dimensioned sketch of the piston
to bring out the details clearly. The maximum gas pressures may be taken
as 45 kg/sq cm.
4. Discuss briefly the factors that are to be considered in the design
of a piston for an I.C. engine. In what ways does the I.C. engine piston
differ from that of a steam engine?
(University of Bombay, 1972)
5. Design a trunk type cast iron piston for an I. C. engine for the
following data:
Diameter of cylinder 10 cm
Stroke 15 cm
Maximum explosion pressure 35 kg/sq cm
Maximum permissible tension for cast iron for the design of head
thickness is 300 kg/sq cm and the flexural stress for the pin may be taken
from 900 to 1,200 kg/sq cm.
The gudgeon pin should be hardened and ground and should turn in
phosphor bronze bushing. Bearing pressure should not exceed 150 kg/sq cm.
Sketch the cross section of the piston inserting important dimensions of
the piston with piston pin, piston rings and scraper ring in position.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
4..
18-3. Design of crossheads:
Introduction:
Crossheads are essential parts of all double acting steam
engines and several other machines in which reciprocating motion
is converted into rotary motion or vice-versa. They are made of
cast iron or cast steel. Two distinct forms-
9 the box and the
marine types are used in present designs and they are illustrated
respectively in figs. 18-6 and 18-7 in which the important parts
are given with their names.
The shoes which guide the crosshead and take all the reaction
of the guide should be adjustable for wear. The wearing surface
may be left plain, since cast iron on cast iron is quite satisfactory
for bearing surfaces where the pressures and speeds are low.
The bearing surface may be lined with babbitt metal.
854 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVIII

The box type of crosshead is heavier than the marine type.

So marine type crossheads are well suited for high speed engines
to keep down the inertia forces.
The proportions of crossheads are largely empirical due to
complex nature of stresses and the only parts which permit of
calculations are the wrist pin and shoes.
_Guide
f. \-\\\\\\\-\\\N\-\
Shoe
an. Mn,

1
.•••••=,

----- Body

in ow Mk 411.

nUti
Wrist phi)
wu
ion qi
Adjusting
bolt

Box type of crosshead

FIG. 18-6
Wrist pin:
The maximum load T on the wrist pin is given by
Pn
(i)
Vn2 — 1
where P = maximum load on the piston
n = the ratio of the lengths of the connecting rod to crank.
The maximum reaction R at the guide bar is given by
R =
Vn2 — 1
The wrist pin is designed to give sufficient bearing area and
then it is checked for strength as a beam loaded with the thrust or
pull in the connecting rod. The load may be taken as equally
distributed over the journal length. The journal on the cross-
head pin is either supported at both ends as shown in fig. 18-8 or
Art. 18-3] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 855

Cap or keep plate

/
.... mi. ....
J
v•

V
Body Misr mo. ••• ,MMO .11M. ••••••

I
I c
14- t -4.

IR

.J

We ...... ..mi. •••

.1011..= .•••lb

Brass Cross head bolt

I 1
z"'•0.• ami 11 '16.-i'aliC - 1
I I di.
4...••••
km. I I
r . L 6. ....
T1
Marine type of crosshead
FIG. 18-7

Connections of a gudgeon pin in a connecting rod

FIG. 18-8 FIG. 18-9
856 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

there are two separate end journals as shown in fig. 18-9. In

1
both the cases, the bending moment is euqal to — •
8
If f be the permissible bending stress, then
da f 1
(iii)
32 8
If p be the bearing pressure per sq cm on journal, then
T=pd1 (iv)
Eliminating 1 from equations (iii) and (iv), we get

d=
/ 4-F2 = 1-06 —
4
/
4 T2
(v)
Pf 1 Pf
The safe bearing pressure varies from 70 to 110 kg/sq cm for
ordinary lubrication and from 140 to 210 kg/sq cm for forced
lubrication. The value of bending stress may be taken as 600
kg/sq cm for wrought iron and 850 kg/sq cm for steel. The length
of the pin varies from 1•25d to 2•25d.
Shoe :
The shoes should be designed with an area sufficient to
support the guide reaction with a specific safe pressure. They
should be placed in such a position relative to the wrist pin that
the pressure will be distributed uniformly over the bearing surface.
The value of allowable bearing pressure varies from 2 to 7 kg/sq cm.
Guide:
The guides for crossheads may be made of cast iron, wrought
iron or steel. When the guides are not cast with the frame of
the engine, they are generally of rectangular or T section. Fig. 2-41
shows a cast iron guide bar of T section. The maximum load
on the guide bar is due to reaction whose magnitude is given as
P
R= (vi)
Vn2 — 1
If we assume that the maximum load on the guide bar acts at
the centre, then maximum bending moment M is given by
Ry
M= (vii)
4
where ay is the distance between the supports of the bar.
Equating the bending moment to the moment of resistance of the
section of the bar, the dimensions of the section of the bar may
be determined. The stress f may be taken at 200 kg/sq cm for
cast iron and 400 kg/sq cm for wrought iron or steel.
Art. 18-31 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 857

Crosshead bolts:
When the piston rod and connecting rod are in tension, each
bolt is subjected to a tensile load of 2 • These bolts are not subjected
to a reversal of stresses so higher permissible stress values are
adopted. Fine threads are employed.
Cap or keep plate:
The cap may be considered as a beam fixed at two ends with
a central load P. The span of the beam s equals the distance be-
tween bolt centres. The greatest bending moment will occur at
Ps
the ends and at the centre and both are equal to — . Equating
8
the bending moment to the moment of resistance of the section, the
dimensions of the section of the keep plate may be calculated. The
permissible stress value for mild steel keep plate is taken to be
450 kg/sq cm.
Example:
1. Design a suitable crosshead for a single cylinder, 1ton-condensing
steam engine to develop 50 i.h.p., the steam chest pressure being 7 kg/sq cm
gauge. The cylinder is supplied with a D-slide valve „giving a mean cut-off
at of the stroke. The piston speed is to be 120 metre/minute, the revolu-
tions 240 per minute and a diagram factor 0.8.
1
The ratio of expansion of the engine --- 1.6.

The pressure of steam admission = 7 + 1 = 8 kg/sq cm

absolute. Let us take a back pressure as 1.2 kg/sq cm absolute.
8
Mean effective pressure pm -, 0.8 {1.2 (1 + loge") -- 1.2
5 kg/.sq cm.

I..
H.P Pm X area of piston x piston speed in metre/minute
4500
If D cm be the diameter of piston, then
50 5 x TrxD2 x 120
4 x 4500
D 50 x 4 x 4500
or 120 = 22 cm.
y xi x
x 100=
Stroke of the piston = 120 25 cm.
2 x 240
858 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII
Length of the connecting rod is taken as 50 cm.
Maximum load on piston P = 7
1. x 222 x 6.8 = 2,580 kg.

Maximum thrust T in the connecting rod = 2580 x 50

V502 — 12.52
= 2,690 kg.
Reaction at the guide bar = 2580= 670 kg.
V42 — 1
We assume the safe bearing pressure for the guide bar as
5 kg/sq cm.
670
.. Area of crosshead slipper = —6--- = 136 sq cm. We adopt
B0 . 8 cm and Lo = 18 cm, where Bo and L0 are the dimensions
of the shoe, providing 144 sq cm shoe area.
Assuming a bearing pressure on crosshead pin as 85 kgisq cm,
the projected area of the pin required will be 2850 =. 32 sq cm.

This area will be provided by a pin 4 cm diameter and 8 cm

as the bearing length. The total length of the pin will be some
what more than double the bearing length of the pin.
Let us determine the diameter of the crosshead bolts.
2580
Load per bolt ,---. — = 1,290 kg.
2—
The safe stress for the bolts may be taken as 350 to 400 kg/sq cm.
1290
We adopt fine threads. Minimum area required =
400
= 3.25 sq cm.
From metric table, we adopt M24 x 2, which will provide
cross sectional area of 3.84 sq cm and pitch of 2 mm.
The width of keep plate will be equal to width across corners
of piston nut. This distance we take as 6 cm. The distance
between bolt heads is taken as the sum of the width across corners
of piston nut + bolt head diameter + clearance. This dimen-
sion is taken as 11 cm.
The thickness of the bearing is taken as 11 = 0.094 + 0.4 cm
where d1 is the diameter of the crosshead pin. On substitution of
values, we get
h = 0.09 x 4 + 04 e—.- 0.8 cm.
Art. 18-3] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 859

If we take the thickness of each side flange as 0.30 cm, then

breadth of the cap = 8 2 x 0.3 = 74 cm.
The thickness of the cap above bolt = 25 mm.
The permissible stress for the cap material is taken as 400 kg/sq
cm. If t cm be the thickness of the cap, we get
2580 x 11
8
= 1 x 7.4 x t2 x 400
i/2580 11 6
or X T.71, x g- = 2.68 cm; we adopt 2.8 cm.
= r400
Let us check the crosshead pin for bending.
Maximum bending moment on the pin = T/i
2690 x (8 — 0.6)
8
-= 2,500 kg cm.
7C
The modulus of section of the pin = 43= X 43 = 6.28 cm3.
32
00
.•. Bending stress = 6. = 400 kg/sq cm ; the stress value is
25 28
well within safe limits.
Exercises :
1. Calculate the area of a crosshead shoe for a 4 cylinder horizontal
diesel engine developing 850 b.h.p. running at 160 r.p.m. Diameter of
the cylinder is 47 cm and the stroke length 60 cm. The ratio of the length
of the connecting rod to crank length is 5 and the permissible bearing pressure
is limited to 2.5 kg/sq cm. Ans. 400 sq cm.
2. The maximum thrust in the connecting rod of a steam engine is
4,983 kg. Suggest the suitable dimensions of the gudgeon pin. Assume
that the bearing pressure on the pin is limited to 90 kg/sq cm and that
ratio is 2. Bending stress in the pin is limited ,to 600 kg/sq cm.
Ans. d = 75 mm.
3. The crosshead for a double acting steam engine has a single slide
of forged steel which has a width equal to 0.4 of its length. The diameter
of the cylinder is 30 cm; stroke 55 cm; and length of connecting rod is 5
times that of crank. Steam admission pressure is 10 kg/sq cm and back
pressure 1.2 kg/sq cm. The safe bearing pressure for slides is 5 kg/sq cm.
Design and sketch the crosshead.
Ans. Length 25 cm; width of guide bar 10 cm.
860 MACHINE DESIGN i Ch, XVIII

4. In a high pressure cylinder of 20 cm diameter, the net forward

steam pressure and inertia force per sq cm of piston area are observed to
be as under:

Angle
degrees 0 20 40 60 80 90 100 120 140 160 180

Net
steam 6.5 6.55 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 0
4.8 3.45 1.75 -1.7
pressure
kg/sq cm

Inertia
force -2.64 -2.32 -1.7 -0.85 0.3 0.43 0.77 1.27 1.56 1.67 1.7
kg/sq cm

The other particulars are as follows:

Stroke 25 cm; length of connecting rod, 63 cm; crosshead guides have
cylindrical surface of 18 cm diameter; small end of the connecting rod is for-
ked and the gudgeon pin bearing is incorporated in the crosshead; diameter of
piston rod 3.5 cm and it is connected to crosshead by a cotter.
Design and draw working sketches of the crosshead showing the method
of adjusting the wear on gudgeon pin bearing.
Design and draw working sketches of the crosshead showing the method
of adjusting the wear in gudgeon pin bearing.
(Sardar Patel University, 1968)
5. The bore of a locomotive cylinder is 50 cm and boiler pressure is
14 kg/sq cm gauge. Ratio of length of connecting rod to crank radius is 7.
Determine the required area for the crosshead shoe if there are two shoes.
Maximum pressure between guides and crosshead shoe is limited to 6 kg/sq
cm. Assume that the maximum net load on the piston comes nearly at 900
of crank rotation from i.d.c.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
18-4. Design of connecting rods:
The types of connecting rod ends for steam engines are shown
in fig. 6-7 and 9-16. The solid rod shown in fig. 18-10 is the strongest
and most common form used with side crank engines. Connecting
rods for the centre crank engines are made with the crank pin
end in two or more pieces to facilitate assembly on the crank pin.
Suitable arrangements should be made for taking up the wear.
Art. 18-41 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 861

In this article we shall consider in detail the design principles

as related to internal combustion engines.
Connecting Rods and Piston Pins:
The connecting rod and piston pin are the connecting links
between piston and crankshaft. They transform the power
delivered to the reciprocating piston into a rotating torque in the
crankshaft.

Small end Connecting rod V/ end

____.... 'I%

.4'
I
Connecting rod
Fio. 18-10
Connecting Rod Type:
Many large slow-speed engines use connecting rods of the so-
called marine-type construction. This is particularly true when the
bore is over 40 cm. The piston-pin eye is generally a solid integral
part of the rod column. The crankpin end consists of two separate
parts which bolt together to locate the bearing on the pin and the
assembly is then bolted to the foot of the column. This design
facilitates bearing service on large engines when working through
access doors in the sides of the frame.
.,
Most engines have the conventional two-piece connecting rod. The
whole rod may be forged in one piece, the bearing cap being cut off, faced
and bolted in place for final machining of the big end. In large sizes, the
cap is forged separately, the joint machined, and then bolted to
the rod for final machining.
The small end of the rod is generally made as a solid eye.
Loads on Connecting Rods : r
During the compression and power strokes, the connecting
rod functions as a column, and is subject to compressive loads due
to downward forces on the piston. The resultant piston force is
the gas pressure in kg/sq cm times the piston area in sq cm minus
the inertia force of the piston and the rod.
Stress in the rod can be calculated by conventional column
formulas. The rod is supported on two parallel cylindrical bear-
ings and, therefore, is freely supported about the bearings. At
862 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

90 degrees, each end of the rod is supported by the length of the

bearing. This support is fairly narrow, has some clearance for oil,
the piston has some freedom in the cylinder, and the piston pin
and crankpin may not be exactly parallel. As a result, stress calcu-
lations are often based on the assumption that the rod is supported
freely in both planes with point contact. Allowance must be
made for the rapid rate of application and release of the loads
imposed.
In 2-stroke cycle engines, the load is partially released during
the operational cycle but never completely. There is always a
compressive load on the rod due to (a) compression of the air,
(b) the power impulse at or near bottom dead centre (c) the inertia
force of the piston and the rod.
In 4-stroke cycle engines, there is a reversal of loading on the
connecting rod from compression to tension each cycle. Compres-
sion loads are present during compression and power strokes but
during the last part of the exhaust stroke and first part of the intake
stroke, the rod is in tension to absorb the inertia forces,since there
is no gas pressure in the cylinder. In high-speed engines this
tensile load may be even greater than the compressive load on the
power stroke.
Maximum allowable stress in a 4-stroke cycle rod is less than
that in a 2-stroke cycle rod. The 4-stroke cycle stress reversal
condition is more severe than a 2-stroke cycle partially relieved
compressive load.
A connecting rod in subjected to an additional stress due to
bending as the rod is whipped back and forth by the crankpin.
The condition is the same as if the rod was swung back and forth
rapidly by a force at the big end while supported on a stationary
piston pin. Weight of the rod creates a bending stress which is a
maximum at the outer limits of swing and is dependent on rod
weight, length, shape of cross section, radius of the crank arm
and engine speed. This maximum stress is developed when the
crank arm and connecting rod are at right angles to each other.
At this position on the power stroke, the piston is nearly half way
down, the compressive column load is much below the maximum,
so that in nearly all cases the combination of compressive stress
plus bending stress is much less than the maximum stress of column
action alone. As a result, this bending load is seldom found to be
serious and is often neglected.
Art. 184} DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 863

Connecting Rod Length:

The shorter the connecting rod for a specific stroke, or crank-
arm radius, the greater the angular swing of the rod, and the
greater the piston side thrust However, no piston or cylinder wall
was ever scored due to piston side thrust alone.
Length of the connecting rod is dependent for the most part
on the piston stroke and length of the piston skirt below the piston
pin. In high-speed engines, where fairly short pistons are used,
the 1/r ratio is generally in the neighbourhood of 4, or less. In
large low-speed engines, it varies from 4 to over 5, in case of
extremely long pistons.
Connecting Rod Sections:
Most connecting rods are made with I-sections, while a few
engines use round-sectioned rods. Most rods of either shape
have a rifle-drilled hole from end-to-end to carry oil for gudgeon
pin lubrication and piston cooling.
The I-section is positioned for greatest support against flexure
around the bearings. The round rod section provides uniform
strength in all directions. It also provides a simple means of produc-
ing a completely-machined rod, and thus provides additional
insurance against fatigue failure as compared to an irregular un-
finished rod.
The duty of the connecting rod is to transmit the load received
from the piston pin to the crankpin. To prevent,highly localized
loads on portions of the bearings, both ends of the rod column
section must be flared out and filleted well into the cylindrical
sections which support the bearings, so that load is distributed
uniformly over the bearing surface. Liberal fillets will provide the
required support at the rod eye. At the crankpin end, width of the
I-section should increase as it approaches the bearing support.
Large fillets are desirable from the web of the I-section to the bear-
ing support for rigidity along the length 6of the bearing.
Since 4-stroke cycle rods are subjected to tensile as well as
compression loads, the bearing caps must be made with deep sec-
tions of sufficient rigidity to carry these loads without bending and
deforming the bearing shell. The cap bolts, or cap screws, must
be capable also of withstanding these repeated tensile loads with-
out fatigue. In a 2-stroke cycle the rod bolt and cap bolt loads
are practically zero.
864 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch..: XVIII

Materials:
The forces of gas pressure in the piston and the inertia forces
of the reciprocating masses of the piston and connecting rod cause
variable loading of the connecting rod. The connecting rod is
one of the most heavily stressed parts of an engine and is, therefore
made of high grade steels.
Most connecting rods are made of a medium-carbon steel or
alloy steel forgings. If heat treated, they are drawn at a suitable
temperature to leave the material soft so as to better resist fatigue
failure.
The bolts of connecting rod bearings are made of high grade
medium carbon alloy steel, heat treated to provide high strength
along with good fatigue resistant properties. Many of these
bolts are machined to provide high fatigue resistance by having a
large portion of the body turned to a smaller diameter. All the
body except the ends and the central portion which acts as a dowel
is machined to the smaller diameter.
The small end bushes are made of phosphor bronze. The
shells of the connecting rod big end are usually made of steel lined
with babbitt or lead bronze.
Calculations of connecting rods:
Calculations of the connecting rod are confined to checking
the strength of the shank, small end, big end and big end bolts.
The connecting rod shank is subjected to the force of gas pres-
sure, the force of inertia of the reciprocating masses and the
transverse inertia forces of the connecting rod mass.
When the piston is at top dead centre or inner dead centre
position the connecting rod is compressed by the resultant of gas
force and the inertia force. As the gas force is compressive and the
inertia force at top dead centre or inner dead centre position is
tensile, the resultant of the two will be less than the gas force.
Hence for higher reliability the connecting rod shank is calculated only for
the gas force.
The cross sectional area of the connecting rod may be deter-
mined by principles explained in chapter on "Struts and Columns".
The allowable compressive stresses for the material of the
connecting rod are as follows:
Carbon Steel 800 to 1,200 kg/sq cm.
Alloy Steel 1,200 to 1,800 kg/sq cm.
Art. 18-4 j DEgiON OP M/SULLAREOUS MACH/NE Pmets-t 865

Bending of connecting rod shank by the transverse forces of

inertia of the connecting rod mass is taken into account only when
checking the dimensions of the connecting rods of high speed engines.
Now we consider in detail the analysis of transverse force analysis. In high
speed engines the connecting rod of the engine has a lateral oscillation in addition
to its longitudinal motion. As a result inertia forces are set up in the rod which
tend to bend it in the plane of oscillation. This is due to the fact that one end of
the rod is fastened to the crosshead or piston having a motion of pure translation,
while the other end is fastened to the crank pin which is rotating about the fixed
axis. Such an action is known as the whipping action due to the oscillation of the rod. If
the rod were to be made cylindrical, it will bend very easily. In order to streng-
then the rod in the plane of oscillation, it is made rectangular or of I section with
the greatest depth in the plane of oscillation.
Let us consider the stresses in the connecting rod due to the whipping action.
The maximum stresses due to bending will occur when the crank and connecting
rod are at right angles as shown in fig. 18-11 Let r be the radius of the crank,
co the angular velocity of the crank, a the area of cross section of the connecting
rod, 1 the length of the connecting rod and p the density of the material of the
rod. We assume for the analysis that the area of cross section of the connecting
rod is constant throughout, which is not the case.

2
r iv
9

Connecting rod

Piston Crank

Inertia loading on a connecting rod in its plane of oscillation

no. 18-11
Acceleration of the crank pin = rwa •
Inertia force per unit length at crank pin = a ro)!
Inertia force per unit length at a distance x from the gudgeon Pin
p
— am'. Thus we see that the load distribution on the connecting rod shank
g
is represented by a triangle as shown in fig. 18-11.
/
Total inertia force P on the connecting rod = I"
1- -P- a r col&
1 g
0
On integration, we have
866 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

P=— P a r ca2 1 (1)

g 2
This load acts at a distance §l from the gudgeon pin.
P 2P
Reaction at the gudgeon pin will be -§- and at the crank pin -§ •
Bending moment M at any section at a distance x from the gudgeon pin =
P
-g- (x — 8;) . This bending moment will be maximum for that value of x,
dM
which gives -d-• = 0.
v
dM P ( 3x 2 1
=0
767 =g 1— --ii
1
or x --= - ---
V3
Substituting this value of x in bending moment equation, we get
2VT
Mmax = -0-- - P1
Mmax
Maximum bending stress = -- -- •
The maximum bending stress in the connecting rod is given by
all
..10rp
144002 kkgfsq cm (iii)

where N is the crank speed in r.p.m., Z the section modulus in cm°, r the crank
length in metre, p density in kg/cm'', 1 the length of the rod in cm and a the area
of cross section of the rod in sq cm.
The above results are obtained on the assumption that the rod is of uniform
section but the taper in the rod will not change the stresses appreciably.
The flexural or bending stresses in the engine connecting rods are usually as
follows:
Low speed engines 75 to 100 kg/sq cm
High speed engines 150 to 200 kg/sq cm.
The maximum values of the stresses due to gas loads and due
to whipping action do not occur at the same instant in case of
internal combustion engines, so we cannot get the maximum values
by adding them. It is unnecessary to investigate the maximum
tensile stress because the maximum stresses due to gas load occur
near about at dead centres when the transverse bending stresses are
insignificant. For steam engines, we should check the section for maximum
stresses its the maximum values of both stresses are likely to occur at the
same time, because the pressure of steam remains constant upto the point
of cut-off
It should also be remembered that as the thrust along the
connecting rod acts along the friction axis, which does not lie along
the geometrical axis of the connecting rod, flexural or bending
Art. 18-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 867

stresses are induced in each normal section of the connecting rod.

These stresses vary from section to section.
If we consider the inertia of the reciprocating masses of the
engine, their effect is to reduce the maximum gas load along the
connecting rod during the first part of the stroke and increase it
during the latter half. Hence while proportioning the cross sectional
dimensions of the rod we have neglected the inertia effect due to
reciprocating masses.
Inertia force, I, due to reciprocating masses approximately
W
equals to -- riv2 (cos() -1- 1 cos20) (iv)
g
where W is the weight of reciprocating masses and 0 the angle
turned by the crank from the inner dead centre position.
The thrust along the connecting rod at any instant will be gas
load minus the inertia force.
The connecting rod may be circular, rectangular or I sectioned.
The ratio of width to depth of a rectangular section should be 0.5
to 0-7. I section rods have generally a width 0.6 times the depth
and a flange and web thickness 0.20 to 0.25 times the depth. The
majority of rods are tapered so that the crank pin end is 1.1 to 1.15
times the depth computed for the centre section. The outer ends
of solid rods and cap of marine type and split end rods are designed
as beams simply supported at ends and loaded at the centre by
a concentrated force P which is equal to the inertia force of reci-
procating masses. If this force is insignificant as is the case with
low speed engines, the force should be taken as an arbitrary force of
TC
piston seizure which may be taken as (10 to 15) 4 D2 kg where D
is the bore of the cylinder in cm. Afterwards they should be
checked for stiffness and the deflection at the centre should not
exceed 0.03 mm. (Please refer to article 9-10.)
The width of the connecting rod big dnd must be smaller than
the cylinder bore diameter D if the piston connecting rod group is
to be removed upward through the cylinder liner.
In four stroke cycle engine, the big end bolts are designed
for the inertia forces of the reciprocating masses of the piston and
connecting rod plus the rotating mass of the connecting rod. If
F be the inertia force on which the bolts are to be designed then
- F x. 4
gI, . --- (v)
nnf
868 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

where n = number of connecting rod bolts

de = core diameter of a bolt
f = allowable tensile stress intensity.
The permissible values of allowable tensile stress intensities
are as under:
Carbon Steel 500 to 600 kg/sq cm
Alloy Steel 900 to 1,000 kg/sq cm.
In two stroke cycle engines and low speed four stroke cycle
engines these bolts are checked for the force of piston seizure which
7C
may be taken as (10 to 15) 4 D2 kg where D is the engine bore
in cm.
The required tightness of the joint between the halves of the
connecting rod end during engine operation should be ensured
by tightening up the connecting rod to 1.35 to 1.5 times the value
of F, the inertia force.
In more accurate calculations the maximum tensile stress in the connecting
rod bolts is determined by the methods explained in art. 5-13.
f = —[Pi- I -— F— 1 cg Isqcm (vi)
amin /CI ]
1+
2
where
amin = core area of the bolt
Pi = initial tightening load in the bolt
Es x al
ki = = rigidity of the clamped parts of the connecting rod end
/1
is = length of the parts before tightening
al = cross sectional area of the parts being clamped
Es x as
ks — = rigidity of the bolt
Is
is = length of the bolt between nuts
as = mean cross sectional area of the bolt.
The maximum allowable tensile stress in the above equation is given as under:
Carbon Steel 800 to 1,200 kg/sq cm
Alloy Steel 1,300 to 2,000 kg/sq cm.
To prevent forcing out the oil film and destroying the anti-
friction lining of the bearing the load on the crank pin should not
exceed 90 to 120 kg/sq cm of projected area for slow speed Diesel
engines and 200 to 220 kg/sq cm of projected area for high speed
engines.
Another application of a machine element where transverse
loading is to be considered is the coupling rod of a locomotive, which
Art. 18-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 869

undergoes considerable bending stresses when running at a high

speed on account of transverse inertia loading. At its highest
position the downward acceleration is maximum and is equal to
rr.o2. The acceleration of each particle on the coupling rod is the
same. Similarly when the crank is vertical in lowest position, the
upward acceleration is maximum. In this phase the gravity and
inertia force are in the same sense and hence the flexural stresses
are maximum. The coupling rod is considered as a beam,
simply supported at each end and loaded with a uniformly
P
distributed load (due to inertia) of — a roo2 per unit length. The
g
maximum bending stress will occur at the middle. When modulus
of section is known, the stresses can be calculated. If the permis-
sible stresses are known, the suitable section can be suggested.

Examples :
1. The following section has been suggested for I section connecting
rod of a petrol engine running at 2,000 r.p.m. The depth of the section
is 4 cm, the width of the flange 2.5 cm and the thickness of the flange and
the web 6 mm. If the stroke of the piston be 15 cm, determine the maximum
stress in the connecting rod due to inertia of the connecting rod if the length
of the connecting rod be 30 cm. The density of the material is 7.8 kg/cu dm.
Area of cross section = 2 x 2.5 x 0.6 + 2.8 x 0.6
0.
= 4.68 sq cm.
l'I (2.5 x 43 — 1.9 x 2.83)
Modulus of section = = 4.92 cm3.
, 2
The maximum bending stress in the connecting rod due to
whipping action is given by
N2 r Pali
f . 14400,2 kg/sq cm,
•

where N is the crank speed in r.p.m., Z the section modulus in cm3,

r the crank length in metre, P density in kg/cm3, / the length of
the rod in cm and a the area of cross section of the rod in sq cm.
7.5 7.8 x 4.68 x 302 1
f . (2000)2 x — x
100 14400 x 4.92 x food
= 139 kg/sq cm.
2. The connecting rod of a slow speed Diesel engine is 3 metre long
and is made of St 55. Determine the suitable dimensions for a circular
870 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

section of a rod. The bore and stroke of the cylinder are 90 and 120 cm
respectively. The maximum combusition pressure is 48 kgIsq cm.
Determine, also, the whipping stresses if the engine runs at 150 r.p.m.
Maximum gas load = 4 x 902 x 48 = 305,000 kg.

As the engine is slow speed, the inertia effect of reciprocating

masses is to be neglected.
Let us determine the cross section of the connecting rod by
using Euler's formula assuming that it has hinged ends. We take
factor of safety as 20.
If d cm be the diameter of the connecting rod in cm, then by
employing Euler's formula, we have
n
ic 2 x 2.1 x 106 x - d4
64
305000 x 20 ----=
3002
4 1305000 x 20 x 3002 x 64
or d --- 1
n 3 X 2.1 x 106
----. 27.1 cm; we adopt 28 cm.
1 30028x 4
Slenderness ratio — = = 4243.
k
As the slenderness ratio is less than 105, Euler's formula is not
applicable and hence we check the design by Tetmajer's formula.
According to Tetmajer, buckling load on mild steel column with
hinged ends is given by
P ,--- A (3100 — 114X) kg
where A =--. area of cross section in sq cm and
X = the slenderness ratio.
7C
P= >• 286 [3100 — 114 x 42.81 = 1,600,000 kg.
4
1600000 =
Factor of safety --.
- 305000 5.25'
Thus, the column is strong to withstand the buckling action.
In fact we can reduce the diameter of the column because according
to ten Bosch the factor of safety of 3.5 to 5 is sufficient for Tetmajer's
formula.
Let us check the design for whipping stress.
.N-2 r p a12
Whipping stress ---.• 00Z - kg/sq cm
14-4--
Art. 18-4) DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 871

where X is the crank speed in r.p.m., r the crank radius in

metre, p the density in kg/cm2, a area of cross section in sq cm,
1 the length of the connecting rod in cm and z the section modulus
in ans.
On substitution of values in the above formula, we get
TC
1502 x 0.6 x x 282 x 0.0078 x 3002
f= 4
= 190 kg/sq cm.
7C
14400 x 3-2 x 283

3. A locomotive coupling rod of 225 cm between centres is of uniform

rectangular section 10 cm deep by 2.5 cm thick. The cranks carrying the
rods have an effective radius of 25 cm and run at 240 r.p.m. The maximum
thrust load along each coupling rod is 9,000 kg. Find the maximum
stress in the coupling rod assuming that the maximum values of the buckling
stress and whipping stress occur simultaneously.
1 x 10 x 2.5 x 7.8
Weight per cm run = = 0.195 kg.
1000
Acceleration of crank pin = r o)2
25 (240 x 27c\2
= 100 x --- 60-
= 158 metre/sect.
Inertia force per cm length = 0.195 x 158= 3.14 kg.
9.81
The greatest bending stress occurs in the coupling rod when
it is at its lowest position when gravity and inertia forces add.
Total bending load = 3.14 + 0.195 = 3.335 kg/cm.
3.335 x 225 x 225
Maximum bending moment = —
8-
-= 21,200 kg cm.
-_,_
_ 21200
Maximum bending stress =507 kg/sq cm.
i X 2'5 x 102
In order to calculate the stress due to axial compressive load of
9,000 kg, we apply Rankine's formula for hinged columns.
f x 10 x 2.5
9000 =
1 2252
1+—x x 12
7500 102
or fc . 665 kg/sq cm.
Maximum stress in the coupling rod = 665 + 507
-, 1,172 kg/sq cm.
872 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

4. The following details refer to a double acting steam engine:

Cylinder bore = 15 cm, stroke = 25 cm, ratio of the connecting rod
length to crank length 5:1; weight of reciprocating parts 7 kg; r.p.m. 240;
maximum pressure of steam 10 kgIsq cm; back pressure 0.3 kgisq cm and
cut off occurs at 0.6 of the stroke.
Design (a) suitable cross section for the connecting rod (b) gudgeon pin
(c) big end bolts.
Assume ft = 400 kgIsq cm, fbearing = 100 kgisq cm.

4 X 152 (10 - 0.3)

Maximum piston load = "n
= 1,720 kg.

(al (b)

Forked ends of a connecting rod

FIG. 18-12

As it is a double acting steam engine, the connecting rod is

subjected to a reversal of load. Hence during the outward stroke
the connecting rod is subjected to compressive loading gnd during
the inward stroke the rod is subjected to tensile loading. The
maximum values of compressive load and tensile load are the same.
Certain forms of cross-head require that the crosshead end of the
connecting rod be forked. When this is the case, the jaws of the
forked end may be solid as shown in Fig. 18-12(a) or they may be
provided with brasses. Fig. 18-12(b) shows a forked end with
brasses, caps and bolts as in the marine type of connecting rod end.
Art. 18-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 873

As the cut-off takes place at 0.6 of the stroke, the pressure of

steam upto the point of cut-off remains the same. The maximum
force in the connecting rod will be
Pn
T -= v n---i--_--i where P is the piston force when the crank is
at right angles to the line of stroke and n is the ratio of the length
of the connecting rod to the crank.
We neglect the inertia of the reciprocating masses.
1720x 5
T. _____ _ = 1,760 kg.
V52 — 1
25
The stroke is 25 cm. Hence the crank length is -T. = 12.5 cm
and as the value of n is 5, the length of the connecting rod is
d
5 x 12.5 -,--62.5 cm. For a circular section the radius of gyration is ••
4
According to Rankine's formula for hinged ended column,
we get
rcd2
400 x
4
1760 =
1 62.5 x 4 2
l * 7500 x ( d )

Solving the above equation we get d2 as 9.18 cm2; hence we

adopt d as 3.2 cm. The fork end is designed according to knuckle
joint.
The gudgeon pin or wrist pin is designed to give sufficient
bearing area and then it is checked for strength as a beam loaded
with the thrust or pull in the connecting rod. The load may be
taken as equally distributed over the journal length. The journal
on the cross head pin is supported at both ends as shown in Fig. 18-8.
According to equation (v) of art. 18-3, the diameter of the gudgeon
pin d' is given by
4/1-i
d' = 1.06 where T is the thrust in the connecting
1Pf
rod, p is the permissible bearing pressure intensity and f is the
permissible flexural stress intensity.
On substitution of values we get
1760 1760
d' -= 1.06 1/4 — 3.14 cm; we adopt 32 mm.
40-0- x 100
874 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

We assume that there are two cap bolts. Load on each bolt
1760
= = 880 kg. Minimum core area required for each bolt
2
880
will be iffo = 2.2 sq cm. We adopt fine threads M20 x 1.5 or
we can adopt M20 bolt of uniform strength the latter will be
preferable as the connecting rod is subjected to shock loading.

5. The high speed Diesel engine has the following particulars:

Bore of the cylinder 9 cm, stroke 14 cm, speed 1,500 r.p.m., compression
ratio 16, maximum pressure 45 kg/sq cm upto 7% of the stroke, weight of
reciprocating parts 3 kg and length of the connecting rod 35 cm.

Design a suitable connecting rod for the given duty.

The shanks of the connecting rods are made with an I section

in medium and high speed engines. The cross section being equal,
I section shanks possess a higher section modulus in connecting rod
swinging plane than do round sectioned shanks.
The connecting rod shank is subjected to the force of gas
pressure and the force of inertia of the reciprocating masses, in
addition to transverse inertia loading. The gas force is maximum
at inner dead centre position when the transverse inertia forces
are zero and the maximum bending moment caused by the
transverse inertia forces is originated when the connecting rod is
positioned at 90° to the crank for the section located at a distance of 0.5771
. from the centre of the connecting rod small end.

For higher reliability the connecting rod shank is calculated

only for the gas force, neglecting the inertia force.

Gas pressure at inner dead centre = 4 x 92 x 45 = 2,880 kg.

The maximum value of thrust along the connecting rod is

obtained by resolving this force when the fuel injection ceases
i.e. at 7% of the stroke. The value of the thrust at this instant
will be more than 2,880 kg, the excess will be of the order of 3 to
4%. In order to reduce the arithmetical and trigonometrical
calculation work we adopt another procedure. The material of
the connecting rod is carbon steel for which the minimum allow-
able stress is 800 kg/sq cm. We design the connecting rod shank
for a load of 2,880 kg reducing the value of the minimum allowable
Art. 18-4 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 875

stress to 700 kg/sq cm. Thus we have indirectly considered the

effect of increase in thrust in the rod due to obliquity of the con-
necting rod. We adopt I section having proportions as shown in
Fig. 10-4(b). If t cm be the thickness of the web as well as of the
flange, then area of the section will be 11 t2 sq cm and radius of
gyration will be V3.18 t cm.
According to Rankine's formula, we have
11t2 x 700
2880 =
1 + [ 1 X --352 -- -1
7500 3.18/2
Solving the above equation we get t = 0.85 cm.
We adopt section having web and flange of thickness 8.5 mm,
flange width as 34 cm and the depth of section as 4.3 cm. This
will be the section at the middle of the rod.
Big end bearing: The ratio of the length to diameter for big
end varies from 1.25 to 1.5 and the permissible bearing pressure
/
intensity varies from 50 to 100 kg/sq cm. We adopt ratio to
d
be 1.3 and permissible bearing pressure intensity as 70 kg/sq cm.
We get 2880 --, d x 1.3d v 70
2880
or d ------ -II -- -- ----= 5.62 cm.
-Fa x 70
We adopt d as 6 cm and length of the pin in the beading as 7.5 cm.
Small end: "Ile ratio of length to diameter for small end is
usually about 1.5 to 2 and the bearing pressure intensity varies
from 100 to 150 kg/sq cm. We adopt the length of the pin in
/
small end as 5.5 cm and diameter of the pin as 3.3 cm. The —
d
5.5
ratio will be = 1.57 and the bearing pressure intensity as
3.5
2880 .
3.5 x 5.5 = 150 kg/sq cm.

Cap bolts :
The connecting rod small end has one piece construction; the
big end is provided with split steel backed babbitt lined shells.
We assume two bolts of alloy steel for which the allowable tensile
stress is 900 to 1,000 kg/sq cm. In four stroke cycle engine the
bolts are subjected to inertia of reciprocating masses. We assume
that the engine is likely to over speed upto 2,000 r.p.m.
876 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

3 x 7 r2000 x 212
Inertia force = (1 + i) = 1,130 kg.
981 L 60
Core area of the bolt = 1130— 0.63 sq cm.
2 x 900
We adopt M12 having 0.843 sq cm as core area.
The whipping stresses can be checked in a manner similar to
example 1 on page 869.
The illustrative examples showing the principles of connecting
rod design are from pages 292 to 293 and pages 513 to 515.
Exercises:
1. The critical section of a connecting rod for a Diesel engine is at
a ith distance from the gudgeon pin. It is an I section having the follow-
ing proportions:
Width of the flange 4 cm; thickness of the flange 4 mm; depth of the
sectivn 5 cm and thickness of the web 1 cm.
The diameter and stroke of the piston are 12 cm and 22 cm respectively
and the length of the connecting rod is 45 cm. The maximum gas pressure
in the cylinder is 47 kgIsq cm. The speed of the engine is 1,200 r.p.m.
Check whether the factor of safety is sufficient or not.
2. Design a shunting locomotive coupling rod of the type as shown
in fig. 18-13.
The maximum static draw bar pull or push is 4,000 kg. Maximum
speed of the locomotive 80 km1 hour, crank length is 30 cm and length of
the rod is 180 cm. Materials used are brass for bearings and forged steel
for other parts.
Assume your own data for stresses and factor of safely.

Locomotive coupling rod

FIG. 18-13

3. Design and draw the connecting rod of a petrol engine having the
following specifications:
Art. 18-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 877

Piston diameter 120 mm, weight of reciprocating parts 2.5 kg, length
of rod centre to centre 380 mm; stroke 150 mm, normal speed 2,000 r.p.m.
and overspeed 2,800 r.p.m., compression ratio 5.5 and probable maximum
explosion pressure 30 kgIsq cm.
4. Design the big end of a marine type of connecting rod for a
vertical steam engine from the following data:
Load along the rod 4,500 kg, and the length of the connecting rod
measures 100 cm between crank pin and gudgeon pin axes.
l
Choose the suitable value for the ratio for the crank pin. Also
d
select the suitable materials for the connecting rod and cap bolts.
5. Explain why for the design of the cross section of the connecting rod
I section is preferred. Why proportions of the section are adopted as 5t
for the depth, 4t as the width and t as the thickness of the flange as well
as of the web?
6. Check the suitability of the I section 15 mm x 12 mm x 3 mm
for designing the connecting rod in case of single cylinder motor cycle
engine of 40 mm bore by 55 mm stroke where in the maximum pressure
produced is 36 kgIsq cm and in which the connecting rod is . four times the
crank. Draw a neat sketch of the connecting rod.
7. State the various forces which affect the design gf the connecting
rod, and explain their influence choosing the suitable materials for various
parts and adopting suitable stress values. Design a connecting rod of I
section for a Diesel engine running at 1,500 r.p.m. Bore of the engine
is 12 cm and stroke is 15 cm. Length of the connecting rod is 35 cm.
Maximum pressure is 50 kesq cm which is constant upto 5% of the stroke.
Weight of reciprocating parts is 0.15 kgIsq cm of piston area. Law
of expansion is PP." = constant.
Also check the design for transverse inertia stresses.
8. Answer the following questions which may arise while designing
a connecting rod of a high speed Diesel engine:
(i) How u ill you determine the maximum load coming on the con-
necting rod? What is the nature of this load?
(ii) Which type of cross section will you prefer for the main body
of the connecting rod and why?
878 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

(iii) How will you decide the dimensions of the big and small ends
for the connecting rod?
(iv) What will be the effect on stress distribution across the cross
section of the connecting rod due to friction at the turning
pairs?
(v) How will you investigate the whipping stresses in the connecting
rod section? For what crank position will maximum whipping
stress occur?
(vi) What will be the suitable materials for the connecting rod,
cap bolts and the cap?
(viz) How will you determine the thickness of the big end cap?
State your justifications for the formula employed.
(viii) How will you determine the suitable size for the connecting
rod big end cap bolts?
(University of Bombay, 1971)

9. A locomotive coupling rod of 200 cm between centres of rectangular

section 8 cm deep by 2 cm thick. The cranks carrying the rod have an
effective radius of 23 cm. The maximum thrust along the coupling rod is
6,000 kg. If the maximum permissible stress in the coupling rod is 1,200
kg/sq cm, determine the allowable speed of the wheels. Assume that the
maximum value of buckling stress and whipping stress occur simultaneously.
Take the density of the material of the coupling rods as 7.8 gm/cu cm.
(University of Bombay, 1977)

10. (a) In a Diesel engine the maximum thrust acting on the con-
necting rod is estimated as 3,000 kg. The length of the connecting rod is
30 cm. Suggest a suitable I section for the connecting rod made of forged
steel so that it is equally strong in both the possible planes of buckling.
hankine's constant for hinged ended strut may be taken as — Permis-
750-0.
sible value of the stress may be taken as 800 kg/sq cm. Will the connecting
rod be ever subjected to tensile loading? If yes, when?
(b) A four stroke S. I. engine has a bore of 8 cm and 6 cm stroke.
The maximum explosion pressure in the cylinder may be taken as 35 kg/sq
cm. The maximum speed of the engine is 4,500 r.p.m., when the maxi-
Art. 18-5 1 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 879

mum inertia force due to reciprocating masses is 1,300 kg. Design the big
end bolts and the cap assuming your own materials and stresses.
(Sarda, Patel University, 1977)

18-5. Design of crankshafts:

The design of overhung crank is explained in articles 12-9
and 12-10. The proportions for' the forged crankshaft are shown
in fig. 18-14. Here, we shall consider illustrative examples to
explain the main principles involved in the design.

Centre crank Overhung crank

Fm. 18-14 FIG. 18-15

Examples :
I. Fig. 18-15 shows the overhung crank of an engine having the
cylinder diameter 25 cm and stroke 40 cm. The connecting rod is 5 cranks
long. The maximum explosion pressure in the cylinder is 17 kg/sq cm,
and engine runs at 200 r.p.m. Assuming suitable stresses for the material,
design the overhung crank. Also, calculate the maximum stress in the crank
arm when the crank is at 30° to the position and the gas pressure at
this instant is 8 kg/sq cm. Take the modulus of section for torsion for
rectangular section as 0.269 bt 2.
Load on piston -= x 252 x 17 = 8,350 kg.
4
We assume the permissible bending stress for the pin to be
840 kg/sq cm and bearing pressure 100 kg/sq cm. According to
article 12-10, the length to diameter ratio for the crank pin is
-V0.2 x fb y0.2 x 840 , ori
given as = ---- 1 ...Ill.
UO
The projected bearing area = 1.3d2.
.. 8350 == 1.3d2 x 100
880 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVIII

V 8350
0r d -= --- 8 cm.
1.3 x 100
Length of the crank pin = 8 x 1.3 = 10.4 cm; we adopt
10.5 cm, thus providing 8 x 10.5 = 840 sq cm projected area.
We assume the crank arm thickness to be 0.6d = 0.6 x 8 =
4.8 cm; we adopt 5 cm. Let us determine the dimensions of the
crank web when the crank is at its inner dead centre position.
As explained in art. 12-9, in this position the web section is sub-
jected to direct compressive stress accompanied by bending stresses.
Refer illustrative example 2 on page 109. The eccentricity of the
load is equal to half the sum of the length of the crankpin and
the thickness of the web.
Let b be the width of the crank web.
Here we shall take four values of the crank arm thicknesses
and determine the corresponding values of the width of the web
and adopt those dimensions which will give least area of cross
section thus providing lighter crank. We assume permissible
stress as 850 kg/sq cm. The calculations are shown in tabular
form as under.
Thickness of
crank arm 5 6 7 7.5
cm

Eccentricity 10.5+5 10.5 10.5+7 10.5 +7-5

-7 75 +6=8.25 .8-75 .9
cm 2 2 2 2
-
Bending moment 66,800 69,000 73,000 75,000
kg cm
- -- - __
Bending stress 16000 11500 8960 7970
kg/sq cm - 1/- b b 1----
Direct stress 1670 1390 1195 1150
kgisq cm b b b b
Resultant stress 17670 12890 10055 9020
kg/sq cm ---b 1) b b
Width of the
crank 20.8 15.5 11.8 10.5
cm

Area of cross
section r08 93 82.7 79
sq cm

We adopt the section for the crank arm as 7 cm x 12 cm. We can also adopt
7.5 cm x 10.5 cm.
Art. 18-5] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-1 881

When the crank has turned through an angle 0 = 30° from

inner dead centre, the inclination, of the connecting rod, a, to the
line of stroke is given as
1 sine
n9
cc = sin- where n is the ratio of the length of the con-
'
necting rod to the crank.
1 si.n30°
.•. a = sin- -- --j — = 5° - 42'.

4 x 252 x 8
Axial thrust T in the connecting rod =
cos (5°-42')
= 3,960 kg.
Resolving T into tangential and radial components Te and Tr
respectively, we have
Tr = Tsin (a ± 0) = 3960 sin (350 - 42') = 2,305 kg.
Tr = T cos (a + 0) = 3960 cos (35° - 42') = 3,220 kg.
The critical section of the crank, which is at the hub, is
subjected to bending and torsion due to tangential component
of the magnitude 2,305 kg and bending and direct compression
due to radial component of the magnitude 3,220 kg.
3220
Direct compressive stress = x 12 = 384 kg/sq cm.
7
Modulus of section for bending due to tangential component
will be it x 122 x 7 = 168 cm3, while for bending due to radial
component will be it X 72 x 12 = 98 cm3.
Assuming the lever arm of the crank web extends upto the
axis of the shaft, maximum bending stress due to tangential
component will be 2305 x 20 .----- 275 kg/sq cm.
1 68
3220 x 17.5
Bending stress due to radial component =
98 x 2
= 288 kgisq cm.
The total stress f at the upper left corner of the crank is
given by
f ---= 275 + 288 + 384 = 6014 kg/sq cm.
The twisting moment on the section = 2305 x 8.75
= 20,200 kg cm.
Torsional modulus of section = 0.269 x 12 x 72 = 159 cm3.
882 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XVIII

Maximum torsional shear stress at the middle of the long

side = -is
20200
- - = 128 kg/sq cm.
Torsional shear stress is zero at all the corners of the section.
Maximum stress = 6014 kg/sq cm at the upper left corner
of the crank.
2. Connecting rods of a Diesel engine and a compressor are arranged
to run on the same crank pin. The maximum torque is developed when the
crank has turned through 24° - 18' from the inner dead centre position
of the engine. (Refer to fig. 18-16.) The centre lines of the engine and the
compressor are at right angles to each other with the compressor cylinder in
the horizontal position.
The following particulars refer to this combination unit:
Diameter of the engine cylinder 175 mm; diameter of compressor
cylinder 190 mm; stroke 200 mm ; length of the connecting rod 400 mm
and speed in r.p.m. 1,000.
Maximum gas loads on the pistons at the maximum torque position are :
Engine piston 9,750 kg and compressor piston 780 kg.
Suggest the suitable crankshaft for the combination unit.
The ratio of the length of connecting rod to crank is 16 = 4.
4
:
The inclination cp of the connecting rod of the engine to the
cylinder centre line is given by
sin (24° - 18')
P ,sin—' _ _ - 54'.
4 - 5r'
9750
Maximum thrust in the engine connecting rod
cos (5° - 54')
-, 9,800 kg.
Tangential component of this thrust equals
9800 sin (24° - 18' + 5° - 54') = 4,930 kg.
Radial component of maximum thrust equals
9800 cos (24° - 18' + 5' - 54') = 8,460 kg.
Let us calculate the maximum thrust in the connecting rod
of the compressor. The crank for the compressor is inclined at
an angle of (90° — 24° - 18') = 65° - 42' to the compressor
cylinder centre line. The connecting rod for the compressor is
sin (65° - 42')
inclined at an angle sin-1 = 12° - 7' to the cylinder
4
centre line.
Art. 18-5 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 883

Maximum thrust in the compressor connecting rod equals

780
= 800 kg.
cos (12° - 7')
Tangential component of this thrust equals
800 sin (65° - 42' + 12° - 7') = 782 kg.
Radial component of maximum thrust is equal to
800 cos (65° - 42' + 12° - 7) = 156 kg.
/
d
'ratio for crank pin lies between 0.7 to 1.2. We adopt it as
0.84. Maximum thrust in the connecting rod is 8,900 kg.
Projected area at the crank pin is 0.84d2. The bearing pressure for
the crank pin lies between 105 to 120 kg/sq cm. We assume it
to be 120 kg/sq cm.
•• 0.84d2 x 120 = 9800
d = -1/ 9800
or = 10 cm. The length of the
V 0.84 x 120
pin will be 8.5 cm.
The thickness of the web -=-- 0.64 times the crank pin diameter.
=0.64 x 10,6.4 cm; we adopt 6.5 cm.

156
Erigine..4-1-1
.,:irst
s io
".7.: '....
0

V-
0
ul
N„
or/ 3290
tri cr
kg7c
..,6,...)
--.. 5038
7 a

E'So
800 -A.,---. -.,_
.6. -... ...,
I,J 780 ). 111111ft...._ 4
I 27
(a) Compressor

FIG. 18-16
884 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

The length of the main bearing = 0.6 to 0.85 times the cylinder
bore. We take the length of the main bearing as 12 cm.
As two cranks are mounted on the same pin, the length of the
pin will be 8.5 x 2 = 17 cm; we adopt 18 cm.

Reactions in the plane of tangential component :

Bearing 1 Bearing 2
Engine :
4930 x 26
RI = — = 2,980 kg. R2 = 4930 — 2980 = 1,950 kg.
43 4-
Compressor :
782 x 17
Rs = = 310 kg. R2 = 782 — 310 = 472 kg.
43 E-
Resultant R1 = 2980 + 310 R2 ---r- 1950 + 472 = 2,422 kg.
= 3,290 kg.

Reactions in the plane of radial component:

Engine :
8460 26
R1 = = 5,100 kg.' R2 = 8460 — 5100 = 3,360 kg.
3
Compressor :
156 x 17 R2 = 156 — 62 = 94 kg.
R2 = =62 kg. 4,
43
Resultant :
R, = 5100 — 62 = 5,038 kg. R2 = 3360 — 94 = 3,266 kg.
As the reaction at bearing No. 1 is greater, it is considered in
further calculations.
Resultant reaction at 1 = 132902 + 50382 --.-- 5,940 kg.
Let us consider the bending moment at the engine crank pin.
B.M. in plane of the crank = 5038 x 17 = 86,000 kg cm.
B.M. in perpendicular plane = 3290 x 17 = 56,000 kg cm.
•o• Resultant B.M. = 1/860002 + 560002 = 102,000 kg cm.
Torque produced due to 3,290 kg component of reaction
equals 3290 x 10 = 32,900 kg cm.
Equivalent torque according to Guest formula
= 11020002 + 329002 = 107,500 kg cm.
Art. 18-5] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 885

The permissible value of shear stress for nickel steel lies

between 600 to 750 kg/sq cm. Let us adopt the value of shear
stress as 700 kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the crank pin, then

de x 700 = 107500
16
, 17107500 16
or it x — = 9.2 cm.
700
We have adopted 10 cm. Therefore the design is safe. The
width of the web of the crank arm is taken as 13 cm.
Note: The stress calculation for the web is left as an exercise for the student.
Also refer illustrative examples of art. 12-10.

Exercises:
1. The crank pin of a forged side crank is acted upon by a force of
2,500 kg at right angles to the crank. The length of the crank is 15 cm.
The distance of the plane of rotation of the centre of the crank pin from
the centre of the adjacent bearing is 20 cm.
Safe bearing pressure for pin, 70 kg/sq cm; safe bearing pressure for the
crankshaft journal, 15 kg/sq cm; permissible tensile and shear stress inten-
sities for crank material are 700 and 600 kg/sq cm. Design the crank and give
two views of the same. Mark important dimensions on your sketch.
2. A double acting steam engine developes 25 h.p.'at 450 r.p.m. and
is directly connected to a generator through a flexible coupling. The stroke of
the engine is 15 cm and connecting rod 70 cm long. The maximum torque
occurs at 60° from i.d.c. position when the thrust of the connecting rod is
1,800 kg. A flywheel weighing 180 kg forms one half of the coupling and
is situated centrally between main bearings of the engine and the generator.
The main bearings of the crankshaft are situated at 15 and 16 cm
from the centre line of the cylinder. The eccentric is situated outside the
main bearing and requires a space of 5 cm.
Design the crankshaft if the permissible shear stress is 300 kg/sq cm.
Balance weights may be omitted. Assume suitable bearing pressures.
Draw a dimensioned sketch and indicate lubricating arrangements.
3. Design an overhung crank for a 200 mm bore and 350 mm stroke
steam engine. Steam pressure atinlet is 12 lcg/sq cm gauge. For maximum
torque the crank makes an angle of 77° with the top dead centre and in this
886 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

position the steam pressure is 10 kg/sq cm. Allowable tensile stress in the
shaft 800 kg/sq cm. Safe tensile stress in the crank pin 630 kg/sq cm.
Maximum stress allowed in the web is 850 kg/sq cm. The length of the
connecting rod is 4.5 times the crank radius.
Indicate an ef ficient lubrication system for the above crank in the sketch.
(University of Rajasthan, 1969)
4. Design a single throw centre crank shaft for a single cylinder
engine having cylinder diameter 20 cm and stroke 26 cm and developing
25 h. p. at 600 r.p.m. The explosion pressure is 40 kg/sq cm gauge. The
maximum torque occurs when the crank shaft turns through 30° from top
dead centre position during the power stroke. The gas pressure at that
instance is 32 kg/sq cm gauge. The main bearings are 50 cm apart and
third bearing is 80 cm apart from the main bearing on its side. A flywheel
weighing 400 kg and a driving pulley of 50 cm diameter are placed between
the main bearing and the outer bearing. The flywheel is placed at a distance
of 20 cm from the main bearing and centre to centre distance of flywheel and
pulley is 40 cm. The ratio of lengths of connecting rod and the crank is 5.
Coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0.3 and angle of lap of the
belt 180°. The belt is horizontal. Neglect the weight of the pulley.
The allowable bearing pressure is 80 kg/sq cm. Take allowable tensile
stress for the pin as 550 kg/sq cm and for the other parts as 700 kg/sq cm.
The safe shear stress for the crank shaft is 350 kg/sq cm. Draw the lay
out diagram of the crank shaft.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1970)
5. Design an overhung crank for a 50 cm by 60 cm four stroke cycle
gas engine having the following specifications:
Speed of the engine 300 r.p.m.
Length of the connecting rod is five times the crank length.
Maximum torque on the shaft occurs when the crank has turned through
an angle of 36° from the inner dead centre, the gas pressure at this position
being 9 kg/sq cm.
Maximum explosion pressure 25 kg/sq cm.
Choose your ,own material and suitable values for stresses.
(University of Poona, 1971)
6. What are the stresses to which an overhung crankshaft is subjected
to? How would you proceed to design such a crankshaft?
(University of Bombay, 1972)
Art. 18-6] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 887

18-6. Design of a spring-loaded Hartnell Governor:

Introduction: The function of a governor is to regulate the
mean speed of a machine or prime mover, or to keep to mean
speed within certain limits, the limits of variation depend on the
nature of the work which the machine or prime mover has to do.
The limits of variation of mean speed also depend on the sensiti-
veness of the governor.
A well known form of a spring loaded governor designed by
Mr. Wilson Hartnell of Leeds is shown in fig. 12-18 Two bell
crank levers L are mounted on pins I, carried by a frame A, which
is attached to a rotating spindle S. Each lever carries a ball B at
the end of one arm and a roller R at the end of the other. The
centrifugal forces of the balls cause the rollers R to press against
the collar C on the sleeve E. The upward pressure of the rollers
on the collar of the sleeve is balanced by the downward thrust
of the helical spring H which is in compression. The angle of
bell crank levers is 90° but in practice it may be greater. Let us
consider the important points in the design of main parts of he
governor.
(a) Spring design:
In order to design the spring, the maximum spring force and
the stiffness of the spring should be calculated. The relation
between the dimensions of the governor, equilibrium speed and
the spring load may be calculated by considering the equilibrium
of the bell crank lever.
Let W be the weight of each ball, S the spring force exerted
on the sleeve, k the stiffness of the spring, 6.) the speed of rotation,
r the radius of rotation, a and h the vertical and horizontal arms
of the bell crank levers and F the centrifugal force on the ball.
By taking moments about the fulcrum of the bell crank lever,
neglecting the effect of pull of gravity on the governor balls and
arms, we get
S L a
F.a ------= b or S = 2F (i)
'2 b

Let the suffixes 1 and 2 denote the values at. maximum and
minimum radii respectively. Then, at maximum radius r1

S1 = 2F1 ab (ii)
888 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

At minimum radius r2
S2 = 2F2ba- (iii)

•• — S2 = 2 (F1 -- F2).
b
The lift of the sleeve h = - (ri r 2).
a
k (S1 — S2) (a )2 — F2
•
•• = 2 (iv)
•
h u r2
Thus, the maximum spring force S1 coming on the spring is
known, from which the diameter of the spring wire can be calcu-
lated and from the stiffness number, the number of active turns
can be calculated.
We assume the suitable value for the spring index C and
determine A.M. Wahl correction factor K, given by
4C— 1 0.615
K - , to account for stress concentration.

Higher the spring index, less will be the number of turns and lower will
be the stress concentration factor. From the value of the permissible
stress, the value of stress to be used in torque formula is determined.
We determine the value of the maximum torque on the spring
wire and determine dw, diameter of the wire, from the equation,
•rc
Sl x mean radius of the coil = dw3 fs (v)
16
We select the diameter of the wire from SWG table or IS:
1137-1959 and calculate the new value of the spring index. The
number of active turns n can be calculated from,
dw
k G - (vi)
8 3n
where G is the modulus of rigidity.
Free length of the spring = (n 1) du, H- compression -I- gap
clearance (vii)
Generally the spring index is taken to be 8.
(b) Design of a spindle:
It is subjected to a direct tensile load which is equal in
magnitude to the maximum spring force S1. It is also subjected
to a torque during starting and during load changes. This torque induces
torsional shear stresses in the spindle. As the magnitude of the
Art. 18-6] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 889

torque is indeterminate, we take the low value of the tensile stress

in the spindle and design for the axial spring load Si.
(c) Design of a cast steel body:
It is used as the casing for the spring and supports for the
fulcrum of bell crank levers. The inner diameter of the casing
is slightly larger than the outside diameter of the coil. The
thickness of the body is fixed from minimum requirement for
casting, which may be taken to be 6 mm. The body is subjected
to direct tensile stresses from the maximum spring load S1 and to
centrifugal stresses due to rotation of the body. If we check the
body for the stresses induced, the stresses will be within safe limits.
(d) Design of a bell crank lever:
S
(i) The maximum load on the roller is ---i•
Roller end:
2
The relation between the width and the diameter of the roller is:
width of the roller = f diameter of the roller + 4 mm.
The bearing pressure per unit width of the roller must not
exceed 100 kg/cm width.
The initial trial value for the roller diameter may be taken
as twice the pin diameter. The pin diameter must be sufficient
to limit the shear and bending stresses. The roller is free to rotate
on the pin fixed in the sides of the fork and the details of the fork
end can be completed. The lever arm can be designed from
the bending consideration adopting a rectangular section. The
thickness of the lever is kept constant as we go from roller end
to fulcrum end and the height of the section is varied.
(ii) Design of a fulcrum pin: The maximum load on the
fulcrum pM is determined, and assuming !- ratio as 1.2 and
d
bearing pressure as 70 kg/sq cm, the dimensions of the pin are
calculated. The pin is checked for bending and shear. Finally,
the dimensions for the boss of the lever are finalised.
(iii) Design of the governor balls : The governor balls are
made of cast iron and may be spherical or cylindrical. The
radius of the spherical ball can be calculated by the equation
W = :1-7cr3 x density.
(iv) Design of the end of a ball arm : The ball is screwed
into the lever end, which is subjected to a bending moment
890 MACHINE DESIGN ( Ch. XVIII
which is equal to the product of the maximum centrifugal force
F1 and the radius of the spherical ball. By equating the bending
moment to the moment of resistance, we shall get the diameter
at the bottom of the threaded part. We adopt fine threads and
fix the dimensions for the screwed end of the ball arm.

Example :
1. The pivots of the bell crank levers of a spring loaded governor of
Hartnell type are fixed at 95 mm radius from the spindle axis. The length
of the ball arm of each lever is 150 mm; the length of the sleeve arm is
75 mm and two arms are at right angles. The weight of each ball is
2 kg. The equilibrium speed in the lowest position of the governor is
300 r.p.m. when the radius of rotation of the ball path is 82 mm. The
speed is to be limited to 6% more than the lowest equilibrium speed. The
lift of the sleeve for, the operating speed range, is 16 mm. Design the
suitable spring and bell crank lever for the governor. Choose your own
values for the stresses.
The lift of the sleeve is 16 mm. The change in radius during
the operating range of speed equals
lift x length of the ball arm 150
= 16 x -= 32 mm.
length of the roller arm 75
The minimum radius of the ball path ,-,- 82 mm. The
maximum radius of the ball path -,-.-- 82 + 32 -,---- 114 mm.
The centrifugal force at minimum radius equals
2 ( 300 x 277)2
x 8.2 = 16.5 kg.
981 60
150
Spring force S2 =-- 2 i< 16.5 x = 66 kg.
75
The centrifugal force at maximum radius equals
114
16.5 ( 8-2 ) (1.06)2 - 25.8 kg.
15
Spring force SI = 2 x 25.8 ( --0) = 103.2 kg.
75
103-2 — 66
Stiffness of the spring k = 1 .6 — 23.3 kg/cm.

Initial compression of the spring = 66 3 -=: 2.84 cm.

23.
We assume the maximum stress for spring material to be
4,000 kg/sq cm. We adopt the spring index (provisionally) as 8.
Art. 18-61 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 891

Stress concentration factor

re. 4C— 1 0.615 4 x 8 — 1 0.615 r.;
A 4. = -
6 -L- -r- 4x8—4
= 8 'A
Maximum torque on the spring wire = 103.2 x 44 = 413dw.
4000
4134 =1--
v6 43 x
1.175
413 x 16
or = 3-4-65 = 0.785 cm.

From S.W.G. table, we adopt 8.229 mm diameter, the

description number being 0. The mean diameter of spring coil
0
is taken as 70 mm. The spring index will be 8 --2-9- = 8.5. If n be
the number of active turns, then
G dw
k -•
-3n
13C
On substitution of values, we get
Gdu, 0.84 x 106 x 0.8229
n - ----= 6.15 turns
8C3k 8 x 8.53 x 23.3
Free length of the spring = 7.15 x 0.8229 A-- 2.84 + 1.6
+ clearance
We adopt the spring of 11 cm free height.
The outside diameter of spring coil is 7 --I- 0.8229 = 7.8229 cm.
The inside diameter of the cast steel body is takes- as 9 cm and the
thickness of the body as 5 mm. The tensile stresses will be induced
in the body due to a spring load of 103.2 kg and due to centrifugal
load. These stresses will be within safe limits.
The diameter of the spindle is taken as 25 mm.
3 .2
The maximum load on the roller = 10 = 51.6 kg. The
2
roller is free to rotate on a pin fixed in .the sides of the fork. Let
d be the diameter of the pin of the roller and width of the roller
is adopted same as the diameter. Assuming bearing pressure of
70 kg/sq cm, we see that 1 cm diameter pin will suffice. The
width of the roller is also 1 cm, which gives 51.6 kg/sq cm bearing
pressure, which is within safe limits. The diameter of the roller
will be 2 cm. The thickness of the eye will be 6 mm. The pin
is in double shear and the value of the shear stress will be 32.8
kg/sq cm.
892 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

The load on the fulcrum pin = V51.62 + 25.82 . 57.7 kg.

Assuming the same proportions and stresss as the roller pin, the
diameter of the pin will be 12 mm. The boss diameter will be
24 mm. The section of the lever at the boss will be 1 cm x 2.5
cm for a permissible stress of 700 kg/sq cm.
We adopt spherical balls of cast iron, having density as 7.25
gm/cu cm. If r cm be the radius of the ball, then
2000 = 7Cr3 x 7.25
-iy 2000 x 3
or r =- = 4.27 cm.
4.7c x 7.25
Maximum bending moment on the screwed portion of the
lever equals 25.8 x 4.27 = 100 kg cm.
We adopt M 16 threads, having pitch 2 mm, the permissible
stress value in the material shall not exceed 700 kg/sq cm.
Note: The student should refer the example 2 on page 590, in which
detailed calculations for the bell crank lever for Hartnell governor are shown.

Exercises :
1. In a Hartnell type spring controlled governor ball arms are
130 mm long and sleeve arms are 80 mm long. The ball and sleeve arms are
at right angles to each other. The pivots of the levers are at a distance of
100 mm from the axis of the spindle of the governor. Each ball weighs
4 kg. The sleeve begins to lift at 300 r.p.m. and is to lift 10 mm for 5%
increase in speed. The sleeve arm of each lever presses against the governor
sleeve, the movement of which is controlled by a spring. The ball centres
are vertically above the pivots at the lowest position of the sleeve.
Design a suitable spring, bell crank lever, and spring housing con-
taining the pivots for the bell crank levers.
Make a dimensioned sketch of the governor.
Select your own materials and suitable design stresess for these materials.
(University of Bombay, 1965)
2. In a Hartnell governor the maximum and minimum distances of
the centres of the ball from the axis of rotation of the governor are 20 cm
and 10 cm respectively. Each ball weighs 2.7 kg. The speed of the
governor fluctuates between 290 r.p.m. and 270 r.p.m. The arms of the
right angled bell crank lever are 12 cm and 9 cm long on ball side and sleeve
side respectively from the fulcrum.
Art. 18-71 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-/ 893

Design lever complete with pin and spring. The material of the
lever is cast steel for which safe tensile stress may be taken as 1,000 kg/sq
cm. The allowable bearing pressure for the pin is 80 kg/sq cm. The
spring is made of spring steel whose safe shear stress may be taken as 4,200
kg/sq cm and modulus of rigidity is 8 x 105 kg/sq cm. The spring index
is 8 and stress concentration factor is 1.2.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1970)

18-7. Design of an eccentric:

Introduction:When a radius of a crank motion is so small
that the crank pin would not fall outside the crankshaft, the crank
is converted into eccentric and the large end of the connecting
rod is converted into eccentric strap. An eccentric contains
both the main shaft and the crank arm. Obviously, a function
of an eccentric will be to impart a rather short reciprocating
motion from the rotation of a comparatively large shaft. They
are used for driving valves, mechanical stokers, small pump
plungers, shaking screens, etc. The peculiar characteristic of an
eccentric is such that with its help rotary motion can be converted into recipro-
cating motion, but due to excessive friction between the sheave and the straps
reciprocating motion of the slider cannot impart rotary motion to the shaft.
The main parts of the eccentric are sheave, straps, eccentric
rod and strap bolts (fig. 18-17). The eccentric sheave is made
of cast iron and it is made in one piece if the eccentric can be put
on over the end of the shaft. Generally, the sheAre is made in two
parts, which are connected by bolts, studs and cotters. The smaller
part of the sheave is made solid and is frequently made of wrought
iron or steel. The larger part of the sheave is made with a boss
and rim, connected by arms. The sheave is secured to the shaft
by a key and sometimes in addition one or more set screws.
Eccentric straps are made of cast iron, cast steel or bronze and are
bolted by means of mild steel bolts. Flanges are provided to keep
straps on place on sheave. Eccentric rods are made of mild steel.
When eccentric straps are made of cast iron or brass no liner is
necessary, but when made of the other materials a brass or white
metal liner is essential.
Design calculations:
The proportions for various parts are based entirely on
empirical rules. The most important dimensions are D, the
894 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

diameter of the sheave, B, the breadth of the sheave and d, the

diameter of the strap bolts. The diameter of the sheave should
be small so as to reduce the velocity of the rubbing surface; as a
result the friction will be minimised. The breadth of the sheave
should be large to give a low value of the bearing pressure.
Strap bolt Sheaue

Eccentiic rod

Throw of the eccentric

Eccentric with its rod

Flo. 18-17

D 2 (throw of the eccentric + shaft radius •.f- E).... (i)

where E is thickness of the sheave at the thinnest part, which may
d
be made i -F 6 mm to + 6 mm where A is the diameter of
6 5
the shaft. If the eccentric is mounted on the lay shaft, the value of
E will be i.
3
For a steam engine valve, the throw of the eccentric equals
the sum of steam lap and the maximum port opening.
The thickness of the sheave is calculated from bearing consi-
derations. The projected area of the bearing equals DB. The
value of the bearing pressure should be low, because the lubrica-
tion is not efficient as the diameter of the bearing is large and
the length small. For a cast iron strap, the bearing pressure lies
between 4.5 to 5.5 kg/sq cm and for lined strap the bearing pressure
may be from 7 to 8.5 kg/sq cm.
Art. 18-71 bESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACLIINE PARTS-I 895

The load on the sheave can be calculated from the duty of the
eccentric. In case of D-slide valve, the force required to work
the valve will be the load on the sheave. This force depends on the
net steam pressure on the valve, the coefficient of friction between
the surfaces of contact and the inertia of the valve mechanism.
The coefficient of friction between the surfaces of contact may be
taken as 0.2. If 1'be the length and b the breadth of the slide valve,
11. the coefficient of friction and pi the effective piessure of steam on
back of D-slide valve, then
P --,-1.1.1 b pi (ii)
where P .,-: force required to move the valve against friction.
In case of piston valves, the frictional forces are small while
the inertia forces may be very large.
Inertia force I = mass x acceleration (iii)
The motion of the valve is taken as simple harmonic so the
inertia forces will be maximum at the beginning or end of the
stroke. While calculating the maximum value of the resultant
force F, the proper direction of the inertia force should be .taken.
The design equation for the sheave will be
F = DBP (iv)
where p is the permissible bearing pressure intensity between the
sheave and the strap, D is the diameter of the sheave and B is the
bearing thickness of the sheave. ...
The strap is designed as a beam simply supported at the
strap bolts axes. If L be the distance between the strap bolt axes,
FL
then maximum bending moment on strap ---,---- (v)

If t be the thickness of the strap and f the permissible stress

intensity for the strap material, then
l .
-1= Bt 2 f
4 6
t 0.5FL
or . (vi)
y Bf
The value off for cast iron is 140 kg/sq cm and from 280 to
560 kg/sq cm for malleable cast iron and gun metal.
The deflection at the centre of the strap should not exceed
0.025 mm.
896 MACHINE DESIGN l Ch. XVIII

FL8
Deflection at the centre = (vu)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the strap material.
Each strap bolt is designed for a load 3 x F = IF, i.e.
33% more load. The bolts connecting the eccentric strap and
rod should be of the same diameter as those connecting the two
halves of the strap.
Eccentric rods are usually very long compared to their trans-
verse dimensions. They are designed as columns hinged at ends
according to Euler's formula. The length of eccentric rod is taken
as 20 times the throw of the eccentric. The eccentric rods may
be circular or rectangular in section. In many cases the axis of
the eccentric rod is not in line with the valve rod, which is always
the case of one eccentric at least in Stephenson reversing gear.
In such cases the eccentric rod will be subjected to direct axial
stresses together with bending stresses. The resultant stresses
can be calculated by the methods explained in article 2-16.
The bearing at the small end of the eccentric rod should be
designed for a bearing pressure which lies between 420 to 700
kg/sq cm. If the end of the rod be forked, the length of each
fork is equal to the diameter of the pin. When the bearing is in
one piece, it is usually 1.4 diameters long.
The following are some of the proportions for eccentric straps
and rod
Thickness of strap cast iron = 0.7 B to 0.9
„ steel = 0.5 B to 0.6 B
33 brass = 0.6 B to 0.8 B
Diameter of strap bolts, d = 04 B to 0.5 B
Thickness of palm on end of eccentric rod = 045 B
Diameter of eccentric rod at strap end = 0.9 B to B
Breadth of rectangular eccentric rod at strap end = 1.3B to 1.5B
Thickness „ = 0.9B to B.

Example:
1. The eccentric to drive the water pump which pumps water against
a head of 120 metre is mounted on the middle of the shaft which is 60 cm
long between centres. The bore of the pump is 10 cm and stroke 15 cm.
(a) Determine the axial force along the eccentric rod assuming the friction
Art. Id-71 DESIGN Oi MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE 8g 7

at the gland to be 10% of the load on the piston. (b) Determine the torque
on the driving shaft assuming the efficiency of the drive to be 60%.
(c) Calculate the diameter of the shaft if the permissible shear stress in the
shaft is not to exceed 560 kglsq cm. (d) Suggest the suitable dimensions
for the sheave, strap bolts, strap and eccentric rod for the strap end. Choose
your own materials for the parts and values of stresses.
120 meter head of water 12 kg/sq cm.
7L
Load on the piston = x 102 x 12 = 940 kg.
4

As the friction at the gland is 10% of the load on piston, the

axial force along the eccentric rod will be 1.1 x 940 = 1,034 kg.
The throw of the eccentric is 7.5 cm.
The torque on the shaft = 7 5x 1034 = 7,770 kg cm.

The efficiency of the drive is 60%; therefore the maximum

7770
torque on the shaft will be -T-6— = 12,900 kg cm.
1034 x 60
Maximum bending moment on the shaft -,--- ---— -
4
= 15,500 kg cm.
Equivalent twisting moment = V155002 + 129002
= 20,200 kg cm.
If d1 cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, `hen
d13 x 560 = 20200
6
-13/20200 16
or
r 560 x = 5.68 cm; we adopt 6 cm.
The eccentric sheave is made in two parts, the thickness of
di 6
the sheave at the thinnest part being 7,- = = 2 cm.
The minimum diameter of the cast iron sheave will be
2 (2 + 7.5 + 3) = 25 cm.
We adopt brass strap. The permissible value for bearing
pressure intensity will be adopted as 8 kg/sq cm.

Width of the sheave will be = 1034— 5.5 cm.

8 x 25
The other dimensions we get by proportions and are as follows:
Thickness of strap = 4.5 cm.
 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

Diameter of strap bolts = M27.

Thickness of palm on end of eccentric rod = 2.5 cm.
Diameter of circular eccentric rod at strap end = 5 cm.
Length of eccentric rod = 150 cm.
By adopting 55 kg/sq cm as the bearing pressure for the small
end of the eccentric rod, the length of each fork will be equal to the
diameter of the pin, which will be 35 mm.
Note: For the complete design of eccentric rod, please refer illustrative
example 1 on page 510. Also, refer illustrative example 3 on page 249 and
exercise 6 on page 91.

Exercises :
1. An eccentric is used to give S.H.M. to a vertical follower system
weighing 2 kg. The eccentric runs at 600 r.p.m. and the travel of the
follower is 5 cm. The follower is always kept in contact with the eccentric
by means of a spring which has a margin of 3 kg i.e. total load on the
eccentric is never less than 3 kg. Design a suitable spring. Safe stress
4,200 kg/sq cm. G = 0.8 x 106 kg/sq cm.
Determine the maximum torque on the eccentric shaft and the size
of the shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed 420 kg/sq cm. Neglect bending.
Which of the following materials will you use for (a) the eccentric
and (b) the follower face?
Cast iron, mild steel, hardened steel, phosphor bronze, hardened
nickel steel and nylon.
2. How will you calculate the load coming on the eccentric sheave
and strap bolts in case of D slide valve engine? Why the eccentric sheave
is made in two parts, if the eccentric were to be mounted between bearings?
Are these two parts equal? If not, why? How will you determine the
thickness of the strap and width of the strap? State your justifications in
using the formula. What will be the load in the strap bolts when the
eccentric rod is subjected to a compressive load? What are the suitable
materials for a sheave of an eccentric? How will you determine the cross
sectional dimensions of the eccentric rod? How will you fix the length
of the eccentric rod?
3. , With neat sketches and principal dimensions, describe the proce-
dure for the design of an eccentric with straps—and eccentric rod. Suggest
the suitable materials and the values of permissible stresses.
Art. 18-81 DESIGN OF illSegtLANEOUS MACH/NE PARTS-1 899

4. Design and sketch an eccentric from the following data:

Net area 'a' of valve face-,775 sq cm; steam pressure 'P' 10.5
kg/sq cm; coefficient of friction 0.2; diameter of the crankshaft 17.8
cm; bearing pressure between the strap and the sheave 5.6 kgIsq cm; distance
between the strap bolts 53.3 cm; stress in the strap bolts 210 kg/sq cm;
travel of the valve 15.3 cm; breadth of the strap 0.07 V Pa cm; thickness
of the strap 0.056 V Pa cm; safe stress for the rod 280. kg/sq cm. Design
the valve rod, the eccentric sheave, the strap and the strap bolts.
5. Design and draw an eccentric that will give a movement of 75
mm to a piston valve of a horizontal steam engine. The eccentric is to be
mounted on a crankshaft of diameter 100 mm.
The inertia force in the eccentric rod is 453.6 kg. Assume suitable
working stresses and any other data required.
(University of Poona, 1971)
6. Design and make dimensioned sketches of the eccentric and eccen-
tric rod from the following data:
(i) Valve travel 7 cm
(ii) Diameter of the crankshaft 7.5 cm
(iii) Maximum force required to move the slide valve 100 kg
(iv) Valve rod diameter 2 cm
(v) Length of the eccentric rod is 20 times the eccentric throw.
State the material used for each part, and assume suitable working
stresses. It is designed to have eccentric sheave in two parts.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)

18-8. Compensating ring for a manhole (Fig. 18-18) :

In cutting a manhole in the shell plate of a boiler, since the
plate is in tension, the sectional area cut through must be compen-
sated for. The area cut through is measured by the length of the
minor axis multiplied by the thickness of the plate. The cut area
is compensated by providing a compensating ring whose area is
same as the cut area in the direction of the minor axis in the shell
plate.
Let 2b be the length of the minor axis, t the thickness of the
shell plate, x the width of the compensating ring, d the diameter of
the rivet hole and. T the thickness of the compensating ring.
900 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. X Via

The area cut through = 2bt.

The area compensated by the ring = 2 (x — d) T.
By equating two areas, we get
2 (x — d) T -----= 2bt
bt
Or X' = 1.-- + d

T \\
) i 1t ? 1
.1.

Compensating ring Boiler shell

.
\

Compensating ring for a manhole

FIG. 18-18

If the thickness of the shell plate be the same as that of the

compensating ring.
x=b+d (ii)
•
The effect of cutting a manhole in the end or flat plate of a
boiler is to transfer the load on the manhole to the edge of the hole.
In order to strengthen the edge of the hole, the plate is flanged
inwards as a result the edge of the hole is stiffened.
Art. 18-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 901

Exercises :
1. Design and sketch a manhole with its compensating ring for a
boiler 1.8 metre in diameter working under a pressure of 14 kg/sq cm.
The efficiency of the longitudinal joint may be assumed to be 80%.
The allowable stress in the boiler shell plate is 700 kgIsq cm. The
thickness of the compensating ring plate may be assumed to be the same as
boiler shell plate. The ring is to be flanged inwards to a tidal depth of 7.5 cm.
The oval hole in a boiler shell is 40 cm x 50 cm.
The oval hole in the compensating ring is 30 cm x 40 cm.
Assume shearing stress in rivets to be 0.837 x tensile stress in the
compensating ring.
2. Design a man hole cover for a Lancashire boiler 180 cm diameter
and having a working pressure of 15 kg/sq cm by gauge. The cover has
two bridge bars and studs. Prepare a dimensioned sketch. Choose suitable
stresses.
18-9. Design of safety valves for boilers:
Introduction:
The function of a safety valve is to prevent an undue rise in
pressure in any vessel. Such a valve should be entirely automatic
in its action and should operate independently of any human
agency. When a safety valve opens it discharges the fluid; after
relieving the pressure it should close down again automatically
and should remain closed until such time as it is again required to
perform its allotted function.
Safety valves may be broadly classified into four basic types:
(i) Lever loaded safety valve (Fig. 12-13 and Fig. 18-19)
(ii) Spring balance safety valve (Fig. 18-21)
(iii) Direct spring loaded safety valve (Fig. 18-20)
(iv) Dead weight safety valve.
In lever loaded safety valve the controlling force for the valve is
provided by the dead weight, which is placed at the end of a lever
and its effect is transferred at the valve through lever action. In
spring balance type of safety valves the controlling force is provided
by the spring which is attached at the end of a lever and its effect is
transferred at the valve through lever action. The use of spring
balance type of safety valves is abandoned long hack.
902 MACHINE DESIGN I Ch. XVIII

In 'direct spring loaded type of safety valve the controlling

force is provided by the spring directly and the lever action is absent.
Similarly in dead weight type of safety valve, the controlling force
is provided by the dead weights which are directly mounted on
the valve.
Dead weight safety valve is susceptible to vibratory and other
disturbing influences and it is not used on locomotive boilers and
marine boilers, where the inevitable jolting and rolling would produce
many variations in the intended blow off pressures. Dead weight
safety valve is used on Lancashire boilers as an independent
auxiliary safety valve, which is usually set to blow off at a pressure
slightly higher than the pressure for which the spring loaded safety
valves are required to blow. Thus the spring loaded safety valves
are the first to take the control of any over pressure. If the spring
loaded safety valve is incapable of coping with the evaporation, the
dead weight safety valve comes into operation.
Sometimes two types of valves are used in combination and
mounted on a common type; in this arrangement also the dead
weight safety valve is usually set to blow off at a pressure in excess
of its companion spring loaded valve.
The fundamental requirement of valve arrangement is that
the thrust of the spindle should be imparted to the valve member at a point
below the level of the seat contacting faces.
In any safety valve there must be a downward force opposing
the upward force due to fluid pressure; in addition there must be
an additional downward force sufficient to produce a clamping
pressure between the sealing faces of sufficient intensity to prevent
leakage across these faces. In order to maintain fluid tightness in
metal to metal joint, a clamping pressure of one and a half to twice
the pressure of the fluid being controlled is generally required.
The lower pressure may be adopted in the case of accurately lapped
surfaces, which are absolutely essential for satisfactory performance
of safety valves.
In most boilers safety valves are set to blow off at a pressure 3°/0
in excess of the normal working pressure of the boiler. For a valve
diameter less than 3 cm bore it shall be increased to 10% excess.
This requirement of excess pressure should be referred from Indian
Boiler Regulations.
Art. 18-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 903

To ensure fluid tightness at the seat contacting faces, the

radial, width of the sealing face should be equal to 0.01 of the
effective diameter of the sealing; this value should be doubled for
values of sealing diameter less than 3 cm bore. In actual practice
the radial width of the sealing face will be more in order to provide
against premature failure due to wire drawing and also as a precau-
tion against distortion. It depends on the material of construction
of the surfaces of the valve sealing.
It is reasonable to suggest that the unit pressure between safety
valve sealing may be rated much higher than that of a screw down
stop valve because there is none of the screwing action which
usually accompanies the closing down of a stop valve.
Minimum Valve Area:
According to Indian Boiler Regulations the essential require-
ment of any safety valve is that its area should be sufficient to dis-
charge the steam as quickly as it is generated with a rise in pressure
not more than 10% of the safety valve blow off pressure. The rise
in pressure is called the accumulation.
The minimum total area of a safety valve can be given
H x constant
A ...-. - ------- sqcm (i)
P—
where H is the heating surface of the boiler in sq metre and p
is the absolute pressure of steam in kg/sq cm. The value of the
constant varies from 5.5 to 7.5 depending upon tie kind of boiler.
For water tube boilers, oil fired or coal fired, with forced draught
installation its value is 6.25. The above formula is based on the
heating surface.
The other formula based on evaporation of steam per hour is
given as under :
E
A ----= sq cm (ii)
p x constant
where A. aggregate area in sq cm of the orifices through the seating
of the valve for ordinary and higher lift valves and for full lift safety
valves the net area through the seats after deducting the area of
guides or other obstructions when the valves are fully lifted.
E.,----- Total peak load evaporation in kg/hour (including
evaporation from water walls, steaming economiser and
other heating surface in direct communication with the
boiler) for which the boiler is specified. In no case,
904 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

however, shall the evaporation as calculated be based on

less than 30 kg/hourfsq metre of heating surface (exclusive
of super heater and non steaming economisers).
p = Highest pressure to which any safety valve is to be set
to .lift, in kg/sq cm absolute.
The value of the constant is given by the following table:
For boilers having an evaporative capacity of less than 1,100
kg of water per hour.

Types of valve Spring loaded valve Weight loaded valve

Ordinary lift 4 4.8

High lift 8 9.6
Full lift 16 16

For boilers having an evaporative capacity of more than 1,100

kg per hour the value of the constant may be taken as under:
Ordinary lift 4.8
High lift 9.6
Full lift 20
When two valves are loaded by a single spring as in case of
Ramsbottom safety valve, the areas calculated as above shall be
increased by 50%.
If the valves have to pass superheated steam, the area shall
be increased as under:

Asap Asa yi + 2.70

Ritio
(iii)

where 0 is the degree of superheat in °C.

The third method of determining area of flow through a safety
valve is to determine the velocity of escaping steam considering
-the flow through a safety valve as a flow through a convergent nozzle.
When the velocity of the escaping steam is known, by knowing the
evaporation we can determine the volume of steam to be passed,
through safety valve, per second. By continuity equation we can
find out the minimum aggregate area through the valve.
When a waste steam pipe is fitted in order to discharge steam
away from the boiler house, sufficient cross sectional area of the
pipe should be provided otherwise severe back pressure will be
experienced on the back of the valve and the free lift of the valve
Art. 18.9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 905

will be affected. Cross sectional area required will be not less

than the minimum combined area of the safety valve required
for ordinary and high lift valves and not less than double the area
for full lift valves.
In ordinary lift safety valves, which are commonly employed
in simpler and cheaper valves, the lift is much less than P- . In
24
order to increase the lift, and thus to obtain a greater area of
discharge with a corresponding reduction in the size of the valve
required to pass a given volume, many artifices have been devised
principally directed at utilising the kinetic energy of this high
velocity escaping steam by permitting it to impinge on to a suitably
shaped projection on the valve member.

Classification of Valves :
An ordinary safety valve is a valve which lifts automatically
D
at least — where D is the diameter of the valve seating. A
24
D
high lift valve is a valve which lifts automatically at least — .
12
A full lift safety valve is a valve which lifts automatically a distanc
giving a discharge area round the edge of the valve sealing equal to
area through the valve orifice when the valve is fully lifted after
deducting the area of guides or obstructions. ,..

Design of lever loaded safety valves (Fig. 18-19):

The working principle of a lever loaded safety valve is explained
in art. 12-6 and a schematic diagram of such a valve is given by
Fig. 12-13. Fig. 18-19 shows some of the various forms of the
arrangements for lever loaded safety valves.
When we want to design a lever loaded safety valve the number
of questions may arise to the designer when he carries out the
preliminary design. Here we list some of these questions :
1. Explain how the lever loaded safety valve works.
2. What is clamping pressure and how much it should be ?
3. What is the fundamental law governing valve design ?
4. How will you determine the load to be placed at the end
of a lever ?
906 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

5. Can you adopt a lever loaded safety valve on a loco-

motive, a steam road roller, a stationary steam engine
boiler ? Give reasons .
6. How will you determine the load on the fulcrum pin and the
thrust pin ? Why are these pins normally of the same size ?
7. When are the pins in a lever loaded safety valve of different
material than the material of the lever or the bushes that
fit into the pin holes of the lever ?
8. When the boiler inspector reduces the working pressure of
the boiler, he also reduces the evaporation of the boiler
for the same size valve. Give reasons. If the original
evaporation is desired, the valve requires to be changed.
Why?
9. What is the normal value of the leverage in a lever loaded
safety valve ? What are the advantages and disadvantages
of providing a leverage of say 10:1 ?
10. What is the material of the lever ? How will you make it
inexpensive ?
11. As the lever is subjected to bending, the section that provides
beam of uniform strength would be appropriate; however
such sections are not used in practice. Why ?
12. What can be the possible reason of valve chatter and how
to get rid of it in a new design ?
13. Why is it desirable that the seatings of all the valves
should be knife edged as far as practicable ?
14. Explain how you will determine the diameter of the valve.
15. Explain the terms : Ordinary lift, high lift and full lift.
Which type of valve should we design and why ?
16. What is the distance between the fulcrum and valve axis
and why should it be kept to a minimum ?
17. How will you design the fulcrum of the lever ? What types
of fulcrums are used in the design of lever loaded safety
valves ?
18. Why do we prefer ball contact in place of a thrust pin ?
19. How will you fix the size of the mounting bolts ?
20. How will you fix the thickness of the casting ? How will
you determine the thickness of the flange ?
Art. 18-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 907

Now let us consider the design procedure for such a valve,

which is simplest of all the valves. An objection to these valves
is that they readily lend themselves to surreptitious over loading by
ignorant attendants. The weight should be in one piece and the saley
valves shall be mounted so that the axis of the valve is vertical.
The axial force due to the set or blowing off pressure acting
on the underside of the valve member is determined as under:
P =4 D2 p + 1.5p (70w) (iv)

Steam force + clamping force

where D is inside diameter of the seating and W is the width of the
contact face which may be taken as 0-02D.
In order to determine the load to be applied at the end of
a lever and the force in the fulcrum we employ moment equa-
tion. In taking moment equation the frictional resistance of the
fulcrum pin and thrust pins and other rubbing parts, will be
ignored but it should be remembered that the freedom of movement
at these points is most essential. Pins of non-ferrous materials
should be adopted but where steel pins are preferred it is important
that lever should be bushed with bronze. In preliminary calcula-
tions we neglect the weight of the lever but allowance should be
made for it. The omission of this factor in low operating pressure will
be dangerous.
The fulcrum distance is mainly governed by the external
diameter of the valve seating or valve member and should be kept
as small as possible in order to employ the lightest possible cheese
weight. Knowing the overall length of the lever its cross sectional
dimensions may be assumed and its wight can be calculated. The
combined weight of the valve member and spindle is in the designer's
hand. The length of the lever is measured from the centre of the
fulcrum pin. Cheese weights fall into [Link] the two kinds:
Sliding weight type in which case the lever passes through the cheese
weight or they may be pendulously mounted on the lever. The latter expedient
is not altogether a desirable one in as much that it does not permit
of any subsequent adjustment of centres. Moreover it is not
immune from unauthorised interference its removal being a simple
matter by any one possessed of requisite strength.
According to regulations the weights shall be attached to the
lever in such a way that they can not be moved inadevertently.
908 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XVIII

Pitching screw fixes the chesse weight to the lever. There is,
however, one pronounced disadvantage in this arrangement; the
screw is liable to become rust bound in course of time making any
subsequent adjustment a most difficult operation.
The centre of gravity of each cheese weight may be taken to
coincide with the geometrical centre of the casting proper. Tile
spindle is designed from compressive stress consideration. Let
us consider the design of the pins. Fulcrum pin and the pin
securing the spindle to the lever will be subjected to shearing and
bending forces. The fulcrum pin will be subjected to an upwardly
directed shearing force, and the thrust pin will be subjected to a
downwardly directed shearing force. These pins are in double
shear. In order to provide more wearing surfaces the calculated
diameters are increased by 5 to 6 mm. The following values of
permissible shear stresses are taken :
450 kg/sq cm for rolled phosphor bronze or manganese bronze
300 kg/sq cm for rolled brass bars
550 kg/sq cm for monel metals.
A fulcrum is to be designed as a tension member. We may have
a linked fulcrum in place of a rigid fulcrum bolt or a ball thrust
arrangement in which a thrust pin is abandoned in favour of a ball
contact constrained to abut against the underside of the lever, two
artifices employed either singly or in combination. Reduction of
friction to a minimum is essential in any safety valve if the maxi-
mum lift and, therefore discharge is to be secured. In this connec-
tion knife edge contacts at all swivelling points are advocated.
'The fulcrum bolt or stud, usually, at its upper extremity is in the
form of a fork, and hence it should be designed as a knuckle joint;
for gun metal the permissible tensile stress is taken as 350 kg/sq cm
and for mild steel 700 kg/sq cm.
The thickness of the branch of the fork will be determined from
forging consideration. It is also determined from the necessity of
providing sufficient bearing area for the pin. Too little area will
result in too concentrated distribution of load over the bearing area
and spoiling or grooving of the surface of the pin or holes will ensue.
Thus after deciding the thickness from forging considerations,
the pin is checked for bearing consideration. The value of bearing
pressure is taken as 150 to 200 kg/sq cm for gun metal or phosphor
bronze.
Art. 18-91 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 909

The shank and screwed mechanism of the fulcrum bolt or stud

wild, be in pure tension and the diameter at the bottom of the thread
is calculated and nominal diameter increased by 5 to 6 mm to
compensate for tightening up stresses and possible bending stresses
and to cater for the minimum case.
The values of permissible stresses are as under:
400 to 450 kg/sq cm phosphor bronze cast
300 kg/sq cm gun metal or bronze
700 kg/sq cm mild steel.
Lever: Rectangular mild steel bar with no machining other
than that of drilling the pin hole or holes and trimming off the ends.
The maximum bending moment will be induced in that section of
the lever situated immediately over the valve spindle and the
section, necessitated at that point will be maintained throughout
the whole length of lever in the interests of economy.
If the pin joints are the features of the design, the resulting lever
section will naturally require to be somewhat larger than would
be the case where the spindle thrust is imparted by a ball bearing
since in the former case there is a weakening tendency due to the
presence of the pin hole. The permissible stress for the lever
material is limited to 700 kg/sq cm.

Exercises :
I. Design a safety valve to be fitted to a Lancashire boiler of the
following dimensions :
Diameter of the boiler 2 metre and its length 8 metre
Evaporation of steam 2,000 kg/ hour
Boiler pressure 10 kgIsq cm by gauge
Heating surface 65 sq metre
Boiler is hand fired having ordinary furnace with natural draught.
2. Design the main components of a •lever loaded safety valve to
satisfy the following requirements :
Valve diameter 65 mm; p: 8 kg/sq cm; Leverage : 10
Distance between the fulcrum and the pin connecting the valve spindle
links to the lever 65 mm. Draw a two view sketch of the valve.
3. Design a lever loaded safety valve with the following particulars:
Size of the valve 75 mm; Steam pressure 10 kgIsq cm
Weight at the end of the lever should not exceed 70 kg
Materials : Body and weight, cast iron, fulcrum and lever, M.S.
910 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

Design of a spring loaded safety valve:

The maximum compressive force which may be imparted to
the lower extremity of the spindle is due to the spring thrust and is
obtained as under:

P 2p + 1.5p (7W W) (v)

4D
Steam force + clamping force
where D is the inside diameter of the seating and W is the width of
the contact face which may be taken as 0.02D.
The initial compression to give the desired load is I of the
diameter of the valve seating, but the Admirality specify double
this amount. According to BS 759, for ordinary lift safety valves
the total compression or extension of the springs required to load
the valves to the set pressure shall not be less than one quarter of the
valve diameter. This value is not exceeded by the desinger as the
stress induced in the material of the spring is directly proportional
to the compression or extension necessitating increased dimensions.
The proportion of unloaded length to external diameter of the
spring shall not exceed 4 :1. If the free length of compression
springs is very much in excess of four times the outside diameter of
the spring will lack iniateral stiffness and tends to become bowed.
This tendency may cause tilting of valve member and undue flexing
of the spindle whose thrust should be always co-axial with the
valve member if the freedom of movement of the parts is to be
assured.
The maximum shear stress as determined by the torsional
formula shall not exceed 7,000 kg/sq cm for compression springs
and 5,600 kg/sq cm for extension springs.
The commonly adopted torsional formulas are given below:
(a) Round section wire :
16PR
Shear stress = X (vi)
rcdu,3
where P = maximum load at set pressure
R = mean radius of the coil
(lib = diameter of round wire
K = Wahl stress concentration factor as defined in art. 8-2.
Art. 18-91 DESIGN OP MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 911

(b) Square section wire :

4.8 PR
Shear stress -. -- x K (vii)
d3
where d— side of a square section
(c) Rectangular Section wire :
(3b -I- 1.8h) PR
Shear stress = -- ----- — — x K
b2h2
where b = radial width of the cross section and
h = axial depth of cross section.
For small valves and moderately low pressures, springs of round
section wire are usually employed, square section being reserved
for the larger sizes of valves or those intended for high pressure while
springs of rectangular section are specifically intended for valves
having high lift characteristics in order to provide for more than
the usual amount of subsequent deflection.
The number of active coils are obtained by the stiffness con-
sideration. By active coils is meant the actual number of coils
which take part in the resistance of the applied loads and not the
dead coils or portions of coils, at each end of the compression.
Having determined the number of active coils, the overall length of
the spring may now be determined having due regard to the mini-
mum allowable space between the coils, working deflection, initial
compression and allowing for number of dead colt.
The valve chest is usually made of cast iron for a pressure of
10 atg saturated. Wherever there is any doubt regarding the
choice of the material, cast steel should be adopted.
The spring casing may be of cast iron and it will be subjected
to a direct tensile force resulting from the spring thrust and trans-
mitted by the compression screw and top plate to this Member.
If we base the design only on the tensile force imparted, the wall
thickness will be relatively thin. Hence we adopt that thickness
which gives us sound castings.
The bolts and studs securing the spring casing to the chest are
also subjected to tension.
For any given type of spring loaded safety valve, the force
analysis should be made for each component and then the dimen-
sions of various components should be decided after selecting the
912 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVII

proper material. Space considerations prevent us from the

detailed design considerations of all these components.

Examples :
1. The spring loaded safety valve for a boiler is required to blow of
at a pressure of 11 kg/sq cm. The diameter of the valve is 6 cm and the
maximum lift of the valve is 1 cm.
Design the suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming
the spring index of 6 and providing initial compression of 3 cm. Maximum
shear stress is limited to 4,200 kg/sq cm.
According to equation (v) of this article the axial load can be
written as under:
Axial load .=.- : x 62 x 11 + 1.5 x 11 (7C X 6 x 0.02 x6)
= 350 kg.
As the initial compression is 3 cm, the stiffness of the spring
0
will be ----
35 , 116.6 kg/cm.
3
Maximum spring load --, 4 x 116.6 = 467 kg.
4x6—1 0.615
Stress concentration factor -= + - , 1.27.
4x6—4 6
Allowable stress in shear for torsional formula = 4200-, 3,300
1:27
kg/sq cm.
If d cm be the diameter of the circular wire of the spring which
is in compression, then
.rr
467 x 3d , d3 x 3300
16
V467 x 3 x 16
or d= -147 cm; we adopt 15 mm wire.
7C X 3300

If n be the number of active coils, then

0-84 x 103 x 1.5
n -- 8 x x 116.6 -
,-- 6.3 turns.
63
Mean diameter of the coil = 6 x 1.5 = 9 cm
Free length = 6.3 x 1.5 + 3 + 1 + 1
= 14.45 cm. say 15 cm.
Thus the proportion of unloaded length to external diameter
of the wire A does not exceed 4.
Art. 184} DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 913

The space between the coils when the valve head is lifted the
required distance, shall not be less than 1.5 mm for full lift safety
valves and not less than half its amount for ordinary and high lift
safety valves.
2. Design a spring loaded safety valve of the Ramsbottom type for a
boiler working at a pressure of 10 kesq cm gauge. The diameter of the
value is 50 mm. The set pressure is to be 5% more than the working pressure
and the valves are to be lifted through 5 mm, when the pressure rises by 10%
of the set pressure.
Fig. 18-20 shows the sectional elevation of a Ramsbottom type
safety valve fitted on boilers. In this design two valves (3) are
loaded by a single spring (10), which is in tension. This valve
discharges directly to atmosphere. The valve members are in no
way connected to the loading lever. In the event of spring
breaking, the valves are prevented from being blown away by
the safety links (6).
Table 18-9.1 gives the list of various parts of this type of valve.

Table 18-9.1

Reference Description Material Number

No. required

1. Casting Cast Iron 1

2. Valve seat Gun metal 2
3. Valve Gun metal 2
4. Fulcrum bracket Mild steel 1
5. Lever Mild Steel 1
6. Safety links and pins Mild Steel 2 each
7. Eye bolt Mild Steel 1
8. Washer Mild Steel 1
9. Nuts Mild Steel 2
10. Spring Spring Steel 1

From the above list, the student should make the force
analysis for each part. After element recognisation, the various
dimensions can be fixed for individual parts.

Area of flow through each valve = 4- x 5$ = 20 sq cm.

Total area of flow will be 2 x 20 = 40 sq cm.
Diameter of the main pipe, from the boiler, which connects two
branches = 7.5 cm.
 =MI

I 1

Ramsbottom spring loaded safety valve

FIG. 18-20
Art. .18-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-/ - 915

The main body is made of cast iron upto a pressure of 10 kg/sq

cm gauge and temperature below 250°C. We determine the
thickness of the casting by employing thin cylinder formula. We
adopt 200 kg/sq cm as the permissible stress. As we can verify that
,
the thickness obtained from strength view point is less, we adopt the
thickness which will give sound casting. A liberal thickness is
suggested in the region of the neck to cater for the effects of vibration
in addition to that of meeting pressure requirements. For the
same reason the inlet flange should be made larger than that
appropriate to the pipe size denoted by the bore.
Set pressure = 1.05 x 10 = 10.5 kg/sq cm.
Lift of the valve = 5 mm when the pressure rises to 1.1 x 10.5
11.6 kg/sq cm.
Total steam load on the valve when it begins to lift = 20 x 10.5
= 210 kg.
Total steam load when the valve is lifted by 5 mm = 20 x 11.6
= 232 kg.
Increase in spring load = (232 — 210) 2 = 44 kg.
44
Stiffness of the spring - = 88 kg/cm.
0.5
From fig. 18-20 it can be seen that the thrust is imparted to
the valve member at a point below the level of the seat contacting faces. By
this arrangement valve chatter is eliminated.
When the maximum load in the spring is ktrown, by the
torsional formula we can find out the diameter of the spring wire.
From the stiffness consideration, we can determine the number of
active turns of the spring which is subjected to an axial extensional
loading.
The calculations for various components such as safety link,
pins, lever, eye bolt and fulcrum brackets can be carried out accord-
ing to the principles explained in the text earlier.
3. A dead weight safety valve is to be designed for a Lancashire boiler
for a working pressure of 10 kg/sq cm gauge. Over all height from the
boiler seating is to be not greater than 90 cm. Grate area is 4 sq metre
and G0 kg of coal are burnt per square metre of grate area per hour generating
10 kg of steam per kg of coal. The valve is to be designed on the assumption
that it will pass 25% more steam than the boiler will generate and that the
speed of the steam through the valve is not to exceed 40 metre/sec. Assuming
916 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

that the weight of the valve and the casing without weights is 135 kg, deter-
mine the diameter of the valve, the lift of the valve and the additional weights
required.
Steam generated per hour = 4 x 60 x 10 = 2,400 kg/hour.
As the dead weight safety valve under consideration should be
capable of allowing 25% more steam, the quantity of steam to be
discharged = 2400 x 1•25 = 3,000 kg/hour. According to I.B.R.,
assuming full lift valve, the minimum area for a saturated steam is
given as
Evaporation in kg/hour
A=
Constant x absolute steam pressure (ata)
3000
17 sq cm.
- 16 x 11
Let us calculate the area from first principles. The specific
volume of dry saturated steam at 11 kg/sq cm absolute is 0.181 cu
metre. Assuming the dryness fraction of steam to be 0.98, the
, 3000 x 0•98 x 0-181
amount of steam to pass per second is equal to
3600
= 0.148 cu metre/second. If A sq cm be the area of flow through
the valve, then x 40 = 0.148
10000
0.148 x 10000
Or A = -- 4 - - - = 37 sq cm.

We adopt the diameter of the valve as 7 cm, and the lift of the
valve as 18 mm.
The maximum force required to be imparted to the valve
member= x10 x 72 -1-nx 7 x 1.5 x 10 x 0.02 x 7
-4
= 431 kg.
Thus total dead weight required will be 431 kg, which includes
the weight of the plate, weight carrier, valve member and other
appurtenances attached there to. Hence additional dead weight
required = 431 — 135 = 296 kg.
Note: Refer the following pages for additional examples pertaining to design
of safety valves:
(i) Example 4 on page 249 for the design of a fulcrum.
(ii) Example 7 on page 412 for the design of a spring for a spring loaded
safety valve.
(iii) Art. 12-6 for the design of a lever loaded safety valve.
Art. 18-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 917

Exercises :
1. Design the elements for a direct spring loaded 5 cm diameter cast
iron pressure relief valve to operate at 15 kg/sq cm gauge. The valve
should have steel side columns, a steel crosshead, and a close coiled helical
spring. Also specify general metal thickness for the valve body and flange
thickness. State all assumptions made.

90 --
41---
4w*
— 750
Lever 1
b=2t

FIG. 18-21
2. Design the spring, the lever, the fulcrum pillar, the pin and the
thickness of the valve body of the spring balanced safety valve, as shown in
fig. 18-21 for the following duty :
Valve diameter 50 mm; maximum pressure when the valve begins to
blow of— 7 kg/sq cm gauge; maximum lift when pressure rises from
7.0 to 7.7 kg/sq cm by gauge is 7 mm.
Assume : Allowable stress for spring 4,200 kg/sq cm; ratio of mean
diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire — 12 : 1 ; G = 7 x 105 kg/sq cm;
maximum allowable stress in the lever, fulcrum and fulcrum pin 350 kg/sq cm;
bearing pressure for the pin 140 kg/sq cm; safe stress in the valve body
140 kesq cm.
3. Design and draw a neat dimensioned sketch of a spring loaded
safety valve of 14 cm diameter and 2 cm lift to blow of at a pressure of
4 atg. The spring is to be made of spring steel of round section. The
initial compression of the spring may be taken as 7 cm.
918 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

18-10. Design of a steam stop valve:

Fig. 18-22 shows a steam stop valve of the screw lift type i.e.
the valve is attached to the spindle so that the valve rises or falls

Boiler stop valve

Fzo. 18-22

with the spindle. The spindle has an external screw. The

steam is admitted through the vertical passage to the underside of
Art. 18-10 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 919

the valve; this arrangement facilitates the adjustment of the cover

gland and packing even though the line is live.
The diameter of the stop valve in metre is given by,
Q.
d- liv x 0.7854 (i)
where Q is the volume of steam in cu metre/sec and V the
velocity of steam in metre/sec.
The following salient points should be noted in the design of
the stop valve:
(i) The spindle, when screwed down, will be subjected to
a minimum compressive force equal to the steam load acting on
the valve, which will be the product of the area of the valve and
the steam pressure intensity. The spindle is operated by a hand-
wheel and the screw. When the valve is tightly screwed down, the
pressure between the valve and its seat will be far in excess of that
due to steam load. There are many unknown factors, that enter
while calculating the actual force acting on the spindle. The
maximum load on the spindle we take to be twice the steam load.
(ii) The spindle is subjected to twisting moment when it is
being screwed down hard on its seat. This stress is temporary and
will be relaxed when the turning effort at the hand-wheel is
removed.
(iii) The spindle is made of rust-proof material such as
phosphor-bronze, gun-metal, etc. It should be designed as a short
compression member. If the slenderness ratio exceeds 60, it
should be designed as a column.
(iv) The thickness of the valve body should be calculated by
considering it to be the thick cylinder. The commonly adopted
materials for the body are cast iron, cast steel or gun-metal. As
I.B.R. require the body to be hydraulically tested, it should
be designed for hydraulic test pressure. ' The thickness of the
flange should be taken 3 mm more than the thickness of the body.
The size of the bolts to connect the valve to the boiler or the steam
pipe should be at least M 18.
(v) The valve seat is made of gun-metal. The valve seat
may be either a push fit in the body or screwed in the body or
fixed with a set screw. The thickness of the seat is calculated by
Lames formula and width of the seat from crushing considerations.
920 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII
(vi) The thickness of the valve is calculated by considering
it to be a plate supported at the edges and loaded at the centre.
The thickness t of the valve may be calculated by the equation

, -„. yl. (ii)

where r is the radius of the valve, p the pressure of the steam
and f the permissible stress intensity. The valve is provided with
ribs or feathers to guide the valve in the valve seat. The maxi-
mum lift of the valve should not exceed one-fourth the diameter
of the valve.
(vii) The cover bolts must be sufficiently in number to resist
the steam load safely, and to ensure a leak-proof joint. The thick-
ness of the cover must be sufficient to act as nuts for two mild
steel pillars. The compressive load in the spindle is transmitted by
bridge to the mild steel pillars, which are subjected to tensile
load when the valve is closed. The weakest section will be at the
bottom of the threads. In order to distribute strain, the pillars
are designed as bolts of uniform strength. (Please refer pages from
260 to 264.) The pillars are provided with bearing collars at the top
and bottom. In order to facilitate the fitting operations, two
flats are machined on lower collars to take a spanner. (See illustra-
tive example 5 on page 250).
(viii) The function of the bridge is to provide a fixed nut for
the screw of the spindle, when opening and closing the valve. The
bridge is subjected to a load to which the spindle is subjected.
The height of the bridge is calculated by considering the bearing
pressure on the threads. The bearing area per thread will be the
annular area. After the number of threads have been fixed from
bearing considerations, they are checked for the induced shear
stresses. In order to calculate the width of the bridge, it is in the
condition of a centrally-loaded beam supported at each end by
the pillars and subjected to a load equal to compression in the
spindle. While calculating the modulus of section, due allowance
should be made for the central hole in the bridge which forms i
nut for the screw. ,
(ix) The spindle is not rigidly attached to the valve, but is
allowed a slight play and the valve is free to rotate in order to
adjust itself to its seat. To facilitate the insertion of the 'spindle
from the side, the top of the valve is given a horse-shoe shape.
The spindle is retained in the groove by a split pin.
Art: 18-10) DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 921

(x) The hand wheel is made of cast iron and is provided with
four or six arms of elliptical section. The torque on hand wheel to
overcome frictional torque at the screw and the nut is calculated from
the principles explained in article 11-4. The arms are subjected
to bending. Generally, the handwheel has a square hole to receive
the squared portion of the spindle, thus eliminating the use of
the key. For the wheel, a force of 30 kg can be applied by a person
for intermittent work.
Note: The students should refer "Valve Design" by G. H. Pearson for
full treatment of the subject.
Exercises :
1. Design and draw a suitable stop valve for a boiler supplying 5,000
kg of steam per hour at 17 kesq cm. Calculations in respect of spindle,
bridge and bridge supports must be clearly shown. The body is to be made
of cast steel 13 mm thick and body flange 22 mm thick.
2. A 75 mm screw down stop valve having a fiat faced phosphor
bronze seating is to work against a steam pressure of 10 kgIsq cm gauge.
Cover joint with resilient gasket is continuous to the inside of cover bolts and
pillar ends are continuous through both flanges.
Design (i) cover plate (ii) bolts for cover plate (iii) pillars supporting
the main spindle nut bridge (iv) main spindle and nut (v) valve disc and
(vi) valve seatings.
Assume your own stresses. Prepare a complete drawing qf the slop
valve designed. ..i.
3. The maximum force acting on a steam stop valve in direction of
the spindle axis is 1,570 kg. The spindle is of 3 cm diameter and has
square threads of 6 mm pitch. The spindle has a collar of 4 cm diameter
at its end which turns inside the valve when the spindle is operated. The
coefficient of friction for the threads and the collar is the same and is 0.1.
Neglecting column action on the spindle, calculate the maximum normal
stresses in the spindle on both sides of the bridge nut in which the spindle
works. What are the materials recommended for the main components of
the steam stop valve? Why? (Poona University, 1970)
4. In a boiler stop valve the effective steam load on the vertical valve
spindle 25 mm diameter is 900 kg. Suggest the suitable thickness of the
cast steel bridge mounted on two bolts 30 cm apart. Assume single start
square threads of 5 mm pitch and bearing pressure intensity as 70 kgIsq cm.
Flexural stress in the cast bridge may be taken as 600 kgIsq cm.
(Staniar Patel University, 1975)
 922 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

18-11. Design of cams (I.C. Engines):

The requirements for valve cams are some what conflicting
in that for high volumetric efficiency, the valves should be opened
and closed quickly and held wide open for the longer period while to
reduce inertia forces and hence to keep down the spring force they
should be opened and closed gradully. In addition the cam contours
should be cheaper to manufacture.

Common cams in use:

Tangent cams with roller followers
Convex flank cams with flat faced followers in sliding
contact
(iii) Concave flank cams with roller followers
(iv) Generated cams.
All cams in common have
(i) a base circle on which the follower rides during the
time valve is closed
(ii) an opening flank so shaped as to open the valve in
desired way
(iii) a cam nose on which the follower rides during the time
when the valve is wide open and it may include the
period of dwell and
(iv) a closing flank which allows the valve to close properly.
The tangent cams are simpler to manufacture and are
therefore, used more often than the circular cams.

Tangent cams (fig. 18-23) :

. These cams are cheaper to manufacture but require a stiff
valve spring to ensure contact of follower at all points. The
tangent cams have straight line flanks tangent to base circle and
nose circle.

Design data:
(a) Angle of action, (b) lift of valve, (c) diameter of cam
shaft, (d) diameter of roller -x---- 2 R1, (e) speed in r.p.m. of cam
shaft, N and (f) no dwell.
Art. 18-11] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 923

Conclusions:
Diameter of base circle=[Link] of cam shaft +
2.5 mm.
Determine half the angle of action; call it a.
lift x cos a
Radius of nose circle R. = Rb
(1 — cos a) .

Base circle ease circle

Tangent cams
FIG. 18-23

(4) Distance between base circle centre and nose circle

(Rb Rn )
centre h
COS CC
(5) Angle turned by the camshaft when contact is on straight
h sin a
flank = Otnax = tan--
Rb + Rf•
(6) Angle turned by the camshaft when contact is on nose
circle ?max = a — °max.
(7) Retardation at the end of the stroke.
h [1 +
260
60 ) Rn Rf•j
(8) If the retardation at any point during the travel of the
follower exceeds the acceleration due to gravity, the
spring is necessary to keep the follower in contact with
the cam face.
When the angle of camshaft travel from initial opening to
final closing of the valve is quite large or when it is desired to keep
the valve in its fully open position for a longer period, a period
924 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

of dwell is built in. This period of dwell is an arc of a circle

concentric with the base circle and having a radius equal to the
radius of the base circle plus the total lift.
The period of dwell is arbitrary with the designer but it is
limited by the capacity of the valve spring and to a lesser extent
by the allowable stress at the line of contact between cam and
roller follower.
Let us denote the angle of dwell by 2(3. The following modi-
fications should be made in the conclusions stated earlier.
lift x cos (a — ()
(3) Radius of nose circle ._-_- Rn = Rb [1 — cos (a — 13)1 •
h — Rb — Rn
(4)
cos (oc — (3) -

(5) 0 = tan-1 h sin (a— P)

Rb + Rf
The maximum retardation may or may not be at the end of
the stroke. It depends on the value of the ratio - ----p- •
.4 4. f
The retardation of the follower should not exceed the following
values :
Slow speed engines 40 to 60 metre/sec2
Medium speed engines 100 to 120 35

Light high speed engines 350 to 450 ) )

The roller diameter in I.C. engine practice is usually 0.5 to

0.75 times the minimum cam diameter. The width of roller is
from 0.3 to 0.5 times its diameter in I.C. engine practice, and in
other cases it may be made i x (roller diameter) + 5 mm.
If the load on the cam is known, the width should be calculated
on the basis of 100 kg/cm width. The roller pins should have I
to i the diameters of the rollers which turn on them. The width
of the hub is from 0.6 to 0.8 times the minimum cam diameter.
The usual materials for cam are cast iron for low speed and
case hardened and ground machinery steel for high speed cams.
Manytimes cams are forged integral with the camshaft.
Example :
1. Determine the dimensions for tangent cam to operate air inlet
valve on an in-line engine (a) for zero dwell (b) for a period of dwell equal
to 20° of camshaft travel.
Art. 18-11] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 925

Inlet valve opens 15° before top dead centre and closes 65° after bottom
dead centre. Maximum lift is 1 cm, diameter of cam shaft 3.15 cm,
diameter of roller,_follower 2 cm, and the speed of the engine 2,000 r.p.m.
With no dwell:
The speed of the camshaft = 2000= 1,000 r.p.m.
3.15
Radius of the base circle 0.25 = 1.7 cm.
2
Lift = 1 cm.
15 -A- 180 + 65
The 'angle of action of camshaft = = 130°.
2
130 65°.
2
1 x cos 65°
Radius of the nose circle = 0.968 cm.
(1 — cos 65°)
(1.7 — 6.968)
h—- 1.732 cm.
cos 65°
Maximum retardation (Retardation at the end of the lift)
2n 1000 )2 1.723
x 1.732 [1 . 968 = 35,160 cmfsec2.
6]
0 . - 1 +0
With dwell of 20° :
The dwell period is 20° of camshaft, therefore f 10°.
.•. (cc— p) = 65 — 10 = 550.
1 cos 55°4b-
Radius of the nose circle = 1.7 = 0.358 cm.
(1 — cos 55°)
1.7 — 0.358
h 2.34 cm.
cos 55°
Retardation at the end of the stroke equals
[Link] x 1009 V 2.34 )
) x 2.34 (1 + r_47 6:_35A 69,960 cm/sec2.
k 60 _
The maximum retardation will be not at the end of the stroke.
It will be just at the instant when the contact begins at the nose
profile. For this example the exact mathematical calculations
show that the maximum retardation is 94,080 cm/sec2.
Exercise ;
1. Determine the dimensions for a tangent cam to operate the exhaust
valve of an engine runing at 500 r.p.m. The valve opens 33° before
926 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII
outer dead centre and closes 1° after inner dead centre. The lift of the valve
is 25 mm. The radius of the base circle may be taken as 50 mm. The
diameter of roller follower is 25 mm.
Ans. Rn = 13.2 mm; h = 61.8 mm.

Value spring Rocker arm

Fulcrum bracket

- Stem

Value Push rod

Guide

Camshaft

Cam

Valve gear of an I. C. engine

FIG. 1 8-24

18-12. Design of a valve gear for I. C. Engines (fig. 18-24):

Introduction:
The valve gear of a four stroke cycle engine consists of the
following components:
(i) Inlet and exhaust valves
(ii) Valve levers or rocker arms
(iii) Tappets or push rods
(iv) Cams
Art. 18-12 } DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 927

(v) Camshaft
(vi) Transmission device froria the crankshaft to the cam-
shaft.
Materials:
'The valves of slow speed engines are often of a composite
construction with cast iron valve discs and steel stems. High speed
engines always have one-piece pressed or forged valves. The valve
is forced down on its seat in the cage by one or two springs in low
speed engines and two or three in medium and high speed engines.
The springs are installed between retainers, one of which is secured
to the valve stem and the other rests on the valve cage or the cylinder
head. The end of the valve stem is provided with a cap for
adjusting the clearance between the lever roller and the cam.
The inlet and exhaust valves are subjected to dynamic loads
occasioned by the inertia forces of the masses of the valve operating
gear. In addition, they are acted upon by the high pressure hot
gases which create mechanical and thermal stresses. The exhaust
valves have to withstand the severest operating conditions. They
are made from heat resistant austenitic steels, which possess high
heat resisting properties. Valve cages are made of high grade
pearlitic cast iron; the valve stem bushes and seats are made of
bronze.
Valve springs of light duty engines are made from manganese
steel and those of heavy duty engines from chrome vanadium steel.
Cams may be made from cast iron, heat treated steel and case
hardened carbon steel. Camshafts are made of either steel or
alloy steel.
Valve design:
We assume that the valve disc is a circular plate freely
supported around the periphery and subjected to uniformly dis-
tributed load p. Its thickness is given by. equation

t = 0.5d VP- (i)

where d is the inside diameter of the valve and f is the permissible
bending stress.
The values of allowable bending stresses are as under:
Carbon steel 500 to 600 kg/sq cm
Alloy steel 1,000 to 1,200 kg/sq cm.
928 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XVIII

The thickness of the valve disc at the edges is given as 0.75 to

0.85 times the thickness of the valve disc calculated earlier.
The surface of the valve disc seat is always made tapered with
the cone generatrix inclined at a = 30° to 45°. If we assume that
the mean velocity of gas flow through the valve is equal to that
through the opening of the valve when it is lifted to a maximum,
then according to the law of continuity of flow, the maximum lift
of the valve is given by
d
hmax -= (ii)
4 cos a
The mean velocity of gas flow through the valve at maximum lift
is obtained by the continuity of gas flow
A
Urn ------
- V,m - (iii)
a
where Um = mean velocity of gas flow,
V m = mean velocity of the piston
A = piston area and
a = area through the valve opening when the valve is
lifted to the maximum.
The allowable mean velocities of gas flow in metre/sec are given
as under :

Inlet valves Exhaust valves

Low speed engines 33 — 40 40 — 50
Medium speed engines 35 — 45 50 — 60
High speed engines 80— 90 90 — 100

Design of a spring:
Valve springs must be sufficiently stiff to prevent jumping of the
tappet roller from the cam when the valve moves with a negative
acceleration. Otherwise knocking will develop in the valve operat-
ing gear, causing premature wear of its parts and loud noise. When
the valve does not operate, its spring must have a certain preload to
provide the resilience required for tight seating of the valve which
otherwise tends to open under its cam weight and due to vacuum
during the suction stroke.
The maximum force of the spring can be determined when
the diagram of inertia forces of the valve operating gear is known.
4rt. 18- 1 2 1 DEtION OF MikELLANtoug MAthifrik PARTS-I 020

In order to determine the maximum force of the spring, we assume

that the spring is linear and the spring is given initial compression.
Minimum spring force = (0.5 to 0.8) —4 d2 kg (iv)
where d is the inside diameter of the valve disc in cm.
While determining the maximum inertia force of the valve
operating gear masses referred to the valve, certain mathematical
calculations are to be carried out to consider the effect of mass of
the lever, the push rod, etc.
The allowable torsional shear stress for the spring material
may be taken as 2,500 to 3,500 kg/sq cm.
If the natural frequency of vibration of a spring is equal to or is
in a simple ratio to the frequency of disturbing force, there will be
synchronous vibration and the centre coils will begin to surge back
and forth, changing the force exerted by the spring. For this
reason it is desirable to use two concentric springs having different
natural frequencies, since the tendency of one spring to surge would
be damped out by the other spring. To avoid interlocking one
spring should be wound right hand and the other left hand.
Design of a lever or a rocker arm:
Valve levers are made of steel and more or less they resemble to
beams of constant strength. When the valve opens, it is subjected
on the side of the valve to the following fortes:
(i) Force of gas pressure
(ii) Inertia of the mass of the valve operating gear
(iii) Spring force.
Assuming that the lever is clamped at the fulcrum, the bend-
ing moment can be obtained and when we know the permissible
stress intensity, the cross sectional dimensions of the lever can be
obtained. The permissible values for flexural stress for cast steel
lie between 500 to 600 kg/sq cm and those, for forged steel 700 to
800 kg/sq cm.
-• The force acting on the other end of the lever, which can be
determined by taking moment about the lever fulcrum, is transmitted
to the push rod and further to the cam. The lever fulcrum,
should be designed on bearing considerations and checked for bend-
ing and shear stress considerations.
The other arrangement of a rocker arm is shown in fig. 12-31
on page 523.
930 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XV111

Design of a push rod:

It is introduced between the rocker arm (the lever) and the
cam roller in order to enable the camshdt to be located at a low
level. Bright drawn steel tube of 04% carbon is usually employed
for push rods. They are designed as struts by employing either
Euler's Formula or Rankine-Gordan Formula. The aim is to make
the rod as light as possible so that it would seem reasonable to
choose a ratio of length to diameter which would reduce buckling
to negligible proportions. If this is done, however, the wall thick•
ness may be so low as to make accidental damage probable.
Table 18-12.1 gives the values of working stresses for various
values of length to diameter ratio:
Table 18-12.1

length
Ratio -- — - -- - 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
diameter
-- -- --
Permissible stress 350 280 150 120 90 75
1,000 700 500 200
kg/sq cm

If the push rods are short, they may be safely made of centreless
ground stock. In all cases, great care should be taken in manu-
facture to ensure absolute straightness.
The ends of the push rod will depend on the general design
of the gear. If the push rods are guided then the ends may consist
simply of flat ended plugs pressed in and brazed or welded. If
ball and socket joints are used, then the rods will not as a rule be
guided and sockets must be sufficiently deep to prevent the rod
from jumping out in the event of a valve sticking.
In cases where some of the spring work is provided at the
plunger it may be necessary to attach the rods positively at one or
both ends. This may be done either by providing a forked end
and pivot pin or by using a restrained ball end.
Bearing pressures on ball ends may be 60 to 100 kg/sq cm
depending on lubrication conditions. Pins in forked ends may have
the bearing pressure of the same order. A shear stress of 100 to
140 kg/sq cm may be allowed on solid pins and 140 to 200 kg/sq cm
on hollow pins.
Design of a camshaft:
The camshaft is subjected to bending as well as torsion.
Art. 18-121 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MAC} INE PAIrrS-I 931

Hence it should be designed according to maximum shear stress

theory. The allowable stress for carbon steel is limited to 500
kg/sq cm. The deflection of the camshaft should not exceed
0.05 to 0.1 cm.
Note: (i) Refer articles from 8-2 to 8-5 and illustrative example 9 on page
413 for the design of springs.
(ii) Refer article 12-7 and pages 585 to 588 for the design of rocker
arm for Diesel engine.
(iii) Refer article 10-7 for the design of push rods.

Examples:
I. For operating the exhaust valve of a petrol engine the maximum
load required on the valve is 500 kg. This load is exerted by a rocker arm
which is actuated through a ball and socket joint from a push rod. The
rocker arm oscillates around a pin whose centre line is 30 cm away from the
valve axis. The two arms of the rocker are equal and make an included
angle of 160°. Design:
(a) Push rod if it is 40 cm long and is made of bright steel having
an ultimate strength of 3,150 kg/sq cm assuming a factor of safety 5.
(b) Rocker arm with the fulcrum, if the safe tensile stress is 500
kg/sq cm and its bearing pressure is 170 kg/sq cm.
The push rod is subjected to a maximum compressive load of
500 kg. The length of the push rod is normally such that it is to
be designed as a long hinged ended column. We employ Euler's
formula. Normally standard steel tubes are employed as push rods.
The thicknesses of these tubes are in accordance with standard wire
gauges. In order to simplify the numerical calculations we assume
that the inner diameter of the tubular rod is 0.9 of the outer diameter.
Second moment of area of cross section
n n
I = .8-4 [D4 — (0.9D4)] = -64- x 0.344D4.

As the factor of safety is 5, the design load will be 500 x 5

-.---: 2,500 kg.
Modulus of elasticity will be taken as 2.1 x 106 kg/sq cm.
According to Euler's formula, we get
n2 X 2.1 x 106 x frc x 0.344D4
2500 =
402 x 64
D =___ -11/ 2500 x 402 x64 1.85 cm.
OT
u3 2.1 x 106 x 0.344 '
032 mAtiftift tEsioi1 I Ch. XVIII
We adopt 20 mm outside diameter tube having 20 SWG
thickness.
This push rod can withstand a design load of
71 2 x 2.1 x 106 x n
[24 — 1.8284] = 2,860 kg.
402 x 64
Thus the design is safe. The push rod will be a 40 cm long tube
of 20 mm outside diameter tube of 20 SWG thickness.
Resultant load on the fulcrum pin will be equal to
V5002 + 5002 + 2 x 500 x 500 x cos (180°— 160°) = 950 kg.
Let us assume that the cross section of the rocker arm be rectangular
having thickness equal to three eighth of the depth.
Maximum bending moment = 500 x 30 = 15,000 kg cm.
If d cm be the depth of the section, then
ixidxd2 x 500 = 15000
-1715000 x 6 x 8
or d = 7.8 cm.
=3 x 500
We adopt 8 cm.
8x3
Thickness of the section will be = 3 cm.
8
950
Minimum bearing area required for the pin = ----
70
= 5.6 sq cm.
5.6
Diameter of the fulcrum pin = — = 1.9 cm; we adopt 2 cm
3
diameter pin.
2. Design the tappet, rocker arm and its bearings, the spring and
roller for an engine from the following data:
Diameter of the valve 8 mm; the lift of the valve 25 mm; the weight
of associated parts with the valve 0.4 kg; the angle of action of camshaft
11Q°; r.p.m. of the crankshaft 1,500 r.p.m.
From the probable indicator diagram it has been obseryed that the
greatest back pressure when the exhaust valve opens is 4 kg/sq cm and the
greatest suction pressure is 0.2 kg/sq cm below atmospheric.
Tile rocker arm is to be of I cross section and elective length of each
arm may be taken as 180 mm, the angle between the two arms being 135°.
The motion of the valve may be assumed simple harmonic, without
dwell in the fully opened position.
Choose your own materials and suitable values for the stresses.
Art. 18-12] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 933

Rocker arm:
Refer the article 12-7, fig. 12-20 on page 565 and illustrative
example 1 on page 595.
The load on the rocker arm consists of
(a) the pressure of the gas on the valve when it opens
(b) the force required to accelerate the valve which will be
maximum when the valve just opens as the motion of
the valve is harmonic
(c) the initial pressure of the spring necessary to hold the
valve on its seat against suction on the induction stroke.
Maximum gas load on the valve = 7 x 82 x 4 = 200 kg.

Gravity effect of 0.4 kg can be neglected.

1500
The speed of the camshaft is —- = 750 r.p.m. The half
2
the angle of action of the cam is 1 10 = 55°.
7
During this period the valve moves a distance of 25 mm with
simple harmonic motion.
.. Force required to accelerate the valve at the beginning of the
0.4 2.5 [180 27c x 7512
stroke (lift) = — x -- x -- X = 10.4 kg.
981 2 55 60
The force on the valve tending to draw it intoo-the cylinder on
the suction stroke = --4: x 82 x 0.2 = 10 kg.
The total maximum force on the rocker arm . 200 + 10 +
10.4 = 220.4 kg; say 225 kg.
As the two arms of the rocker arm are equal, the force at the
cam end will also be 225 kg.
We adopt the material of the rocker arm as cast steel with
ultimate strength as 8,000 kg/sq cm. Since the lever is under
a varying stress of the same kinds but with some shock, a factor of
safety of 10 will be chosen. So the permissible stress will be
8000
= 800 kg/sq cm.
10
We assume the proportions of I section as under:
Let / be the thickness of the flange as well as of the web, 61 the
depth of the I section and 2.5t as the width of the flange.
934 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. MU

Modulus of section for bending about principal axis

f2 td [2.5 x 6$ — 1.5 x 49
:,...- =-- 12.33 t3.
3t .
We assume that the arm of the bending moment on the lever
extends from the point of application of load to the centre of the
point of the rocker. The section that we determine will be in the
region of the central boss whose size is fixed by other considerations.
This assumption is commonly made and results in a slightly
stronger section. The section through the boss is usually amply
strong to resist bending.
• • 225 x 18 = 12.33 t3 x 800
V225 18
or t= — x - — - = 0.75 cm.
800 12.33
We adopt thickness of the flange as well as that of the web as
8 mm; the depth of the section as 48 mm and the width of the
section as 20 mm.

Fulcrum for a rocker arm:

The reaction at the fulcrum equals to
V2252 + 2252 + 2 x 225 cos (180° — 135 °) = 418 kg.
We adopt a bearing pressure of 50 kg/sq cm of projected area.
We have determined the width of the I section of the rocker arm
as 2 cm. The bearing length of the pin in the rocker arm should
' be at least this dimension. Let the ratio of bearing length of the
pin to its diameter be 1.2.
•
• • 1.2d2 x 50 = 418
d _ V 418
or 50_ 2.64 cm.
V 1.2 x
We adopt diameter as 2.8 cm and bearing length in the rocker
arm as 1.2 cm which will provide a bearing area of 9 sq cm.
We use a brass bush pressed into the boss as a bearing so that
the renewal will be simple when wear occurs. The thickness of the
boss will be 3 mm. Hence internal diameter of the boss will be
243 + 2 x 0.3 = 34 cm. The external diameter of the boss
will be 5.6 cm (twice the diameter of the pin),. Lubrication
arrangement should be provided at the bearing surfaces to mini-
mise the wear.
Art. 18-12] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 935

Roller end:
. The roller end of the rocker arm should be forked and the
roller is carried by a pin, which should be free to revolve in the
eyes. It is necessary to provide a cut away portion to clear the
nose of the cam. We find the dimensions of the pin by bearing
1
consideration, assuming — ratio as 1.2 and a bearing pressure
d
intensity of 70 kg/sq cm.
.•. 225 = 70 x 1.2 d2
V—
or d= 225 = 1.67 cm; we adopt 16 mm diameter
70 x 1.2
pin with a bearing length of 20 mm.
This value of bearing length is the minimum distance be-
tween the eyes, each eye must be at least 10 mm in each case.
3 mm thick phosphor bronze bush must be provided in the eye to
account for wear. This provision need not be made in the roller
as wear will also have occured in the profile and hence instead of
providing for wear, we replace the roller.
The outer diameter of the roller should be as large as is reason-
ably possible and should be at least 2 x diameter of the pin =
2 x 1.6 = 3.2 cm.
Since clearance is necessary between the roller and the inside
of the fork there will be some bending on the pin so this should be
checked by the method used for the forked pin joint.
*In
Tappet:
It will be adjustable. It will be a threaded rod provided
with a lock nut. Coarse threads are to be used. We adopt
M15 and it will safely carry the load. The end of the rocker
arm to carry this stud will be circular and the diameter of this
circular end will be 2 x 15 = 30 mm. The height of this end
will be also 30 mm.
Spring:
The maximum load on the spring will be when the valve will
be fully lifted. From the observed existing design we adopt a
spring of stiffness 9 kg/cm and the spring index as 8.
Total load on the spring required will be 10 + 9 x 2.5 =
32.5 kg. We design the spring for 35 kg load. We adopt spring
steel for which permissible torsional shear stress value is 4,200
kg/sq cm.
936 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVIII

4 x 8 — 1 0.615
Stress concentration factor = 8 = 1.2.
4x8—4+
If 4 be the diameter of the wire, then
.7c x4200
35 x 4dw = I6- drys
1.2
-1/35 x 4 x 16 X 1.2
or du, = — 0.47 cm.
7r x 4200
We adopt 5 mm wire having mean diameter of coil as 40 mm.
If n be the number of active coils, then
G dw
n = — where G is the modulus of rigidity and C is
8Csk
the spring index.
On substitution of numerical values we get
0.84x 106 x 0.5
n= = 11.5.
8 x 512 x 9
Since the spring is to be used in compression, 1 -i- more turns
must be used to allow for the bearings at the ends. Therefore
13 coils of 5 mm diameter wire having 40 mm as the mean coil
diameter are required for the spring.
Free length of the spring can be obtained as under:
Solid height = 13 x 0.5 = 6.5 cm.
35
Maximum compression = --9— = 4 cm.
.. Free length we take as 12 cm so as to allow for adjustment.
Exercises:
1. The exhaust valve of a four stroke cycle Diesel engine running
at 1,500 r.p.m. has a diameter of 3 cm and a lift of 0.6 cm. The valve
opens when the pressure in the engine cylinder is 6 kgIsq cm by gauge.
The rocker arm has two equal arms of 8 cm length. The push rod is 30
cm long. The angle between the two arms of the rocker arm is 180°.
The valve is to remain open 30° before outer dead centre and 24° after inner
dead centre. Simple harmonic motion without dwell in the Ally lifted
position may be assumed. Taking the weight of the valve, the push rod
and the parts attached to it as 1 kg, design the following:
(1) Rocker arm and the fulcrum pin
(ii) Push rod.
Choose your own materials and suitable values for the stresses.
Art. 18-12 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 937

2. An overhead exhaust valve of an I.C. engine opens at 30° before

bottom dead centre and closes 10° after top dead centre. The maximum
net force exerted by the push rod is 120 kg. The length of the push rod is
450 mm. Suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for the tubular
push rod assuming that the end fixity coefficient is 2.
Take the factor of safety as 3.
(Rajasthan University, 1969)
3. Design a spring force for the exhaust valve of a Diesel engine :
Spring force when valve is fully opened is 50 kg; spring force when valve
is closed 25 kg; maximum valve opening 12 mm; torsional yield strength
8,400 kg/sq cm; spring index 5; factor of safety 1.5 on yield point strength.
Draw a dimensioned sketch of the spring designed by you. Use standard
wire diameter given by R-20 series of preferred numbers.
(Gujarat University, 1970)
4. The following particulars refer to the valve gear of a vertical four
stroke cycle Diesel engine :
Diameter of the exhaust valve 4 cm
Suction pressure 0.9 kg/sq cm
Valve remains open for 240° of crank rotation
Camshaft diameter is 30 cm.
Rocker levers of suction and exhaust valves operate on the same pin
which is carried on a bracket. The rocker lever has both arms of 80 mm
length and the distance between the axis of the fulcrum pin and the cam-
shaft is 1 metre. Equivalent weight of the valve gear referred to the valve
centre line is 1 kg.
The gas pressure at the instant the exhaust valves opens is 4 kg/sq cm.
Choosing a suitable shape of the cam, design and draw sketches of any
TWO of the following:
(i) Cam (ii) Rocker lever (iii) Push rod.
You may assume suitable materials. '
(Sardar Patel University, 1970)
5. Explain how you will determine the maximum force coming on
springs, which are provided to keep the follower in contact with the cam in
case of high speed internal combustion engines. Explain why two springs
are used. (Sardar Patel University, 1973)
6. Explain briefly how you will determine the reaction at the ful-
crum for the rocker arm of a valve gear of an internal combustion engine.
 938 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. .XVIll

How will you determine the size of the fulcrum pin?

(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
7. The exhaust valve of a four stroke Diesel engine running at
' 500 r.p.m. has a diameter of 75 mm and lift of 15 mm. The valve opens
when the pressure in the engine cylinder is 4 kgIsq cm gauge. The rocker
arm has two equal arms of 200 mm length and the distance between the
centre line of the fulcrum pin and crankshaft is 90 cm. The angles
between the two arms of the rocker arm is 135°. The valve is to remain
open 33° before outer dead centre and 10° after the inner dead centre of the
piston. The valve moves with S.H.M., and there is no dwell. The
equivalent weight of the valve gear referred to valve centre line is 1 kg.
Design a suitable rocker arm and a push rod for the valve gear.
(Gujarat University, 1976)

EXAMPLES XVIII

1. Design a steam chest cover with the following particulars:

diameter of cylinder 30 cm stroke of engine 45 cm
stroke of valve 10 cm width of steam port 2.5 cm
width of exhaust port 6.5 cm valve rod diameter 2.5 cm
steam pressure 10 kg/sq cm.
Assuming the cover to be rectangular and made of cast iron, draw a dimen-
sioned drawing of the cover.
Permissible stress in studs, 300 kg/sq cm.
2. A locomotive coupling rod is of I cross section. The maximum thrust
in the rod is 10 tonnes. The rod is 2.5 metre between centres. Neglecting fric-
tion at the pins, if the maximum intensity of stress in the rod equals 10 kg/sq mm,
determine the thickness of the web and flanges, assuming depth as 100 mm.
3. The following data refer to a four stroke cycle, single cylinder horizontal
Diesel engine:
suction pressure 0.95 kgisq cm cylinder diameter 20 cm
ratio of compression 15 stroke 25 cm
engine speed 750 r.p.m.
equivalent weight of reciprocating parts 0.2 kg/sq cm of piston area
, connecting rod length
ratio of -- -- — 4.
crank length
Design and prepare a working sketch of Nickel steel connecting 'rod of I
section, choosing suitable values for the permissible stresses for the materials.
4. Design and prepare fully dimensioned drawings of the connecting rod
of a steam engine to the following data:
Length of the rod 84 cm; diameter of the crank pin 16 cm, diameter of
the crosshead pin 9.5 cm and the maximum load on the rod 16,000 kg. The
Ex. XVII/ i DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 939

rod is to be made hollow by boring a central hole of 28 mm diameter throughout

the length. Calculation should be shown for
(i) the external diameter of the rod at the centre
(ii) length of the crosshead pin
(iii) length of the crank pin
(iv) diameter of the big end bolt
(v) width and thickness of the cap.
5. A twin cylinder V-engine has cylinder centre axes at right angles. The
stroke of each piston is 115 cm and length of connecting rod is 230 mm. Both the
connecting rods drive on to the same crank pin. The span of main bearing is
280 mm. There are two flywheels each requiring an extension of 100 mm. The
maximum torque occurs when the crank has turned through 30° from the inner
dead centre of the left hand cylinder. The net forces (inclusive of inertia forces)
on the pistons at this instant are as follows: Left hand cylinder 6,230 kg (on
expansion stroke), right hand cylinder 266 kg (on exhaust stroke).
Design and draw a working drawing of the crankshaft. Show also the
method of lubrication of crank pin bearings.
Material Ni-steel forging fs .--- 550 kg/sq cm
Bearing pressures — Crank pin 100 to 125 kgisq cm
SP SP -- Main bearings 35 to 55 kg/sq cm.
6. A single cylinder Diesel engine having a cylinder diameter of 15 cm
and a stroke 20 cm develops 20 h.p. at 600 r.p.m. The maximum torque
occurs when the crank shaft has turned through 25° from the inner dead
centre position during the expansion stroke. The net gas force at that instant
is 40 kg/sq cm. The crankshaft is supported in three bearings. The main bearings
are 35 cm apart and the outer bearing is at 65 cm from the nearer main bearing.
A flywheel weighing 300 kg and a driving pulley of 60 cm diameter are placed
between the main bearing and the outer bearing.
Design and prepare a dimensioned drawing of the crankshaft. Calculate
the stresses in the webs. The permissible shear stress in crankshaft is 520 kgisq cm.
7. The cast iron cylinder of a low speed steam engine is 20 cm in diameter
and the steam pressure is 9 atg. The length of the piston rod is 75 cm and the
length of the connecting rod is 120 cm.
Determine
(a) the thickness of the cylinder wall if the allowable stress is 120 kg/sq cm,
(b) the diameter of the piston rod,
(c) 0 the dimensions of the connecting rod which has got a rectangular
cross section, and
(d) the dimensions of the overhung crank pin if the bending stress is to be
700 kg/sq cm and bearing pressure 45 kg/sq cm.
Sketch the ends of the piston rod so that it may be suitably fastened.
Also suggest the suitable number of studs to connect the cylinder cover with
the cylinder flange; also suggest tht suitable thickness for the cylindrical flange,
cylinder cover and size of the studs. Also sketch the cylinder cover for this engine.
940 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVill

8. A spring loaded relief valve, fig. 18-25 is to be designed for the follow-
ing particulars:
Blow off pressure 14 kg/sq cm gauge; lift of the valve when the pressure rises
from 14 to 15 kg/sq cm gauge 8 mm; diameter of the valve 50 mm.
Usc the following materials:
(i) Valve body of C.I.; safe stress 150 kg/sq cm in tension
ii) Valve, valve seat, compression screw and spring cage of gun metal,
safe stresses, fs = fc = 200 kg/sq cm andfi = 350 kg/sq cm
(iii) Spring Xi-Cr steel; safe stress in shear 5,600 kg/sq cm
(iv) Bolts or studs of M.S.; ft = 350 kg/sq cm, fs = 550 kg/sq cm, fs = 300
kg/sq cm.
Also, assume the spring index as 6 and take G = 84 x 105 kg/sq cm.
Sketch dimensioned sectional elevation and the plan of the valve of your
design.

Cylinder relief valve

FIG. 18-25
9. Design the crank shaft for a single throw pump to have a stroke of 40 cm
and connecting rod equals 5 times the crank. The pressure in the cylinder is
uniform through put the stroke and the net plunger effort is 4 tonnes. The ratio
of the length of diameter for the crank pin and the main bearing is one.' Bearing
pressure for the crank pin is 40 kg/sq cm and the diameter of the journal is to be
made same as the crank pin diameter. The web thickness should not exceed
4.5 cm and the flanges at the junction of the shaft and web 15 mm. Also calculate
the principal stress in the crank pin and the maximum shear stress in the web.
' 10. A force analysis of the spring loaded governor suggests that a spring force
of19 kg is required to permit the proper speed when the radius of rotation of the
ball path is 12.7 cm. Assume that in limiting position the radius of rotation of
Ex: 'VIII ) DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 941

the ball path is 17.8 cm. For proper speed regulation the spring force must be 59
kg in limiting position. When the radius of rotation of the ball path changes from
12.7 cm to 17.8 cm, the spring is compressed by the amount 4.5 cm. Assuming
the spring index to be 8, design the spring which is to be used for the spring loaded
governor.
Maximum permissible stress . 4,200 kgisq cm
Modulus of rigidity G = 0.84 x 10° kg/sq cm
The size of the spring wire should be selected from SWG table.
(University of Bombay, 1970)
11. A cam of circular profile has its disc diameter 8 cm. The centre of the
disc is at 2 cm from the axis of rotation of the cam and the line of the stroke of the
follower passes through the axis of the cam shaft. An external compressive force
of 60 kg acts along the axis of the follower when the cam has turned 60° from the
instant when the follower just started its outward stroke. The effective acce-
lerated mass of the followzr may be taken as 0.981 kg. The diameter of the
follower roller is 4 cm. Taking the motion of the follower to be equivalent to
that of a piston of slider crank mechanism with 2 cm long crank and 6 cm
long connecting rod, determine the normal force between the cam and follower
neglecting friction. Find also the necessary torque required on the camshaft.
If the allowable force per cm of cam thickness is 55 kg, determine the thickness.
(University of Poona, 1970)
12. The total maximum force on the spindle of a steam stop valve is 1,570
kg. When the valve is being closed the collar at the end of the spindle rotates in the
valve top, the contact being on an area of 2 cm diameter. The coefficient of
friction for the screw threads and the collar is 0.1. Design the spindle for which
the column action is not applicable. The spindle is to be of phosphor bronze
with allowable compressive stress of 450 kg/sq cm. Design also the nut portion
of the C.I. bridge. The pillars may be taken as 12 cm apaii. The bearing
pressure for the threads may be taken as 175 kg/sq cm. The permissible shear
and bending stresses for the bridge material
. are 200 and 350 kg/sq cm respectively.
(University of Poona, 1972)

13. Design and draw a neat dimensioned sketch of a connecting rod of a

Diesel engine running at 1,800 r.p.m. The engine is rated at 14 h.p. Bore of
the engine cylinder is 130 mm and the maximum pressure in the engine
cylinder may be taken as 46 kg/sq cm. Length of the connecting rod may be
taken as 350 mm.
The connecting rod of I section must be equally strong for both the possible
planes of buckling.
Select suitable materials for the rod and cap bolts. Choose your own values
for permissible stresses.
(Sardar Patel University, 1973)
14. A high speed Diesel engine has the following particulars:
Speed 1,500 r.p.m.
Compression ratio 16
942 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XVII/
Maximum pressure 58 kg/sq cm upto 28° of crank displacement from top
de d centre
Stroke 120 mm
Piston diameter 85 mm
Length of the connecting rod 300 mm •
Weight of reciprocating 'parts 3 kg.
(i) Find a suitable I section for the rod taking into consideration the effect
of the inertia of the reciprocating masses. Take the permissible stress
as 580 kg/sq cm.
(ii) Determine the dimensions of the big and small end bearings adopting
suitable values of llel ratio and permissible value of bearing pressure
intensity.
(iii) Suggest the suitable size of the cap bolts assuming permissible tensile
stress intensity to be 500 kg/sq cm. Explain how we can reduce the
load on cap bolts.
(Sardar Patel University, 1974)
1'5. Explain the importance of inertia forces in the design of machine compo-
nents. Enumerate at least five machine parts (other than mentioned below)
where the inertia forces are to be considered. How will you determine the forces
for designing the following components:
(1) Connecting rod cap bolts
(ii) Eccentric sheave to drive piston valves
(iii) Flywheel arms
(iv) Spring provided in high speed I. C. engines to maintain contact bet-
ween the follower and cam through out?
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
16. How are inertia forces produced in a machine element? Sketch the
diagram of inertia forces produced in the coupling rod of a locomotive (a) when
it is in the highest position, (b) when it is in mid position and (c) when it is in the
lowest position.
Design the cross section for a coupling rod for a locomotive with the following
data:
Number of coupled wheels 3
Diameter of wheels 1,800 mm
Distance between wheels 2,500 mm
Draw bar pull 3,00 kg
Maximum speed 80 km/hour
Crank radius 300 mm
The connecting rod is connected to the crank pin on the middle wheel.
(University of Bombay, 1976)
17. A small reciprocating air compressor has the following specifications:
Free air delivery 16 cu metre/minute
Delivery pressure 5 kg/sq cm
Stroke to bore ratio 1.2:1
Compressor speed 360 r.p.m.
Ex. Al"!!!] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I 943

Assume additional necessary data and design any ONE of the following:
(i) Crank shaft
(ii) Connecting rod
Draw a neat dimensioned sketch.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
18. Design and draw a neat dimensioned sketch of a spring loaded safety
valve of 14 cm diameter and 2 cm lift to blow off at a pressure of 4 atg. The
spring is to be made of spring steel of round section. The initial compression
of the spring may be taken as 7 cm. Choose suitable values for the permissible
stresses.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
19. A spring controlled governor of the Hartnell type with a central com-
pression spring has two cast iron balls weighing 27 kg. Ball and sleeve arms of
the bell crank levers are respectively 12 cm and 9 cm. The minimum radius of
rotation of the balls at 270 r.p.m. is 10 cm and the maximum radius at 290 r.p.m.
i4 20 cm.
Design the spring, bell crank lever and the fulcrum pin. Assume for the
spring C = 0.84 x 10° kg/sq cm, fs = 4,500 kg/sq cm.
Assume for the lever and pins ft = 600 kg/sq cm and bearing pressure 250
kg/sq cm.
Density of cast iron may be taken as 7.2 gm/cu cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
CHAPTER 19

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS — 11

BRAKES AND CLUTCHES
.".........w....."....~4."._,....."......".".w....

(A) HOISTING EQUIPMENTS

19-1. IntroduCtion :
The component parts and units of hoisting equipment include
the following items:
(1) Flexible hoisting appliances such as chains and ropes
(ii) Pulleys, sprockets and drums
(iii) Load handling attachments such as hooks
(iv) Brakes
(v) Drives
(vi) Transmission components, such as axles and shafts,
bearings, clutches, etc
(vii) Rails and travelling wheels
(viii) Machine structures such as frames
(ix) Control devices.
Due to shortage of space it may not be possible for us to
consider all the parts in detail; however in this chapter we shall
consider the design of flexible hoisting appliances, pulleys or
sheaves, drums, crane hooks, brakes and clutches. In earlier
chapters we have considered the design principles of transmission
components such as axles, shafts, bearings and gears.

19-2. Design of hoisting chains and drums:

Two types of chains are found in engineering practice. Coil
chains are used on hoists, cranes and dredges, while stud link
chains are found in marine practice in connection with anchors
and moorings. Both these types of chains are shown in fig. 19-1.
The chains are forged out of round iron bass of best quality.
The experiments carried out by G. A. Goodenough and L. E.
Moore reveal that for the same size of the link, a stud link within
elastic limit will carry 20 per cent greater load than that which is
Art. 19-2] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 945

safe for coil links. However, the addition of a stud results in a

decrease of the ultimate strength of the chain.
With respect to external forces the links of welded chains are
statically determinate and with respect to internal stresses they are
statically indeterminate. It is, therefore, exteremely difficult to
find the actual stresses, which can be determined only approximately.
3.5 to 3.6!.--- —3.75-4.
d

Coil chain Stud link chain

Chains
FIG. 19-1
When tensile load is applied to a chain, each link is subjected
to bending stresses in addition to direct tensile tresses. The
bending is greatest at the extremities of the longer diameter of the
link.
As a rule chains are checked for tension by taking some what
reduced safe stress to account for the statically in-determinate
feature of the links with respect to the stresses and additional bending
stresses when the chain runs over pulleys and drums.
The permissible load P in kg on the chain of the coil type is
given by .
P . 940 d2 (i)
where d is the diameter of the link in cm.
The chains used for a crane are subjected to shock loading
so the working load for the same diameter of the link. is reduced
and is given by the equation
P = 500d2 (ii)
The diameter of the drum on which the chain is being wound
depends on the speed of hoisting, the load to be raised and the life
946 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

of the chain. The drum diameter should be more than twenty

diameters of the link and preferably it should be thirty diameters.
Machined helical grooves are provided on the drum for the chain.
The length of the drum should be such that the required length of
the chain may be wound upon the drum in one layer. It is consi-
dered good design practice to have one or two coils on the chain
remaining on the drum when the load is in its lowest position,
thus reducing the stress coming upon anchor. Fig. 19-2 shows
the various methods of connecting the chain to the drum, while
fig. 19-3 shows the common forms of helical grooves for the drum.
t rl
•1 I
• I
•
• I

(e)
Connections of chains to drum
FIG. 19-2
A good design for the drum has shaft stationary while the
drum rotates with which the driving gear is rigidly connected.
The drum hub is provided with bronze bushes. Manytirnes the
shaft is cast into the drum and the whole combination rotates
as a single unit.
Art. 194] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACH/NE PARTS-II 947

The exact stress analysis for a hoisting drum is very compli-

cated and hence the following approximate method may be used
for arriving at or checking the thickness of the metal below the
groove.
(i) The minimum thickness t of the metal is decided from
casting considerations and considerations for machining the
groove.

Radius

li a 0°

Ad
(al ( b)
Grooves for chains on drum
FIG. 19-3

(ii) The bending stresses are calculated by treating the

drum as a hollow cylindrical beam loaded at the centre and
supported at the ends. The value of permissible stress should not
exceed 210 kg/sq cm for cast iron and 350 kg/sq cm for cast steel.
(iii) The tangential crushing stress, f, due to tension in the
coils of rope about the drum is calculated. The rope tension
varies from coil to coil, and since maximum values'are sought, we
consider the coil supporting the load.

f ---- Fri (iii)

F = maximum rope tension
t = thickness of the metal below the groove
p = pitch, of the groove.
The value off should not exceed 1,050. kg/sq cm for ordinary
cast iron, 1,200 kg/sq cm for the best cast iron or 840 to 1,150 kg/sq
cm for cast steel.
(iv) Shearing stresses due to torsional moment transmitted
should be calculated. As a rule this stress is very small and is
usually not considered. .
(v) The stresses calculated in (ii) and (iii) are combined.
Drums, thus, designed have sufficient strength and in general the
weight is not excessive.
948 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

194. Design of a hoisting rope:

Vegetable fibre ropes made from Manila or cotton fibres are
used for temporary hoists and slings. In hoisting operations,
ropes are wound upon drums and sheaves are used for changing
the direction of the rope.
It is necessary to know the relation existing between the
effort and the resistance applied to the ends of the rope running
over a sheave. The rigidity of the rope and the friction of the
sheave pin increase the resistance that the effort applied to the
running side must overcome.
The relation between the effort P and resistance Q is given by
the equation
P = C(2_ (i)
where C is a constant greater than unity and depends on the size
of the rope, the relative size of the sheave and the pin and the
coefficient of friction. For a manila rope an average value of C
is 1.14 and the value of C for wire rope varies from 1.09 to 1.04
for rope diameters ranging from 9 mm to 25 mm. The larger
values are taken for smaller diameters.
The efficiency of a mechanism is defined as the ratio of the
useful work to the total work put in. So it is evident that the
efficiency of the guide sheave is given as
Q 1
_. _p (ii)

Analysis of a hoisting tackle:

The common hoisting block and tackle consists of two pulley
blocks one above the other. Each block has a series of sheaves
mounted side by side on the same axle pin. The principle
explained earlier can be used to analyse the hoisting tackle. The
arrangement shown in fig. 19-4 is used. Beginning with the end
of the rope fastened to the upper block, let successive tensions in the
parts of the rope supporting the load Qbe denoted by T1, T2, T3, etc.
Let us consider the case when the load is being raised.
From the previous analysis,
= CTi ; T3 = CT2 = C2 ; T4 = CT3 Cs Ti;
T5 = CT4 = C47.1 ; TO CT5 = CiTi ; P = CT, = C67-1.
Art. 19-3 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 949

From equilibrium of forces on the lower block, we have

Q= T1 -I- T2 + T3 + Ta ± T5 + T6
= Ti (1 -I- C -I- C2 + CI + C4 + C6)
C6 — 1 (C6 — 1)
—T' ( C— 1 ) = P Ce(C— 1)
C6 (C— 1)
Or P = Q
(C6 — 1)
Without friction PO = i
f •• (iv)

Upper block /I///////4///////////

40

T
1

Effort P

Lower block Load 0

Developed diagram for a hoisting tackle

Fm. 19-4

Hence efficiency of the hoist is given, by

Po C° — 1
(v)
= 6C67b1=1)
In general, when the block and tackle has n sheaves and n
lines supporting the load Q , we shall have
r (vi)

en — (vii)
ncn (c— 1)
950 MACHINE DES/ON [Ch. XIX

While raising the load the rope P is the maximum loaded one
while lowering the load the rope T1 is the maximum loaded one.
The capacity of a hoist depends on the most heavily loaded rope.
While lowering the load, the general relation between P and Q
is given by
(C— 1)
P = (2, (viii)
C (0, — 1)
T1= pc. = Q Cn (C — 1)
C (cn— 1 )
= Q C"(Cn(C—
— 1)
1)
(ix)
The ultimate strength S of the manila rope is given by
S . 500 d2 kg (x)
where d is the diameter of the rope in cm.
The ultimate strength for the cotton rope is given by
S = 357 d2 kg (xi)
The factor of safety ranges from 30 to 35.
The size of the sheave, over which the rope runs, has a consi-
derable influence on the life of the rope. To ensure a reasonable
rope life, for slow speed haulage upto 15 metre/minute the minimum
sheave diameter may be as low as 8 to 10 times the rope diameter.
For high speeds upto 180 metre/minute, the sheave diameter may
be as high as 40 to 50 times the rope diameter.
The poor mechanical properties of hemp ropes make them
suitable only fot hand operated hoisting machinery.
The sheaves used for hoisting purposes vary considerably in
design. The sheaves are provided with arms of cross shaped
section. The arms are under direct compression. These are
of cast iron so there will be residual stresses in the rim and arms.
For crane work, the sheaves are usually constructed with a central
web in place of arms and openings are provided in the web to
reduce the weight of the sheave.

19-4. Design of wire ropes:

The wire ropes are used for hoisting and haulage and for static
loading such as guys and supporting wires for stacks, masts, etc.
The wire rope consists of cold drawn steel wires wrapped into
strands and twisted around a hemp centre or core saturated with
Art. 19-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 951

lubricant. When the directions of twist of wires and strands

are the, same, the arrangement is known as lang lay. If the two
directions of twist are opposite, the arrangement is known as
regular lay. In a composite or reverse laid ropes, the wires in two
adjacent strands are twisted in opposite directions. The regular
lay will not untwist or spin undder load as much as lang lay, but it
has a shorter life.
Hemp centre

Details of a wire rope

no. 19-5

The ropes have an ordinary one size wire construction in

which the strands are twisted of wires of the same diameter. In
this type of construction the zones of increased unit pressure will
be created which shortens rope life. In Warrington compound rope
wires of various diameters are stranded. This construction, reduces
unit pressure between the wires and increases the flexibility and life
of ropes.
The type and construction of the wire rope is indicated by
two figures, the first giving the number of strands and the second
number of individual wires per strand. Fig. 19-5 shows 6 x 7
wire rope.
A wire rope is subjected to a service load due to the load
lifted and the bending stresses as the wire rope is bent around a
sheave. The sum of the bending load and the service load should
not exceed the allowable load on the rope.
The elementary theory of bending shows that the stress in a
wire of diameter dm, bent to an arc of radius — where D is the
2,
sheave diameter, is given by
952 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

E dw
or E. (1)
dm == D f = .5
where E is Young's modulus.
Since the twisted rope is flexible, the stress will be less than
the value given by equation (i). The modulus of elasticity for
the rope is taken as 0.84 x 10° kg/sq cm.
Table 19-4.1 gives the necessary information for the commonly
adopted wire ropes. In` Table 19-4.1 diameter of the rope may
be taken in cm.

Table 19-4.1

Diameter Area of Diameter of sheave in

Breaking cm
Rope Nature of wire wires in
load in
in rope
kg Minimum Advisable
cm sq cm

6x7 Coarse 4800 d2 0.106 d 0.38 d2 42. d 72 d

6 x 19 Flexible 5100 d' 0.063 46/ 0.38 d 2 30 d 45 d
6 x 37 Extra 4800 d2 0.045 d 0.38 d2 18 d 27 d
flexible
8 x 19 Flexible 4400 d2 0.050 d 0.35 d2 21 d 31 d

The sizes of the wire ropes are based on R20 series of preferred numbers.
Size of 6 x 19 flexible ropes in mm :
8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29, 32, 35, 38, 41, 44, 48, 51, 54.
Sizes of 6 x 37 extra flexible ropes in mm:
10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29, 32, 35, 38, 41, 44, 48, 51, 54, 57, 64, 70.
The factor of safety varies from 8 to 12 for elevator service,
from 3 to 5 for mine hoists, derrick service and hand operated
cranes and from 4 to 6 for power actuated cranes.
Spliced ropes have 75% of the breaking strength of the
unspliced rope and spliced ropes are not used for important
service.
Examples :
1. A block and tackle, having two sheaves at the top block and two
at the hook, with the rope anchored at the top block, is reefed with a manila
rope. Suggest he suitable diameter for the rope if the maximum load to
be raised is 400 kg. Also, calculate the efficiency of the hoist.
For manila rope C = 1.14.
Art. 19-4 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 953

C'= — 1 1.144 --1 0.69

= nC's (C — 1) = 4 x 1.1440 :14- Ij = 4 x 0.14 x 149
= 0.735 i.e. 73.5%.
C — 11 400 x 1444[
P = Q. Cn[c,n — 1.14 — 1] = 136 kg.
lj 1.144 — 1
The effort is 136 kg. Let us adopt a factor of safety to be 30.
500d2
Working load in the rope will be ---3 — = 136.
0
1/136 x 30
••• d = --- - = 2.87 cm; we adopt 3 cm.
500
Note: The wire rope would be more suitable for the service.
2. A hand operated winch has a drum 30 cm in diameter. Suggest
the suitable wire rope for a load of 600 kg. Suggest the suitable thick-
ness for the drum radius of the groove and the pitch of grooves.
Let us adopt 6 x 19 rope having ultimate strength 5100d2 kg.
The maximum rope diameter d based upon the minimum sheave
diameter from the table will be ; = 1 cm. We adopt 1 cm
rope. The diameter of the wire will be 0.063d = 0.063 cm.
Bending load in the rope
0.84 x 106
=— - x 0.063 x 0.38 x 1' = 670 kg.
36
Service load = 600 kg.
Total load in the rope = 600 --1- 670 = 1,270 lg.
Breaking load = 5100d2 . 5100 (1)2 == 5,100 kg.
The factor of safety = 5100 = 4.02.
0
127-
As the value of the factor of safety is satisfactory, we adopt
1 cm dimaeter 6 x 19 rope.
The thickness of the drum below the helical groove is adopted
as 1 cm. The radius of the groove will be 0.5d + 1.5 mm = 6.5 mm.
The pitch of the groove will be d + 1.5 mm. Therefore, the pitch
of the groove will be 12 mm.
3. A hand operated wire rope hoist is to raise a load of 200 kg. The
force on the operating lever is limited to 20 kg and the rope is being wound
on a drum of 25 cm diameter. The effective length of the lever is 35 cm.
Determine the number of ropes leading to the hook block, the efficiency of
the hoist and the factor of safety of the hoist, assuming that it is reefed with
15 mm - 6 x 37 wire rope.
954 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

20 x 35 =
The maximum effort P = 56 kg.
12.5
Let us adopt a hoisting block with 5 sheaves.
The effort required to raise a load of 200 kg is given as
-
— 1)
1)
P = CCC x 200.
1
For wire rope the value of C is 1.076.
200 x 1.0765 (1.076 — 1)
P= = 49.3 kg.
1.0765 — 1
Thus the arrangement will be suitable.
( 5 — 1)
The efficiency of the hoist =
5C5C (C— 1)
1.0765 — 1
(1.076 — 1) = 0.81 i.e. 81%.
5 x 1.0765
Breaking strength of the rope = 4800 x d2 = 4800 x 1.52
= 10,400 kg.
Diameter of the wire=0.045 x d=0.045 x 1.5 =0.0675 cm.
Area of the rope = 0.38 x 1.52 = 0.85 sq cm.
0.84 x 106 x 0.0675
Bending load = x 0.85 = 1,930 kg.
25
Service load = 56 kg.
Total load = 1930 + 56 = 1,986 kg.
-T-986-
Factor of safety = 10400 5.32.

4. Suggest the suitable size of 6 x 19 hoisting steel wire rope for an

inclined mine shaft of 1,000 metre length and inclination of the rails 60°
with the horizontal.' The loaded skip weighs 10,000 kg. The maximum
acceleration is limited to 1.5 metre/sec2. Diameter of the drum on which
the rope is being wound may be taken as 80 times the diameter of the rope.
•The car friction is 20 kg/tonne of weight normal to the incline and friction
of the rope on the guide roller is 50 kg/tonne of weight normal to the incline.
The weight of the rope may be taken as 0.34 d 2 kg where d is the dia-
meter of the rope in cm. Assume a factor of safety to be 6.
The following properties of 6 x 19 flexible hoisting rope
wire are adopted from table 19-4.1
Breaking load in kg = 5100 d2
Diameter of wire in cm = 0.063 d
Area of wire rope in sq cm = 0.38 d2
Art. 19-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 955

Modulus of elasticity of the rope material = 0.84 x 108

kg/sq cm. As the factor of safety to be adopted is 6, the working
5100 d2
load in the wire rope will be = 850 d2 kg.
6
Weight of the rope = 0.34 d2 x 1000 = 340 d2 kg.
Weight of the rope along inclination = 340 d2 x sin60°
= 298 d2 kg.
Tension in the rope due to weight = 10000 x sin60°
= 8,660 kg.
Friction load in the rope due to car weight
-_,.. 20 x 10000 x cos 30° — 100 kg.
1000
Friction load in the rope due to rope friction
50 x 340d2 x cos 30°
= = 8.5 d2 kg.
1000
dw
Flexural stress induced in the wire of the rope = E X
where E = modulus of elasticity for the rope material
dw = diameter of the wire in the rope
D = diameter of the drum.
For 6 x 19 wire rope, the diameter of the wire is 0.063d and
the diameter of the drum is 80 times the diameter of the rope.
P.
0.84 x 108 x 0.063d
.1 = 80d
= 660 kg/sq cm.
Equivalent bending load = 0.38d2 x 660 = 250d2 kg
(10000 + 340d2) 1.5
Inertia load in the rope =
9.81
= (1530 + 52d2) kg.
Total load in the rope = 8660 + 298dt + 100 + 8.5d2 +250d2
-I- 1530 + 52d2
= 10,290 + 508.5d2
... 850d2 = 10290 + 508.5d2

or d=
y 10290
= 5.5 cm.
850 — 508.5
The size of the wire rope should be selected from Standards.
The sizes of the ropes are based on R20 series of preferred
numbers. Diameter of the rope is selected as 57 mm.
956 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

5. Suggest the suitable size of 6 x 19 SWR 'to be used with a

drum hoist to lift a load of 8,000 kg from a depth of 120 metre. There
is a starting slack of 3 metre.
Assume that the weight per metre length of the rope may be taken as
0.36d2 kg where d is the diameter of the rope in cm.
For design of the wire rope the data available in table 19-4.1
will be employed. As the flexural stresses induced in the wire due
to bending depend on the size of the drum, we should take the
larger possible diameter of the drum to reduce the equivalent
bending load in the rope. We adopt the diameter of the drum as
60 times the diameter of the rope. .
Load to be lifted = 8,000 kg.
Weight of the rope will be 0.36 x 120 x d2 = 43.2d2 kg.
The modulus of elasticity for the rope is taken as 0.84 x 10 '
kg/sq cm.
dw
Flexural stress induced in the wire of the rope Ex—
D
where E = modulus of elasticity for the rope
du) diameter of the wire in the rope
D = diameter of the drum.
0.84 x 106 x 0.063d
Flexural stress = 880 kg/sq cm.
60d
Equivalent bending load = 0.38d2 x 880 = 334d2 kg.
Let us consider the effect of slack in the rope.
Note: Refer art. 2.23.
Equivalent load in the rope when the slack becomes zero
2 x 0.38d2 x 0.84 x_106 x 3001
(8000 + 43.2d2)[1 -I- 1/1--I-
(8000 + 43-2d2)12000

(8000 ± 43.2d2) [1 ± yi 16000d2

•8000 + 43.2d2
Breaking load of 6 x 19 rope is 5,100 d2 kg. We adopt a
factor of safety as 5. Hence working load in the rope
5100d2
1,020d2 kg.

Total load in the rope = Bending Load Load due to slack

334d2 + (8000 -I- 43.2d2) El + yi 16000d2 1 L.

8000 + 43.2d2 "g.
Art. 19-4] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 957

377.2d2 + 8000 + V(8000 + 43.2d2 ) (24000 + 43.242) kg.

By equating working load to be total load in the rope, we get
1020d2 = 377.2d2 + 8000 + 1/(8000 + 43.2d2) (24000 + 43.2d2)
(1020d2 — 377.2d2 — 8000)2 = (8000 + 43.2d2) (24000 + 43.20).
By simplifying this equation we get d = 15.6 cm.
Next higher size from manufacturer's catalogue must be taken.
Excessive size of the rope is due to the excessive slack of 3 metre
in the rope. If there where no slack, the size of the rope would
have been obtained by the equation
1020d2 = 377.2d2 + 8000
8000
or d V = 3.52 cm; we would have adopted 38 mm
642.8
wire rope.
Exercises :
1. A block and tackle has six sheaves on each block and is reefed
with 2.5 cm diameter manila rope for which the working load is given as
P = 30d 2 kg. Determine the capacity of block and tackle and its
efficiency. Ans. 1 tonne; 47.2 %.
2. A high speed mine hoist has a hp capacity of 2,000 kg and the
hoist drum speed of 50 r.p.m. The hoist drum is 90 cm in diameter.
The hoist lift is 600 metre and the hoist attains a full speed in 30 seconds.
Select a suitable wire rope for the service.
3. Design a hand operated winch to 4ft a load of 400 kg through
a maximum height of 3 metre. The winch is fixed to the vertical stanchion
and the rope leads vertically upwards from the drum.
Assume suitable materials for the various parts and safe working
stresses in them. Draw an assembly drawing of the winch.
4. The hand operated wire rope hoist shaft has bearings 30 cm
apart. The drum of 20 cm diameter is keyed to the shaft. The tangential
load on the drum at the rated capacity of the hoist is 40 kg. Assuming
100% overload capacity and allowable shear stress of 420 kg/sq cm, calculate
the dimensions for the shaft, key, drum and the, hand lever. The length
of the lever is 25 cm and is made of steel for which the bending stress may
be taken as' 1,050 kg/sq cm.
Ans. Diameter of shaft 25 mm; thickness of drum 1 cm;
6 x 37, 1 cm wire rope; the pitch of groove 11 mm;
the circular part of the lever 15 mm diameter 15 cm long.
5. What are the stresses to which a hoisting rope under load is
subjected? Explain briefly the procedure for evaluating them and deter-
mining thereby the size of the rope. (University of Bombay, 1972)
958 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

. 6. Determine the size of 6 x 19 wrought iron rope used with a

drum hoist to lift 1 tonne from a depth of 150 metre. Assume a rope speed
of 150 metre/minute and an acceleration of 1.5 metre /seta when starting
with a slack of 0.7 metre. Assume fat = 6,600 kg/sq cm, E = 77 X 104
kg/sq cm, dul = 0.063 dr, weight of rope per metre length = 0.37 dra
kg and D = 50 dr. (M. S. University of Baroda, 1976)
7. Design the drum and the shaft of a hoist having multiple pulley
system from the following data ..
Maximum load to be lifted 20 tonnes
Velocity ratio of the pulley system 2
Height through which the load is to be lifted 10 metre
Mean diameter of the drum 750 mm
Draw a neat sketch of the arrangement.
(Gujarat University, 1977)
19-5. Stresses in curved beams:
We come across many applications of curved beam princi-
ples in engineering, the most common being the frames of machines
such as punches, presses, planners, etc. The common example of
curved beam is the crane hook.
In case of straight beams, the neutral axis of the section coin-
cides with the gravity axis, which is not true for the sections of
the curved beam. In case of straight beams, the stress in any fibre
is proportional to the distance of the fibre from the gravity axis.
In case of curved beams, the neutral axis is shifted towards
the centre of curvature of the section and is nearer to the centre
of curvature than the gravity axis.
If the section of a curved beam of area A is subjected to a
bending moment M, the general equation for the stress at any
fibre at a distance y from the neutral axis is given as
M I y \ My
' f = Aek 7.. + y I Aer (i)
where e = the distance from the gravity axis to the netural axis
rn = the radius of curvature of the neutral axis.
The maximum stresses will occur at the extreme fibres.
The general expression for rn is given as
dA
rn = l eTA (ii)
Art. /9-51 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-I/ 959
VALUES OF rn FOR CURVED BEAMS
Shape of section Radius of neutral surface rn
G N

loge ro
ri

(Vio
rn
4

(b
W) t Wh
rn =
(b (ri t_) ro
W) loge W loge
ri ri

ri bi bo )
(ro — ri)
FrarAdT rn =
biro — bori)
2
ro
,4
iXedle ( 1.0 —
loge — — (bi— bo)

GN
i
r bi (ro — ri)

rn = ----- 2
biro loge
, To • ,
, l — — oi
(ro — ri) ri
r n---oi
AA
For convenience the values of rn for various sections are
given above.
If we consider a beam of rectangular cross section, the depth of
which is twice the inner radius and it is subjected to a bending
moment M, the shift of the neutral axis will be 0.0897d where d
960 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

is the depth of the beam. The stress at the concave inner surface
9.14M
will be -- where b is the breadth of the section and the
bd 2
4 -3 M
stress at the convex outer surface will be - 8_ - . If the beam
bd 2
were to be a straight beam, the flexure stress in extreme fibres will
6M
be . Thus we see that because of the curvature the stress
bd 2
at the inner fibre is about 52% greater than the stress in a straight
beam and the stress at the outer fibres is only 73% of the stress in
a straight beam. Thus we see that the ef fect of curvature is to result
in non-linear distribution of stresses. The curvature changes the force flow
lines so that there is stress concentration towards the concave side of a beam.
Curved beams subjected to bending moment alone are of rare
occurence, but examples of curved beams subjected to bending and
direct stress are numerous. Hooks, rings or other links, frames of
machines, C clamps and tools of various sorts are common examples.
The stress at any point on a cross section of such a member is the
algebraic sum of the direct stress and the stress due to bending
moments as in straight beams; however the flexural stress should be
calculated according to curved beam theory.
It is natural that appearance of the large stress concentration
at the inside of the curve has set designers busy making cross sections
of which the centre of gravity is shifted towards the inside so that
by the straight beam theory the stress in outer fibre should be
greater than the inside fibre stress which effect is to be neutralised
by the curved beam stress concentration as a result approximately
equal stresses at the extreme outer and inner fibres are achieved.
Such sections are trapezium, triangle, T section and non sym-
metrical I sections.
We have three symmetrical sections: circular, rectangular and
symmetrical I. The stress concentration is more for circular
sections and less for symmetrical I sections.
If holes must be put in a curved beam, they should be located
on the neutral axis to decrease the effect of stress concentration.
As it is not possible to get the direct solution for the required
dimensions of a curved beam, the best procedure is to assume the
dimensions for the section and then to calculate the stresses.
Art.' 19-5 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 961

(a) Ring:
As an example of a curved beam let us consider a ring which
is under a tension load P. Let R be the mean radius of the ring.
The applied load tends to stretch the vertical dimension of the ring and
reduces the horizontal dimension. The general expression for the
bending moment of such a ring of uniform cross section is as follows:
Bending moment M = PR [IL- - 1- sine] (iii)
n 2
where 0 is the angle made by the section under consideration with
the load line, which may be assumed to be vertical.
The bending moment is maximum at the top and bottom of the
ring when 0 = 180° and its value will be
PR
M =----- (iv)
TC
At the sides
m = pR Li _ ii
(v)
LTC U
and will be obviously negative in relation to the maximum moment
(i.e. the ring is bending inwards).
In addition to bending there is a direct stress of the magnitude
P
•
2 x area of cross section
Flexural stresses induced in the ring due to bending moment
can be calculated according to curved beam theory discussed
in this section.
(b) Chains:
In heavy hoisting equipment metallic chains are used. The
links of the chain are subjected to bending moment. Fig. 19-6
shows a link. The maximum bending moment in the link will be
at the section which is vertical and the negative bending moment
of maximum value will be at the section 'which is horizontal.
PR [2R + /1
Maximum bending moment = (vi)
2 7t•R + /
PR I-2R — nR1
and maximum negative bending moment
L 7rR + / . . (vii)
where P = load, ,
R = mean radius of the semi circular end and
I --,- straight portion of the link.
When maximum values of the bending moment are known the
962 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

flexural stresses are calculated according to the theory of curved

beams. In addition to flexural stresses, direct stresses are also
acting on the critical sections.
(c) Chain Shackle:
A slightly different application of the curved beam theory is
found in the case of a chain shackle of the type shown in fig. 19-7.
If the pin load is uniformly distributed over the surfaces of the pin
eyes, the reactions at R1 and R2, distance 1 apart are equal. If the
lines of action of the reactions intersect the mean ring diameter in
Qi. and Q2; then these points are points of inflection where the bend-
ing moment is zero. The bending moment at the top of the shackle
. PI
is — and the size of the bar can he calculated after making the
4
usual correction for curvature.

RI = P(2 13 !

Chain link Chain shackle

FIG. 19-6 FIG. 19-7
The bending moment at the sides is also known and it is
P
equal to .-. x x and the flexural stress can be calculated. Here
in addition to flexural stress, there will he a direct .stress due to
direct pull of P -—
2
Example:
1. A punch press, used for stamping sheet metal, has a punching
capacity of 7,500 kg. The shape of the dangerous section is as shown
in fig. 194. Calculate the maximum stress in the section of the fraine.
Art. 19-51 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 963

Area of the section = 30 x 10 + 20 x 10 = 500 sq cm.

The centroid of the section is at a distance x from the • top
of the flange, where x is given by
300 x 5 --I- 200' x 20
= 11 cm.
x = .' - - - - - -—560 - ------
The eccentricity of the load = 75 + 20 + 11 = 106 cm.
The bending moment on the section = 106 x 7500 =
795,000 kg cm. The radius of curvature of the neutral surface
500
r. ,-.-.- 28.75 cm.
50
30 loge 20 + 10 loge fi
The radius of curvature of the centroid-surface = 31 cm.

7500 kg 10
7500 kg

14 200 10N
4
f -- — 300 --01
Section XX

no . 19-8
The dangerous section is subjected to direct tensile load of
7,500 kg and the bending moment of 795,000 kg cm. The maxi-
mum stress will be tensile and will be along the inner fibre.
7500
Direct stress = 500 = 15 kg/sq cm.
Myi 795000 x 8.75
Maximum bending stress = =
Aeri 500 (31 — 28.75) x 20
= 308 kg/sq cm.
Combined stress on the inner fibre=308 + 15 = 323 kg/sq cm.
Exercises :
1. In a small C clamp of circular section of 25 mm, a force of 500
kg is exerted between the C clamp and screw. The eccentricity of the load is
8 cm and the inner radius of curvature is 20 mm. If the maximum
allowable shear stress is 500 kg/sq cm and the maximum allowable tensile
and compressive stress is 1,000 kg/sq cm, is the C clamp properly designed
964 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

from the stand point of strength? If the design is not proper, what changes
could be made to improve the design? Assume that the analysis is to be
made after the screw has been tightened.
Ans. The design will not be satisfactory. Suggestions to improve
the design:
(i) Non-symmetrical sections (T or I) should be used.
(ii) Radius of curvature should be increased.
(iii) Diameter (25 mm) of the circular section should be
increased.
2. It is necessary to bend a link as shown in fig. 19-9 in order to
prevent interference with another part of the machine. The link is to support
a load of 1,250 kg with a design factor of 2.5 on the yield strength of 25
kg/sq mm. Determine the thickness of the rectangular cross section of the
link if the depth is to be 5 cm, neglecting stress concentration due to curva-
ture and then find the increase in stress in this section when curvature is
taken into account.

—1-
1 150
200 Rod
1250 kg 1250 kg
4 ...../..7.
-7--- -

FIG. 19-9
19-6. Design of a crane hook:
The hook is a curved bar subjected to direct and bending
stresses. In this article we adopt the principles of design for a
crane hook as laid down in the paper "Design of crane hooks and
other components of lifting gear" by H. J. Gough, H. L. Cox
and D. G. Sopwith, published as proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, in 1934.
In this paper, it is shown that the most suitable section for the
body of the crane hook will be of triangular form with the propor-
tions shown in fig. 19-10. The bed diameter c and the width of
the throat must be sufficient to accommodate the necessary
slings but should not be in excess of requirements. The bed dia-
meter denoted by c is given by
c = 1.i. VP (i)
where Pis the load in tonnes and it a constant varying from 3.8 to 7-6.
For economy of material, it should be kept a's low as possible.
Art. 19-6] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 965

The throat of the hook is taken 0.75 of the bed diameter. The
dimension d for the triangular form is given as
d = 3.2 P 1c6 cm (ii)

This will be the value of d at the horizontal and vertical

centre lines of the hook. At a plane midway between these sec-
tions, the value of d is taken 8 per cent more. With these propor-
tions, the maximum tensile stress at the intrados will be 1,800
kg/sq cm. As the body curves to join the shank, the section may
be reduced, provided the specified stress limit is not exceeded.
Nut Thrust bearing 0.65d
Intrados
Aide Plate

tir -
11..
z -
Shank
Throat

Bed die. Section XX

Crane hook
FIG. 19- 10

In the said paper the working tensile stress for the shank is
450 kg/sq cm. The hook load is carried by a thrust bearing through
the nut screwed on to the end of the shank. The nut is locked to
the shank by suitable arrangement. The suitable ball thrust
bearing must be selected for the hook. The allowable load on
each ball is given as 210 d2 kg, where d is the diameter of ball in cm.
The ball bearing should be self adjusting and should be protected
from dust and grit by means of a cover which is 3 mm thick and
provided with a suitable radial flange to fix the cover to the block.
The provision should be made in design of trunion to properly
lubricate the ball bearing and shank of the hook.
The maximum allowable bearing pressure for the trunion bear-
ing in the housing should not exceed 500 kg/sq cm of projected area.
966 , MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

The block is designed as a beam freely supported at its ends

and loaded at the centre due to the given load. The length of the
beam depends upon the number of sheaves to be carried in a hoist-
ing tackle. We have assumed the severe conditions for the block
in calculating the bending moment. Such conditions are not
likely to be encountered in practice.
The width of the block at the centre will be 3 to 5 mm more
than the flange diameter of the protecting cover for the trunion
bearing. While calculating the modulus of section, the weakening
effect of the hole for the shank of the hook should be considered.
The pins for the block and the sheave spindle are stationary
in the side plates as there is no necessity for the movement of the
hook about the horizontal axis of the block. The pin should be
an inteference fit in the side plates. The diameter of the pin
should be calculated from shear considerations allowing a low
value for the shear stress. The thickness of the side plate is obtained
from bearing considerations. The ends of the pins are reduced and
screwed to take standard nuts. The generous fillets are provided
to minimise stress concentrations. The minimum width of the
side plate is calculated from tensile stress considerations allowing
for the weakening effect of holes for the pin. Each side plate
carries half the load on the hook. Refer fig. 21-8 of pulley block
for the details of components.
When the load on the crane is large, double hooks are pro-
vided. The load will be uniformly distributed between the hooks
as a result the stress distribution will be more favourable than
simple hooks. The approximate value of the maximum stress is
given by the equation
f= Mc P
(iii)
\ Tr + A
Z 1— -1 7-. )
where M = bending moment acting on the section, Z, modulus
of section, cl, the distance of the e.g. of the section from
intrados, r, radius of curvature of the centroidal axis,
A, area of the section and P, load on the hook.
For the section shown in fig. 19-11,

P.— Q. SMOG
• ' M = -..
Q. ' 1r = --7---- = 1.5/; A = 0.78 bh;
2 ' 2 ' sm cc
Z = 0.1bh2 ; el = 0.5/4 (iv)
Art. 19-61 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 967

For extraordinary heavy loads, the open hooks are not

employed but loops are used as shown in fig. 19-12(a) or eyelets
as shown in fig. 19-12(b).
Load-loops Eyelets
Px Px
M M T1

e M
/ = z ._ M

Section XX
b

X Q

Double hook
FIG. 19-11

(a ) (b)

Loop and Eyelet

FIG. 19-12
Example:
1. Design a crane hook for a 3 tonne crane. The hook is to be of
swivelling type and of (a) triangular section (8) circular section. Choose
the suitable values for the stresses.
968 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

We assume that the centre of curvature lies along the load line.
The bed diameter is obtained by the equation
WVP tormet.
We take the value of v. as 5.
C = 5 V3 = 8.68 cm; we adopt 9 cm.
The dimension of the throat = 9 x = 6.75 cm; we adopt
7 cm.
The proportion d for the triangular section will be
d 3.2V P
c = 3.2A4 + U =6.5 cm.
10
The height of the section will be 6.5 cm while the base of the
triangle will be 4.5 cm.
If di cm be the diameter at the bottom of the thread, then
x fi =3000.
4- dig
We assume 500 kg/sq cm as the permissible stress value, then
area at the bottom of the thread will be 6 sq cm. From table of
metric threads we adopt 33 mm diameter. The minimum diameter
of the plain portion of the shank will be 33 mm and increases to
40 mm at the junction with the body of the hook. The height of
the threaded portion will be 33 mm. The diameter of the hole
in the block will be 37 mm.
(a) Let us calculate the stresses in the triangular section.
Area of the section, A = x 4.5 x 6.5 = 14.6 sq cm.
14.6 = 205 kg/sq cm.
Direct tensile stress across the section = 3000
-
Radius of the intrados = = 4.5 cm.
Radius of the extrados = 4.5 + 6.5 = 11 cm.
6.5
Radius of centroidal axis = 4.5 + -s = 6.66 cm.
Eccentricity of the load = 6.66 cm.
Bending moment acting on the section =3000 x 6.66=19,980
kg cm.
Radius of curvature of neutral axis
X 4.5 x 6.5 6. „,
33 cm.
4.5 x 11 11
loge ar
..5 — 4.5
6.5
Art." 19-6] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 969

Maximum bending stress = My:

Aeri
19980 (6.35 — 4.5)
14.6 (6.66 — 6.35) x 4.5
= 1,810 kg/sq cm.
The maximum stress in the hook will be at intrados and is
equal to 205 + 1810 = 2,015 kg/sq cm.
(b) Let us consider the hook of circular section :
Let d cm be the diameter of the section of the hook.
Radius of curvature of the centroidal axis be 2d.
Eccentricity of load will be 2d.
The radius of curvature of the intrados will be 1-5d while
that of extrados will be 2-5d.
it
Area of cross section = — d2.
4
•• • Direct tensile stress =3000 ---- =
3820
kg/sq cm.
7C d2
d2
4
Bending moment across the section =3000 x 2d=6,000d kg cm.
Radius of curvature of the neutral axis

—
( VT-5d + V1.5d)2
= 1.95d. *-
4
e = 2d — 1.95d = 0.05d.
M 34
Maximum bending stress =
A7 ri
.6000d x (1.95d — 1.5d) 45700 kgisq cm.
0.785d2 x 0.05d x 1.5d = --d2 -
3820 45700 49420
Resultant stress = + — d2 kgisq cm.
d2 2
The permissible stress for the body of the hook is adopted as
1,000 kg/sq cm.
5
.. 1000 = 4920
d2
V49520 —
or d= 7 cm.
1000
970 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

Exercises :
1. Fig. 19-13 shows a crane hook and its bearings for a 2.5 tonne
crane. The hook is to be of swivelling type and of trapezoidal section
having a bed diameter of 75 mm. Design and draw a detailed drawing
of the hook and its supports.
Thrust bearing

FIG. 19-13 FIG. 19-14

2. A special hook is shown in fig. 19-14. The wire sling ends

are inclined at 45° as shown. The load handled is 1.5 tonnes with wire
rope size of 15 mm diameter. Design and prepare a dimensioned sketch.
Safe tensile stress in the hook is 1,200 kg/sq cm.
3. Fig. 19-15 shows the crane hook with the
supporting block. Calculate the dimensions of the hook,
the supporting block and the thrust block. The hook is
to be designed for a maximum load of 20 tonnes. All
parts except the thrust block are made of forged steel
and the thrult block of phosphor bronze.
Make neat dimensioned sketches (elevation and end
view) of the hook and the supporting block designed
by you. Use the following data for your design:
, Ultimate stresses for forged steel: FIG. 19-15
ft = 55 kesq mm; fc = 65 kesq mm; fs = 40 kgfsg mm.
Allowable bearing pressure for thrust block 150 to 350 kg/sq cm.
4. Explain why non-symmetrical sections are employed for the design
of crane hooks or frames of machines.
5. Design a snatch block for a crane hook for a maximum load of 5
tonnes. Choose your own materials and values for permissible stresses.
Give three views of the block designed by you.
Art. 19-7 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 971

6. Explain briefly the procedure for determining the stresses on the

critical section of a crane hook or on the frame of a punch press or a C clamp.
Why do you prefer an unsymmetrical cross section in either case?
(University of Bombay, 1972)
7. Name sequence of operation carried out in fastening the end of
wire rope to a hook socket. What do you understand by 6 x 19 wire rope?
(Gujarat University, 1972)
8. Design a hook and its support with a thrust bearing for a 2 tonne
crane. The hook is of swivelling type and of either triangular or trapezoidal
section having a bed diameter of 8 cm. ,The side members and the bridge
are of forged steel. Design the hook for 50% overload.
The permissible values for the stresses may be taken as under :
Hook 1,000 kgIsq cm tensile.
For other parts :
Safe tensile stress 600 kg/sq cm
safe shear stress 500 kg/sq cm
Safe crushing stress 1,000 kg/sq cm
Draw a detailed drawing of the hook.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)
9. Design and draw a Ramshorn hook to lift a load of 40 tonnes.
Sketch the arrangement of bearing and support of hook on cross piece.
Material: Forged steel; tensile strength but = 60 kg/sq mm.
(Gujarat University, 1977)
(B) BRAKES
19-7. Introduction:
The primary function of the brake is to control the motion
of a machine or a machine element. Brakes may be used to slow
down, stop or hold a load or to release a load and control its speed.
In performing its function brake is frequently required to convert
large amount of kinetic energy or potential energy or both into
internal energy of the brake components and dissipation in the
form of heat. This heat may be carried away by circulating
water or it may be transferred to surrounding air.
Brakes are generally mounted on rotary machine elements
such as wheels, drums, gears, sheaves, sprockets, etc. where the
rotary motion of machine elements is to be controlled. However
there are certain machine parts such as work tables, which have
translational motions controlled by means of brakes.
972 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

19-8. Types of brakes:

Brakes may be classified according to the means for trans-
forming energy by braking elements:
Brakes
4,
4:— -
4,
Mechanical - Electric Hydraulic
4. 4,
4, 4, 4:- - - 4,
Generator Eddy current Pump or Agitator
Hydro-
dynamic
4. 4,
Block Bandb
brake
rake Block
Block and band brake External and
4, 4, internal shoe
4, 4, 4,
Single Double Simple Differential Back stop

We shall consider in brief the design procedure for block

brakes and band brakes. The students should refer pages 433 to 454
of the book entitled "Theory of Machines Vol. 1 edition 1" written by the
authors for general mechanics of block and band brakes, before considering
the design procedure.

19-9. Design procedure for block brakes:

The simplest form of brake consists of a block pressed against
the rim of a brake wheel as shown in fig. 19-16.
When the brake is applied by operating single lever, the
operating lever with a friction block can be considered as a free
body in equilibrium under the action of the following forces
(Fig. 19-17) :
(i) Normal reaction N between the brake drum and the block
(ii) Frictional force µN between the brake drum and the block
(iii) Applied force P or the brake actuating force
(iv) Pin reaction R.
Resultant, of normal reaction and the frictional force, which
is known in magnitude and direction is called the braking force.
It is inclined at an angle A = tan -1p. where IL is the coefficient of
friction between the surfaces in contact. The operating force whose
magnitude can be calculated from the braking torque required by
taking moment about the fulcrum of the lever is known as the brake
actuating force, whose direction can be assumed. The braking force,
Art. 19-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-.1 973

the brake actuating force and the brake arm reaction force are coplanar and
keep the brake lever in equilibrium.

(a)

(b)

(e)

Simple block brake Brake lever with a block

as a free body diagram
FIG. 19-16 FIG. 19-17
The following procedure for the design of block brake is
suggested :
(1) The braking torque is fixed from the required duty.
(ii) The value of coefficient of friction for the combination
of materials chosen for the block and the drum is decided
upon.
(iii). The diameter of the brake drum is decided upon.
(iv) The braking force is calculated by the formula
Torque
Fb -- --- x sin
Radius of the brake drum
(v) The direction of the brake operating force P is fixed
from the axis of the link actuating the brake. If this
link is not existing then we assume the direction.
974 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

(vi) From the force triangle for the brake lever we calculate
the magnitude of the brake actuating force and the
magnitude and direction of the brake reaction force R.
When the forces are known, by choosing the suitable
materials for the brake lever arms and the fulcrum pin,
the dimensions can be specified.
(vii) The value of the brake arm reaction force enables the
design of pivot pins and pivot pin bearings.
Table 19-9.1

Coefficient of Allowable Maximum

friction pressure temperature
kg/sq cm °C

Asbestoes in rubber 0.3 to 0.4 5 to 7 90°

compound on metal
Asbestoes in resin binder 0.3 to 0.4 dry 5 to 7 200° to 250°
on metal 0.1 oil 40
Powdered metal on metal 0.2 to 0.4 dry 28 550°
0.05 to 0.08 oil

When the pivot point of the brake arm lever lies on the line
of the tangential braking force as shown in fig. 19-16(a), the same
operating force is necessary for clockwise or anticlockwise rotation
of the brake drum. If the moment of the tangential braking force
at the drum about the pivot point aids in actuating the brake, the
brake is said to be self energising. The percentage of total brake
effort that results from self energising action depends on (a) the
location of the brake arm pivot point, (b) the coefficient of
friction and (c) the direction of rotation of the brake drum. In
order to prevent the brake arm from grabbing, the moment of
friction force about the brake arm pivot point should be less than
the total required braking effort.
When determining the length of the moment arm of the
friction force for a self energising brake, care should be exercised
in evaluating the coefficient of friction. Choosing a value of
coefficient of friction that is too low may result in the inadvertent
design of a brake that will grab.
The performance of a brake depends 'on the effects of the
interaction of the brake lining and brake drum materials during
Art. 19-9 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 975

brake actuation. The torque produced by the brake lining and

the drum and the resistance to wear of the brake lining depends
upon the contact pressure between the shoe and drum and upon
the temperature of the line-drum interface reached during brake
actuation.
The value of contact pressure is frequently calculated on the
basis of the projected area of the block or shoe.
Single block brake is not used much because the normal reac-
tion N exerts a heavy pressure on the shaft bearings and produces
bending on the shaft, which is very objectionable in large brakes.
In order to reduce the bending loads on the shaft, double block
brakes are employed. Two blocks placed on opposite sides of a
wheel, as shown in fig. 19-18 and fig. 19-19, maybe controlled by
levers and rods so that they are pulled together against the wheel
to form a brake.
In the above analysis we have assumed that the normal pressure
is uniform between the block and the drum and this is true when
the angle of contact between the drum and block 0, is less than 60°.
When the arc of contact is large, the unit pressure normal to the
surface of contact is less at the ends than at the centre and we
assume that the wear in the direction of applied force is uniform.
In such cases we employ the equivalent coefficient of friction, which
is given by
4 p. sin 0/2
Ile ------. 0 + sin°
where 0 = angle of contact in radians
II = actual coefficient of friction.
We give below some of the points concerning the design of
block brakes or shoe brakes.

Brake wheels:
They are made of cast iron and should be dynamically
balanced. The width of the wheel should exceed that of the
shoe by 5 mm to 10 mm. Brake wheels should always be finned
for better heat dissipation and provided with holes between the
fins for more rapid air circulation and to dissipate the heat more
effectively inte the atmosphere. If the brake is mounted on a
flexible coupling it is installed in the half which faces the driving
mechanism.
976 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

Brake shoe:
Generally for a mechanical drive the shoes are made of cast
iron, provided with special brake linings, which may be secured
with rivets or with counter sunk screws.

Brake linings:
It should satisfy the following requirements:
(i) It should have a high coefficient of friction.
(ii) It should retain braking capacity at temperature upto
300°C.
(iii) It should have effective resistance to wear at the highest
speeds, unit pressure and temperature.
(iv) Easily yield to treatment
(v) Low cost.
To-day every where use is made of rolled band which is
manufactured on rolling machines and it is manufactured from
cheap non-textile asbestoes and rubber with an addition of sulphur
for subsequent vulcanisation. These bands are manufactured
upto 8 mm thickness and upto 100 mm wide. It possesses a high
and stable coefficient of friction which ranges between 0.42 and
0.53 and can withstand temperatures upto 220°C.
Experiments recommend the following average coefficients of
friction for various unlubricated materials:
Cast iron on cast iron 0.15
Steel on cast iron 0.15
Asbestoes band on CI or steel 0.35 to 0.37
Rolled band on CI or steel 0.42
Wood on CI 0.30
Wood on steel 0.25
Leather on CI 0.20
Leather on steel 0.20
Bronze on CI 0.17
Bronze on steel 0.16
Bronze on bronze 0.18
Steel on laminated fabric 0.15
Steel on fibre 0.17
A new development is sintered metal linings which do not
contain organic matter and, therefore, their coefficients of friction
are only slightly altered in heating. They possess a relatively
Art. 19-9 j DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 977

high resistance to wear. The coefficient of friction may range

from 0.6 to 0.76 and the bearing pressure intensity may be upto
8 kg/sq cm.

Brake levers:
Brake levers are manufactured from die forged or cast steel.
The safe bending stress of levers is taken from 400 to 800 kg/sq cm,
depending on the brake size. The permissible values take into
account the braking shocks. Steel cast levers are more expensive
but they possess greater rigidity and have less lost motions in pivots.

Pull rods:
They are made adjustable and is of round bar steel having
permissible tensile stress of 300 to 500 kg/sq cm.

Energy considerations in brakes:

Heat generated during the application of a brake must be
dissipated by heat transfer or the brake will overheat and perhaps
burn out the lining. When we design the brake it is necessary to
determine the amount of energy to be transformed and also the
time of the braking cycle in order to estimate the rise of temperature
of brake. The temperature rise of the brake depends upon (i) the
mass of the parts (ii) the ratio of the braking time of the rest time and
(iii) on the heat dissipation capacity of the brake. 'the maximum
temperature of the brake is limited to prevent deterioration of
the materials forming the friction surfaces. The temperatures are
limited by the properties of the material. The maximum tem-
perature should not exceed the following values:
Leather, fibre and wood facing 70°C
Asbestoes 100°C
Automotive asbestoes block lining ' 250°C
Since the temperature rise of the brake is very difficult to
predict we make use of the design coefficients as kg metre of energy
absorbed per sq cm of surface per minute. This design coefficient is
expressed as the product pV where p is the bearing pressure in
kg/sq cm and V equals the rubbing velocity in metre/minute.

H.P. absorbed per sq cm of projected area = 500

V
978 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX
Examples
I. The arrangement of a transmission brake is shown in fig. 19-18.
The arms are pivoted as shown and when force is applied at the end of
the hand lever, the screw will rotate. The left and right hand threads
working in nuts on the ends of the arm will move the arms together and thus
apply the brake.
The force on the hand lever is applied
40 cm from the axis of the . screw. The
brake drum is 18 cm in diameter and the angle
subtended by each block is 90°. The screw
has six square threads with a mean diameter
of 2 cm and a lead of 6 cm. Assuming a
coefficient of friction for the braking surface
equal to 0.30 and for the threads equal to
0.15, determine the force on the hand lever required
to set the brake when the torque on drum is 2,000 14-130-01
kg cm. Fm. 19-18
The equivalent coefficient of friction between the block and
the brake drum is given by
4 sin0
11" =---- li 20 + sin20
where 1.1. = coefficient of friction between the block and the
brake and 0 = semi-block angle measured in radians.
On substitution of values, we get
4 x sin 45°
1,4 = 0.30 X = 0.33.
IC 7t
2- + sin .2.

If P be the normal reaction between the block and the brake

drum, the tangential braking force F is given by
F
— — ti. =0.33.
P — r-e
F
P=-• =--- 3F.
0.33
Let us consider the forces acting on the left hand yoke, whose
pivot is at the left. Let S kg be the axial force along the screw.
If we take moment about the pivot, we get
34 S + 2.5 FL — 12 PL = 0
Art. 19-91 DESION OP MISCILLA1410t16 MACHINE PARTS-ft 970

We have PL = 3FL.
24S+ 2.5FL — 36FL = O.
24S
FL = = 0.715 S.
36 — 2.5
If we consider the forces acting on the right hand yoke and
if we take moment about the right hand pivot, we get
24S — 2.5FR — 12PR = 0
or
24S — 2.5FR — 36FR = 0.
24S
.• • FR = = 0.625 S.
38.5
Braking torque = (FR -I- FL)9 kg cm
= (0.715 + 0.625) S x 9 = 12.06 S kg cm.
••• 12.06 x S = 2000
c 2000
or 12.06 = 166 kg.
Torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces
(two friction surfaces)
„ dm
T 2xax .--T tan (at
, + 1))
where S = force along the axis of the screw = 166 kg
dm = mean diameter of the screw = 2 cm
a = thread angle = tan-1 6 = 43°- 42'
nx2
= friction angle = tan-1 0.15 = 8°- 32'.
On substitution of values, we get
torque = 2 x 166 x I tan (43°- 42' + 8°- 32')
= 430 kg cm.
If Q,kg be the force applied at the end of a hand lever 40 cm
long, then Q x 40 = 430
430
Or = 10.75 kg.
Q = 40
The size of the hand lever can be fixed from bending consi-
derations and the length of the nut can be obtained from bearing
pressure considerations for the thread. The pivot pin is designed
from shear consideration. The load on each pivot pin is obtained
by considering the equilibrium of each yoke. The forces on two
pivot pins will be different.
980 MACHINE DESION C Ch. XIX
2. The double block brake shown in fig. 19-19 must provide a braking
torque* of 2,000 kg cm. The drum diameter is 18 cm and each block subtends
an angle of 90°. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.3 for the brake
lining. Brake shoes should clear the drum by about 3 mm when brakes
are released and 3 mm lining wear should be allowed. Design the coil
compression spring used to actuate this brake. Use ordinary spring
wire. The spring force variation should not exceed about 10% between
replacements of the brake lining.
Specifications of the brake for this pro-
blem are the same as those of problem solved
earlier. The main difference between the 1111
two examples is in the method of setting 120
the brake. Here the brake is spring set.
From the analysis of problem (1) we see
that the minimum spring force required to
set the brake is 166 kg. This force will be
exerted by the spring when the lining is ---01 1 30 r-

worn out. If k be the stiffness of the spring Fio. 19-19

in kg/cm unit, the force in the spring will be
2x3 2
166 +
10
x X k = (166 + 1.2k) kg. The spring force
variation should not exceed about 10% between replacement of
the brake lining.
1
•• 166 + 1.2k — 166 = To (166 + 1.2k).
•

• •
• 12k = 166 + 1.2k
166
or k= = 154 kg/cm.
10.8
Maximum spring force will occur when the brake lining is new
and the brake is released.
Maximum force in the spring when the brake is released
2x 3x 2
= 166 + 1.2k + x k
10
166 + 24k = 166 + 24 x 154 = 203 kg.
Let us assume the spring index to be 8, and the permissible
stress to be 6,000 kg/sq cm.
4, 0.615
Wahl correction factor = 4C — 1
4C — 4 C
= 44 xx88--4
— 1 0.615
+
8
!1176.
Art. 19-9 ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 981

If du, cm be the diameter of the spring wire, we have

6000
203 x 4dw --=
16
x 48 x 1.176 •
V203 x 4 x 16 x 1•176
or 4 =-- = 0.8863 cm.
6000 x Tc
From SWG table we adopt 3/0 having 0.9449 cm as the dia-
meter.
Mean diameter of the coil = 7.5 cm.
Actual spring index C = 7.5 = 7-95.
0 .9449
Gd
Stiffness k = w
8Can
where G is the modulus of rigidity and n is the number of active
turns of the coil. Assuming G = 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm, we get
0.84 x 106 x 0.9449
12.6 —
8 x 7.953 x n
or
0.84 x 106 x 0.9449
n= = 13 turns.
8 x 7.953 x 12.6
3. A double block brake with wooden shoes on a cast iron drum
(v. = 0.3) is arranged as shown in fig. 19-20. Determine the operating
force required to absorb 35 horse power with a drum speed of 300 r.p.m.
clockwise.

0
3 00-41
60 f
40 0
50
3.205 F
300

65
FIG. 19-20 FIG. 19-21
20 x
Braking torque = 716 speedh.p. kg cm
71620 X 25
8,100 kg cm.
300
982 k MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XIX
The equivalent coefficient of friction between the block and
brake drum is given by
4 sin0
1'4 = li 20 + sin20.
IA = 0.3 and 0 = 25°.
0.3 x 4 sin 25°
• .•• = 0.312.
118 — 50
x .rt ± sin 50°
180
Let Q kg be the operating force required to set the brake. From
principles of statics it can be shown that the force at the other
Qx60
end will be horizontal force of magnitude = 6 Q kg.
10
Free body diagram for the left hand yoke is shown in fig.
19-21.
Let F be the tangential btaking force and P be the radial
force on the drum. We have F = iLeP.
••• P=F
—= — 3.205F.
IJ.e 0.312
Let us consider the equilibrium of forces acting on the left
hand yoke. When we take moment about the fulcrum of the left
hand yoke, we get (Refer fig. 19-21.)
3.205FL x 300 + Q (300 — 65) = 6Q x 600 + FL (250 — 65).
3235
•• • FL = Q = 4.17 Q kg.
776.3
Similarly considering the equilibrium of forces acting on
the right hand yoke, we get
3.205 FR x 300 .----- 6Q x 600 — FR (250 — 65) .
3600 Q
• • FR — = 3.14 Q kg.
1146.5
Braking torque = 25 (3.14 Q + 4.17 Q).
••• 8100 = 25 x 7.32 Q
8100
or C1-= 25 x 7.31 = 43.2 kg.
4. A 1,500 kg automobile moving on a level ground at 108 kmlhour
is to be stopped in a distance of 100 metre, the tyre diameter being 80 cm.
All frictional energy except for the brake is to be neglected.
(a) What total average braking torque must be applied?
Art. 19-9] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 983

(b) What must be the minimum coefficient of friction between the

tyres and tile road in order for the wheeLs not to skid if it is
assumed that weight is equally distributed among the four wheels?
(c) If the friction energy is momentarily, stored in 22 kg cast iron
brake drum, what is the average temperature rise of the drum?
108 x 1000
Velocity of the vehicle = 60 X 60 = 30 misec.
1 500 1
K.E. of the vehicle = — — x 302=68,600 kg metre.
2 x 9 .8 1
If we assume the uniform frictional resistance to motion, the tan-
68600
gential braking force . 686 kg.
1 00 =
Braking torque = 686 x 40 =27,440 kg cm.
686
Coefficient of friction = I-50-0 = 0.454.
Heat to be absorbed for the cast iron brake wheel will be
68600
equal to 426.7 = 161 kcal.
If 0.12 be the specific heat of cast iron, then the temperature rise
161
will be — 61°C.
22 x 0.12
Design notes:
1. Specific heat of steel may be taken as 0.11 and that for aluminium 0.22.
k metre
For brake calculations specific heat of metals is expressed in k
g °C , which
can be obtained by multiplying specific heat of metal by 426.7, mechanical
equivalent of heat.
2. If the automobile were going down the hill, the loss of potential energy
would be added to loss of kinetic energy; if up hill, gravity would help slowing
down the car.
3. In automobile brakes a desirable maxiinum instantaneous loading is
0.35 h.p. per sq cm of brake rubbing surface on the drum.
4. The reasonable value of retardation for automobiles is 5 metrefsecs.
5. The effectiveness of the brake may greatly decrease shortly after it
begins to act continuously. This phenomenon is called fade, which is due to
decrease in coefficient of friction at elevated temperatures which are induced
during braking. This can be remedied either by more effective dissipation of
beat or by design of the braking system, which requires that the ratio of frictional
moment to applied moment shows a minimum variation when plotted against
the coefficient of friction. This ratio is known as the mechanical advantage.
984 MACHINE DESIGN t Ch. XIX

Exercises:
1. The block brake similar to one shown in fig. 19-16(c)
balances a torque of 4,000 kg cm. On the drum shaft, the diameter of the
drum is 60 cm. The pivot is 5 cm below the horizontal at the point of
contact of the block to the highest point of the drum. Assuming a coefficinet
of friction of 0.35 and safe allowable stresses for the material of the brake
lever and the pin in bending, shear and bearing as 600 kg/sq cm, 450 kg/sq
cm and 90 kg/sq cm, design the brake lever and pin and show the dimen-
sions on a neat drawing of the brake. Also design the pivot pin. a = 55 cm
and b = 25 cm.
2. The double block brake similar to one shown in fig. 19-19 must
provide 120 kg metre braking torque. The drum diameter is 35 cm and
each block subtends an angle of 120°. The coefficient of friction may be
assumed to be 0.3 for the brake lining. Brake shoes should clear the drum by
3 mm when brakes are released and 3 mm lining wear should be allowed.
Design the suitable compression spring required to actuate this brake.
Assume that 13 cm diametral space for the spring will be reasonable. Use
ordinary spring wire. The spring force variation should not exceed 10%
between replacements of brake lining. Calculate the width of the shoe.
The distance between the fulcrums may be taken as 8 cm. The length
of each lever is 45 cm and the distance of the axis of the drum from the line
joining two fulcrums is 21 cm.
3. The double block brake is required to bring a brake drum to rest
within 5 seconds. The diameter of the brake drum is 60 cm and it is
rotating at 300 r.p.m. The brake has to absorb 1,000 kg metre of energy
each time when it is applied. The bearing pressure between the block and
the drum is limited to 5 kg/sq cm. Determine the brake actuating force
required at the end of the brake lever 100 cm long. The distance between
two fulcrums is 46 cm and the axis of the drum shaft is 35 cm from the line
joining two fulcrums.
Design the size of the shoe, the size of the pivot pin for the shoe and
the cross sectional dimensions for the critical section of the lever. Take
µ = 0.3.
4. Assume that the operation is intermittent; that cast iron shoes
run dry on a steel brake sheave which has a diameter of 50 cm and runs at
90 r.p.m., and that the area of the heat dissipating surface is 50% larger
than the braking surface. Determine the braking area for absorbing 7,000
kg metre in 40 seconds.
Art. 19-10] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 985

5. Determine the total energy which must be absorbed to slow down

to 120 metre per minute a mine hoist cage descending at the rate of 450
metre per minute in 15 sec. The weight of the cage with the load is 2,000
kg and the hoist drum diameter is 180 cm and the brake sheave diameter is
140 cm. The rotative speed of the brake sheave is one third that of the
driving engine, and the speed of the hoist drum is one tenth that of the
engine. The weight of the hoist drum is 7,500 kg.
Determine the normal and tangential forces which must be applied to
the brake sheave.
Assuming that the brake has wooden blocks on cast iron drum and that
the area of the radiating surface consists of the inner surface of the brake
drum rim, find the minimum brake drum width required.
6. Determine the capacity and the main dimensions of a double
block brake for the following conditions :
The brake sheave is mounted on the drum shaft, the hoist with its
load weighs 3,000 kg and moves downward with a velocity of 60 metre
per minute; the hoist must be stopped in a distance of 3 metre; the kinetic
energy of the drum may be neglected.
7. Explain briefly the procedure for determining the required operating
force for a double block brake, knowing the required braking torque and the
diameter of the brake drum.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
19-10. Band brakes: Introduction:
Band brakes are not as commonly used as shoe or block brakes,
but in some installations they have advantages over shoe brakes.
Band brakes are well adopted for manual operation, and at the
same time requires very little space beyond the outer diameter of
the drum. As with shoe brake ample size hardened pins, equipped
with lubrication fittings should be used in the linkage.
The band brake consists of a flexible steel band lined with
friction material, the latter usually having an arc of embrace of
the order of 270°. Tightening or slackening of the band onto or
away from the rotating member may be carried out by many
different mechanical arrangement of which space does not permit
detailed descriptions or appraisals.
Band brakes are, in general, positive in action and can be
prone to such troubles as grabbing. These conditions arise from
mechanical causes which can be avoided at the design stage.
986 1 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

Heavy loads can be applied to the band brake anchorages and

any weakness at these points may lead to flexing and distortion.
Band brakes are more effective with one direction of rotation than
with the other direction of rotation. In some cases advantage
can be taken of this feature by designing the linkage in such a way
that the brake will release itself when the drum turns in one direc-
tion and apply itself when the drum rotation reverses. Such an
arrangement is called back stop. Such types of brakes are desirable
in hoisting machineries to automatically prevent the load from
lowering when the power is cut-off.
Bank brakes, which are effective for one direction of rotation
may be either of simple type or differential type. In simple band
brake, one end of the band is attached to the fulcrum of the lever,
while the differential band brake has two ends of the band
attached to two points on opposite sides of the fulcrum, such that
the band pulls give differential moment about the fulcrum of the
lever.
When the band is tightened on to the rotating member the
friction between them provides the tangential braking force F.
Owing to the direction of rotation of the rotation member the
tension in the band varies between the ends and these tight and
slack tensions are denoted by T1 and T2 respectively.
The following relations can be derived:
rr —
Ti elLe (i)
12
T1 — T2 1= F (ii)
Fell.° F
T1 = and T3 = ----
e— 1 (iii)
et4e — 1 el
-

wherever possible, it is advantageous to make the tight side the

fixed end and the slack side the operating end, where the force
required to actuate the brake is at a minimum.
19-11. Design procedure for Band Brakes:
We suggest the following brief procedure for design:
The tight end of the band is fixed rigidly and the slack
end is made adjustable.
To ensure a tight contact with the drum, the width
of the band should not exceed 150 mm for drum dia-
Art. 19-11] DESIGN OP MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 987

meter greater than 1,000 mm and 100 mm for diameter

of drum less than 1,000 mm.
(iii) Thickness of bands are normally in the range of 3 to
10 mm. The band thickness may be taken as 0.005D
where D is the diameter of the brake drum.
(iv) The band is commonly made of steel to which the lining
is riveted. The bands are checked for tensile failure
from the maximum tension Ti. with due regard for the
two rivet holes for weakening the cross section. The
permissible value of safe tensile stress ranges from 500
to 800 kg/sq cm.
(v) The diameter of the rivets may be taken from 8 to 13
mm, the number of rivets is not below 4. The rivets
should be checked for shear and crushing. For possible
jerks during brake operation the value of permissible
shear stress is limited to 300 to 400 kg/sq cm and the
safe crushing stress is double the permissible shear stress
intensity.
(vi) The transmission ratio of the lever is usually assumed
within 3 to 6 and sometimes the lower limit reaches 10.
(vii) The band tension should be applied as far as possible
at an angle of 90° to the pivot of the brake lever.
If this can not be achieved the end of the straight lever should
be bent as shown in fig. 19-22. The design of levers have been
considered in more detail in chapter XII.
(viii) The value of permissible bearing pressure intensity
between the brake and the band varies from 4 to 15 kg/sq
cm depending upon the material combination and the
nature of application of the brake.
(ix) In order that the band may withdraw uniformly from
the drum, band brakes should have a bent bar made of
flat steel and fitted round the outside of the band with
adjusting screws spaced at definite intervals to adjust
the band departure.
(x) A modification of the band brake is a block and band
brake in which the flexible steel band has a number of
wooden blocks fixed to the inside surface and the
friction of the blocks on the drum provides the braking
action. Each block embraces a short arc on the drum.
988 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

Examples:
1. An air operated block and band brake is shown in fig. 19-22
and is to have a torque capacity of 1,200 kg metre. The brake band
consists of a number of asbestoes blocks riveted to a steel band. The
coefficient of friction is 0.35 and the pressure of air inside the cylinder is
10 kg/sq cm. Design:

Air operated block and band brake

FIG. 19-22
(I) the diameter of the cylinder and its thickness
(ii) the pivot pin diameter and
(iii) the brake lever.
Assume suitable stresses and materials.
The angle of lap is 240°. We assume that there are 14
blocks, each of which subtends an angle of 15° at the drum
centre. This leaves us with a clearance of 30° between 14 blocks.
The tension ratio is given by
r 1 + tallOin
T2 -' Li — v. tan0
where 12, is the coefficient of friction, 0 is half the angle subtended
by each block at the centre and n is the number of blocks.
On substitution of values we get
T1 r i + 0.35 tan 7° - 30, 14
=3.61.
LI - 0.35 tan 76 : 30'
The arrangement is the differential one. The brake actuating
force is determined by the difference in the moments caused by the
Art. 19-1i 3 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 989

tension of the band ends relative to the pivot axis of the braking
lever.
We assume the direction of rotation of the brake. In order
to have the maximum braking torque for the given operating
force, the tight end of the band should be connected to a point
nearer to the fulcrum. This arrangement will result in lighter and
cheaper construction. Therefore the direction of rotation must
be anticlockwise.
( T1 — T2) x 0.45 = 1200
Thus we get T1 = 3,690 kg and T2 = 1,020 kg.
The differential moment about the fulcrum
= 1020 x 30 — 3690 x 5 = 12,150 kg cm.
12150
Operating force -,- - 76- = 173 kg. •

If D cm be the inner diameter of the air cylinder, then

n
4
- D2 x 10 = 173

1 /173 4
or D= To- x — 4.7 cm; we adopt 6 cm diameter.
n
We adopt 4 mm thick wall for the air cylinder. It should be
noted that the stresses in the wall of the cylinder vary from zero to
maximum and back to zero each time the brake is applied and
released.
The reaction at the pivot can be determines either graphi-
cally by means of a force polygon or analytically. The reaction
at the pivot is the resultant of the brake actuating force of 173 kg,
the tight side tension 3,690 kg and slack side tension 1,020 kg.
It can be seen that the reaction at the pivot will be 4,200 kg.
it
Assuming a bearing pressure of 200 kg/sq cm and - ratio as
d
1.25, we can see that 4.5 cm diameter pin will be suitable. The
bearing length of the pin will be adopted as 5 cm. The shear
stress in the pin will be 4200= 133 kg/sq cm, which is
ic
2 x T. x 4.52
the safe value. The diameter of the boss will be 9 cm and 3 mm
thick phosphor bronze bush will be inserted. The length of pin
in each fork will be 3 cm. Generally the pin is case hardened to
give a tough interior core. The pin should be checked in bending
990 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. Af.t.X

as a knuckle pin. Refer page 301. Bending stress will be 525

kg/sq cm, which is within limits.
Maximum bending moment on the lever will be at the pivot
its value bing 3690 x 5 = 184,450 kg cm. We adopt a rectangular
section having thickness as Ith of the depth. Assuming permis-
sible flexural stress as 700 kg/sq cm, we get
ixIdxd2 x 700 ,--- 18450
-1718450 x 16
or d ,= = 7.5 cm•; we increase to 8 cm and
700
thickness will be 3 cm.
As the minimum length of the pin in the bearing is 5 cm,
the thickness of the lever at the boss must be increased to 5 cm.
The depth of the lever may be increased to 9 cm to allow for the
presence of the hole in the lever.
It should be noted that the lever is subjected to combination
of complex stresses.
2. The torque absorbed in the hand brake shown in fig. 19-23 is
6,000 kg cm. Design the brake. The coef ficient of friction may be
taken as 0.27. .

Band brake equally effective for both the direction of rotation

FIG. 19-23
The brake shown in fig. 19-23 may be used for rotation in both
directions and hence the value of the brake actuating force will
remain the same irrespective of the direction of rotation. This is
possible since both the moment of the tension T1 and T2 act in
the same direction and in the opposite direction to the moment of the
operating force. The moment arms of both the tensions are equal.
Therefore, it is possible that Tt and T2 may interchange poiitions.
The rivet connections on the two sides must be kept the same.
Art. 19-11] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 991

T 0.27 x 2 70x 7'

We have --1. = e 180 = 3.56 and (T1 — T2) 30
T2 = 6000.
From these two equations we get T1 = 278 kg and Ts = 78 kg.
We adopt four rivets of 8 mm size. There will be two rows
of rivets and band will not be weakened by more than two rivet
holes. Generally the band thickness may be taken as 0.005D
where D is the diameter of the brake drum. We adopt band
thickness of 3 mm. For a permissible tensile stress of 700 kg/sq
cm, 40 mm wide steel band will suffice. Shear stress intensity in
1
the rivet will be 278 x -4 = 139 kg/sq cm and crushing stress
It
4 x 0.82
278
intensity on the rivet will be 4 x 0 8x 0.3 = 290 kg/sq cm.
.
These stress values are within limits.
The maximum bearing pressure between the band and the
2 x Ti _.278 x 2
drum = = 2.31 kg/sq cm. It decreases gradu-
Dxb 60 x 4
ally towards the slack end of the band to the minimum value of
2.31
= 0.65 kg/sq cm.
3.56
+ 78) 5
The operating force will be (2- 78- -- = 18 kg.
90
It should be noted that as the brake is to operate for both the
direction of rotation, the shorter arm is to be designd for maximum
bending moment i.e. 278 x 5 -, 1,390 kg cm.
Assuming a rectangular section with width equal to Ith
depth, and permissible tensile stress intensity as 1,000 kg/sq cm
we get / x Id x d2 x 1000 = 1390
V1390
or d = ----- x 16 = 3 cm.
1000
Thickness will be equal to 1.2 cm. .
Reaction at fulcrum will be different for both the directions of
rotation, the larger of the two values will be V2782 + (78— 18)1
= 282 kg and the other value will be 1782 + (278 — 18)2 =
274 kg.
Assuming a bearing pressure intensity of 100 kg/sq cm and
ratio as 1.25, we get diameter of the pin as 15 mm and the bearing
length of the pin as 20 mm.
992 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

The dimensions of the lever near the boss should be modified

to accommodate the fulcrum pin.
Exercises :
1. Design a simple band brake to absorb 40 horse power at a speed
of 200 r.p.m. The diameter of the brake drum is 750 mm and the length
of the lever is 750 mm and the leverage ratio is 5. The angle of lap may
be taken as 270°. II = 0.3.
Permissible tensile stress intensity for the band may be taken as 600
kg/sq cm.
2. Design a simple band brake to be operated by a lever 50 cm long.
The brake drum is 50 cm diameter and the brake band embraces five
eighth of the circumference. One end of the band is attached to the fulcrum
of the lever, while the other end is attached to the pin on the lever 10 cm
from the fulcrum. The coefficient of friction is 0.25 and the brake actuating
force is 50 kg. Choose your own values for the stresses.
3. State the advantages of the differential band brake over a simple
band brake.
A differential band brake is to be designed to support a load of 40,000
kg around a barrel of 45 cm diameter. The brake is to be mounted on the
drum 80 cm diameter. The two ends of the band are attached to pins on
opposite sides of the fulcrum of the brake lever at distances of 4 cm and 12 cm.
The length of the lever is 90 cm. The angle of lap may be taken as 240°
and the coefficient of friction is 0.3.
Choose your own values for the stresses. Give the main design calcu-
lations for the lever, the band, the fulcrum pin and the rivets.
4. In cranes and hoists it is desirable to use brakes that will auto-
matically prevent the load from lowering when the hoisting power is removed.
Explain this statement with clear analysis.
(M.S. University of Baroda, 1977)
5. Sketch the following types of brakes :
(i) Simple band brake
(ii) Dthrerential band brake
(iii) Brake equally effective for both the directions of rotation
(iv) Back stop. (Sardar Patel University, 1977)
(C) CLUTCHES
19-12. Introduction:
A clutch is a device which engages one rotating part to
another rotating part in such a way that parts can be readily
engaged and disengaged. Brakes and clutches are similar in
Art. 19-121 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 003

their basic function in that they are used to control the flow of
mechanical power within a machine. They are similar in other
respects too: for instance both must be capable of transmitting
specified amounts of torque and both are called upon to convert
potential or kinetic energy and to dissipate it in the form of heat,
transferred from the brake or clutch to the atmosphere.
Clutches can be roughly grouped into two general types,
namely positive acting clutches and friction clutches.
The simplest type of positive clutch is the jaw clutch. One
segment of the clutch is permanently fastened to a shaft; the
other segment is splined or keyed and allowed to slide axially on
the other shaft thus permitting it to be engaged or disengaged by
sliding. The greatest difference in the various jaw clutches avail-
able to-day lies in the jaw design. In order to provide for a longer
period of time during shifting of the clutch, the jaws may be
ratchet shaped, gear tooth shaped or spiral shaped. Sometimes
a great number of jaws are used; in other instances only a mini-
mum number of jaws are used. A large number of small jaws
permit rapid engagement or disengagement with very little motion
of the mating jaws. These clutches do not slip and hence no heat
is generated at the clutch surface. They have the disadvantages
of high shock loads when engaged while moving; they can not be
engaged at high speeds and sometimes can not be engaged at rest
unless the jaws are aligned. The jaw clutch has a very important
application where synchronised operation is required, as, for
example, in power presses and punches.
Friction Clutches :
Friction clutches transmit torque by virtue of a friction force
developed, hence can slip under certain conditions. Thus a fric-
tion clutch can be engaged while the driving member is turning
and the driven member is stationary. Because of this the friction
clutch is more treful than a positive acting clutch.
Although many friction devices have been used as clutches
to-day only the disc clutch, plate clutch and cone clutch are
widely used.
Fig. 19-24 shows a typical single plate clutch arrangement
and the method of actuating it. The whole of the clutch mecha-
nism is rotating with the input member. The driven shaft passes
through the centre of the clutch shell and is splined at the end to
994 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

take the spinner plate which is situated between the driving and
pressure plates. The spinner plate is lined on both the sides with
Ferodo friction linings.
When the clutch is operative the pressure plate clamps the
spinner plate against the driving plates by means of the springs
and the drive is then transmitted through the pressure and driving
plate to the spinner plate and so as to the transmission shaft.
To disengage the clutch the pressure plate must be with-
drawn to release the clutch plate. This is effected by depressing
the throw out bearing, while being coupled to the pressure plate by
a series of toggles, pulls this plate off against the operating springs.
Flywheel Couer plate

Friction lining Operating spring

Driuing shaft
Output shaft

Throw out bearing

Spinner plate
Release toggle
Pressure plate
r
Plate clutch
FIG. 19-24

When large torque is to be transmitted multi-plate clutches

are used in preference to single plate type clutch which possesses
only two contact surfaces.

Cone Clutch (fig. 19-25) :

These clutches are not used now a days in cars and lorries.
However they have many other practical applications.
Because of the conical shape of the friction surfaces, a rela-
tively small axial force applied to the inner member or cone pro-
vides a large force normal to the friction surfaces. Thus it is seen
that a relatively small axial force is needed to engage a cone clutch.
Art. 19-1.91 DESIGN OP MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PAItTS—II 995

Furthermore, if the cone angle is small enough, the friction

surfaces will hold themselves together once the clutch has been
engaged.
The elaborate linkage required with the disc clutch is not
needed with the cone clutch, thus giving the cone clutch the
advantage of simplicity. However the cone clutch can not be
made in multiple units as can the disc clutch, a disadvantage of
the conical construction.
Friction luting
Crowned pulley
(driven) ..tro Cone

z Bearing
Bearing Collar
in. r Shaft
mv—I: -AvAritar.
vtelr/T,1711/
ralArAr. " A
I I I1
'
I Ii
I I II JJ
[Link] 111.11..
Mt2rAgor
f dOPPr

.741.49,211FAVP.
111M7 C
Spring
Collar -41
Air4OPAI.
d' Fork groove

Cone clutch
FIG. 19-25

Now we consider the design procedure for friction clutches.

At this stage the students should refer articles 12 to 16 of chapter
9 of the book entitled "Theory of Machines Vol. I" written by
the authors.
19-13. Design procedure for friction clutches:
(i) The particular attention should be paid to the following
items:
(a) The material forming the contact surfaces must be
selected with great care to ensure that the friction forces are suffi-
cient, engaging pressures are not excessive, the possibility of
grabbing is avoided and heat generation will not cause lining
deterioration.
996 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

(b) The clutch should be as light as possible to minimize

the inertia load.
(c) A power transmitting clutch should be so that no exter-
nal forces are required to maintain contact of the friction surfaces.
(d) The engagement mechanisms should be simple and easy
to operate.
(e) Provision must be made for dissipating heat that
results from the sliding of surfaces during engagement or dis-
engagement.
(f) Design should facilitate repair and provide for wear
adjustment.
(g) The clutch should have no projecting parts. If such
projecting parts can not be avoided a guard or cover should be
provoded as an integral part of the design.
(ii) In disc clutches the number of pairs of surfaces trans-
mitting power is one less than the sum of the steel and bronze
discs and is also an even number if the design is such that no thrust
bearings are needed. In order to eliminate the thrust on the shaft,
in practice it is more usual to make the driving member having
two discs rotating to-gether and the driven member as one
plate. The driven plate which is a thin disc is gripped between
the two driving discs. Then no axial load acts on any shaft and
no thrust bearings are needed (except when the clutch is disengaged).
To release the clutch plate, the spring loaded driving plate is moved
axially so that no force acts on the driven plate
(iii) For disc clutches there are two assumptions : (a) uni-
form wear and (b) uniform pressure. When a clutch is new, it is
perhaps true that the pressure may be rather uniform. If the
surfaces are relatively rigid, the outer portion where the velocity
is high, will wear more than the inner portion. After initial
wearing in, it is reasonable to assume that the curve of the profile
will maintain its shape or wear thereafter may be considered to
be uniform.
Uniform pressure assumption would be more appropriate
where the plates are flexible to permit deflection when wear
occurs.
(iv) Consideration may sometimes be given to the question
of whether the clutch plate should be operated in a completely
dry environment or whether a wet clutch design should be used.
While clutches operating dry generally have a high coefficient
Art. 19-13] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS—II 997

of friction and hence a high torque transmission capacity in

comparison with a wet clutch, the clutch plate surfaces must be
kept dry through out the useful life of the clutch. This require-
ment may lead to difficult sealing problem if the clutch operates
in an oily region in a machine.
When the clutch operates in oil, it gives smoother engage-
ment and better dissipation of heat even though the capacity is
reduced. Wet clutch design results in longer life and lower
operating temperatures for wearing surfaces.
(v) The cone clutch will hold itself in engagement if the
tangent of the cone angle is less than the coefficient of friction.
(vi) The following properties are desired for materials of
friction surfaces:
(a) A high coefficient of friction retaining a permanent
value over a sufficiently wide range of surface velocities, tempe-
rature and load.
(b) Adequate mechanical and thermal strength
(c) Little wear and no scoring
(d) High heat conductivity making rapid dispersal of heat
from the friction surfaces.
Table 19-13.1 gives some of the properties which will be of
immense value in design of friction clutches:
Table 19-13.1

Operating
Operating .i)
Material of friction surface conditions IL kg/sq cm temperatures
°C
Hardened Steel Hardened In Oil 0.08 6—8 250
Steel
CI C I or steel 0.06 6—8 )1
CI Dry 0.15 2.5 to 4
Bronze In oil 0.05 4 150
Pressed asbestoes Dry 0.3 2 to 3 150-250
Powder metal ,, 04 3 550
In oil 0.1 8 550
(vii) The torque that we calculate is called the friction
torque and the engagement factor, p, should guarantee the
operation of the clutch without slipping under occasional circums-
tances at intermediate overloads or when the coefficient of friction
or the radius of friction are decreased from the design values due
to a changed nature of contact between the friction surfaces.
T, friction = f3 x design torque
= 13 x motor torque
998 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XIX

where f3 = 1.25 to 1.5 for metal cutting machine tools

-=-. 1.2 to 1.5 for automobiles
= 2 to 2.5 for tractors
> 1.15 for cranes.
Excessive values of fit should be avoided since they cause
increased dynamic loads on starting.
(viii) As the ratio of 7.2: increases the torque transmitting
ro
capacity also increases for the same axial force. However when
this ratio increases the area of contact of the clutch lining is
decreased and the contact pressure is increased. Since the rate of
wear of materials used for clutch disc facings is generally propor-
tional to contact pressure, the value of ri is limited by wear consi-
ro
derations. The value of this ratio is never less than 0.5 and usually
lies between 0.6 and 0.7.
Width of friction surface
(ix) may be taken from 0.5 to 0.2.
Mean radius
(x) Discs are made of metal.
Examples :
1. Design a single plate automobile clutch to go with a six cylinder
engine that has a maximum torque of 2,400 kg cm at 1,900 r.p.m. The
flywheel diameter is large enough so that a 24 cm outside diameter disc clutch
can be used. After the clutch dimensions have been decided upon, we have
to analyse the characteristics of the drive system, assuming the clutch is
engaged when the car is travelling at 50 kmlhour after a shift from second
to third gear. Determine the number of revolutions of clutch slip during
engagement and the energy of friction work to be dissipated by the clutch
for each engagement..
Engine speed at beginning of clutch engagement 1,900 r.p.m.
Engine torque constant during engagement 800 kg cm.
Automobile weight when loaded 1,400 kg
Automobile wheel diameter 70 cm
Moment of inertia of combined engine rotating parts, flywheel and
input side of clutch 0.110 kg metre secs
Gear reduction at differential 4.1:1
Torque at rear wheels available for accelerating automobile 1, 400 kg cm
Coefficient of friction of clutch material 0.3
Design bearing pressure intensity at clutch material 2.5 kesq cm.
Art. 19.13] DESIGN OP MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 999
50 x 1000
50 km/hour = 3600 = 13.9 metre/sec.

Angular velocity of the wheel = 103:

5 = 39.7 rad/sec.
Angular velocity of clutch follower shaft = 39.7 x 4.1
= 163 rad/sec
1900 x [Link]
Angular velocity of the engine — = 199 rad/sec.
60
Angular acceleration of the engine during the clutch slip period
— 4150
of the clutch = 800 1 — 385 rad/sec2.
1
1400
Accelerating force on the automobile = = 40 kg.
35
Acceleration of the vehicle = 40 x 9.81= 0.28 metre/sect.
1400
Angular acceleration of clutch output = 4.10.35
x 0-28
= 3.28 rad/sec2.
199 — 163
Clutch slip period = = 0.0925 sec.
3.28 — (— 385)
Angle through which the input side of the clutch rotates during
385
engagement = 199 x 0.0925 x 0.09252 = 16.76 rad.
Angle through which the output side of the clutth rotates during
engagement time = 163 x 0.0925 x 3.28 x 0.09252
15.1 rad.
Angle of slip = 16.76 — 15.1 = 1.66 rad.
Energy of friction work to be dissipated by the clutch for each
4150
engagement = 100 x 1.66 = 69 kg metre.
69
— 0.126 kcal.
426.7
The plate clutch has two friction surfaces.
Torque = Ppx f.N. where
P= (r02 — ri2)]
= coefficient of friction between the surfaces in contact
r.f = friction radius, for uniform wear its value is the mean
radius of the friction lining.
1000 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XIX

N = number of friction surfaces.

24 ,n
ro = T = 1 2 cm
ll, = 0.3 and p = 2.5 kg/sq cm.
ri
By assuming value of — ranging from 0.5 to 0.7 and solving for
ro
normal force P and clutch torque we get the following table:

ri ri rf A P r
cm sq cm kg N P• kg cm
to CM

0.5 6 9 84.83 850 2 0.3 4,580

0.6 7.2 9.6 72.38 722 2 0.3 4,150
0.7 8.4 10.2 57.68 575 2 0.3 3,520

ri
We adopt the ratio — = 0.6 for which the margin of clutch
To
torque that is greater than the maximum engine torque is
4150
— 1 = 0.73.
24130
This margin is assumed to be sufficient to prevent the clutch
from slipping at any time after the engagement period is complete.
When the uniform wear conditions prevail the contact pres-
sure on the clutch facing varies from
P P
to •
27r (ro — TO To 27c (r0 — r2 ) ri
722
At inner radius = = 3.33 kg/sq cm.
27r x 4.8 x 7.2
722
At outer radius = = 2 kg/sq cm.
[Link] x 4.8 x 12
2. A cone clutch of 25 cm mean diameter transmits 50 h. p. at 1,000
r.p.m. The cone angle is 10°, the permissible unit pressure is 4 kg/sq cm.
Coefficient of friction surface is 0.3. Find the face width required, the axial
force to hold the clutch in engagement while transmitting rated power and
shaft diameter for a permissible shear stress of 500 kg/sq cm.
If the disengaging force is 12% greater than the force to hold the clutch
in engagement and the clutch is disengaged by 3 mm of the spring, design
the spring.
71620 x 50
T= = 3,581 kg cm; say 3,600 kg cm.
1000
Art. 19-13] DESIGN OP MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS-II 1001

If d cm be the diameter of the solid shaft, then

d3 x 500 = 3600
16
f360016
or d= x — = 3.7 cm; we adopt 4 cm.
500 it
If P kg be the force normal to the surfaces in contact, then
3600 = P x 0.3 x 12.5
p 3600
or =

0.3 x 12.5
960 kg.
If b be the face width of the cone clutch, then
960
b= = 3.05 cm; we adopt the width of
4 x 2 7r x 12.5
the friction lining as 4 cm.
As the semi — angle of the cone is 10°, the outer radius of the
conical surface will be 12.5 + 2 tan10° = 13 cm and the inner
radius will be 12.5 — 2 tanl0° = 12 cm.
Axial spring force required = 960 sin10° = 167 kg.
Let us assume the mean diameter of the coil as 6.5 cm. When
the clutch is disengaged, the force increases by 12%, hence the
maximum spring force is 1.12 x 167 = 187 kg.
—
Stiffness of the spring = 187 0.3167 = 66.6 kg/cm.
187 x 6.5 =
Maximum torque on the spring = 610 kg cm.
2
We adopt the spring material having permissible shear stress as
4,500 kg/sq cm. In order to account for the stress concentration
we take the stress as 3,600 kg/sq cm in the torque formula.
If dw cm be the size of the wire, then
— dw3 x 3600 = 610
16
18/ 610
or dw =- x = t.r* ," CM.
3600 ic
Gd,
k
8Can
Gdw
or n = number of active turns
ACik
0.84 x 106 x 0.95
= 4.65 turns.
n 6.5 y
o x (095 x66.6
1002 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX
As the spring will be in compression, the actual turns will be 6
turns.
Solid height of the spring = 6 x 0.95 = 5.75 cm.
187
Compression = -6-6.-6 ---,. 2.88 cm.

We adopt free height as 5.75 + 2.88 + 0.60 = 9.15 cm.

Exercises: _
1. What are the items to which the particular attention should be
paid when designing friction clutches?
2. Show that a cone clutch will hold itself in engagement if the
tangent of the cone pitch angle is less than the coefficient of friction.
3. Compare the horse power capacity of two clutches one a multiple
disc clutch and the other a cone type of clutch. Both clutches operate at the
same speed, both have the same mean diameter and the same axial load is
exerted in both clutches. The coefficient of friction is the same for both
clutches.
The cone pitch angle of the cone is 12.5° and the multiple disc clutch
has five steel discs and four bronze discs. Assume uniform wear in both
clutches.
Ans. 1.73.
4. An industrial Diesel engine develops 35 h.p. at 1,000 r.p.m.
Power is to be taken off through a single plate disc clutch from the flywheel
end. Design a suitable clutch for the duty. Mean diameter of the clutch
is 20 cm and the average pressure is limited to 1.2 kg/sq cm. Coefficient
of friction may be taken from 0.4 to 0.5.
The clutch is normally engaged and the spring used for holding the
disc together is made of steel for which safe stress of 4,200 kg/sq cm may be
taken. Sketch the clutch showing the arrangement for declutching. Single
spring may be used directly or through small levers or a number of springs
may be used directly.
5. A disc clutch transmits 125 h.p. at 600 r.p.m. The number
of contact surfaces is 6. The coefficient of friction can be taken as 0.35
and maximum pressure should not exceed 1.5 kg/sq cm. The outer to inner
diameter ratio of friction surfaces may be taken as 1.5.
Determine the main dimensions of the friction surfaces and the neces-
sary axial force at the friction surfaces.
Ex. XIX ] DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS—II 1003

6. A cast iron cone clutch is to be designed to transmit 30 h.p. at

100 r.p.m. The clutch is operated by a foot lever which has a leverage
of 12. The value of coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.3.
7. A 60 cm outside diameter plate clutch has a maximum lining
pressure of 3.5 kg/sq cm. It is required to transmit 180 h.p. at 400 r.p.m.
Design the necessary friction lining and the suitable spring.
The coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.3.
8 . Design a cone clutch to transmit 200 h.p. at 600 r.p.m. It has
a mean radius of 20 cm and the maximum lining pressure is limited to 7
kg/sq cm. The coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.2.
9. A single plate automobile clutch is to be designed for transmitting
20 h.p. at 4,000 r.p.m.
Both sides of the plate are having friction lining (1).. 0.35). The
axial force is provided by 6 compression springs. The permissible maxi-
mum pressure is 1.4 kg/sq cm. Ratio of plate diameters to be 1.5. Deter-
mine the size of the friction plate and the load on each spring. Sketch
the assembly showing the method of operating the clutch.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1968)
10. What is the significance of the service factor or engagement factor
in the design of a friction clutch?
Discuss briefly the factors on which the service fator is dependent and
illustrate the selection of service factors on a relative basis for the following
cases: Centrifugal pumps and fans, machine tools, refiprocating pumps,
winding and coiling machines.
(University of Bombay, 1972)

EXAMPLES XIX

1. A hoisting tackle has two blocks, one upper and the other lower. Each
block has two sheaves. Design either the top or bottom block for a lifting load
of one tonne. The materials used are: Pulley — cast iron, other pails mild
steel and rope manila hemp or cotton.
The working load for the rope is 30 d2 kg where d is the diameter of the rope
in cm. The bearing pressure for pins is 200 kg/sq cm. The permissible stresses
for mild steel are 850 kgisq cm in tension or compression and 650 kg/sq cm in
shear.
2. Design a hook and its support along with a thrust bearing for a 5 tonne
load. The hook is to be of swivelling type and of triangular section. Choosing
1004 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XIX

your own materials and the probable value of permissible stresses, design and
draw to scale at least two views of the arrangement.
3. State the relative advantages and disadvantages of cone and disc clutches.
A cone clutch is to be engaged with both parts stationary. Derive the equa-
tion for the force required to engage the clutch in terms of the normal force, the
friction coefficient, and the cone angle.
Is the engaging force found by the equation derived above satisfactory if the
clutch is engaged when one part is rotating and the other part stationary?
Explain briefly.
4. A band brake is sustaining a torque of 5,500 kg cm on the drum shaft.
The drum diameter is 45 cm and keyed to the shaft. The band is to be lined with
asbestoes having coefficient of friction 0.28 and arc of contact 270°. Design the
steel band, brake lever and the pin. The length of the lever may be taken as 50
cm. Show by a sketch how the band is connected to the lever. Assume your
own materials and stresses. (Gujarat University, 1969)

5. A cone clutch is to be designed to transmit 150 h.p. at 750 r.p.m. The

following is the proposed scheme and the data for this clutch:
Semi cone angle 12°
Radial width of face to be i the mean diameter
Normal pressure on contact surfaces to be assumed uniform and not to exceed
1.2 kg/sq cm
Coefficient of friction 0.2
Maximum shear stress in the shaft 600 kg/sq cm.
The axial force is proposed to be applied by means of a pneumatic cylinder
and a pivoted lever so that the piston need give only 1/3 the value of the axial
thrust. The air pressure available for operating the clutch is 5 kg/sq cm above
atmosphere.
Design the clutch and the operating mechanism and draw a sectional eleva-
tion of the assembly.
Any additional data required may be assumed, the assumptions being clearly
stated.
You may estimate the dimensions of the operating link work without calcula-
tions. (University of Bombay, 1969)
6. (a) Compare the different types of brakes with regard to force ratio,
lever end travel and heat dissipation characteristics. Discuss their appli-
cations.
(b) A hoist drum is bolted to a multiple disc brake. The drum diameter
is 45 cm, the tangential load is 550 kg, 1 cm wire rope is used, the outside diameter
of the small steel friction discs is 25 cm, the inside diameter of the larger cast iron
discs is 12 cm, the leverage ratio is 10:1 and the coefficient of friction may be taken
as 0.1. Determine the number of friction discs required if (i) the unit pressure on
the discs is not to exceed 10 kg/sq cm, (ii) the force to be applied on the lever is
not to exceed 25 kg.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1970)
Ex. XiX. I DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE PARTS—II 1005

7: Design a double block holding brake for the hoisting mechanism of a

8 tonne travelling crane with a lifting speed of 25 metre/minute. Determine the
capacity of the brake and suitable dimensions of the spring. How will you check
the linings for heat and life?
The crane operates at 120 braking operations per hour. Assume the dia-
meter of the brake wheel as 400 mm and the motor speed 720 r.p.m.
(University of Bombay, 1972)
8. Describe briefly the design features of an automobile clutch. A single
plate clutch for automobile application is to be designed to transmit 25 h.p. at
2,500 r.p.m. Design the main dimensions of the clutch and the thrust springs.
(University of Bombay, 1972)

9. Design a pulley tackle having 3 pulleys in each block. Pulleys are

made of cast iron and other parts of mild steel. Hemp rope or cotton rope may
be used. Permissible load in rope may be taken as 30 d' kg where d is the diameter
of rope in cm. The hook for suspension of load has a round section. The tackle
is to be designed for lifting a load of 1 tonne. Allowable tensile stress in mild
steel is 800 kg /sq cm.
Explain why non-symmetrical sections are employed for the design of a crane
hook. (University of Bombay, 1973)

10. A single plate clutch is to have maximum capacity to transmit 80 h.p.

at 2,000 r.p.m. The faces of the clutch plate arc lined to have coefficient of
friction 0.3 and permissible bearing pressure of 2 kg/sq cm. The clutch is engaged
by 12 springs of 3 cm mean diameter, arranged symmetrically. The springs
compress by 2 mm for disengagement with an increase of pressure of 10%.
Design the springs for the clutch having inner diameter equal to 0.6 times the
outer diameter.
Take ji for spring wire as 3,000 kg/sq cm and N — 8 v 406 kg/sq cm.
Assume uniform pressure.
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1974)

11. The lifting tackle has six sheaves in each block. It is reefed with 1 cm
diameter steel wire rope. Determine the capacity of the block and tackle and its
efficiency if C = 1.04. The factor of safety of 5 may be adopted. The diameter
of each sheave is 40 cm and the reduced modulus of elasticity for the rope may be
taken as 0.84 x 106 kg/sq cm.
The following data for the rope may be used.:
Breaking load in kg 5100 d2
Diameter of wire in cm 0.063 d
Area of wires in rope in sq cm 0.38 d2
In the above data d is the diameter of the rope in cm.
(Sardar Patel University, 1975)

12. A small hoist is required for lifting concrete at a rate of 400 metre/
minute at a maximum height of 10 metre. The rated capacity of the hoist is
3 tonnes. There will be no counterweight and the drum will be rotated by a
1006 MACHINE DESIGN f Ch. XIX

1,450 r.p.m. electric motor through a reduction gear train. Select suitable wire
rope and design the drum for the hoist.
Show the method of mounting and driving the drum with the help of neat
sketches.
(Gujarat University, 1976)
13. Design and draw a neat sketch of a centrifugal clutch to transmit 20
h.p. (25% overload to be allowed) at a speed of 720 r.p.m. The clutch is to be
incorporated in the motor pulley. The following data are specified:
Engagement to begin at 75% of the running speed
Number of cast iron shoes: 4
Outside diameter of the pulley = 35 cm
Inside diameters of the pulley rim = 32.5 cm
Width of the pulley = 24 cm
Helical spring coil mean diameter = 2.5 cm
Inside clearance between friction surfaces, when lining are new = 1.6 mm
Lining material ferodo for which p. = 0.2
(M. S. University of Baroda, 1976)
14. Explain why non symmetrical sections are adopted for the design of
members having initial curvature and subjected to bending. Sketch the correct
position of such sections with respect to the line of action of the load which does
not pass through the centroid of the section.
A hand operated wire hoist has to raise a load of 400 kg. The load on
the operating lever is limited to 30 kg. The rope is being wound on a drum of
36 cm diameter. The effective length of the operating lever, which is mounted on
the drum shaft is 40 cm.
Sketch the arrangement and determine the number of ropes leading to the
hook block. Also determine the factor of safety of the rope if the rope of 18 mm
diameter of 6 x 37 group is used. Assume C = 1.04. Calculate the efficiency
of the hoist.
(Sardar Patel University, 1977)
15. (a) Explain the conditions leading to 'self energising' of brakes.
(b) The drum of an external shoe brake is 375 mm in diameter and the
shoes extend over an arc of. 30° symmetrically about the horizontal axis through
the drum centre. The lower (fixed) fulcrum pins are located 250 mm vertically
below the drum centre and are 75 mm on either side of the vertical centre line
passing through the drum centre. The brake is operated by a bell crank lever
with a long arm of 300 mm length and short arm 75 mm length connected to the
two shoe-levers through pins. Draw a neat sketch of the brake.
Considering a coefficient of friction of 0.35 and permissible pressure of 5 kg/sq
cm, calculate, at an operating force of 25 kg,
(i) The braking torque for clockwise and anticlockwisie rotation
(ii) The width of the brake drum.
(University of Bombay, 1977)
CHAPTER 2D
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
(SI System)
-,,,N........,e,w.^-,..,..w..,,"....

20-1. Introduction:
An international organisation of which most of the advanced
and developing countries, including India, are members, called
the General Conference of Weights and Measures, has been
entrusted with the task of prescribing definitions for fundamental
units of weights and measures which are the very basis of science
and technology today.
These definitions are adopted all over the world for purposes
of science, technology, industry and commerce. The eleventh
General Conference of Weights and Measures which met in Octo-
ber 1960 recommended a unified systematically constituted cohe-
rent system of fundamental, supplementary and derived units for
international use. This system, called the International System of
Units and designated by the abbreviation SI, is now legally
compulsory in about twenty countries. It consists of six basic
units or fundamental units, two supplementary units and twenty
seven derived units.

20-2. Units:
The International System of Units (SI) uses six fundamental
units, i.e. the metre (m) for length, the kilogramme (kg) for mass,
the second (s) for time, the ampere (A) for electric current, the
kelvin degree (°K) for temperature, and the candle (cd) for lumi-
nious intensity.
There are two supplementary units of which the unit of
circular measure, the radian (rad) is the important for the design
purposes.
Table 20-2.1 gives the some of the derived units with names
and symbols.
1008 MACHINE DESIGN (Ch. XX

Table 20.2.1

Derived Units

Unit Name Symbol

Area square metre m'

Volume cubic metre m3
Frequency hertz Hz, 1/s
Density (mass) kilogramme per cubic metre kg/ma
Velocity metre per second m/s
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Acceleration metre per second squared m/s'
Angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
Force newton N, kg. m/seci
Pressure (mechanical newton per square metre N/m2
tension)
Dynamic viscosity newton-second per square metre N.s/m2
Kinematic viscosity square metre per second m2/s
Work, energy, joule J, N.m
quantity of heat
Power watt (W, j/s)
Entropy joule per kelvin J/K
Specific heat joule per kilogramme kelvin J/kg. K
Thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin W/(m.K)

Note:
1. A temperature interval can also be expressed in degrees Celsius.
2. Old definition of litre is abrogated. According to resolution 6 of the
12th General Conference of Weights and Measures, litre is a special name given
to cubic decimetre and the word litre should not be used for expressing results of
high precision volume measurements.
3. While writing symbols for plurals, do not add 's' to indicate plurality.
4. Units with names of scientists should not be capitalised when written in full.
5. Use the symbols as they are to avoid confusion.
6. Certain units, although strictly incompatible with SI units, are at least
initially considered acceptable the examples being km/h and rotational speed in
rev/min. As usual the unit of a derived quantity is obtained by taking the physical
law connecting it with the other basic or fundamental quantities and putting
each of the other basic quantities involved there in equal to unity in this law
expressed as a mathematical relation. Some of the important derived units,
which will be of immense value in proportioning parts of a machine are given
in table 20-2.2.
Art. 20-31 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1009

Table 20-2.2

Physical law
connecting the
Name of the quantity to
Definition
unit and fundamental
Derived quantities or of Remarks
quantity symbol in previously the unit
bracket
obtained
derived
quantities

Force Newton (N) Force = Mass x It is that force

Acceleration which produces
unit accelera-
tion i.e. 1 m per
secs in a unit
mass (kg)
Work energy Joule ( J) Work done= It is the work For express-
or quantity Force x Displa- done by unit ing quant-
of heat cement of a point force (one new- ities of heat in
of application of ton) over a unit joules, the
force along its displacement relationship
• direction (one metre). 1 calorie--
4.1868
joules will
have to be
used.

Power Watt (W) Power = Work It is the power With the

done per sec. of an agent doing use of kW
1 joule of and MW
work/sec. there is no
place for horse
4. power whe-
ther English
or French.

20-3. Prefixes for Multiples and Sub-multiples of Units:

When the numerical value of a quantity is inconveniently
large or small, the prefixes to the basic units are allowed. Conse-
cutive multiples and sub-multiples are Separated by powers of
1 .
10 upto quantities 1,000 times or times the unit quantity
1000
and in powers of 106 or 10-3 in respect of still larger and smaller
quantities respectively. However SI system has preference for
those prefixes which are separated by factors of 106 and 10-s.
Thus lengths would be measured generally in kilometres, metres and
millimetres only. Table on page 1010 gives the certain prefixes
for defining multiples of unit quantities as specified by SI system.
1010 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX

Quantity in number of units Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
100 giga G
106 mega M
10' kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deca da
10-1 deci
10-2 cent i
10-8 milli
10-0 micro El
10-9 nano
10-12 pico p
10-46 femto f
10-'8 atto d

In compounded units (e.g. .1%//m2) the prefix, where used must

always precede the first symbol, i.e. although MN/m2 is strictly
the same as NImm2 ; however the latter should never be used.

20-4. Relation between the Units of SI and MKS Systems:

In this text we have made use of MKS system through out.
When one wants to use this text with SI system, it is necessary to
know the relation between the units of the SI and MKS systems.
To facilitate calculation work, below in the table 20-4.1 are given
the SI units and their equivalents in MKS system:
Table 20-4.1

Quantity SI System MKS system

Length:
metre m m
centimetre cm CM
millimetre mm MM
Area:
square metre m2 m2
square centimetre cm2 cm2
square millimetre nun2 mm2
Force:
newton N 0.102 kg
meganewton MN --- 10° N 0.102 x 102 kg
Speed:
metres per second m/s m/s
Angular speed:
radians per second rad/s rad/3
Moment of force:
newton-metre N.m 0.102 kg. m
10.2 kg. cm
Art. 20-5] INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1011

Pressure (stress):
newtons per square metre N/m2 1.02 x 10-5 kg/cm1
meganewtons per square metre MN/m2 10.2 kg/cms
Work, energy:
joule J 0.102 kg. m
(J — 1 N m) = 10.2 kg. cm
Power :
ir watt W 0.102 kg. m/s
i (W = J/s)
kilowat t kW -- 10 W kW
Heat:
joule J 0 23 x 10-5 kcal
Temperatui e •
Kelvin degree °K °C + 273.15°

20-5. Illustrative Examples:

Here we give some illustrative examples to make students
familiar with SI system.
1. The crank arm of a steam engine has a rectangular cross section
of 0.2 m by 0.1 m. In dead centre position of the crank the maximum
compressive force acting is 70,000 N. The line of action of the force is
parallel to and at a distance of 0.12 m from the principal axis of the section.
Determine the maximum tensile stress induced in' the crank arm.
The cross-sectional area is 0.2 x 0.1 = 0.02 sq m.

Direct compressive stress = 70000. 3,500,000 N/sq m.

0.02
Due to the eccentricity of 0.12 m, a bendirig moment of the
magnitude 70000 x 0.12 = 8400 N.m is acting on the section.
Maximum value of the bending stress
_ 8400 25,200,000 N/sq m.
* x 0.2 x 0.12 =
••• Maximum compressive stress = 25,200,000 + 3,500,000
= 28.700,000 N/sq m.
------- 28.7 MN/sq m.
Maximum tensile stress = 25,200,000 — 3,500,000
= 21,700,00 N/sq m.
. 21.7 MN/sq m.
2. Check the end journal of a hand winch shaft which acts on a cast
iron bearing with a force of 16,000 N. Length of the end journal is 0.06
m and the diameter is 0.05 m.
1012 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX

Assume that the end journal is a cantilever with a uniformly distributed

load.
The permissible flexural stress is limited to 60 MN/sq m and the
bearing pressure intensity is limited to 4 MN/sq m.
We assume that the end journal of a hand winch shaft is a
cantilever of 0.06 m length and loaded with a uniformly distributed
total load of 16,000 N.
16000 x 0.06
Maximum bending moment =
2
= 480 N.m.
7C
Modulus of section
=.-: 3-2- X 0.053
= 12.25 x 10-3 m3.
480
Maximum flexural stress
--= 12.23 x 16--:6
= 39.1 MN/sq m.
As the induced stress intensity is less than permissible stress
intensity the design is safe.
Projected bearing area 0.06 x 0.05 = 0.003 sq m.
.
Bearing pressure intensity = 16000
0.003
= 5.33 x 106 N/sq m
--= 5.33 MN/sq m.
Conclusion :
In spite of considerable margin of bending strength the end
journal operates under unfavourable conditions since induced
bearing pressure intensity exceeds the allowable value which
is 3 MN/sq m.
It means that either the diameter or the length of the end
journal has to be increased (with a corresponding increase in the
length of the bearing).
/
The increased diameter is preferred since high - ratios have
d
an adverse effect on bearing operation.
3. A countershaft receives power 20 kW from a motor through a
coupling. The speed of the shaft is 30 rad/s. If the diameter of the
shaft is 0.07 m, determine the value of torsional shear stress induced due
to power transmitted.
Art. 20-.5] INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1013

If T N.m be the torque acting on the shaft, then

T x 30
20 .-,.
1000
20000
or T = --- = 6,660 N.m.
30
If fs N/sq m be the maximum shear stress induced due to
torque transmitted, then,
ic
6660 = - 6 x 0.073 x fs

or fs = 6660 x 16
Tr x 0.073
•• fs = 101 x 106 N/sq m = 101 MN/sq m.
4. A steam boiler has 80 sq m of heating surface and the rate of
evaporation is 20 kg/sq mlhour of heating surface. The pressure of steam
generation is 0.8 MN/sq m. The specific volume of steam is 0.24 cu
metre/kg. Determine the diameter and thickness of the steel steam pipe
to carry the steam from this boiler with a velocity of steam in pipe at 25
metre/sec. The permissible stress intensity in the pipe material is 40
MN/sq m.
Amount of steam generated = 80 x 20
= 1,600 kg/hour.
Volume of steam flowing in the pipe
1600 x 0.24
— --615-760 -
= 0.107 cu metre/sec.
If D metre be the inner diameter of the steam pipe, then
n
D2 x 25 = 0.107
4
i 0.107 x 4
or 0.0739 metre; we adopt 0.075 m.
D = V 25 x -n— =
If t metre be the minimum thickness of the pipe, then
1 .pp — 0.8 x 0.075 — 0.00075 m
2f 2 x40
= 0.75 mm.
This thickness is too small. We adopt 3 mm thick solid drawn
steel tubes.
5. A mild steel tie bar for a bridge structure 350 mm wide and 20 mm
thick is to be connected by a double cover butt joint. Design this joint
allowing safe working stresses as follows :
1014 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX

ft = 90 [Link] m, fs = 75 Ilarlsq m and fs = 150 AINIsq m.

Refer fig. 4-7 on page 224.
The diameter of the rivets is obtained by the formula
d = 6 Vt mm = 6 VTO = 28.8 mm; we adopt 25.5 mm
as the rivet diameter.
We assume that the resistance of a rivet in double shear is
1.75 times that in single shear. Resistance of the plate to tearing at
(350 — 25.5) x 20
outer row = x 90 x 108
1000 x 1000
= 585,000 N.
7C
1.75 x x 25.52 x 75 x 106
4
Shear resistance of a rivet =
106
= 67,000 N.
20 x 25.5 x 150 x 108
Crushing resistance of a rivet =
1000 x 1400
-,--- 76,500 N.
As the shearing resistance of the rivet is less than the crushing
resistance, we use the former in deciding upon the number of
rivets. Equating the tensile strength of the plate to the shearing
resistance of n rivets, we get
585000 = n x 67000
585000
or n -,---
T70-
0-0- = 8 . 2'
Hence 9 rivets may be used and they may be arranged as shown
in fig. 4-7.
The thickness of the butt straps will be 0.75t= I x 20 =15 mm.
We investigate the strength of the joint at four critical sections
AA, BB, CC, or DD. It cannot fracture along BB without shearing
one rivet in double shear, along CC, without shearing three rivets
in doable shear and along DD without shearing six rivets in double
shear.
Along AA, joint has a strength of
(350 — 25.5) x 20 x 90 x 106
= 585,000 N.
1000 x 1000
Art. 20-5] INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1015

Along BB, joint has a strength of

(350 — 2 x 25.5) x 20 x 90 x 106
}- 1 x 67000
-----1000 x 1000
= 605,000 N as the fracture along BB cannot take place
without shearing one rivet in double shear. Similarly we can
determine the strength along CC and DD.
Strength along CC
_ (350 — 3 x 25.5) x 20 x 90 x 106 + 3 x 67000
....
1000 x 1000 i
..--- 693,000 N.
Strength along DD
(350 — 3 x 25.5) x 20 x 90 x 106
+ 6 x 67000
1000 x 1000
= 894,000 N. '
Shearing resistance of all rivet ---. 9 x 67000 = 603,000 N.
The lowest strength of the joint is along AA.
Efficiency of the joint = (b b d)
(350 — 25.5)
350
--, 0.928 i.e. 92.8%.
Note: It should be noted that if instead of diamond form of the joint, had
we adopted chain riveting with three rows of three rivets in each, the least strength
(350 — 3 x 25.5) x 20 x 90 x 106.-
of the joint would be ,- 492,000 N, which
1000 >< 1000
3 x 25.5
gives an efficiency of 350 — = 0.782 i.e. 78.2%.
350
6. A lever loaded safety valve has a diameter of 70 mm and blow
off pressure of 1.5 MN/sq m. The fulcrum of the lever is screwed into
the cast iron body of the cover. Suggest the suitable size of threaded part of
the fulcrum if the permissible tensile stress intensity is limited to 40 MN/sq m.
•
The leverage ratio is 10.
The valve is required to blow at a pressure of 1.5 MN/sq m.
7C 702 X 15 x 106
Load on the valve = -4- x
10002
-_,--_ ,760 N.
As the leverage is 10, the weight at the end of the lever will be
5760
= 576 N.
10
1016 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XX

Load on the fulcrum will be 5670 576 = 5,184 N.

Fulcrum of the lever loaded safety valve is subjected to axial
tensile load (fig. 12-23).
Minimum cross sectional area required at the bottom of
the threads
5184
40 x 106
= 129.6 x 10-6 sq m = 129.6 sq mm.
We assume fine threads. We adopt M16 x 1.5 which has
167 sq mm area at the bottom of the threads. The pitch of the
threads is 1.5 mm.
7. The big end (common strap end type) of a connecting rod as shown
in fig. 6-7 is subjected to a maximum load of 35,000N. The diameter
of the circular part of the rod adjacent to the strap end is 60 mm. Determine
(a) the width of the strap end, (b) the thickness of the strap at the thinnest
part, at the cotter hole and at the crown and (c) the width and thickness
of gib and cotter. We tensile stress value in the material of the strap is
limited to 22.5 MN/sq m. Safe shear stress value in cotter and gib is not
to exceed 17.5 MN/sq m.
The width of the strap is generally equal to or slightly greater
than the diameter of the adjacent end of the round part of the rod.
The width of the strap is taken to be 60 mm. The connecting rod
is subjected to a tensile load of 35,000N. As the permissible tensile
stress intensity is limited to 22.5 MN/sq m, the minimum cross
sectional area to be provided at the thinnest part of the strap
will be
35000
= 0.00155 sq m.
22.5 x 106
= 1,550 sq/mm
As the width of the strap is 60 mm, the thickness of the strap
at the thinnest part will be taken as 13 mm. The area provided
at the thinnest part of the strap is 60 x 2 X 13 = 1,560 sq mm,
thus inducing 22.5 MN/sq m as the tensile stress intensity. The
thickness of the gib and cotter is taken as one-fourth the width of
the strap which giver us 15 mm as the thickness of gib and cotter.
If to mm be the thickness of the strap across the cotter holes,
by equating the area of the thinnest part of the strap to area of
the cross section of the strap at the cotter hole, we get
Art. 20-51 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1017

212 (60 15) = 2 x 13 x 60

•
2 x 13 x 60
or t2 — 17.3 mm; we adopt 18 mm.
2 x 45
The thickness of the strap at the crown is taken as 1.5 times
the thickness of the strap at the thinnest part.
The thickness of the strap at the crown = 1.5 x 13 = 19.5 mm;
we adopt 20 mm.
If B be the total width of cotter and gib combined, its value
can be obtained by considering the shear failure of the cotter and
gib. As the cotter and the gib are in double shear, we get
2B tfs P
35000 x 1000
or B - .0.0667 m
2tis 2 x 15 x 17.5 x lu°
= 66.7 mm; we adopt 70 mm.
The width of the gib is taken as 40 mm while that of the cotter
is taken as 30 mm.
Note: If an oil hole is provided in the strap, weakening effect of the hole
should be considered while determining the thickness of the strap at the thinnest
part.

8. Find the diameter of a shaft for a marine engine of 3,000 kW

running at 10 radls. If in the coupling of the shaft 8 bolts are used, deter-
mine the mean diameter of the bolt, if the shear stress allowed in the bolts
is equal to a maximum stress in the shaft which is 63 MATIsq m. The
pitch circle radius of the bolt may be taken as 0.8d, where d is the diameter
of the solid shaft. Also determine the minimum thickness of the flange.
3000 x 1000
Torque 300,000 N.m.
fo -
If d metre be the diameter of the solid shaft, then
TC
16 x d3 x 63 x 108 = 300000

300000 x 16
or d= 0.289 m = 289 mm; we adopt 300 mm.
63 x .7v x 101- =
Pitch circle radius of the bolts = 0.8 x 300 = 240 mm.

Shear load on each bolt = 300000 x 1000

240 x 8
= 156,000 N.
1018 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX

If d1 metre be the diameter of the bolt, then

d21 x 63 x 106 = 156000

4
156000 x 4
or d1 = V = 0.056 m.
63 x 106 x n
We adopt 65 mm.
If t mm be the minimum thickness of the flange, then
7C x t X 300 x 63 x 106 x 0.3
— 300000
1000 x 1000 x 2
300000 x 2 x 1000 x 1000
or t= = 354 mm.
7C x 300 x 63 x 106 x 0.3

We adopt 40 mm. Crushing area provided 65 x 40 = 2,600

sq mm which will give reasonably low value of crushing stress
intensity.
9. The spring loaded safety valve of a boiler is required to blow
oft at a pressure of 1 MN/sq m. The diameter of the valve is 60 mm,
and the maximum lift of the valve is 15 mm.
Design the suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming
the spring index to be 6 and providing initial compression of 30 mm.
The maximum shear .stress in the material of the wire is limited to
450 MN/sq m. G = 84,000 MN/sq m.
Load on the valve when it just begins to lift
TC 602
1 x 106 = 2,820 N.
— 4 X 10002 x
The valve is kept tight on its seat against steam load of 2,820 N
by providing initial compression of 30 mm. Therefore, the
820
stiffness of the spring = 2 -6 = 94 N/mm.
3
The lift of the valve is 15 mm. Therefore, the maximum
compression of the spring is 30 + 15 = 45 mm.
Maximum load on the spring when the valve is in full open
position 45 x 94 = 4,230 N.
The assumed spring index is 6. The stress concentration
'factor, as defined by A. M. Wahl, is
K 4C— 1 0.615 4 X 6 — 1 0.015 =1252.
4C- 4 + C 4 x 6 — 4 6
Art. 20-5] INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1019

Torque = 4230 X 34, where du, is the diameter of the

spring wire in metre
7C 450 x 106
4230 x 3dw -,-• dw3 X -
it 1.252

or 4 .y4230 x 3x 16x 1.252

= 0.0134 In.
450 x 106 X 7C
,---- 134 mm.
From IS: 1137 — 1959, we adopt 14 mm.
Mean diameter of the coil = 14 x 6 = 84 mm.
If n be the number of active turns in the spring, then
84000 x 144 x 10003
94 =
8 x 843 x 10004 X-- n
84000 x 144 x 10003
f 4 -7--
--- -= 74 turns.
"` 8 x 843 x 10004 x 94
Assuming squared and ground ends we have 9 actual turns.
Free length of spring = solid length + maximum compression
+ clearance between adjacent coils (1 mm between adjacent
coils) =-,- 9 x 14 + 45 + 1 x 8 = 179 mm say 180 mm.

10. In a certain water works installation the water is pumped against

a head of 165 metre. The bore of the reciprocating pump is 0.45 in.
The unsupported length of the piston rod is 1.4 m. 'Determine the dia-
meter of the piston rod by using Rankine's formula, taking the . factor of
1
safety to be 10. Take fc = 330 MN/sq in and Rankine constant a --,--
17500 .
Water is pumped against a head of 165 metre. This head of
165 x
water is equivalent to 9-81= 1.62 MN/sq m.
1000
•

Maximum compressive load on the piston rod

7C
-= - x 0.452 x 1.62 x 106 = 258,000 N
4
As the factor of safety is 10, the buckling load on the column
will be 258000 x 10 = 2,580,000 N.
If d mm be the diameter of the solid rod, by using Rankine's
formula, we get
1020 MACHINE DESIGN { Ch. XX

7-c- d2 x 330
4
2580000 = --
1 j_ r1400 x 4T
' 17500 L d
The above equation after simplification gives us an equation
d'a — 9940d2 — 17800000 = 0, which is a quadratic in d2.
After solving, we get d = 107 mm; we adopt 120 mm.
11. The compressive load on the nut and screw clamp similar to
one shown in fig. 11-7 is 30,000N. Calculate the diameter of the screw,
height of the nut and dimensions of the handle if a force of 300 N is required
to be applied at the end of a handle to operate the screw. Assume the
following :
Safe compressive stress for screw ---= 120 MN/sq m
Bearing pressure for screw and nut = 17.5 MN/sq m.
Coefficient of thread friction = 0.14
Frictional torque of pad B = 35 Xm
Bending stress in the handle = 100 MN/sq m.
The screw is subjected to a direct compressive stress and
torsional shear stress. In order to find the diameter of the
screw, we must consider the principal stress. Let us find the
diameter of the screw taking the lower value of stress, say 85
MN/sq m.
If d metre be the diameter of the screw at the bottom of the
thread, then
7C
- d2 x 85 x 106 = 30000
4
30000 4
or d =-11 x — = 0.0212 m, we adopt 25 mm.
85-x-106 7c
We adopt single start square threads having 5 mm pitch.
.. Mean diameter of the screw
= 25 + 2.5 = 27.5 mm.
Outside diameter of the screw
= 25 ± 5 = 30 mm.
Bearing area of each thread
-g X [302 — 2521 = 216 sq mm.
= r4:
If n be the minimum number of threads, then
n x 216 x 17.5 x 106
= 30000
10002
30000 x 10002
or n = 8 threads.
= .-16---x 17.5 x 106
Art. 20-5] INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 1021

From stability point of view, we adopt 10 threads. The height

of the nut will be 10 x 5 = 50 mm. The outside diameter of the
nut is generally twice the outside diameter of the screw. In the
present case it will be 2 x 30 = 60 mm.
5
2 = helix angle = tan-4 P - = tan-1 -,---- 3.3°.
7Cdm n x 27 .5
4) = friction angle = tan 1.1 = tan-1 0.14 = 8.1°.
Torque required to overcome friction at nut will be equal to
pdm 27.5
-T- tan (2 + 4)) =: 30000 x 2 x 1000 x tan 11.4° = 82 N.m.

Torque required to overcome friction at the pad = 35 [Link].

Total torque to be applied at the handle = 82 ± 35 = 117 N.m.
117
.• Effective length of the handle 30-0 = 0.39 m.
7----
If d metre be the diameter of the handle, then
7C
d3 x 100 x 106 = 117
32
117 32
Or d=
V 100 x 106 X IT
= 0.0228 m. — 22.8 mm; we adopt 25 mm.
If fs be the torsional shear stress induced in the screw, then
1.c (25)3
x x fs -=- 117
16 10003
117 x 16 x 10003
or fs — - -- , 38.3 MN/sq m.
7C 253
Direct compressive stress
30000
-=-- 61 MN/sq m.
.7c i 25 \ 2
4 x k woo)
2 + 4 x 38.32
Principal stress = 61 ± 1 61
2
= 79.4 MN/sq m
and = — 18.4 MN/sq m.
The value of the induced stress is within limits.
Dimensions of the screw; Nominal diameter 30 mm, single
start square thread 5 mm, nut of 50 mm height having 60 mm
outside diameter. Lever 400 mm of effective length having 23 mm
diameter.
1022 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XX
EXAMPLES XX

1. A steel connecting rod is to be subjected to a reversed axial load of 150,000

N. Determine the diameter of the rod, using a factor of safety 1.8. The ultimate
tensile strength of the material is 1,000 MN/sq m. Ans. 30 mm.
2. A spherical metal vessel 1.2 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure
of 1.5 MN/sq m. If the permissible stress in the metal is 62.5 MN/sq m and the
efficiency of the riveted joints is 75%, determine the required thickness of the
plate Ans. 10 mm.
3. Design a diamond, double cover butt joint for a tie bar of 25 mm thickness
subjected to an axial load of 0.35 MN. Maximum tensile and shear stress
intensities are limited to 110 MN/sq m and 85 MN/sq m respectively.
Ans. Use 30 mm diameter 3 rivets on each side, assuming 1 and 2 rivets in
rows; 15 cm wide.
4. Fig. 5-15 shows a cap subjected to a load of 20,000 N inclined at an angle
of 45°. Determine the size of the screw if the tensile stress intensity in the material
is limited to 56 MN/sq m and shear stress intensity in the material to 45 MN/sq m.
Ans. 50 mm.
5. The big end of the connecting rod as shown in fig. 6-7 is subjected to a
maximum load of 70,000 N. Calculate the diameter of the circular part of the
rod adjacent to the strap end if the permissible tensile stress is limited to 25MN/sq
m. Also determine the width of the strap end and the thickness of the strap at
the thinnest part, at the cotter hole and at the crown.
If the shear stress value in the cotter and the gib is not to exceed 15 MN/sq m,
suggest the suitable cross sectional dimensions for the gib and the cotter.
Ans. Diameter of circular part 60 mm.
6. A 15 kW, 1,400 r.p.m. motor drives a centrifugal pump through a single
set of 3:1 reduction gear. The load may be considered to be suddenly applied
with minor shocks for which the combined shock and fatigue factor may be taken
as 1.5. Determine the diameters of the pump and motor shafts if the permissible
stress intensity is not to exceed 45 MN/sq m. Ans. 40 mm; 30 mm.
7. Design and draw a fully dimensioned scale drawing of a cast iron flange
coupling of protected type to transmit 15 kW at 250 r.p.m. The flanges are of
cast iron and all other parts are of mild steel.
8. A semi-elliptic automobile spring 1.45 metre long carries a 1 otal load of
9,000 N. The spring is composed of 10 leaves two of which arc full length, each
60 mm wide. Determine the necessary thickness and the resultant stress to give
a deflection of 63 mm.
E = 0.2 x 10° MN/sq m. Ans. 11.8 mm, 232 MN/sq m.
9. The piston rod of a reciprocating pump is subjected to a maximum
axial compressive load of 290,000 N. The length of the piston rod is 1.4 metre.
Assuming the material of the piston rod to be mild steel, determine the diameter
of the piston rod, taking it to be freely hinged at the ends. Take the factor of
safety to be 10. Ans. 120 mm.
10. Design a screw jack to lift a load of 100,000 N having a lift of 0.5 metre.
Choose your own materials and the allowable stresses.
CHAPTER 21
DESIGN PROJECTS
reir.".".."..."."."."...".W.,"...".^.0110.
..."."\o"...."..."..0-..".0%.0"...W.00%.".."."."."."

21-1 Introduction:
Comprehensive design projects are presented in this chapter.
Most of these projects will be lengthy. In order to complete these
projects, the students will be required to make certain assumptions.
Materials have to be selected and sizes to be calculated; then
the appropriate lay out, detail and assembly drawings must be
made to complete the project. In order to complete the projects,
a complete study of similar existing designs is also helpful.
Design lay out so often must be made; sometimes force analysis,
drawings and kinematic schemes may be the important first steps
that a prospective designer may have to cope with before he begins
stress calculations. For completion of design projects the designer
will have to make use of the library. In addition manufacturers'
catalogue will be of immense use in selecting hardware for the
machines. Student-designers shall have to refer relevant Indian
Standards. While preparing final drawings, designers should
follow the code of practice for general engineering drawings, i.e.
IS: 696-1960. Drawing should be complete enough that the
product could be easily manufactured.
Projects of this type force the student to put up together
and review his previous knowledge of materials, kinematics,
, dynamics, strength of materials, manufacturing processes and
other subjects with the theoretical applications in machine design
in such a way as to come up with a complete design.
We have already considered in detail the project concerning
"Design of a hydraulic press". Here we 'consider in brief without
detailed calculations the procedure for two projects namely "Hand
operated Bench Press" and "Single reduction parallel helical
gear" for the guidance of the students.
Examples :
1. Hand operated bench press:
Fig. 21.1 shows a hand operated bench press in which certain dimensions
are given below or in the figure as well as the features shown thereon in order
1024 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI

that particular requirements be satisfied. The maximum force to be applied

between the press jaws is specified at 100 kg.
Length of the crank , 150 mm
Jaw height ---= 100 mm
Maximum jaw opening = 80 mm
Let us discuss regarding the points which may lead in propor-
tioning the various machine elements, that form the press.
(1) Lever: The lever is subjected to bending and it is to be
forged from a medium carbon steel. All bearing surfaces will be
machined and hardened. The cross section should vary so as
approximately to maintain constant strength. In other words it
is to be designed as a beam of uniform strength. The cross section
may be circular, elliptical or rectangular in shape. The end of
the lever should be modified so that it can be grasped by hand.
For further details refer art. 12-3.
I
100

100 mm Slot 125

y-- Jaw opening

15 15
Jaw height

/
irb %
- Crank length I
150
4 :
Hand operated bench press
FIG. 21-1
(2) Torque rod: The torque rod is subjected to both torsion
and bending. It is to be made circular in section. The suitable
material will be carbon steel. Its centre and end portions should
be modified for attachment to the adjoining members.
Art. 21-1 ] DESIGN PROJECTS 1025

(3) Crank: It is subjected to bending. It is to be forged from

a medium carbon steel. Its section can be circular, rectangular
or elliptical.
(4) Toggle connecting rod: It transmits force in tension.
It can be forged from mild steel. It may have any section but
its ends may be modified to connect the adjacent members by
pins. The ends of the rod are designed according to knuckle
joints. These pins are subjected to shear, bending and bearing.
Contact surfaces will have to be machined. For further details
refer to art. 6-6.
(5) Toggle bars: These members are subjected to compressive
loads. Hence they are designed according to theory of struts.
The suitable materials for these members will be mild steel. The
cross section may be rectangular or circular. Ends should be
modified to receive the pins. For further details refer to illustrative
example 3 of art. 10-6 and illustrative example 7 of art. 11-8.
(6) Standard: It is to be designed for bending, shear and
bearing. It can be cast to shape and then machined at the
contact surfaces. It should be bolted to the frame.
(7) Frame: The stress analysis for the frame will be complex.
It is cast to shape and then sliding and bearing surfaces machined.
It should be proportioned to keep the weight at the minimum
consistent with strength. Slots, grooves, holes, etc. must be
incorporated into its design as required for the pacts that contact.
After proportioning the various dimensions of the frame, every
section must be carefully checked for the stresses that are imposed
on the frame.
(8) Sliding head: This member is subjected to bending, shear,
bearing and wear. It can be cast and machined as necessary.
The jaw itself should be lined with a steel plate to provide a smooth
wearable surface. Rectangular or dovetail ways should be provided
on the frame of the machine. A slot as shown in fig. 21-1 is needed
for the parts to be assembled in the press. A minimum clear
space of 100 mm must be provided between the face and the toggle.
(9) Adjustable head: This member is fixed in any single
operation but it must be designed so that it can be easily adjusted
between operations when necessary. Bending and shear are the
stresses to which the adjustable head is subjected. It is cast to shape
and machined. The jaw face is lined with a steel plate.
1026 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI

Other elements such as bolts, nuts, set screws, machine screws,

pins, and all other fastening elements needed in the assembly of the
press will be selected from standard stock. .-

Other considerations:
Cost: A student can not pin point specific costs; however
he can use catalogue as guide lines for applying judgement to a
design.
Format for drawings: Many firms have printed formats
cut to the proper drawing sheet size. Finished sizes (trimmed
sizes) have been standardized at 841 x 1189, 594 x 841,
420 x 594, 297 x 420, 210 x 297 and 148 x 210 mm according
to IS 696 of 1960.
Using a printed format simplifies the work of the designer—
draftsman; he completes such blanks as
(a) drawing number
(b) scale
(c) name
(d) date
and (e) drawing sheets.
On all drawing sheets, there are many blank spaces for
checking and approval. Printed formats also make provisions for
engineering change records. The drawing number usually has
some significance in terms of coding. Two drawings will never have
the same number. To avoid placing a tolerance on each individual
dimension, some type of general tolerance block is desirable on
a drawing. This general arrangement applies to dimensions
which do not have a specific standard tolerance.
In any design project, the drawing is the connecting link
between the engineering department and the manufacturing
facility. Thus the accuracy of drawing is very important.
Surface finishes: The specifying of - surface finishes is
becoming standard practice. Practical values should be consi-
dered when specifying surface finishes. Overfinishing can become
very expensive; thus it is desirable to be realistic about costs. A
designer should specify the roughest finish possible that will not interfere
with the function of the part. The surface roughness is expressed in
Microns where 1 micron = 0.001 mm.
Art, 21-1 ] DESIGN PROJECTS 1027

Tolerances: Dimensional variations must be considered

carefully as an important phase in design. If dimensional
tolerances are too tight, the cost of the finished component may
become excessive; if they are too loose, malfunctioning of the
equipment could occur. Realistic values must be chosen to
fit the situation.
Sketches and drawings: While drawing component
drawings and assembly drawing, Indian Standard Code of practice
for general engineering drawings, i.e. IS :696-1960 should be
followed.
2. Reduction Gear:
Design a single reduction parallel helical gear speed reducer having
a 3:1 speed ratio and capable of transmitting the full load rating of 10
h. p. 960 r.p.m. motor.
1. Selection of materials:
Pinion Chrome-nickel steel
Gear Mild steel
Shaft orged steel
Bearing Rolling contact type
Housing Good grade cast iron
Keys Mild steel
2. Preliminary sketch:
With the aid of any available literature and any existing
design or any original ideas, draw a neat free hand sketch of the
proposed design.
3. Gears:
Assume data regarding helix angle, form of teeth, minimum
number of pinion teeth and relation between the face width and
circular pitch. For suitable assumptions,
•
refer art. 16-16.
Electric motors will deliver under starting conditions around
200 per cent of the rated torque. In the design of gear fix strength,
the overload torque may be used. For wear of the gears, the rated
torque may be used because for the major portion of the operating
life the motor operates at rated conditions rather than at starting
conditions. Using Lewis equation determine the module, pitch
diameter and the face width. Check the design for wear and
dynamic load conditions.
1028 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ci. XXI

Check the horse power rating according to the graphs of

art. 16-19.
Determine the minimum required Brinell hardness numbers
for pinion and gear, the minimum surface hardness for the pinion
and gear based on the wear of the teeth and specify the core
and surface hardness of pinion and gear and required heat treatment.

4. High speed shaft and bearings:

(a) The shaft and bearings are subjected to thrust and radial
loads caused by the gears, to overhanging loads caused by the
driven pulleys or gears and to torque due to power transmitted.
Making realistic assumption that the maximum bending moment
on the shaft due to overhanging load is 150 percent of the torque
on the shaft, determine the diameter of the solid shaft.
(b) The bearing should be selected tentatively with an
expected life of 5 years operating 7 days each week at 12 hours
per day.
(c) Make a neat sketch of the shaft showing the gear,
bearing mountings, bearing cover and oil seals. Determine the
bearing span allowing generous clearance between the pinion and
housing and locate the bearing so that it is fully supported in the
housing.
(d) Determine the length of the shaft extension. Calculate
the radial, tangential and axial forces exerted by the pinion and
the overhanging load. Determine the load on the heavily loaded
bearing and determine the required bearing capacity and check
whether the tentative bearing selection is satisfactory or not. If
it is not satisfactory, select the other bearing having the same bore
and higher load carrying capacity.
(e) Assume the bore of the pinion to be the nearest nominal
dimension above the bearing bore.
(f) Specify the suitable dimensions for the key. For further
details refer chapters 7 and 9.

5. Low-speed shaft and bearings:

Because the torque and bending moments vary inversely as
the speed, the low-speed shaft may be designed accordingly.
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1029

The minimum shaft size can be determined by the strength equation

and the same procedure is followed for the low speed shaft and
bearing as outlined for the high speed shaft.

6. Lubrication of gears and bearings:

The gears are lubricated by dipping into an oil bath filled
with fluid oil, while the bearings are packed with grease. In
case of separate lubrication, the bearing sockets must be sealed to
prevent the grease from leaking outward and into the housing and
to keep the fluid oil out of the bearing sockets where it can dilute
the grease. Therefore sealing devices in the form of circular
grooves are made both on the inside and outside of each bearing
socket.

If adequate lubrication of the gears and bearings is provided

by a simple and positive splash system which will circulate the oil
from a reservoir located in the housing, oil seal is selected from
manufacturer's catalogue.

7. Housing:
Housing should be designed to enclose all moving parts
properly. Design the housing observing various factors such as
thickness of the casting, clearance inside of housing for all moving
parts, suitable floor flanges, suitable stiffening ribs on the housing
walls, provision for eye bolt, arrangement for replenishing the
lubricant, oil drain and level indicator if splash system is used.

8. Drawing:
Drawing of components as well as assembly with the bill of
materials should be prepared according xo IS: 696 of 1960.
Refer project 1 entitled "Design of a hydraulic press' for pre-
paring project exercises given below. Alternative solutions for the
same design project can be obtained. Fig. 18-19 shows four dif-
ferent patterns of lever loaded safety N•alves. In addition the
method of preparation of bill of materials can be seen in fig. 18-19
as well as in table 18-9.1. Fig. 18-20 gives an idea to the student
designer how to prepare component drawings and assembly
drawing.
1030 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. Xli

Project Exercises :
1. Air Cylinder:
Design an air cylinder for operation at 6 kg/sq cm gauge. The maxi-
mum air pressure available in the plant is 15 kg/sq cm gauge. The applied
force required during the outstroke of the piston is 600 kg. Although the
frictional resistance in a well designed cylinder is approximately 5% of the
theoretical force of the cylinder, it is advisable that the cylinder size be
determined which is capable of exerting approximately 150% of the force
which is considered sufficient for the job. The required force on the
instroke of the piston is 50 kg.
The stroke of the piston is 150 cm.
The cylinder is to be double acting and is to be cushioned 3 cm at both
ends. Needle values are to be used to control the flow of air from the cushion-
ing space. Provision is to be made to allow a fast start of the piston.
Select suitable materials. Complete design project should include
the force analysis, selection of suitable sealing devices, arrangements for
mounting the cylinder to the frame, method of prevention of rusting of cylinder
from condensed moisture from the compressed air. Also give complete set
of calculations, sketches of all parts and assembly drawing including bill
of materials.
2. Compressed air receiver (fig. 21-2):
Design a compressed air receiver of 3 cu metre capacity. Maximum
air pressure is limited to 15 kg/sq cm gauge. The inner diameter of the
receiver is 1,000 mm.
Your design report should include selection of materials and a realistic
factor of safety, stress calculations for longitudinal and circumferential
joints which are either riveted or welded, relief valve, inspection door, position
of various mountings, estimation of weight, detail drawings and assembly
drawing with bill of materials.
Your design should confirm IS regulations.
3. Pneumatic Arbour Press (fig. 21-3):
Design a pneumatic arbor press that meets the following requirements :
(a) 1 tonne capacity
(b) 6 kg/sq cm shop air pressure is to be used.
(c) 25 cm throat
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1031
Angle spring relief safety value
To air vent tp

50 mm to 25 mm
Stop value 50 mm dia.
reducer tee
M 20 bolts
with 25 mm 0110411 11uNw Air
Angle ring ,
nipple and union outlet
ISA 90 90

Pressure gauge
W.I. tube W. I tube
25 mm dia. \t) 50 mm dia.

Inspection door
Stop values
(a) 50 mm dia.

Air inlet

To drain ISIS 150

values 25 mm bore

14 --- - 250 — p
f '11
rivets - #.1. _ eg rivets
I4
20 mm .00Ak. —VIM ei\J4
............w..t...1 0, 20 mm
#$
Handle 1
...

(b)

inspection door
Compressed air receiver
FIG. 21-2
1032 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI
(d) 30 cm diameter table with provision for T bolts
(e) Lugs for mounting to table or bench
(f) Control valve suitable for operating cylinder
(g) Compactness

WI

200-*

100 mm minimum
200 mm maximum

I Is I

Pneumatic Arbour
FIG. 21-3

Design the frame and all connections; select an adequate air cylinder
and the necessary accessories. Provide the necessary detail and assembly
drawings together with a complete bill of materials.
4. Bearing puller:
Design a bearing puller for the removal of ball bearings assembled
with interference between the inner race and the shaft. The puller is to be
adjustable so that it may be used with single row radial types of bearings
having outside diameters 75 mm to 150 mm. The bore diameters range
from 45 mm to 100 mm. The maximum interference between the shaft
and inner bore of the largest bearing encountered is 0.040 mm.
The maximum bearing width is 24 mm. The centre line of the bearing
is at a maximum distance of 20 cm from the end of the shaft. The bearing
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1033

puller is to operate by pressing against the inner race so as not to damage

the bearing. The project should include a complete set of calculations,
sketches of each part and assembly drawings (with bill of materials).
Use careful judgement in selecting the material and a realistic factor of safety.
5. Toggle jack (Refer fig. 11-10.) :
Design a 1i tonne automotive type toggle jack. Make the design
as compact as possible, yet provide a sturdy base and sufficient width to
minimize the possibility of tilting. Use trapezoidal threads for the screw
power drive. Design the jack to lift from a distance of 12 cm to 40 cm.
Calculate all parts with z suitable factor of safety. Select all materials.
The completed project should include the kinematic analysis, force analysis,
detail drawings, assembly drawings (with bill of materials) and all calcu-
lations.
6. Bench vice:
Design a heavy duty bench vice. The jaws are to be 10 cm wide and
are to provide an opening of 15 cm. The vice is to be provided with a swivel
base that will move at least 150° and can be locked in any position. The
vice is to be used for usual shop operations. It may be assumed that the
maximum hammer that will be used will be a 0.5 kg head ball peen hammer.
Common size hacksaws would be used for performing work on material
held by the vice. An anvil is to be provided on the rear. Provision must
be made for bolting the vice to a bench. Provide arLoperating handle of
s uitable length.
List assumptions for the maximum loading conditions that could act
on various parts of the vice. Select materials that are compatible with the
rough usage that may be predicted.
Make the necessary calculations.
Make a complete force analysis. Use a trapezoidal thread for
operation of the vice. Provide details and assembly drawings with a
complete bill of materials.
7. Governor bell crank lever:
A centrifugal governor is being designed to trip a locking device when
the elevator on which it is installed reaches a predetermined falling speed.
The kinematic arrangement of the governor as well as dimensions pertinent
to this investigation are shown in partial sketch as drawn in fig. 21-4.
Additional data pertinent to this portion of the design are given below :
1034 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI

(i) The inertia mass weighing 0.4 kg can slide from a radius of 25 mm
to 110 mm.
(ii) The critical speed at which governor must trip a locking device to
stop the elevator is 100 rad/sec. At this instant the mass is situated
at a radius of 100 mm.
(iii) In order that the device be tripped at the required speed a maximum
deflection in either arm of the bell crank lever of 0.1 mm must not
be exceeded.

Bell crank lever (schematic)

Inertia .....i
mass 4--r --).

Governor bell crank lever

Flo. 21-4

Design the bell crank lever and spring selecting suitable materials
and a realistic design factor of safety. Give complete specifications for
the spring. Draw a detail working sketch of the bell crank lever.
8. Bracket and bolts for a tilting gear:
Fig. 21-5 shows a part of the gear for tilting an electric furnace,
which is built on the curved member, which is carried on suitable rollers.
The curved member can be swung on the rollers about the centre of curvature.
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1035

This movement is drected by the piston rod of the hydraulic cylinder, which
is pivoted to the base of the structure as shown in the figure. The motion
of the rod is transmitted to the girder by a pin, overhung from a. bracket
bolted to the curved member. The following are the further specifications
for the design of the bracket and holding down bolts:
Steady thrust in the piston rod 3 tonnes
Distance from foot of the bracket to the centre of the pin for the
rod to clear girder in extreme position 25 cm
Angular displacement of rod between the two extreme
positions 20°
Angle swung through by bracket between the two extreme
positions 45°
64

7 BI
l

xi\
o< = 15 o . \. 1 I
•1 i
-----------r. . _____ 0
45o ----'
. ...---)--'

900

Bracket and bolts for a silting gear

FIG. 21-5

In the untilted position the axis of the rod is parallel to the foot of the
bracket.
Tour design report should include the strength calculations for the pin,
the rod, bolts and the bracket, detailed drawings of the components adding a
list of materials and machining instructions and assembly drawings.
Sketch an alternative design for the bracket in welded construction.
1036 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI

9. Power shidt:
Power is supplied to the solid shaft, shown in fig. 21-6, at point B by
means of a chain drive from an electric motor of squirrel cage ype. Power
is taken from the shaft at points A and C by two machines. The machine
at A must be chain driven and sometimes produces shock loading. The
machine which receives power at point C operates with a steady load and
is to be V belt connected. The power shaft operates at 900 r.p.m. The
speed of the machine at A is to be 600 r.p.m.; the operational speed of the
machine at C is to be 300 r.p.m. Except for the locating dimensions given
in fig. 21-6, machine positions are not critical. The chain drive at point
B has a 1:1 ratio from the motor. Assume a suitable factor of safety and
select all materials and components.
CO Draw the bending moment and twisting moment diagrams.
(ii) Design the shafts.
(iii) Select suitable chain drives for A and B.
(iv) Select a suitable belt drive for position C.
(v) Provide some type of torque limiting device at A.
(vi) Select desirable bearing locations for the power shaft.
(vii) Calculate bearing loads and design suitable bearings.
(viii) Provide the necessary lubrication system.

3hp. 2 hp.
14-900 0

I-

A
Power shaft
FIG. 21-6

Submit all calculations; make necessary detail and assembly drawings with
a complete bill of materials. Use stock components wherever possible.
Assume that the equipment will operate continuously for 8 hours per day
and will have a life of 5 years.
Art. 21-1) DESIGN PROJECTS 1037
10. Power shaft and a pulley:
Fig. 21-7 shows a power shaft. 10 h., p. is supplied to the pulley P
by means of a flat belt and power is taken from shaft through 20° full depth
involute spur gear G. The shaft is supported by two deep groove ball
bearings. Speed of the shaft is 940 r.p.m.
Diameter of the pulley 250 mm
Pitch diameter of the gear 250 mm
Weight of the pulley 14 kg
Weight of the gear 14 kg.
Ft

J77 t
2D

P
..c A C

4, i. 1
L D
t
20
4,
D
t.
Power shaft and a pulley
FIG. 21-7

The pulley and gear are assembled with press fits and keys.
Dimensions A =---B = C= 180 mm.
Design the shaft for strength, critical speed and rigidity considerations.
Select the proper single row deep groove ball bearing. Give a complete
design project for the cast iron pulley.
1038 MACHINE DESIGN [Ch. XXI

11. Back gear of a lathe:

Design a back gear for a lathe to satisfy the following requirements.
Maximum speed of the spindle 700 r.p.m.
Minimum speed of the spindle 20 r.p.m.
The back gear is to have a total reduction of speed of about 8.
Distance between the centre lines of the spindle and the gear shaft is
approximately 150 mm.
Three step cone pulley is to be used.
Tour design project should include selection of materials, selection
of realistic factor of safety, methods of manufacture, force analysis, stress
calculations, sketches of parts and assembly drawing including bill of
materials.

12. Two speed gear box:

A gear box is required to transmit 40 h. p. The driving shaft rotates
at 1,000 r.p.m. and the driven shaft is to have two alternative speeds 350
r.p.m. or 260 r.p.m. (The actual speeds obtained to be within 3% above
or below these values.)
Sliding gears (not constant mesh) are to be used, the material for these
being nickle chrome steel.
Both driving and driven shafts have a diameter of 55 mm, this being
increased in the latter, where splined, to cart), the sliding gears.
Ball bearings are to be used through out. Tour project should include
selection of materials, force analysis, strength calculations for lay shaft and
gear wheels, selection of suitable bearings, component drawing with machin-
ing instructions and assembly drawing with bill of materials.

13. Single stage speed reducer:

Design a totally enclosed single stage right angle speed reducer for
application with a bread mixing machine. Five horse power is to be
transmitted at 960 r.p.m. of the high speed shaft with a velocity reduction
of 2.5:1. Power is to be applied through a V belt drive and taken from
the output shaft through a flexible coupling. The velocity ratio of the pulleys
is 1 to 1. Base the selection of the bearings on satisfactory operation for
three years, with 8 hours per day, 6 days a week operatoin. Limit the
pitch diameter of the pulleys to 150 mm minimum. Proper sealing is
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1039

extremely important since the machine is to operate in a dusty atmosphere.

Unit should be compact. Your project should include selection of materials
and realistic design factor of safety, force analysis, selection of bearings
and assembly drawing with a bill of materials.

14. Speed reducer:

Design a totally enclosed speed reducer to the following specifications:
(a) The driver is to be a 4 h.p. single phase 220 volt A.G. motor with
a speed of 1,450 r.p.m.
(b) Speed ratio is 25:1
(c) Input and output shafts are to be 100 mm above the base and parallel.
(d) Herringbone gears and ball bearings are to be used.
(e) Reducer will be used 8 hours per day in a location where the .tempera-
ture range is 10°C to 30°C.
(f) Unit should be compact.
The principal calculations to be made involve gears, shafts, key and bearings.
Detail drawings of all parts, except antifriction bearings and hardware,
should be made and also an assembly drawing with bill of materials.
Specify the lubricant and provide sight glass and convenient drain. Provide
mounting lugs in the base.
O.
15. Winch: I
Design a hand operated winch for removing boats from the water at
marina. The capacity of the winch is to be 3 tonnes; wire rope and
fittings with a suitable drum are to be used. Provision for mounting bolts
should be made. Provide a grab hook at the end of a 30 metre cable.
Design a compact gear train to assist in the hand operation of the crank.
Select a suitable factor of safety and appropriate materials. Make detail
and assembly drawings of the product with a complete bill of materials.

16. Pulley block (Refer fig. 1-8.):

Design a single pulley block to support a load of 4,000 kg.
Your design project should include selection of materials, realistic
factor of safety, method of manufacture, force analysis, stress calculations
sketches qf parts and assembly drawing including bill of materials.
 12/

CIRCULAR
SECTION
220' "—
ma
PLATE
3 THICK 11

A
-T-

M 22 —.1 F-11
H52--1

tu
M25 I-124-1
1-52-1
PIN
7 PIN 1
MS
MS
6 PIN M S.

T rT 5
4
EYE
PULLEY
1 STEEL
C1
150
M 12 l•
--130 : NC) 3
2
LINK
HOOK 1
2 MS

— 1-58i--1_ 1 PLATE 2 M S.
—•. NO NAME OFF AtAt
—•. REFERENCES
—44S101—
.
}.---
m 1041------H C) CRANE HOOK
Art. 21-1] DESIGN PROJECTS 1041
17. Jib crane:
Design a jib crane with a load capacity of 3 tonnes. The horizontal
member is to be an I beam that will accommodate a stock spur geared chain
hoist. The tensile member of the jib crane is to make an angle of 300
with the horizontal. The crane is to be designed such that the entire unit
is to be moved through an arc of 180°; this necessitates hinging at the wall
supports. Design all components under maximum loading conditions.
Thus tie rod and connections must be figured with the trolley completely at the
outer end of its travel. The beam must be designed with load at the mid point,
and the wall connections with the load close to the wall. The lift of the
hoist is to be 3 metre; hoist and trolley are to be hand operated. Provide
stop at the end of a horizontal beam. Total travel of the trolley is to be 4
metre. Tie bar is to be made in two parts so that its length can be adjusted
during assembly.
Use standard or stock parts wherever possible. Make detail and
assembly drawings with a complete part list.
18. Cam:
The following are the few details of a camshaft operating the eight
valves of a four cylinder petrol engine :
Maximum camshaft speed 1,000 r.p.m.
Cam base circle diameter 20 mm
Lift of the valve 7 mm
Radius of the nose of the cam 6 mm,.
Spring stiffness 10 kg/cm.
Inlet valve remains open during 100° of the camshaft rotation and
the exhaust valve during 120° of camshaft rotation.
The device is to be operated 8 hours per day. Lay out a suitable cam
profile for inlet and exhaust valves, choose a reliable factor and select a cam
roller. Design a follower support with a suitable guide, keeping frictional
resistance to a minimum. Select the needed material; determine the torque
requirement.
Submit the calculations and the following drawings :
(i) Cam layout
(ii) Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams for the cam
(iii) Force analysis made under maximum conditions
(iv) Detail drawings
(v) Assembly drawing with a complete bill of materials.
Indicate what lubrication methods could be emploed in a project of this type.
1042 MACHINE DESIGN [ Ch. XXI
•

19. Combination punch and a shear:

Design a belt driven combination punching and shearing machine to
meet the following requirements.
Maximum diameter of a hole to be punched 20 mm
Maximum thickness of a plate for 20 mm holes 20 mm
Depth of throat or reach 900 mm
Ratio if diameter of main gear to diameter of
driving pinion 7 or 8
Velocity of driving belt is limited to 6 metre 1second
Number of strokes 25 to 30 per minute.
The main section of the body has a hollow section.
Detailed stress calculations should be given for the following
components :
Drive shaft
Eccentric or camshaft
Frame
Gear and pinion
Sliding clutch
Belt
Flywheel
Pedestal bearing and bearing cap
Clutch operating mechanism.
roar design project should include selection of materials, kinematic
analysis, force analysis, sketches of various elements, operating mechanism,
selection of drive and bearings and assembly drawing including bill of
materials.
20. Drill press:
Design a floor model press. Specifications are as follows :
Maximum size of the drill 14 mm
Base to chuck distance 1,000 mm
Spindle travel 100 mm.
250 mm x 250 mm slotted adjustable table; spring return for quill.
Provide four rotational speeds.
Refer to hand book for suitable speeds, torque, thrust and horse power
requirements for drilling operations.
Use V-belt drive and 230 volt A.C. motor. Make necessary calcula-
tions and working drawings.
Art. 21-22 1 bESIGN PROJECTS 1043

21. Cone Clutch (fig. 19-23):

Design a cone clutch to transmit 5 h. p. at 500 r.p.m. The clutch
is to transmit power from a pulley to a machine. Tour design report should
include the selection of suitable materials, realistic design factor of safety,
and calculations for cone, shaft, shear pins, collar, spring, pulley and belt.
Also give the lay out of the friction material, sketches for various
components and assembly drawing of the clutch including bill of materials.

22. Selection of materials:

Enumerate the properties of materials required to be considered by
the designer when selecting the same for a particular machine part.
What are the chief physical characteristics of materials that are
important in deciding on their choice as material for manufacture of different
types of machine elements?
State which materials are used for the design of the following parts:
(i) Cylinder block
(ii) Piston
(iii) Screw of a screw jack
(iv) Rivets for boiler construction
(v) Brushing
(vi) Steam engine cover bolts
(vii) Railway carriage springs
(viii) Pulleys
(ix) Belts
(x) Valve body in case of steam stop valves
(xi) Eccentric sheave
(xii) High speed connecting rods
1
(xiii) Bell crank levers
(xiv) Rocker arm for I.C. engines
(xv) Links of roller chains
(xvi) Crane hook
(xvii) Balls of rolling bearing
1014 MACHINE DESION f Ch. XXI
Gears for impact loading
Flywheels
Governor balls
Lathe bed
Crankshafts of marine engines
Propeller of a ship
Boiler shell
Piston of a scooter engine
Man hole cover for a drain.

23. Specific shapes for sections:

Give reasons to justify specffic shapes or crosssections used for the
parts mentioned below:
I section of a connecting rod for high speed engines
Elliptical section for the arms of a pulley
Trapezoidal section of a crane hook
Rectangular hollow section with inner side thick for frames of
vertical machines such as milling machines, presses, etc.
Rectangular section for levers
Cotter with one side straight and other side taper
T section for the cast iron brackets
A hollow circular section tapering to a larger area towards
bottom of a screw jack.
APPENDIX_