Sports in World History

Why are human beings athletes? How did the sports we know today develop
in the world?
Modern sports emerged from a background of traditional sports in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These sports were a product of the
industrial revolution, the scientific revolution and urbanization. This lively
and clear survey provides a wide-ranging overview of the history of modern
sports, covering such topics as:

• How the major modern sports came about and how they spread
throughout the world with the help of enthusiastic individuals, sports
organizations, the YMCA and the Olympic movement
• Discussions of some of the most popular modern world sports including:
soccer, basketball, baseball, cricket, table tennis, tennis, formula one
racing, golf, swimming, skiing, volleyball, track and field, boxing, judo
and cycling. These are among the most popular, although there are some
300 sports in the world
• The history of both Western and non-Western sports in depth, as well
as the increasing globalization of sports today
• The challenges facing the world of sports today, such as commer-
cialization and the use of performance-enhancing drugs

David G. McComb is Emeritus Professor of History at Colorado State

University, where he taught courses in world history and sports history. He
is the author of Sports: An Illustrated History (1999).
Themes in World History
Series editor: Peter N. Stearns

The Themes in World History series offers focused treatment of a range of

human experiences and institutions in the world history context. The
purpose is to provide serious, if brief, discussions of important topics as
additions to textbook coverage and document collections. The treatments
will allow students to probe particular facets of the human story in greater
depth than textbook coverage allows, and to gain a fuller sense of historians’
analytical methods and debates in the process. Each topic is handled over
time – allowing discussions of changes and continuities. Each topic is
assessed in terms of a range of different societies and religions – allowing
comparisons of relevant similarities and differences. Each book in the series
helps readers deal with world history in action, evaluating global contexts
as they work through some of the key components of human society and
human life.

Gender in World History Asian Democracy in World

Peter N. Stearns History
Alan T. Wood
Consumerism in World
History: The Global Revolutions in World
Transformation of Desire History
Peter N. Stearns Michael D. Richards
Warfare in World History Migration in World History
Michael S. Neiberg Patrick Manning
Disease and Medicine in Sports in World History
World History David G. McComb
Sheldon Watts
The United States in World
Western Civilization in History
World History Edward J. Davies II
Peter N. Stearns
The Indian Ocean in World
History
Milo Kearney
Sports in World History

David G. McComb
First published 2004
by Taylor & Francis Inc.
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Milton Park, Park Square, Abingdon,
Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
© 2004 David G. McComb
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
McComb, David G.
Sports in world history / by David G. McComb.
p. cm. — (Themes in world history)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sports—History . 2. World history . I. Title. II. Series.
GV571.M37 2004
796′.09—dc22 2004003808

ISBN 0-203-69701-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-69775-8 (Adobe eReader Format)

ISBN 0–415–31811–4 (hbk)
ISBN 0–415–31812–2 (pbk)
Contents

Preface vii

1 Introduction 1

2 The athletic imperative and the reasons for sport 9

3 The emergence of modern sports 31

4 The globalization of sport 63

5 The significance of global sports 91

Index 119
Preface

Upon meeting someone for the first time at a social gathering one of the
initial questions asked is, “What do you do?” The question is an attempt
to establish some sort of identification, or connection, or perhaps a pecking
order. It refers to economic work. In the past 25 years when this has
happened to me I have answered, “I teach at a university.” The inevitable
follow-up question then was, “Well, what do you teach?” I would answer,
“I teach the history of sport,” pause, and carefully observe the reaction.
Almost always the response was either, “Um,” revealing little interest, or
“Oh!” showing surprise and enthusiasm. The course of the conversation was
then determined.
Students, academics, professional people, or others, seem to be divided
into those who possess an almost inborn interest in sports, and those who
don’t. Either sports are seen as trivial and insignificant, or they are looked
upon with curiosity and attention. People often read the sports pages of a
newspaper and watch sporting events on television without ever thinking
about their interest. They just enjoy the experience. They are the ones who
say “Oh!”, and this book is written for them.
Chapter 1

Introduction

It took a while for scholars in the twentieth century to recognize the

significance of sports. Philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, and
physical educators preceded historians into the sports field, but enthusiasts
established the North American Society for Sport History complete with
a journal in 1973. In 30 years the small academic group has grown from
163 members to 380. Scattered through colleges and universities in North
America, Europe, and Australia now are courses about sports, and although
sports history is still a subtopic it is accepted in course curriculums and
as a subject for serious research. It is no longer viewed as a boondoggle for
instructors who wish to deduct the cost of stadium tickets from their income
tax.

What is sport?
Strangely enough, there has been a problem about defining the word
“sport.” Everyone knows what it means, and yet there is confusion. For
instance, are fishing, hunting, skiing, or hiking sports? Most would agree
that these activities are a kind of recreation, and a sort of sport. What
happens, however, when there is a sponsored contest to catch the largest
bass, or to find out who can ski over a set of mountain moguls with the
fastest time? Most would agree that these activities are still sports, but that
there is a difference in the intensity or seriousness of the physical effort
involved. In explanation, physical educators have suggested a continuum
for sports with recreation, or play, at one end of the line and athletics at the
other.
Recreation is mainly for fun, or exercise, or relaxation—such as a game
of noontime basketball at a local athletic club. At the other end of the
continuum with athletics there is a high degree of training, investment, and
coaching, along with spectators, rules, publicity, and institutional control
such as with a varsity basketball game at a university. The amount of sheer
fun diminishes, and the amount of serious work increases as you move from
2 Introduction

recreation to athletics. But, all along the line there is a combination of

physical prowess, rules, and competition—the main ingredients of sports.
It is less so with recreation, more so with athletics. In this book I emphasize
the history of athletics rather than recreation, and thus, incidentally, leave
out recreational games such as chess, or bridge because they lack any
significant degree of physical effort. Also, in most cases when I use the words
“sports,” or “contests,” and sometimes “games” as in the instance of Olympic
Games they are used as synonyms for “athletics.”

The problem of periodization

Another special problem for sports historians beyond uncovering when
and why and where sports developed in the past has been the construction
of some sort of framework, or theory, to analyze and compare sports at
different times and places. Scholars working with world history probably
have struggled with this problem more than others. Generally, for teaching
purposes world historians have adopted the division of time used by those
teaching Western Civilization—ancient, medieval, and modern with the
modern period beginning at 1500 CE. Still, there is much debate about
periodization, particularly among world systems advocates who select the
thirteenth, sixteenth, or eighteenth centuries as the most important era
for trade and commerce. In contrast, for the development and spread
of modern sports the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are the most
important.
This is the time period when modern sports evolved and achieved a
global distribution through the purposeful action of soldiers, imperial
administrators, Christian missionaries, sports organizations, devotees, and
businessmen. Traditional sports, those played by indigenous peoples, for
the most part, rarely developed a global span. The sports that became global
were those carried by the Europeans and Americans who reached into the
world as a part of their historical evolution, communication, and influence.
Thus, recent sports history fits roughly into the structure of modernization
theory.

Modernization theory
This idea argues that as a result of the industrial and scientific revolutions,
urbanization, and the growth of capitalism the Western European nations
and the United States developed into wealthy modern states that empha-
sized rationality, standardization, uniformity, order, material progress,
bureaucratic government, and corporate control. The resulting increase
in leisure and income for people in such a circumstance made possible
the commercialization and professional development of spectator sports as
 Introduction 3

pastimes. Modern states thus escaped the static, tradition bound, econom-
ically poor, ritualistic, hierarchical conditions of the pre-modern world.
Critics of modernization theory have pointed out its Western bias, the
impersonal driving forces, the lack of power to predict non-Western
developments, and an absence of consideration for traditional values or
internal motivations. Also, critics have been impelled by a fear that
modernization means cultural imperialism and globalization which leads,
in turn, to a homogenized world culture. In regard to world sports there is
some truth in this. Common rules for soccer and basketball, for example,
are used world wide, and the conventions for the sports came from the West.
Still the fear of homogenization or Eurocentrism does not decrease the power
of the theory.
Although not well developed and somewhat misused, as historian Peter
Stearns has pointed out, modernization theory serves as a useful tool for
understanding the relationships of major forces in history such as the
industrial revolution. Modernization theory, indeed, has been helpful in
world comparative studies, business history, and sports history. Allen
Guttmann, an American Studies professor at Amherst College, used it to
explicate the differences between traditional and modern sport. For
Guttmann the modern period really was different, and most sports historians
agree with him. Time, however, does not rest and at the present there is
speculation that sports may have entered into a postmodern period.

Postmodernism
Starting in the 1960s architects, artists, and actors broke through the
boundaries of modernism. They mixed styles, challenged orthodoxy, and
abandoned accepted rules of conduct or taste. For example, architect Philip
Johnson playfully placed a Chippendale-like pediment atop the AT&T
Building completed in New York in 1984. Startled critics said it made the
skyscraper look like a grandfather clock rather than a straight-lined,
rectangular modern office building. Another example, Barnett Newman’s
radical, welded, rusted steel sculpture, The Broken Obelisk, symbolic of the
interrupted life of Martin Luther King, Jr, became a part of the Rothko
Chapel in Houston, Texas in 1971. It was recognized as a great piece of art,
but it was not based upon the realism of nature. Theme parks, such as those
provided by the Disney Corporation replaced reality with amusing
simulations. As a part of the opening act of the 2003 MTV awards show
pop star Madonna shocked the audience by passionately kissing her two
fellow female singers, Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. This act
crossed a boundary involving relationships between sexes and caused a ripple
of comments.
In sports too there occurred a breaking of boundaries. For example, in
4 Introduction

1965 Judge Roy Hofheinz opened the Astrodome, the first air-conditioned
sports stadium large enough to enclose a baseball field. Critics and players
both hated and praised it, and the Astrodome began a trend toward
the construction of large enclosed athletic fields, something never done
before. Amateur rules of competition broke down under the weight of the
Cold War, and television with an emphasis upon entertainment blurred and
changed sports rules. Television executives forced the timing of athletic
contests such as those of golf, American football, and tennis to meet a
broadcast format. Extreme sports, those outside the normal limits such as
skateboarding and surfing competition, appeared in the 1990s. After
lamenting the decline of “first-class cricket” forced by the needs of television,
Australian historians Bob Stewart and Aaron Smith concluded, “Spectacular,
entertaining, novel, and time-compressed contests are the defining
characteristics of postmodern sport.”
Neither modernism, nor postmodernism, however, constitutes an
accepted monolithic theory. Nonetheless, it seems that the characteristics
of sports at the current moment are somewhat different than those of modern
sports delimited by Allen Guttmann. More time, of course, will be needed
for historians with their 20–20 hindsight to clarify these changes and
suppositions. Analysis based upon modernization theory and postmodern
speculations, however, illuminates the place of sports in human society.

Sports and culture

Sporting activities are a cultural phenomenon and thus a part of the larger
society of which they are a part. It is a common cliché that sports reveal
the values of a society as illustrated by the often quoted declaration of
American intellectual Jacques Barzun in 1954, “Whoever wants to know
the heart and mind of America had better learn baseball, the rules and
realities of the game—and do it by watching first some high school or small
town teams.”
Sports are an expression, or a statement, by a society about its interests,
history, and character. Economics, politics, technology, religion, social issues
such as gender or race, geography, and ethics can be observed in the rules
and realities of sports. Shifts in these conditions influence sporting activities.
Baseball, for example, is no longer the great American pastime. As sports
sociologist D. Stanley Eitzen observed about America, “Baseball, then,
represents what we were—an inner-directed, rural, individualistic society.
It continues to be popular because of our longing for the peaceful past.
Football, on the other hand, is popular now because it symbolizes what
we now are—an other-directed, urban-technical, corporate-bureaucratic
society.” Sports, consequently, are similar to other cultural expressions such
as sculpture, painting, music, dance, theater, motion pictures, and literature.
 Introduction 5

As society moves into a postmodern era, then sports too will become a part
of the drift, and, at times, become a cultural leader. That is to be expected.

Sports as art
It is helpful to think of sports as an art form—as a performing art. Sports
share with other cultural expressions an appeal to the emotions, aesthetics,
drama, entertainment, and inspiration. The athlete can be considered an
artist with a certain amount of self-expression and spontaneity. The athlete
must play within rules, of course, but so must a musician or actor. Compared
to other arts the sports venues are different, an athlete’s use of prohibited
drugs may be a factor, and the outcome of a sporting event is always uncer-
tain. An unsure outcome is not the case with plays or musical compositions
where the musician or actor must follow what is written. The athlete may
be closer to a jazz player or a writer where the opportunity to improvise is
greater. Sports constitute a different sort of art form to be sure, but an art
form nonetheless.
As a cultural expression, like painting or music or theater, sports might
be considered unnecessary for human existence. For instance, although
sports can inflame the emotions sporting events do not cause wars. They
do not end wars, nor is there any good evidence that sporting comradeship
will prevent wars. After all, there have been two world wars, a cold war, and
numerous regional conflicts during the era of the modern Olympic Games.
Sports, moreover, do not drive the economies of the world, nor determine
foreign policy. In the grand expanse of the cosmos there is no indication that
the result of a football game really means anything at all. Does God care
which side wins? Are the Chicago Cubs and Boston Red Sox baseball teams
really cursed? Who can tell?
As with other cultural programs in the schools there is no quantifiable
evidence that sports are necessary for students. There is much anecdotal
testimony, however, of the usefulness of the arts, including sports, for
creating multidimensional, or well-rounded, lively individuals. People in
all times and places have invented cultural institutions because they enrich
the quality of life. Athletic events for both spectators and participants
prompt conversations that cut through all divisions of society, and sports
metaphors sprinkle the language—“a level playing field,” “a sticky wicket,”
“on target,” “throw in the towel.” As sociologist Garry J. Smith commented,
“Favorite teams, favorite players and a knowledge of sports lore all provide
grist for conversation.”
Physical contests, moreover, are probably as old as humankind.
Anthropologist Robert R. Sands looks upon sport as a “cultural universal,”
a human constant that invites cross-cultural comparisons and provides a
“blueprint of those important and valued behaviors that are the foundation
6 Introduction

of the larger culture in which sport is embedded.” Like other cultural

representations sports are an art form that help to measure what it means
to be a human being.

The organization of the book

In Chapter 2 I take a look at the basic motives, or reasons, involved in
the creation of sports. I use mixed examples but many from pre-modern
times to illustrate the reasons and to provide a demonstration about the
rich history of sport before 1800. One of the virtues of world history is to
make comparisons across time and space in order to elicit differences and
similarities, and this chapter offers that opportunity. The main thrust of the
book, however, is to follow the history of modern international sports.
Chapter 3 traces the beginnings of modern athletics, and Chapter 4 tracks
the spread of these activities around the world. The final chapter discusses
the importance of the globalization of modern sports.
The emphasis is upon the major world sports, roughly the top ten, as
measured by the interest of fans and participants. All sports cannot be
covered, but unanswered questions about other activities probably can
be satisfied by reference to the Encyclopedia of World Sport (1996) that provides
descriptions of 300 sports around the globe. At times I have given the basic
rules of a sport, but they are partial at best. For greater detail about rules a
reader can consult the Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports (1978),
Rules of the Game (1990), or Sports, the Complete Visual Reference (2000). For
statistical information the annual almanacs by Sports Illustrated or ESPN are
useful.

Further reading
Melvin L. Adelman, “Modernization Theory and Its Critics,” Encyclopedia of
American Social History (New York: Scribners, 1993), vol. I, pp. 348–56;
Gerry Brown and Michael Morrison (eds), ESPN: Information Please Sports
Almanac (New York: Hyperion, 2002). Diagram Group, Rules of the Game
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990); Editors of Sports Illustrated, Sports
Almanac (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1996); Francois Fortin, Sports:
the Complete Visual Reference (Willowdale, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books,
2000); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1978); David Levinson and Karen
Christensen (eds), Encylopedia of World Sport (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-
CLIO, 1996) 3 vols; Benjamin Lowe, The Beauty of Sport (Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Robert R. Sands, Anthropology, Sport, and
Culture (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1999); Garry J. Smith, “The Noble
Sports Fan,” in D. Stanley Eitzen (ed.), Sport in Contemporary Society: An
 Introduction 7

Anthology (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993, fourth edition), pp. 3–14; Peter
N. Stearns, “Modernization and Social History: Some Suggestions and a
Muted Cheer,” Journal of Social History, vol. 14 (Winter 1980), pp. 189–209;
Bob Stewart and Aaron Smith, “Australian Sport in a Postmodern Age,”
International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 17 (June–September 2000),
pp. 278–304; Graeme Wright, Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports
(Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1978).
Introduction
Melvin L. Adelman , “Modernization Theory and Its Critics,” Encyclopedia of
American Social History (New York: Scribners, 1993), vol. I, pp. 348–356; Gerry
Brown and Michael Morrison (eds), ESPN: Information Please Sports Almanac (New
York: Hyperion, 2002). Diagram Group, Rules of the Game (New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1990); Editors of Sports Illustrated, Sports Almanac (Boston: Little Brown and
Company, 1996); Francois Fortin , Sports: the Complete Visual Reference
(Willowdale, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books, 2000); Allen Guttmann , From Ritual to
Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978);
David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds), Encylopedia of World Sport (Santa
Barbara, California: ABCCLIO, 1996) 3 vols; Benjamin Lowe , The Beauty of Sport
(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Robert R. Sands ,
Anthropology, Sport, and Culture (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1999); Garry J.
Smith , “The Noble Sports Fan,” in D. Stanley Eitzen (ed.), Sport in Contemporary
Society: An Anthology (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993, fourth edition), pp. 3–14; Peter
N. Stearns , “Modernization and Social History: Some Suggestions and a Muted
Cheer,” Journal of Social History, vol. 14 (Winter 1980), pp. 189–209; Bob Stewart
and Aaron Smith, “Australian Sport in a Postmodern Age,” International Journal of
the History of Sport, vol. 17 (June–September 2000), pp. 278–304; Graeme Wright ,
Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company,
1978).

The Athletic Imperative and the Reasons for Sport

Roger Bannister , First Four Minutes (London: Sportsmans Book Club, 1956); Eliot
J. Gorn , “The Social Significance of Gouging in the Southern Backcountry” in
Steven A. Riess (ed.), Major Problems in American Sport History (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1997), pp. 62–70; Allen Guttmann , The Erotic in Sports (New York:
Columbia, 1996); Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports, a History
(Honolulu: Hawaii, 2001); Bernd Heinrich , Racing the Antelope (New York: Harper
Collins, 2001); Homer, The Iliad, trans. E. V. Rieu (Middlesex: Penguin, 1950); John
Jerome , The Sweet Spot in Time (New York: Touchstone, 1980); Benjamin Lowe ,
The Beauty of Sport (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1977); Michael
Novak , The Joy of Sports (New York: Basic Books, 1976); Vera Olivova , Sports
and Games in the Ancient World (New York: St Martin’s, 1984); Charles Prebish,
“Heavenly Fathers, Divine Goalie: Sports and Religion,” Antioch Review, 42 (1984)
pp. 316–318. Karl B. Raitz (ed.), The Theater of Sport (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins,
1995); George Sheehan , Running and Being (New York: Simon and Schuster,
1978); George Sheehan , Personal Best (Emmaus: Pennsylvania: Rochdale Press,
1989); Judith Swaddling , The Ancient Olympic Games (Austin: Texas, 1980).

The Emergence of Modern Sports

For general information about sports: David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds),
Encyclopedia of World Sport (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 1996), 3 vols.;
William J. Baker , Sports in the Western World (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1988);
Maarten Van Bottenburg, Global Games (Urbana: Illinois, 2001); Norbert Elias and
Eric Dunning , Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process
(New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Ralph Hickok , The Encyclopedia of North
American Sports History (New York: Facts on File, 1992); David G. McComb ,
Sports: An Illustrated History (New York: Oxford, 1998). See also: Bill Buford,
Among the Thugs (New York: Vintage Books, 1990); Allen Guttmann , Sports
Spectators (New York: Columbia, 1986); Richard Holt , Sport and the British (New
York: Oxford, 1990); Howard G. Knuttgen , Ma Qiwei , and Wu Zhongyuan (eds),
Sport in China (Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, 1990; Hans Westerbeek and
Aaron Smith , Sport Business in the Global Marketplace (New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2003).

The Globalization of Sport

William J. Baker , “To Pray or to Play? The YMCA Question in the United Kingdom
and the United States, 1850–1900,” International Journal of the History of Sport, vol.
11 (April 1994), pp. 42–62; William J. Baker and James A. Mangan , eds., Sport in
Africa (New York: Africana, 1987); Douglas Booth , The Race Game: Sports and
Politics in South Africa (London: Cass, 1998); Robert Edelman , Serious Fun: A
History of Spectator Sports in the USSR (New York: Oxford, 1993); Allen Guttmann ,
Games and Empires (New York: Columbia, 1994); Allen Guttmann , The Olympics:
A History of the Modern Games (Urbana: University of Illinois, 2002); Allen
Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports (Honolulu: Hawaii, 2001); Victor
Heiser , An American Doctor’s Odyssey (New York: Norton 1936); Elmer L. Johnson
, The History of YMCA Physical Education (Chicago: Association Press, 1979);
Jonathon Kolatch , Sports, Politics, and Ideology in China (New York: Jonathan
David, 1972); Richard S. Mandell , The Nazi Olympics (Urbana: University of Illinois,
1987); James A. Mangan , Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School
(Cambridge: Cambridge, 1981); James A. Mangan and Lamartine P. DaCosta (eds),
Sport in Latin American Society (London: Cass, 2002); James Riordan (ed.), Sport
Under Communism (London: Hurst, 1978); James Riordan and Robin Jones (eds),
Sport and Physical Education in China (London: ISCPES, 1999); Stanley Weintraub
, Silent Night (New York: Free Press, 2001).

The Significance of Global Sports

Michael Bamberger and Don Yeager , “Over the Edge,” Sports Illustrated, vol. 86
(April 14, 1997), pp. 62–70; Robert K. Barney , Stephen R. Wenn, and Scott G.
Martyn, Selling the Five Rings (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002);
Susan Brownell , Training the Body for China (Chicago: University of Chicago,
1995); John Eisenberg in Brad Schultz , “A Geographical Study of the American
Ballpark,” International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 20 (March 2003), pp.
127–142; Allen Guttmann , Women’s Sports (New York: Columbia, 1991);
Christopher R. Hill , Olympic Politics (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
1992); Dave Kindred, “A shot in the arm baseball didn’t need,” Sporting News, vol.
227 (November 24, 2003), p. 68; Raymond Krise and Bill Squires , Fast Tracks: the
History of Distance Running (Brattleboro, Vermont: Stephen Greene Press, 1982);
Walter LaFeber , Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (New York: Norton,
2001); Jim Riordan, “The Rise, Fall and Rebirth of Sporting Women in Russia and
the USSR,” Journal of Sport History, vol. 18 (Spring 1991), pp. 183–199; Randy
Roberts and James S. Olson , Winning is the Only Thing (Baltimore, Maryland:
Johns Hopkins, 1989); Paul D. Staudohar and James A. Mangan, The Business of
Professional Sports (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1991); E. M. Swift and
Don Yeager, “Unnatural Selection,” Sports Illustrated, vol. 94 (May 14, 2001), pp.
88–94; Terry Todd, “Anabolic Steroids: The Gremlins of Sport,” Journal of Sport
History, vol. 14 (Spring 1987), pp. 87–107; Peter Ueberroth in Christopher R. Hill,
Olympic Politics (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), p. 161; Steven
Ungerleider , Faust’s Gold (New York: St Martins, 2001); Hans Westerbeek and
Aaron Smith, Sport Business in the Global Marketplace (New York: Palgrave, 2003);
Wayne Wilson and Edward Derse (eds), Doping in Elite Sports (Champaign, Illinois:
Human Kinetics, 2001).